Institution Name Document No.

ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013

W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

MODULE TITLE: Conducting Advanced Specimen Preparation and testing

MODULE CODE: CON MQC3 M08 0311

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this module the trainer will be able to
LO1: Plan and prepare for work
LO2: Conduct material testing
LO3: Conduct preparation of stabilized construction materials
LO4: Identify hazards and risks
LO5: Control hazards and risks

MODULE CONTENTS:

LO1: Plan and prepare for work

1.1 Work instructions,

1.1.1 plans,
1.1.2 specifications,
1.1.3 quality requirements
1.1.4 operational details
1.2 Safety requirements
1.3 Construction materials handling
1.4 Types and uses of plant, tools and equipment
1.5 Environmental protection requirements

LO2: Conduct material testing

2.1 Operating techniques

2.2 Specimen preparation
2.3 Types and uses of testing equipment
2.4 Field and laboratory tests
2.4.1 Aggregate impact value(AIV) test
2.4.2 Aggregate crushing value(ACV) test
2.4.3 Soundness of aggregates
2.4.4 Initial and final setting time of cement
2.4.5 Softening point for bitumen
2.4.6 Soundness of cement
2.4.7 Organic impurities test
2.4.8 Los Angeles Abrasion test
2.4.9 Consistency of cement
2.4.10 Fineness of cement
2.4.11 Grade, percentage elongation and tensile strength of steel
2.4.12 Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer test
2.4.13 Concrete mix design

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

2.4.14 Viscosity test by Sybolt Furol Viscometer

2.4.15 Flash point of bitumen
2.4.16 Penetration test for bitumen
2.4.17 Ductility of bitumen
2.4.18 Hydrometer analysis
2.4.19 Tests on bituminous mixes (Marshal, Hveem, etc.)
2.4.20 Consolidation test
2.4.21 Direct shear test
2.4.22 Triaxial tests

LO3: Conduct preparation of stabilized construction materials

3.1 Handling of stabilized construction materials
3.2 Types of hazards
3.3 Stabilizing techniques.

LO4: Identify hazards and risks

4.1 Safety regulations
4.2 Types of contingency measures

LO5: Control hazards and risks

5.1 OHS application

5.2 Types and uses of protective equipment

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

LO1: Plan and prepare for work

Work Plan
The Laboratory Manager, Works Superintendent, Administration, the Principal and Senior Road
Engineers, and the shall carry out a review of every one’ projects and activities, and produce an
annual work plan prior to the beginning of each financial year.
This shall normally be undertaken prior to budget preparation. In order to facilitate this, it is critical
to ensure that Maintenance Division and other outside clients submit their materials prospecting and
testing requirements to at least 8 months prior to the start of the financial year.
The annual work plan will normally include all divisional activities. For the laboratory, these shall
include:
Testing workload/plan for the coming year.
Resource requirements and sefty (human & equipment).
Personnel development and training programme
Building and equipment maintenance.
Developmental activities.

LO2: Conduct material testing

Introduction
Aggregate is used in a concrete mix as an extender (bulking material) to reduce cost and control
shrinkage, in pavement layers as base course material as chipping for surface dressing and it takes up
about 95% of asphalt mixes. Additionally, graded aggregate is used to improve the strength (CBR) of
weak soils (known as ‘mechanical stabilization’).
However, before being used in any mix, aggregate should be clean and strong enough to resist forces
(e.g. crushing, abrasion, impact, etc.) and durable under exposure conditions (e.g. heat, chemical
Attack, etc.). Soft aggregate (e.g., limestone, sandstone, etc.)

Aggregate particles should have angular shape to form tight interlock and rough enough to produce
frictional resistance in a mix. Flaky or elongated aggregates should be avoided, as they break and do
not pack tightly during compaction. For aggregate to produce adequate density and stability during
compaction, it should contain a wide range of particle sizes (from fine to course) that can fill the mix
matrix.
Operating techniques
However every one lavatory equipment needs to deferent operating method .
E.g CBR equipment

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

i.Loading Machine—The loading machine shall be equipped with a movable head or base
that travels at a uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min for use in forcing the penetration piston into the
specimen.
ii.Mold— (152.4 ± 0.66 mm) and a height of (177.8 ± 0.46 mm). It shall be provided with a
metal extension collar at least (50.8 mm) in height and a metal base plate having at least
twenty eight 1.59 mm diameter holes uniformly spaced over the plate within the inside
circumference of the mold.
iii.Spacer Disk—A circular metal spacer disc having a minimum outside diameter of 150.8
mm but no greater than will allow the spacer disc to easily slip into the mold. The spacer disc
shall be 2.416 ± 0.005 in. (61.37 ± 0.127 mm) in height.
iv.Rammer—If a mechanical rammer is used it must be equipped with a circular foot, and
when so equipped, must provide a means for distributing the rammer blows uniformly over
the surface of the soil when compacting in a 6-in. (152.4-mm) diameter mold.

i.Penetration Piston—A metal piston 1.954 ± 0.005 in. (49.63 ± 0.13 mm) in diameter and
not less than 4 in. (101.6 mm) long .
ii.Balance
iii.Drying Oven—
iv.Sieves—3/4 in. (19 mm) and No. 4 (4.75 mm).
v.Filter Paper—Fast filtering, high wet strength filter paper, 15-cm diameter.
vi. Soaking Tank

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

Specimen preparation
In order to test truly undisturbed soil, special care must be taken in obtaining and preparing the soil
samples. Cardboard containers 6 3/4 inches in diameter by 6 1/2 inches high were used to transport
the soil samples from the field back to the laboratory. However, before being tilled with samples, the
cardboard containers and their covers were coated on the inside with paraffin wax to prevent
moisture loss from the samples.

Specimen: - molded portion of a sample (in a definite form).

Types and uses of testing equipment

Type of equipment function

N
O

1 Vicat Apparatus Used to check cement initial and final setting time

2 Laboratory Mixer Used to mix the every one concrete specimen or sample

3 Slump cone Used test the workability of concrete

4 Compression Platens Used to check curing Concrete strength

5 Grading Sieves Used to identify Particle size distribution

6 Casagrande Apparatus Used to determine LL, PL & pI (atterburg limit).

7 A Digital Balance Used to check every one weight of sample

8 CBR Penetration equipment Used to Used to know bearing capacity of sub-grade soil and the
strength of road material etc.
.

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

9 Oven dray machine Used to avoid the amount of water from the saturated soil.

10 Balance Used to measure the amount of spacemen.

Field and laboratory tests

Field density test measures the degree of compaction on a layer by comparing the density achieved
on the field by the maximum density obtained in the laboratory. The test is normally conducted by
one of the methods;
Core cutter: - the method is less accurate and is not recommended, unless urgent result is required
and the soil is fine and soft enough for the cutter to penetrate without disturbing the specimen.

Balloon method: - the method utilizes a balloon and liquid (in a metal and glass apparatus) to
measure the volume of a hole. The apparatus is a bit delicate, therefore, is not widely used.
Nuclear method: - is the modern and quickest method that applies the radioactive rays to measure
density and water content of a pavement layer. However the nuclear apparatus is giving instant
results, its effect on human health and suspicion on its accuracy make some Agencies deny its use on
their projects.

Sand replacement method: - utilizes clean sand (passing 0.600mm and retaining on 0.300mm sieves)
to measure the volume of hole in a road layer. The bulk density of sand is measured and used with
the mass of sand that has filled the hole to calculate the volume of the hole (by dividing the mass by
density).
Therefore, it is the most applicable and accurate method for testing the density of road layers.

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

Test procedure:
a) Sand in Cone (excess sand that repose over the hole):
1) Fill the apparatus with sand to constant mass (e.g. 8kg, 16kg, etc.), depending on its capacity.
2) Place the apparatus in a tray, open the shutter and allow a volume of sand equivalent to that of the
excavated hole to run out then close the shutter.
3) Put base plate on a flat surface (e.g. glass plate) and place the apparatus on it, open the shutter and allow the
sand to run out freely without any vibration.
4) When there is no further run-out, close the shutter, collect the sand that has filled the cone and weight it.
5) Repeat step 1) to 4) at least three times and take the average value as the weight of sand in cone (ma).

b) Sand Calibration (determination of bulk density):

1) Measure the volume of the calibration container (Vc).
2) Fill the apparatus with the sand to constant mass, e.g. 8kg or 16kg and record the weight (mb).
3) Fix cone to the sand apparatus, close shutter and place it over the calibration container.
4) Open the shutter and allow the sand to run out freely.
5) When no further run-out, close the shutter and weight the sand remaining in the bottle. Repeat step 2) to 5)
at least three times and record the average weight (mc).
6) Calculate the bulk density of sand as follows:

 Mass of sand to fill the container (Ms) = mb – ma – mc

 Bulk density of sand (ρs): =Mass of sand (Ms)
Volume of container (Vc)

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

c) Field Density (determination of the field compaction):

1) Fill sand pouring apparatus with known mass of sand according to its capacity, e.g. 8kg or 16kg (m1).
2) Level the place to be tested and brush away any loose material.
3) Place base plate in position and dig a round hole about 150mm deep for a 150mm layer or 200mm deep for
a 200mm layer.
4) Collect all soil dug out of the hole, determine its weight (Mo) and take a small portion for moisture content
(w).(If moisture is to be determined later, then, put the soil in an airtight container or plastic bag).
5) Place the sand pouring apparatus over the hole (with the base plate) and allow the sand to run out freely
without vibration.
6) When there is no further run-out, close shutter and weigh the sand remaining in the bottle (m2).

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

CBR

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

CBR letters abbreviate the name California Bearing Ratio (the basic test used to measure strength of
sub grade soil and pavement layers). The test is conducted by penetrating a moulded soil specimen
with a cylindrical plunger at a constant rate of 1mm per minute; and the forces corresponding with
penetration of 2.5mm and 5.0mm are computed and compared with the strength of California rocks
(tested in California, USA).
it is still the popular method of evaluating strength of sub grade soil and pavement materials in many
countries. The common terms found in the test are:

CBR Equipment
 British Standards (BS) Method:
Mould size: 152 mm dia. x 127 mm high (volume = 2305 cm3).
Specimen 1: 2.5kg rammer, 3 layers, 62 blows per layer,
Specimen 2: 4.5kg rammer, 5 layers, 30 blows per layer,
Specimen 3: 4.5kg rammer, 5 layers, 62 blows per layer.
Static Compaction: 1 specimen, 3 layers, 1 minute per layer.
 b) American Standards (AASHTO) Methods:
Mould size: 152.4 mm dia. x 116.4 mm high (volume = 2124 cm3).
 Using 2.5kg Rammer:
Specimen 1: 3 layers, 10 blows per layer,
Specimen 2: 3 layers, 30 blows per layer,
Specimen 3: 3 layers, 65 blows per layer.
 Using 4.5kg Rammer:
Specimen 1: 5 layers, 10 blows per layer,
Specimen 2: 5 layers, 30 blows per layer,
Specimen 3: 5 layers, 65 blows per layer.
General procedure:
a) CBR Compaction (dynamic):
1) Carry out Proctor test in order to get the maximum dry density (MDD) and the optimum
moisture content (OMC) of the soil.
2) Prepare about 6kg of air-dried soil passing 20mm sieve for each of the CBR specimen
(normally a set of three specimens is made).
3) Determine the natural moisture content (NMC) of the dry soil before adding water.
4) Calculate the amount of water to be added to the soil to get the optimum moisture content
(OMC) as follows:

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

Water to be added (w) =(OMC – NMC) x m

(NMC + 100)

Where:
OMC = optimum moisture content obtained previously in the Proctor test.
NMC = natural moisture content of the sample (dry Soils normally contain slight moisture
contents, which are not easily recognizable).
m = weight of dry sample (e.g. 6kg).
5) Weigh the mould with its perforated base plate and record its mass (m1).
6) Put the soil in a tray and add amount of water calculated in step 4.
7) Mix the sample thoroughly and take a small portion for moisture content.
8) Place the mould on a hard surface and fix the collar.
9) Place the layers according to the specified method (e.g. BS, AASHTO, etc.) and compact each
layer using proper rammer.
10) Distribute blows uniformly over the surface of each layer (the last layer should not project over
the mould by more than 6mm).
11) Remove collar, trim excess soil over the mould and take the weight of the mould with the base
plate and soil (m2).
12) Remove base plate and put filter paper on it; invert the specimen (top to be on the plate) and tie
the base plates back on the moulds.
13) Put perforated swell plate on the specimen, add surcharge weights (of about 4.5kg) and put the
specimen in a curing tank (use thin wooden strips to elevate the mould from base of the
tank).
14) Place swell gauge on the specimen; record the initial reading (R1) then, add water to
approximately 5mm below the top of the collar and leave the specimen in water for 4 days.

Calculations:
 Moisture content (w) = Mass of water x 100
Mass of dry soil
 Bulk density (ρ) = m2 – m1 .
Volume of mould
 Dry density (ρd) = ρ x 100
w + 100
b) CBR Penetration:
1) After 4 days, place swell gauge on each specimen and record the final readings (R2).
2) Remove the specimens from water, allow them to drain for 15 minutes and then penetrate each
one.
3) Record the dial gauge reading at each penetration interval (as shown in the test sheet)
4) Use the ring factor to convert the gauge readings into force (KN).

Calculations:
 CBR value at 2.5mm: = Force at 2.5mm x 100
13.2 (KN)
 CBR value at 5.0mm: = Force at 5.0mm x 100
20.0 (KN)
 Swell: = ((Initial reading (R1) – Final reading (R2)) x 100

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

Height of specimen
c) CBR Results:
Record the value obtained at penetration of 2.5mm and 5.0mm; and report the higher value as
the CBR of the material.
(Note that, the British Standards specify CBR value at 2.5mm and require the test to be re-
run if the value at 5.0mm is greater than the one at 2.5mm).
Report the swell value obtained at heavy compaction (i.e. swell obtained at the mould
compacted with highest number of blows using 4.5kg rammer).

Example:

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

M test\CALIFORNIA_BEARING_RATIO_(CBR)_VALUE_TEST(360p).mp4
DCP Test
DCP letters abbreviate the name Dynamic Cone Penetrometer. A penetration test used for measuring
the in-situ strength of a soil layer (either compacted or at a natural state).

The dynamic cone penetration test is a test carried out to find the resistance value of the cone against
the soil that helps us to determine different mechanical properties of soil such as strength, bearing
capacity, and so on.
There are namely three types of penetrometer test:
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT)
Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)
All these tests measure the resistance of the soil strata to penetration by a penetrometer. SPT is
carried out in a hole while SCPT and DCPT are carried out without a hole.

Why is the dynamic cone penetration test needed?

To determine the strength, bearing capacity, location and thickness of sub-layers of the soil.
To monitor the condition of granular layers and sub grade soils in the pavement section over
time.
To determine the right solutions for the sites of the customer especially when soft soils are
involved.
Operation and Test procedure:
1) Assemble the instrument per the instruction manual and position it on the leveled surface at the
point to be tested.
2) Hold the instrument vertically on the ground, place the cone on the surface and take the initial
reading on the scale rule.
3) Lift the hammer to its upper limit and allow it to drop freely (10 times for hard layers and 5 or 3
times for weak layers) and record the scale reading after the number of blows.

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

4) Continue with penetration (by applying chosen number of blows) and recording scale readings until a total
penetration of 800mm or more is achieved (if the instrument inclines a bit, do not correct it unless is worse to
cause the hammer slide on the shaft).
5) Then, plot a graph of cumulative blows on x-axis and cumulative penetration on y-axis and join the points
by straight line.
6) Calculate the DCP values at each change of slope as follows:

DCP value =Cumulative Penetration (depth)

Cumulative Number of blows

Photos of the dynamic cone penetrometer

7) Interpolate the CBR values on the DCP/CBR Correlation chart.

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

Example:

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

M test\DCP_Tests(360p).mp4
Laboratory test
Atterberg limits are simply referred to as plasticity property, since; the outward sign of the limits is
plasticity index, which reflects the sticking property of soil (linked with clay content). However, the
Atterberg limits determine general consistency of soil (i.e. the range of water contents, at which the
soil changes from solid to plastic and from plastic to liquid states).

Plastic limit (PL)

Plastic limit is the minimum moisture content that changes a soil from solid (dry state) to a plastic
(moldable) state.

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

Plastic Limit test

Liquid limit (LL)
Liquid limit is the moisture content that changes soil from plastic state to a liquid state.

Liquid Limit test Casagrande Apparatus

Plasticity Index (PI)
Plasticity index is the range of moisture contents at which soils remain plastic (moldable condition).
It is determined arithmetically as the difference of Liquid limit and Plastic limit (i.e. PI = LL – PL).
Calculations:
 Plasticity Index (PI) = LL – PL
 Plasticity Modulus (PM) = PI x % passing 0.425mm sieve
 Plasticity Product (PP) = PI x % passing 0.075mm sieve
 Liquidity Index (LI) = (w – PL) /(LL – PL)
Where: w is the natural moisture content.
Example:

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

Aggregate impact value(AIV) test

The AIV test is used to measure resistance of aggregate to impact. It is commonly carried out on the
14 – 10mm fraction; however, 20 – 14mm or 10 – 6.3mm fractions also may be used. The chosen
fraction can be tested in a dry condition or soaked condition.

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

AIV Apparatus dropping the hammer

Test procedure:
1) Obtain the required fraction by sieving aggregate on the specified sieves (e.g. 20 – 14mm, 14 –
10mm or 10 – 6.3mm).
2) Fix sample cup on the base plate of the AIV frame.
3) Fill aggregate in the cup to overflow and tamp it with 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
4) Level the surface by rolling the tamping rod over the cup (remove any projecting particles and fill
depressions by hand).
5) Apply 15 blows of the AIV hammer on the aggregate surface.
6) Remove the mould and place it in a clean tray, then remove the sample by hammering gently on
the outside of the cup.
7) Brush the cup in the tray and take the weight of the sample (m1).
8) Sieve the sample on 2.36mm for 14 – 10 fraction (or on 3.35mm for 20 – 14 fraction and on
1.7mm for 10 – 6.3 fraction).
9) Weigh the material retained on the separating sieve (m2).

Calculations:
Material passing the separating sieve = m1– m2

Note: The AIV of weak aggregates might mislead, especially if fines produced are more than 20%.
Therefore, it is recommended to apply fewer blows (say 8, 10 or 12) and a Modified Aggregate
Impact Value (MAIV) calculated as follows:

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 Institution Name Document No.
ወ/ሮ ስህን ፖሊ ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ OF/WSPC/ 012-013
W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

Example:

Grading
Grading test is also known as sieve analysis or particle size distribution. The test reveals the
proportions of different particle sizes in a granular material (e.g. aggregate, soil, etc.) by passing a
sample on a range of sieve sizes.
Test procedure:
a) Dry Sieving:
1) Obtain a test sample by quartering or riffling the material.
2) Dry the sample in oven (at 105 – 110 0 C) and allow it to cool.
3) Record the weight of test sample after cooling (m1).
4) Arrange the specified sieves with a receiver at the bottom side.
5) Pour sample in the topmost sieve and cover it, then shake the sieves until no more material passes
through each sieve.
6) Weigh (either individually or cumulatively) the material retained on each sieve (m2).
b) Wet Sieving:
1) Obtain a test sample by quartering or riffling the material.
2) Dry the sample in oven (at 105 -110 0 C) and then allow it to cool to a room temperature.
3) Determine the weight of the test sample after cooling (m1).
4) Wash the sample on a 0.075mm sieve (place 1.18mm or 2.36m sieve on top of the 0.075mm sieve
to protect the wire cloth from tearing).
5) Dry the washed sample in oven for at least 12 hours.
6) Arrange the specified series of sieves with a receiver at the bottom side.
7) Pour sample in the topmost sieve and cover it with the lid (if the sample is too large, then pour a
little quantity at a time).
8) Shake all sieves (by hand or a mechanical shaker) until no more material passes through each
sieve.
9) Determine the weight (individually or cumulatively) of the material retained on each sieve (m2).
Note: Cumulative weights provide the percentage of particles retained on the sieves progressively,
while individual weights provide the percentage retained on an individual sieve (does not follow the
sieve sequence).
Calculations:
Cumulative percentage retained on each sieve:

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% retained =

Cumulative percentage passing on each sieve:

% passing = 100 – % retained

Fineness modulus (FM):

(Calculated for fine aggregates used for concrete, the applicable sieves are 4.75, 2.36, 1.18, 0.600,
0.300 and 0.150).

Coefficient of uniformity (the ratio of d60 to d10):

Location siheen Checked By:----------

Material fine aggregate - (5 mm) Date:------------
Tested by . Student
Date January 2013 Approved By:-------
Ref: BS 812: Part 103.1 Date------------------

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Shape test
Shape tests comprise flakiness index (FI) and elongation index (EI). The indices obtained in both
tests reveal the dimensions of aggregate particles, as some particles are normally cubic while
others are flaky or elongated.

a) Flakiness index (FI)

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Flaky particles are the particles whose thicknesses are less than 0.6 of their mean size (e.g. mean size
of 14–10mm fraction is 12mm, therefore, thickness of flaky particle is less than 0.6 x 12 = 7.2mm).
The test is carried out on the aggregate particles of different sizes from 6.3mm to 63mm using
thickness gauge (with specific slot sizes).

Flaky particles

Test procedure:
1) Obtain the test sample by quartering or riffling the aggregate.
2) Weigh and record the weight of the obtained sample.
3) Sieve the sample on 63, 50, 37.5, 28, 20, 14, 10 and 6.3 mm sieves and discard the sizes larger
than 63 mm and smaller than 6.3 mm.
4) Determine the weight of particles retained on each sieve and discard the size whose weight is less
than 5% of the total sample.
5) Pass each fraction through the specified slot on the gauge.
6) Determine the weight of particles passing through each slot.
Calculations:

Example

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b) Elongation index (EI)

Elongated particles are the particles whose lengths are more than 1.8 of their mean size (i.e. 1.8 x
mean size). It is carried out on the coarse particles from 6.3mm to 50mm, using an elongation gauge
having specific gaps (as shown at the bottom of illustration column).
Test procedure:
1) Obtain the test sample by quartering or riffling the aggregate.
2) Weigh and record the weight of the obtained sample.
3) Sieve the sample on 50, 37.5, 28, 20, 14, 10 and 6.3 mm sieves and discard the particles larger
than 50 mm and smaller than 6.3 mm.
4) Determine the weight of particles retained on each sieve and discard the size whose weight is less
than 5% of the total sample.
5) Pass each fraction through the specified gap on the elongation gauge.
6) Weigh the particles that do not pass through the designated gaps (i.e. elongated particles).

Elongation Gauge

Calculations:

Example:

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Aggregate crushing value(ACV) test

Some aggregate particles resist crushing while some crush during rolling (due to the effect of
weathering process or micro-fractures developed by blasting or crushing operations). Crushing of
aggregates during construction process affects the grading, density and strength of a mix or layer
made with such aggregate. To measure resistance of aggregate to crushing, the ACV test is carried
out on the 14 – 10mm aggregate fraction, by applying a 400 KN force gradually over a period of 10
minutes.

ACV

 Operation sheet :
1) Obtain the required fraction by sieving the aggregate on 14mm and 10mm sieves.
2) Take the fraction passing 14mm but retaining on 10mm sieve and dry it in oven for about 4 hours
before testing.
3) Fill the mould with three layers of the dry sample and strike each layer with 25 strokes of the
tamping rod.
4) Level the surface of the material and insert the crushing plunger into the mould.
5) Place the mould (with sample and plunger) on the platen of the concrete compression machine.
6) Apply 400 KN force gradually over a period of 10 minutes.
7) After 10 minutes; release force, pour the material in a clean tray and determine its total weight
(m1).
8) Then, sieve the material thoroughly on 2.36mm sieve.
9) Weigh the material retained on 2.36mm sieve (m2). Calculations:
Weight of material passing 2.36mm = m1 – m2

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Example:

Soundness of aggregates
Soundness test measures the effect of salts on aggregate particles. The effect is measured as the loss
in aggregate weight after repetitive drying and soaking the aggregate in Sodium or Magnesium
sulphate solution.
The applicable sulphate solution is prepared as follows;Sodium sulphate solution: is made up of
225g of Sodium sulphate and
1 litre of water (is supposed to have a specific gravity of
1.151 – 1.174 when ready for use).

Magnesium sulphate solution: is made up of 350g of Magnesium sulphate and 1 litre of water (is
supposed to have a specific gravity of 1.295 – 1.308 when ready for use).
Test procedure:
1) Obtain the sample by quartering or riffling a large quantity of aggregate.
2) Separate the sample into Fines (passing 4.75mm) and Coarse (retained on 4.75mm).
3) Carry out grading of the two parts separately (as if each part is a complete sample).
4) Wash the fine part on 0.300mm sieve and dry it in oven.
5) Separate the fine part into 4.75 – 2.36, 2.36 – 1.18, 1.
18 – 0.600, 0.600 – 0.300 and take at least 100g from each fraction (m1).
6) Wash the Coarse part on 4.75mm sieve and dry it in oven.
7) Separate the Coarse part into 63 – 50, 50 – 37.5, 37.5 – 25, 25 –19, 19 – 12.5, 12.5 – 9.5, 9.5 –
4.75 mm and take about 1000g from each fraction (m1).
8) Put each fraction in a separate container and add the specified sulphate solution to cover the
samples.
9) Soak the test samples for 16 to18 hours and then decant the solution gently without losing the
particles.
10) Allow the test samples to drain for 15 minutes, then dry them in oven to constant weight (24 hrs
is not necessary). Repeat soaking and drying five times (cycles).
11) After the 5th cycle (of soaking and drying), allow the samples to cool and wash them thoroughly
with warm water (at 45 0 C).

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12) Dry the samples in oven to constant weight and sieve them on the separation sieves listed in table
13) Determine and record the weights of the retaining materials (m2).
Table 3.1 – Separation sieves for Sulphate Soundness test

Calculations:
% Passing designated sieves =(m1-m2)x100
m1

Example:

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Initial and final setting time of cement

OBJECTIVE
 To determine the initial and final setting times of cement.
APPARTUS
 Vicat apparatus conforming to IS: 5513-1976.
 Balance of capacity 1kg and sensitivity 1 gram.
 Gauging trowel conforming to IS: 10086-1982.
 Operation sheet
 Unless otherwise specified this test shall be conducted at a temperature of 27 +
20 C and 65 + 5% of relative humidity of the Laboratory.
 Prepare a paste of 300 grams of cement with 0.85 times the water required to a
give a paste of standard consistency IS: 4031 (Part 4) 1988.
 The time of gauging in any case shall not be less than 3 minutes not more than 5
minutes and the gauging shall be completed before any sign of setting occurs.
 Count the time of gauging from the time of adding water to the dry cement until
Commencing to fill the mould
 Fill the vicat mould with this paste making it level with the top of the mould.
 Slightly shake the mould to expel the air.
 In filling the mould the operator hands and the blade the gauging trowel shall only
be used.
Initial Setting Time
 Immediately place the test block with the non-porous resting plate, under the rod

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bearing the initial setting needle.

 Lower the needle and quickly release allowing it to penetrate in to the mould.
 In the beginning the needle will completely pierce the mould
 Repeat this procedure until the needle fails to pierce the mould for 5 + 0.5mm.
 Record the period elapsed between the time of adding water to the cement to the
time when needle fails to pierce the mould by 5 + 0.5mm as the initial setting time.

Final Setting Time

 Replace the needle of the vicat apparatus by the needle with an annular ring
 Lower the needle and quickly release.
 Repeat the process until the annular ring makes an impression on the mould.
 Record the period elapsed between the time of adding water to the cement to the
time when the annular ring fails to make the impression on the mould as the final
setting time.
REPORT
 Report the initial setting time and final setting time in minutes.
PRECAUTION
 The time of gauging in any case shall not be less than 3 minutes not more than 5minutes.

Format next page

Softening point for bitumen

The test measures temperature at which bitumen becomes elastic. It is known by another name as
Ring and Ball test.

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A confined sample of bitumen is loaded with small steel balls and Suspended in a glass beaker filled
with water.
The water is heated until bitumen becomes soft enough to allow the balls to drop on the beaker; and
the temperature is recorded as the softening point.
Soundness of cement
Objective
It is very important that the cement after setting shall not undergo any appreciable change of volume.
Certain cements have been found to undergo a large expansion after setting causing disruption of the
set and hardened mass. This will cause serious difficulties for the durability of structures when such
cement is used. The unsoundness in cement is due to the presence of excess of free lime than that
could be combined with acidic oxide at the kiln. It is also likely that too high a proportion of
magnesium content or calcium sulphate content may cause unsoundness in cement. Soundness of
cement may be Determined by two methods, namely Le-Chatelier method and autoclave method.

In the soundness test a specimen of hardened cement paste is boiled for a fixed time so that any
tendency to expand is speeded up and can be detected. Soundness means the ability to resist volume
expansion.
Le-Chateliers Apparatus Required

Le-Chateliers Apparatus
Consist of a small split cylinder of spring brass to other non corrodible metal of 0.5mm thickness
forming a mould of 30mm internal diameter and 30mm high. On either side of the split, two
indicators are brazed suitably with pointed ends made of 2mm diameter brass wire in such a way that
the distance of these ends to the centre of the cylinder is 165mm. The split cylinder will be kept
between two glass plates. The temperature of the moulding room, dry materials and water shall be
maintained at 27±2°C The relative humidity of the laboratory shall be 65 ± 5 percent.
The moist closet or moist room shall be maintained at 27 ± 2°C and at a relative humidity of not less
than 90 percent.

Water bath
Water bath capable of containing immersed Le-Chatelier moulds with specimens
and of raising their temperature from 27±2°C to boiling in 27±3 minutes.

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Vernier Calliper
Vernier Calliper should be able to measure up to 30 mm with least count of 0.1 mm.

Balance
On balance in use, the permissible variation at a load of 1000 g shall be ± 1.0 g.
The permissible variation on new balance shall be one-half of this value. The
sensibility reciprocal shall be not greater than twice the permissible variation.

Weights
The permissible variations on weights in use in weighing the cement shall be as prescribed in Table.
Table : Permissible Variations on Weights

Operation sheet
1. Place the lightly oiled mould on a lightly oiled glass sheet and fill it with cement paste formed by
gauging cement with 0.78 times the water required to give a paste of standard consistency.

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2. Cover the mould with another piece of lightly oiled glass sheet, place a small weight on this
covering glass sheet and immediately submerge the whole assembly in water at a temperature of 27 ±
2°C and keep there for 24 hours.

3. Measure the distance separating the indicator points to the nearest 0.5 mm. Submerge the mould
again in water at the temperature prescribed above.

4. Bring the water to boiling, with the mould kept submerged, in 25 to 30 minutes, and keep it boiling
for three hours. Remove the mould from the water, allow it to cool and measure the distance between
the indicator points.

5. The difference between these two measurements indicates the expansion of the cement. This must
not exceed 10 mm for ordinary, rapid hardening and low heat Portland cements. If in case the
expansion is more than 10 mm as tested above, the cement is said to be unsound.
Observation And Recording
Soundness/expansion of cement = L1-L2
L1=Measurement taken after 24 hours of immersion in water at a temp. of 27 ± 20C
L2=Measurement taken after 3 hours of immersion in water at boiling temperature.
Calculate the mean of two values to the nearest 0.5 mm.

Organic impurities test

Presence of organic impurities in aggregates (especially natural sand) affects the setting time and
hardening of concrete and may also cause deterioration of concrete or pop-outs.
To test the organic impurities in fine aggregate, the following stuff is used:

Test reagent: a solution made up of 3-parts Sodium hydroxide (Na OH) and 97-parts water.
Standard solution: a solution made up of 0.25g of Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in 100ml of
concentrated Sulfuric acid. It is used as a reference colour for classifying the Sample solution after
adding the reagent.
Colour plate: a small plastic plate with different colour slots, used to classify the colour of sample
solution as a substitute for the standard solution.

Test procedure:
1) Obtain a test sample of about 450g by quartering or riffling a large quantity of fine aggregate
(sand).
2) Dry the sample to constant weight (air-drying is recommended).
3) Fill a calibrated glass bottle to 130 ml with the dry sample of sand.
4) Add the test reagent (Sodium hydroxide solution) until the total volume of sand and solution
reaches 200 ml.
5) Close the glass bottle and shake it vigorously for few minutes.
6) Allow the sample to stand undisturbed for 24 hours and compare the colour of the sample solution
with the colours on the colour plate or with the standard solution.
7) Then, translate the colour as follows;

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8) Record and report the test result as either STANDARD or POOR.

Los Angeles Abrasion test

The LAA test measures resistance of aggregate to abrasion (i.e. hardness), by subjecting aggregate
particles (mixed with specific number of steel spheres) to 500 revolutions in a rotary steel drum.

The applicable aggregate fractions are:

Group A: Mix (37.5 – 25), (25 – 19), (19 – 12.5) and (12.5 – 9.5) mm.
Group B: Mix (19 – 12.5) and (12.5 – 9.5) mm.
Group C: Mix (9.5 – 6.3) and (6.3 – 4.75) mm.
Group D: Take (4.75 – 2.36)

LAA Machine Coral aggregate (soft)

Test procedure:
1) Sieve the aggregates as per the above groups and wash them.
2) Obtain about 5000g from each group (i.e. combine 1250g from each fraction for group A; 2500g
from each fraction for group B and C; and 5000g from group D) and record the weight (m1).
3) Put each group in the Los Angeles abrasion machine and add: 12 spheres for group A, 11 spheres
for group B, 8 spheres for group C and 6 spheres for group D and allow the drum to rotate 500
revolutions.

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4) Then remove the sample, sieve it on 1.7mm sieve and weigh the material retained on 1.7mm sieve
(m2).
Calculations:
Material passing 1.7mm = m1 – m2
LAA =(m1-m2)x100
m1:
Example

M test\Los_Angeles_Abrasion_Value_Test(360p).mp4
Consistency of cement

Objective:
This test method covers the determination of the normal consistency of hydraulic cement paste with
Vicat’s Apparatus.
The amount of water content that brings the cement paste to a standard condition of wetness is called
“normal consistency”. It has a marked effect upon the time of set as well as upon other properties of
cement. The paste at normal consistency is fairly stiff and is used only for the determination of time
of set and soundness of cement. It is necessary to fix the quantity of water to be mixed in cement
while experimenting on it.
The normal consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency (% of water) which will
permit the vicat plunger to penetrate to a point 10 mm from the top of the vicat mould. The usual

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range of values being between 22 to 30 percent by weight of dry cement. Normal consistency is also
called standard consistency.

Necessity and Use of Normal Consistency:

a. Cement produced by different factories may not have same properties and so it is necessary to
standardize the consistency using standard equipment.
b. The knowledge of normal consistency is required while performing other important tests such as
setting time, soundness etc. as these tests are performed on cement paste using a certain percentage of
water required for standard consistency.

Related Terms:
Consistency: A certain minimum quantity of water is required to be mixed with cement so as to
complete chemical reaction between water and cement. Less water than this quantity would not
complete chemical reaction thus resulting in reduction of strength and more water would increase
water cement ratio and so would reduce its strength. Thus correct proportion of water to cement is
required to be known to achieve proper strength while using cement in structure.
Gauging Time: The period observed from the time water is added to cement for making cement paste
till commencing the filling of mould of Vicat Apparatus in this test.

Table: Permissible Variations on Weights

Training data sheet

Experiment Name : Determination of Normal Consistency of Cement with Vicat’s Apparatus.
Experiment Date :
Student’s Name :
Student’s ID :
Year/ Semester :
Section/ Group :
Cement: _________________ gm.

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Self check Questions:

1. Does this cement satisfy ASTM standard requirements for normal consistency?
2. Describe the factors affecting the normal consistency of cement.

Fineness of cement
Objective
The fineness of cement has an important bearing on the rate of hydration and hence on the rate of
gain of strength and also on the rate of evolution of heat. Finer cement offers a greater surface area
for hydration and hence faster the development of strength. The fineness of grinding has increased
over the years. But now it has got nearly stabilized. Different cements are ground to different
fineness.
The particle size fraction below 3 microns has been found to have the predominant effect on the
strength at one day while 3-25 micron fraction has a major influence on the 28 days strength.
Increase in fineness of cement is also found to increase the drying shrinkage of concrete.

Fig: Specific Surface versus Compressive Strength of Cement

Fineness of cement is tested in two ways :

(a) By sieving.
(b) By determination of specific surface (total surface area of all the particles in one gram of cement)
by air-permeability apparatus. Expressed as cm2/gm or m2/kg. Generally Blaine Air permeability
apparatus is used.
The samples of the cement shall be taken according to the requirements of IS 3535:1986 and the
relevant standard specification for the type of cement being tested. The representative sample of the
cement selected as above shall be thoroughly mixed before testing.

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Balance
Balance be capable of weighing up to 10 g to the nearest 10 mg .
Sieve
It comprises a firm, durable, non-corrodible, cylindrical frame of 150 mm to 200 mm nominal
diameter and 40 mm to 100 mm depth, fitted with 90 micron mesh sieve cloth of woven stainless
steel, or other abrasion-resisting and non corrodible metal wire.

Nylon Bristol Brush

For cleaning of sieve.

Job sheet
1. Agitate the sample of cement to be tested by shaking for 2 min in a stoppered jar to disperse
Agglomerates. Wait 2 min. Stir the resulting powder gently using a clean dry rod in order to

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distribute the fines throughout the cement.

2. Fit the tray under the sieve, weigh approximately 10 g of cement to the nearest 0.01 g and place it
on the sieve, being careful to avoid loss. Disperse any agglomerates. Fit the lid over the sieve.
Agitate the sieve by swirling, planetary and linear movement until no more fine material passes
through it. Remove and weigh the residue. Express its mass as a percentage, R1, of the quantity
first placed in the sieve to the nearest 0.1 percent. Gently brush all the fine material off the base of
the sieve into the tray.
3. Repeat the whole procedure using a fresh 10 g sample to obtain R2. Then calculate the residue of
the cement R as the mean of R1, and R2, as a percentage, expressed to the nearest 0.1 %.
4. When the results differ by more than 1 percent absolute, carry out a third sieving and calculate the
mean of the three values.
5. Check the sieve after every 100 sieving

Observation
1. The fineness of a given sample of cement is _ _ _ _ %
2. Report the value of R, to the nearest 0.1 percent, as the residue on the 90 micron sieve for the
cement tested. The standard deviation of the repeatability is about 0.2 percent and of the
reproducibility is about 0.3 percent.

Grade, percentage elongation and tensile strength of steel

The one of issue in predicting the behavior of reinforcing bar is the tensile and yield strength ratio of
those materials. That is used to know how it can hold out from loading, Materials were startup to
maximum yield condition.
The flexural behavior of reinforced concrete can be estimated. In recent years, the possible use of
high strength steel reinforcing bars for buildings constructed using reinforced concrete has been
considered. But there are few experimental data or design guidelines for the use of high-strength
steel.
The experimental included 12 tests using twelve specimens of steel reinforcing bars tested under
tension up to failure.
Twelve specimens divided into 4 grade of reinforcing bars i.e. 420MPa. 550 MPa, 650 MPa and 700
MPa.
All specimens were 50cm long and were in 10 mm of diameters. Tensile tests of these steel samples
were conducted under displacement controlled mode to capture the complete.
stress-strain curves and particularly the post-yield response of the steel bars The instrument testing is
Universal Testing Machine with loading capacity is 200ton, and strain rate for this testing is 12.5
mm/minute.

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FIGURE. Equipment for Tensile Testing

Tensile & Yield Strength of Various Strength Reinforcing Bars Based on tension testing, ratio TS/YS
of specimen for various grade reinforcing bars are shown in Table 2.It shown value of yield strength,
tensile strength, and ratio of various grades of steel reinforcing bars. There are four grade of steel
reinforcing bars, i.e. Grade 420, 550, 650, and Grade 700Mpa. And for each grade of steel
reinforcing bars, there are three sample bars.

TABLE . Tensile and Yield Strength Ratios

The value of Ratio Tensile/Yield Strength can obtained from :

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Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer test

Objective:
The rebound hammer method could be used for:
(i) assessing the likely compressive strength of concrete with the help of suitable corelations between
rebound index and compressive strength,
(ii) assessing the uniformity of concrete,
(iii) assessing the quality of the concrete in relation to standard requirements, and
(iv) assessing the quality of one element of concrete in relation to another.
Principle:
When the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of the concrete, the spring
controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such rebound depends upon the surface hardness of
concrete. The surface hardness and therefore the rebound is taken to be related to the compressive
strength of the concrete. The rebound is read off along a graduated scale and is designated as the
rebound number or rebound index.

Rebound Hammer
It consists of a spring controlled mass that slides on a plunger within a tubular housing. The impact
energy required for rebound hammers for different applications is given in Table 1.
Apparatus Required

Fig. Impact Energy for Rebound hammer for different Applications.

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Schematic of Rebound Hammer

Concrete mix design

Concrete is a mixture of five components: coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, water, and cement.
Concrete mix design is the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete (cement, sand and
aggregates) and determining their relative proportions with the object of producing concrete of
certain minimum strength and durability as economically as possible. In most concrete is designed to
achieve a specific strength at a certain age which is usually 28 days. Fore. g., a concrete mix of
proportions 1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix
contains one part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse aggregate.
Concrete Slump Test
The concrete slump test measures the consistency of fresh concrete before it sets. It is performed to
check the workability of freshly made concrete, and therefore the ease with which concrete flows. It
can also be used as an indicator of an improperly mixed batch.
 
The consistency, or stiffness, indicates how much water has been used in the mix. The stiffness of the
concrete mix should be matched to the requirements for the finished product quality. The slump test
is used to ensure uniformity for different loads of concrete under field conditions. The slump test is
perhaps the most widely used because of the simplicity of the apparatus required and the test
procedure. The slump test indicates the behavior of a compacted concrete cone under the action of
gravitational forces. The slump test is a practical means of measuring the workability. Changes in the
value of slump obtained during a job may indicate changes in materials, in the water content or in the
proportions of the mix,
True Slump
 – True slump is the only slump that can be measured in the test. The measurement is taken between
the top of the cone and the top of the concrete after the cone has been removed. .
Shear Slump
 – The shear slump indicates that the result is incomplete, and concrete to be retested,
Collapsed Slump – 
This is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too high, i.e. concrete mix is too wet or it is a high
workability mix, for which a slump test is not appropriate.
Zero Slump
-A concrete of extremely dry consistency showing no measurable slump after removal of the slump
cone. 
Concrete mix design starts with assessment of materials’ properties, proportioning the ingredients,
conducting laboratory trials and adjusting the proportions to achieve the design target.

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However, by using past projects’ experience on local materials (e.g. type of cement, sand and
aggregate) is possible to forecast cement content by weight (kg/m3) and use the obtained value to
convert other ratios into weights. To get a good mix by this method, the specific gravity of each
material should be tested and used with the weights to alter the mix volume into a cubic meter (1m3).

Table 4.7 – Grades of concrete and forecast cement contents.

Design procedure:

1) Evaluate specific gravity of aggregates and use 3150 (kg/m3) For cement and 980 (kg/m3) for
water.
2) Adopt cement content for the desired grade from table 4.7.
3) Start with water/cement ratio of 0.53 (or as specified).
4) Calculate weight of sand, aggregate and water by multiplying Weight of cement by respective
ratios in table 4.7.
5) Calculate the volume of each component by dividing the Weight by the Specific gravity (i.e. V =
mass/SG).
Weight of each component:
Wt. of cement (Mc) = Adopt value for the class from table 4.7
Wt. of sand (Ms) = Wt. of cement x Sand ratio
Wt. of aggregate (Ma) = Wt. of cement x Aggregate ratio
Wt. of water (Mw) = Wt. of cement x Water/Cement ratio
Volume of each component:
Vol. of cement (Vc) = Wt. of cement/SG of cement = (Mc /3150)
Vol. of sand (Vs) = Wt. of sand/SG of sand = (Ms /SGs )
Vol. of aggregate (Va) = Wt. of coarse/SG of coarse = (Ma/SGa )
Vol. of water (Vw) = Wt. of water/SG of water = (Mw /980)
6) Check if the volumes contributed by the materials makes a cubic meter (if not, adjust the weight of
sand or coarse aggregates to ensure that the batch is almost 1m3).

Example:

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M test\Field Testing Concrete (Part 2).mp4

Viscosity test by Sybolt Furol Viscometer

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M test\Determine_the_Viscosity_of_Bitumen_Sample_by_Tar_Viscometer(360p).mp4
Flash point of bitumen

A)Flash And Fire Point Bitumen

Objective:
To determine the flash and fire points of a given bituminous sample.

Apparatus
i, Pensky Martens apparatus
ii,Thermometer – low range: -7 to 1100C, graduation 0.50C, High range: 900C to 3700C, graduation
20C.
iii. Sample which is sufficient to fill the cup up to the mark given on it.
Procedure.
i, Flash Point
1) Heat the bitumen between 750C and 1000C. Stir it thoroughly to remove air bubbles and water.

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2) Fill the cup with the material to be tested up to the filling mark. Place on the bath. Fix the open
clip and insert the thermometer of high or low range as per requirement, in this case use the low
range thermometer.
3) Light the test flame and adjust it. Supply heat at such a rate that the temperature increase, recorded
by the thermometer is neither less than 50C nor more than 60C per minute.

N/B: The temperature at which the first flash appear when the flame is brought close to the surface of
the material. This temperature is noted as the flash point temperature.

ii. Fire Point

.4) After the flash point is obtained, heating should continue at such a rate that the increase in
temperature recorded by the thermometer is neither less than 50C nor more than 60C per minute.
5) Now light a test flame and adjust it so that it is of the size of 4mm in diameter.
6) Finally note that the thermometer at which the application of the test flame causes the material to
ignite and burn for at least 5 seconds. This temperature is noted as the fire point temperature.

Results
Flash point temperature= 420C
Fire point temperature =460C
Or Rate of temperature 1min= 130c
Flash point temperature(Time x Temp)=17 x13=2210c
Fire point temperature = 18 x13 =2340c
M test\Flash_and_Fire_Point_of_Bitumen(360p).mp4
Penetration test for bitumen
Penetration Test can be applied on bitumen to determine the consistency of bitumen by measuring
the distance that a standard needle will penetrate vertically into a sample (reported in tenths of a
millimeter) under specified conditions of:-

Loading = 100g,
Temperature = 25°C, and
Time = 5 seconds

Penetration test:
The bitumen must be taken out from the storage by using hot scoop and it must be heated with care
(use proper equipment full with safety). Stirring as soon as possible to prevent local over-heating,
until it has become sufficiently fluid to pour.
Then, pour the sample into sample container to a depth and leave at least 10mm greater than the
depth. The container must be covered loosely as protection against dust and it must be cooled down
in the atmosphere at temperature between 15°C and 30°C for 1 to 1.5hours before proceed with the
experiment.

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Figure 3.2a & 3.2b: the method how to taken out bitumen from it storage

Basic Procedure of Penetration Test

1. The bitumen sample grade penetration 80/100 was heated until it becomes fluid. The heated
bitumen sample was placed in a penetration cone such that when cooled, the depth of the sample is
10 mm greater than the expected penetration. For this experiment, 3 sets of cones containing bitumen
sample were prepared.
2. The bitumen temperature is cooled in water bath so that its temperature maintained at 25°C.

.
Figure 3.3a & Figure 3.3b: Semi-Automatic Penetrometer & Checking the temperature
3. The cooled bitumen was then placed below the needle, such that the needle just touches the
bitumen surface.
4. Before starting the penetration, the load is set at 100g. The needle was then allowed to penetrate
the bitumen and the test was stopped after 5 seconds.
5. The results were recorded in decimillimetre on which one penetration equals 1 dcm or equivalent
to 0.1 mm. At least three (3) readings per cone were taken in order to confirm the accuracy of the
result. The next needle point must not less than 10mm from the side of the container and not less than
10mm apart from previous points.

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6. After three penetration values for every cup has been determined for all of the three cups; the test
was repeated to different temperature of bitumen samples.
M test\Penetration_Value_of_Bitumen(360p).mp4
Ductility of bitumen
What Is Ductility Test of Bitumen?

The ductility bitumen is one of the main tests you need to do when building the road. We know that
the ductility of a material is the ability of that material to undergo plastic deformation (permanent
deformation) before the rupture of that material test of.
The ductility of a bituminous material is measured by the distance in cm that it elongates before
breaking when a standard briquette sample of the material is separated at a specified speed and
temperature.

bitumen ductility measurement test and its suitability for road construction
Bitumen ductility is expressed as the distance in centimeters by which a standard bitumen briquette
can be stretched before the line breaks, this test should be performed at 27 oC and traction should be
applied at a rate of 50 mm per minute.

The bitumen ductility test is used to measure the following:

The ductility of a given bitumen sample is measured

The suitability of the bitumen for use in road construction is measured.
Ductility of bitumen is the distance by which it extends in cm before breaking when kept in standard
briquettes under standard conditions.
The standard temperature of 25oC must be maintained. The 100 mm x 100 mm cross-section in the
mold is prepared at a specified temperature, the excess bitumen is removed and the chips are hooked
after zeroing the pointer.
The sample is pulled at 50 mm per minute until rupture. The distance to the breaking point in cm is the
ductility value that depends on the temperature, briquette size, traction rate.
Ductility values can vary from 5 to 100 cm. A minimum value of 5 cm is required for bitumen grade
45 and above.
Bitumen Ductility Testing Equipment

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Essentially, the following equipment is needed:

Briquettes of Standard Dimensions.

Traction devices with distance measurement display. Water bath arrangement.

Ductility Bitumen Test Procedure

The bitumen sample is heated to bring it to a liquid state and poured into the set of briquettes and
placed on a brass plate.

All equipment, including bitumen briquette and brass plate, is air-cooled.

A hot knife is used to cut excess bitumen and the surface is also leveled with the help of a hot knife.
The whole set is now kept in a bath maintained at 27oC for about 85 to 95 minutes.
The mold side has been removed, the clamps hooked on the machine and the pointer set to zero or the
initial reading noted.
The clips are now separated horizontally at a rate of 50 mm per minute and the distance to the point
where the line breaks are observed. This distance in cm s gives the bitumen ductility value.
The ductility of the bitumen can vary from 5 to more than 100 for different degrees of bitumen, but,
for satisfactory performance, it should not be less than 50.
The ductility of the bitumen depends on the casting temperature, briquette dimensions, test
temperature, tensile rate, etc.

Ductility of the Suitability of Bitumen for Road Construction

For the purpose of flexible pavement design, it is necessary for the binders to form a thin ductile
film around the aggregates in order to improve the physical interlocking of the aggregates.

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It is important to consider that the binder material with insufficient ductility breaks when subjected to repeated
traffic loads and provides a permeable surface of the pavement.

How to Test Ductility Bitumen

For many decades, different ductility methods have proven to be a reliable indicator of the rheological
characteristics of bitumen and bituminous binders at medium temperature.
The basic principle of the test is that a bitumen sample is prepared in special molds between two clips.
The sample is then separated horizontally at a uniform speed and at a specified temperature in a long
water bath.
Ductility is used as a performance-based specification criterion for bitumen in product specification
standards.

Three Different Methods of Ductility Testing Are Used in Practice. Stretching Test
The bitumen is cast in a brass mold. The briquette is then separated in a water bath at a set
temperature until it breaks.
The breaking distance indicates the cohesion and general tensile properties of the material. The
maximum traction length for highly cohesive material is up to 150 cm. Standardized tests according
to ASTM D 113, DIN 52 013, JIS K 2207 and AASHTO T51 are almost identical. The main test
conditions are a traction speed of 5 cm/min and a temperature of 25 ° C in the water bath.

Elastic Recovery Test

Elastic recovery is measured by the recoverable deformation determined after a specified time after
cutting an elongated briquette sample.

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The sample is pulled to a specified distance and cut with scissors in the middle. After a fixed period
of recovery time, the reduction in distance from the total distance is measured. The test is useful to
confirm that a component has been added to the bitumen to provide a significant elastomeric
characteristic.
To determine the particular properties of polymer-modified bitumen (PMB), the elastic recovery
method proved to be more convenient than the elongation test. Typical test conditions are a traction
speed of 5 cm/min and a temperature of 25 ° C in the water bath.

Test conditions acc. according to ASTM D6084, specify a traction distance of 10 cm and a recovery
time of 60 min. Test conditions acc. according to EN 13 398, specify a traction distance of 20 cm and
a recovery time of 30 min.

Ductility Strength Test

The tensile properties are measured based on the executed force and the sample tension until the
briquette breaks or a specified tension is reached.

The ductility test generally measures asphalt binder ductility by stretching a standard-sized briquette

of asphalt binder to its breaking point. The stretched distance in centimeters at breaking is then
reported as ductility.
 M test\Ductility_Test_of_Bitumen(360p).mp4

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Hdydrometer analysis
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS BY HYDROMETER
Objective
Hydrometer test is carried out to quantitatively determine the Particle/Grain Size Distribution for soil
particles of size smaller than 75 micron.
Apparatus Required

Fig. 1: Hydrometer

Calibrated at 27°C, range of 0.995 to 1.030 g/cc, graduation lines at interval of 0.0005; in conformity
with IS-3104: 1965. The maximum permissible scale error on the hydrometer is plus or minus one
scale division.
Laboratory setup for Hydrometer Test
Two 1000 ml graduated cylinders, Dispersing agent solution containing sodium hexa-meta
phosphate, Mechanical stirrer, Water Bath, Balance, Sieve, Desecrator and Centimeter Scale.

Thermometer Porcelain Evaporating Dish

For measuring Temperature required for Temperature corrections- with accuracy of 0.50 C

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Stop Watch .For recording Time interval.

Tests on bituminous mixes (Marshal, Hveem, etc.)

A Asphalt concrete (AC) or Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) is produced by mixing aggregates and bitumen
in definite proportions. Bitumen combines with filler to produce a mastic paste that binds the
aggregate particles together and fills the voids formed in the aggregates; while, aggregates provide
adequate strength and skid resistance for the layer.
There are three methods commonly used in designing asphalt mixes (however, some of the methods
are country-specific):
Hveem Method: - Developed by Francis Hveem of the California Department of
Transportation. The method is based on the stability (measured by triaxial-type test cell),
swell (resistance of mix to effect of water) and density/voids properties of the mixture
(containing aggregates with maximum size of 25mm or less).

Superpave Method: - Established by the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) to

improve the performance and durability of USA roads. The system is also based on the
volumetric proportioning of aggregate mixture as developed by Bruce Marshall, but brings
out new method of conducting laboratory compaction and performance testing.

Marshall Method: - Developed by Bruce Marshall of the Mississippi State Highway

Department. The method is based on volumetric proportioning of the aggregate mixture
(containing maximum size of 25mm or less) and the main consideration being stability/flow
and density/voids properties.

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 Marshall Mix Design:

a) Compacted Density of Mixed Aggregates (CDMA)

CDMA value is used to evaluate the amount of air voids in the aggregate blend before adding
bitumen. Compact the aggregate blend in a Marshall mould in 3 layers with 25 blows of the Marshall
hammer to each layer (or compact the mix in 4 layers in a small proctor mould using 20 blows of the
4.5kg rammer to each layer). Then, weigh the material and calculate the compacted density as
follows:

CDMA = Weight of compacted aggregates

Volume of the mould
b) Specific Gravity of Mixed Aggregates (SGMA)
SGMA value is used to evaluate air voids in the mix after adding bitumen. It is calculated based on
the individual proportion and specific gravity of each aggregate fraction:

SGMA = 100 .
% Filler + % Fine + % Medium + % Coarse
SG filler SG fine SG medium SG coarse
c) Voids in Mixed Aggregates (VMA)
VMA value is used for estimating the quantity of bitumen required to fill air voids in the aggregate
blend to an acceptable limit. High VMA value means the mix is too porous and require extra amount
of bitumen to fill the extra voids and the low value means the mix is too dense to accommodate
sufficient bitumen for mix flexibility (recommended range is 17 – 20 %).
VMA = (SGMA – CDMA) x 100
SGMA

 Calculations:
Compacted Density of Mix (CDM)

CDM = Wt. of specimen in air .

Wt. of specimen in air – Wt. of specimen in water

Specific Gravity of Mix (SGM)

SGM = 100 .
% Bitumen + % Aggregates
SG bitumen + SG aggregates

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Examples:

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Consolidation test
When a compressive load is applied to soil mass, a decrease in its volume takes place, the decrease in
volume of soil mass under stress is known as compression and the property of soil mass pertaining to
its tendency to decrease in volume under pressure is known as compressibility. In a saturated soil
mass having its void filled with incompressible water, decrease in volume or compression can take
place when water is expelled out of the voids.
Such a compression resulting from a long time static load and the consequent escape of pore water is
termed as consolidation. Then the load is applied on the saturated soil mass, the entire load is carried
by pore water in the beginning. As the water begins escaping from the voids, the hydrostatic pressure
in water gets gradually dissipated and the load is shifted to the soil particles which increases effective
stress on them, as a result the soil mass decrease in volume.
NEED AND SCOPE:
The test is conducted to determine the settlement due to primary consolidation.
a. Rate of consolidation under normal load.
b. Degree of consolidation at any time.
c. Pressure-void ratio relationship.
d. Coefficient of consolidation at various pressures.
e. Compression index.

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The above information can be used to predict the time rate and extent of settlement of structures
founded on fine-grained soils. It is also helpful in analyzing the stress history of soil.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Consolido meter consisting essentially;
a) A ring of diameter = 60mm and height = 20mm,
b) Two porous stones
c) Guide ring.
d) Outer ring.
e) Water jacket with base.
f) Pressure pad.
2. Loading device consisting of frame, lever system, loading yoke dial gauge fixing device and
weights.
3. Dial gauge (accuracy of 0.01 mm), Thermo statically controlled oven, Stopwatch, sample
extractor, balance, soil Trimming tools, spatula, filter papers, sample containers.

1. Undisturbed Sample:
From the sample tube, eject the sample into the consolidation ring. The sample should project about
one cm from outer ring. Trim the sample smooth and flush with top and bottom of the ring by using
wire saw. Clean the ring from outside and keep it ready for weighing.
2. Remolded sample:
a. Choose the density and water content at which sample has to be compacted from the moisture-
density curve, and calculate the quantity of soil and water required to mix and compact.
b. Compact the specimen in compaction mould in three layers using the standard rammers.
c. Eject the specimen from the mould using the sample extractor.
Direct shear test
This test is performed to determine the consolidated-drained shear strength of a sandy to silt soil. The
shear strength is one of the most important engineering properties of a soil, because it is required
whenever a structure is dependent on the soil’s shearing resistance. The shear strength is needed for
engineering situations such as determining the stability of slopes or cuts, finding the bearing capacity
for foundations, and calculating the pressure exerted by a soil on a retaining wall.

Significance:
The direct shear test is one of the oldest strength tests for soils. In this laboratory, a direct shear
device will be used to determine the shear strength of a cohesion less soil (i.e. angle of internal
friction (f)). From the plot of the shear stress versus the horizontal displacement, the maximum shear
stress is obtained for a specific vertical confining stress. After the experiment is run several times for
various vertical-confining stresses, a plot of the maxi mum shear stresses versus the vertical (normal)
confining stresses for each of the tests is produced.

Equipment:
Direct shear device, Load and deformation dial gauges, Balance.

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W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

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 Institution Name Document No.
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W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

job sheet
(1) Weigh the initial mass of soil in the pan.
(2) Measure the diameter and height of the shear box. Compute 15% of the diameter in millimeters.
(3) Carefully assemble the shear box and place it in the direct shear device. Then place a porous stone
and a filter paper in the shear box.
(4) Place the sand into the shear box and level off the top. Place a filter paper, a porous stone, and a
top plate (with ball) on top of the sand.
(5) Remove the large alignment screws from the shear box! Open the gap between the shear box
halves to approximately 0.025 in. using the gap screws, and then back out the gap screws.
(6) Weigh the pan of soil again and compute the mass of soil used.
(7) Complete the assembly of the direct shear device and initialize the three gauges (Horizontal
displacement gage, vertical displacement gage and shear load gage) to zero.
(8) Set the vertical load (or pressure) to a predetermined value, and then close bleeder valve and
apply the load to the soil specimen by raising the toggle switch.
(9) Start the motor with selected speed so that the rate of shearing is at a selected constant rate, and
take the horizontal displacement gauge, vertical displacement gage and shear load gage readings.
Record the readings on the data sheet. (Note: Record the vertical displacement gage readings, if
needed).
(10) Continue taking readings until the horizontal shear load peaks and then falls, or the horizontal
displacement reaches 15% of the diameter.
Analysis:
(1) Calculate the density of the soil sample from the mass of soil and volume of the shear box.
(2) Convert the dial readings to the appropriate length and load units and enter the values on the data
sheet in the correct locations. Compute the sample area A, and the vertical (Normal) stress sv.
Sv = Nv
A
Where: Nv = normal vertical force, and sv = normal vertical stress
(3) Calculate shear stress (t) using
t = Fh
A

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Where Fh= shear stress (measured with shear load gage)

(4) Plot the horizontal shear stress (t) versus horizontal (lateral) displacement H?.
(5) Calculate the maximum shear stress for each test.
(6) Plot the value of the maximum shear stress versus the corresponding vertical stress for each test,
and determine the angle of internal friction (f) from the slope of the approximated Mohr-Coulomb
failure envelope.

Date Tested: August 30, 2002

Tested By: CEMM315 Class, Group A
Project Name: CEMM315 Lab
Sample Number: K-3,AU-10, 2’-4’
Visual Classification: Brown uniform sand
Shear Box Inside Diameter: 6.3 cm
Area (A): 31.17 cm2 = 4.83 in2
Shear Box Height: 4.9 cm
Soil Volume: 119.9 cm3
Initial mass of soil and pan: 1000. g
Final mass of soil and pan: 720.82 cm
Mass of soil: 279.18 g
Density of soil (?): 1.65 g/cm3
Direct Shear Test Data
Displacement rate: _______
Normal stress: 2.27 psi

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Direct Shear Test Data

Normal stress: 4.55 psi
Direct Shear Test Data
Normal stress: 6.82 psi

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W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

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Work sheet
DIRECT SHEAR TEST blank DATA SHEET
Date Tested:
Tested By:
Project Name:
Sample Number:
Visual Classification:
Shear Box Inside Diameter:
Area (A):
Shear Box Height:
Soil Volume:
Initial mass of soil and pan:
Final mass of soil and pan:
Mass of soil:
Density of soil (?)

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W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

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W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
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Triaxial tests
The equipment for triaxial testing consisted of a cell in which the stabilized clay sample was placed,
and three controllers that managed different pressures applied to the cell. These pressures were:
The cell pressure
The lower chamber pressure
The back pressure
The cell pressure controller managed the confining pressure present in the cell. This pressure equaled
the radial stresses and if the stabilized clay sample was undocked, i.e. not fixed at the ends, the cell
pressure equaled the axial stresses. This allowed for isotropic consolidation.
Several unconfined compression tests were performed.

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For the comparison with compression triaxial testing, one unconfined compression test was
performed for each corresponding compression triaxial test sample. For the extension triaxial testing,
four samples were tested simultaneously.
In addition to these tests, unconfined compression tests were performed on samples after 4, 8 and 12
weeks of curing, in order to evaluate the curing time of the stabilized clay.
The unconfined compression tests in this study were tested at a strain rate of 1 mm/min. The tests
Were run until failure or until a 10% deformation occurred. In order to prevent an uneven distribution
of forces, the sample was connected to the testing equipment through a Plexiglas disc with a
hollowing, in which a metal ball is placed.
The idea of unconfined compression testing is to measure the compression stresses at a constant
Vertical strain rate. The ideal force diagram would be a vertical inwards force on the sample, but
since the horizontal end-faces are a result of manual labor, a slight slope is expected.
The stresses were calculated by dividing the forces with the area of the end-face, which is a constant
entered in the calculation software.
The lower chamber pressure controller managed the axial stresses of the stabilized clay sample by
raising or lowering the pedestal on which the stabilized clay sample was placed. In order for the
lower chamber controller to affect the axial stresses, the stabilized clay sample needed to be docked.

The back pressure controller managed the degree of saturation of the stabilized clay sample and the
pore pressure, by regulating the water flow inside the membrane.

FIGURE STANDARD SETUP INSIDE TRIAXIAL CELL

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Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

In order to separate the stabilized clay sample from the water in the cell, and regulate the water flow,
the sample was covered in a membrane. This membrane was sealed by four o-rings, two at each end
of the stabilized clay sample. The stabilized clay sample was also separated from the water by a
paper filter and porous disc at the end-faces, in order to prevent residue from entering the inflow
tubes and damaging the equipment.
There are three general triaxial tests conducted in laboratories.
• Consolidated Drained
• Consolidated Undrained
• Unconsolidated Undrained
The consolidated drained test is applicable for long-term loading response, these tests will take
longer time as the shear rate must allow for negligible pore water pressure changes .The
unconsolidated undrained test is the most simple and quickest test, as the sample is neither
consolidated and only total stresses are recorded.

LO3: Conduct preparation of stabilized construction materials

The long-term performance of any construction project depends on the soundness of the
underlying soils. Unstable soils can create significant problems for pavements or structures
(Figure 1). With proper design and construction techniques, lime treatment chemically
transforms unstable soils into usable materials .

Figure Extreme example of pavement failure from unstable soils

Lime can be used to treat soils to varying degrees, depending upon the objective. The least
amount of treatment is used to dry and temporarily modify soils. Such treatment produces a
working platform for construction or temporary roads. A greater degree of treatment--
supported by testing, design, and proper construction techniques--produces permanent
structural stabilization of soils

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W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
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Lime Stabilization of Soils

Soil stabilization significantly changes the characteristics of a soil to produce long-term

permanent strength and stability, particularly with respect to the action of water and frost .

Figure : Lime-stabilized layer (see arrow) bridging an erosion failure illustrates strength

Sub grades (or Sub bases): Lime can permanently stabilize fine-grained soil employed as a sub grade or
sub base to create a layer with structural value in the pavement system. The treated soils may be in-place
(sub grade) or borrow materials. Sub grade stabilization usually involves in-place “road mixing,” and
generally requires adding 3 to 6 percent lime by weight of the dry soil.

Bases: Lime can permanently stabilize sub marginal base materials (such as clay-gravel, “dirty”
gravels, lime stones, caliche) that contain at least 50 percent coarse material retained on a #4
screen. Base stabilization is used for new road construction and reconstruction of worn-out roads,
and generally requires adding 2 to 4 percent lime by weight of the dry soil. In-situ “road mixing”
is most commonly used for base stabilization, although off-site “central mixing” can also be used.
Lime is also used to improve the properties of soil/aggregate mixtures in “full depth recycling.

Lime Modification & Soil Drying

There are two other important types of lime treatment used in construction operations:

First, because quicklime chemically combines with water, it can be used very effectively to dry
wet soils. Heat from this reaction further dries wet soils. The reaction with water occurs even if
the soils do not contain significant clay fractions. When clays are present, lime’s chemical
reaction with clays causes further drying. The net effect is that drying occurs quickly, within a
matter of hours, enabling the grading contractor to compact the soil much more rapidly than by
waiting for the soil to dry through natural evaporation.

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W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
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Second, lime treatment can significantly improve soil workability and short-term strength to
enable projects to be completed more easily. Examples include treating fine-grained soils or
granular base materials to construct temporary haul roads or other construction platforms.
Typically, 1 to 4 percent lime by weight is used for modification, which is generally less than the
amount used to permanently stabilize the soil. The changes made to lime-modified soil may or
may not be permanent. The main distinction between modification and stabilization is that
generally no structural credit is accorded the lime-modified layer in pavement design. Lime
modification works best in clay soils.

The Chemistry of Lime Treatment

When lime and water are added to a clay soil, chemical reactions begin to occur almost immediately.

1. Drying: If quicklime is used, it immediately hydrates (i.e., chemically combines with water) and
releases heat. Soils are dried, because water present in the soil participates in this reaction, and
because the heat generated can evaporate additional moisture.
2. Modification: After initial mixing, the calcium ions (Ca ++) from hydrated lime migrate to the
surface of the clay particles and displace water and other ions. The soil becomes friable and
granular .

.
Figure : Lime flocculating clay

3. Stabilization: When adequate quantities of lime and water are added, the pH of the soil quickly
increases to above 10.5, which enables the clay particles to break down. Determining the amount
of lime necessary is part of the design process and is approximated by tests such as the Eades and
Grim test (ASTM D6276).

Stabilizing techniques.

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W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Title: Issue No. 1 3
Information sheet

The following construction recommendations apply to the use of hydrated lime and quicklime in the
stabilization or modification of sub grade (sub base) and base courses and are intended as a general
guide for contractors, inspectors, and specification writers. Quality assurance/quality control
considerations are presented throughout the chapter.

Dry Lime

Dry quicklime or hydrated lime is usually delivered in self-unloading transport trucks (Figure 5).
Commonly, each load of dry lime delivered to a jobsite carries a weigh ticket certifying the amount
of lime on board. In addition, some agencies require certification of the chemical characteristics of
the lime delivered.

Figure: Example of tanker trucks typically used for dry lime delivery

Slurry

Slurry lime can be produced from quicklime or hydrated lime. It can be delivered from a
central mix plant or produced on site. Slurry preparation facilities should be approved by the
project engineer.

Sub grade (or Sub base) Stabilization

Scarification and Initial Pulverization

After the soil has been brought to line and grade, the sub grade can be scarified to the
specified depth and width and then partially pulverized.

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Figure 8: Scarification before lime application Figure: Soil windrow used to contain lime before mixing

Equipment: Grader-scarifier and/or disc harrow for scarification; rotary mixer for initial
pulverization.
Lime Spreading

Quicklime
There are two ways that dry quicklime can be applied. First, self-unloading trucks or trailers can
distribute quicklime pneumatically or mechanically the full width of the truck.

Figure 10: Dry lime application with mechanical spreader

Dry Hydrated Lime

Dry hydrated lime should not be spread under windy conditions because of excessive dusting. Under
windy conditions, in populated areas, or adjacent to heavy vehicle traffic, slurry application or proper
quicklime applications can minimize dust related problems.

Slurry
Equipment for slurry application: Distributor trucks with recirculation capabilities are recommended
to keep slurry in suspension. If the transit time is short, trucks without recirculating pumps can be
employed. Spreading from the tank trucks is conducted by gravity or by pressure spray bars. Pressure
distributors are preferred because they provide more uniform application.

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Example of lime slurry application

Preliminary Mixing and Watering

Preliminary mixing is required to distribute the lime throughout the soil and to initially pulverize the
soil to prepare for the addition of water to initiate the chemical reaction for stabilization.

Scarification after lime spreading Adding water after dry lime application

Final Mixing and Pulverization

To accomplish complete stabilization, adequate final pulverization of the clay fraction and thorough
distribution of the lime throughout the soil are essential (Figure 16). Mixing and pulverization should
continue until 100 percent of non-stone material passes the 1-inch sieve and at least 60 percent of
non-stone material passes the number 4 sieve.

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Mixing and pulverization

Compaction
The lime-soil mixture should be compacted to the density required by specification, typically at least
95 percent of the maximum density obtained in the AASHTO T 99 (Standard Proctor) test. The
density value should be based on the Proctor curve from a representative field sample of the lime-
soil mixture – not the untreated (raw) soil.

Sheeps foot (above) & pad foot (below) rollers

Self check

1. What is soil stabilization?

2. Lime stabilization?
3. What is the advantage of lime stabilization?

LO4: Identify hazards and risks

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W/R SIHEEN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
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Hazards in Construction and their analysis Construction sites are dangerous places where injury or
death or illness can cause to workers.

These can happen due to electrocution, falling from height, injuries from tools equipment and
machines; being hit by moving construction vehicles, injuries from manual handling operations,
illness due to hazardous substance such as dust, chemicals, .etc.

There are eight types of personal protective equipment critical for the defence of users against
hazards.

I. Head protection

Wearing PPE for head protection will help you avoid any harm that may come to you from falling
materials or swinging objects. Moreover, the head protectors are designed to protect you from
knocking against stationary objects. Some kinds of head protection equipment (e.g. Caps and hair
nets) can even protect against entanglement or scalping on machinery.

Examples of head protection equipment:

 Helmets;
 Hard hats;
 Bump Caps;
 Guards;
 Accessories.

Examples of activities where you may need head protection:

 Workplace related: construction or building repair (e.g. Renovation, restoration, etc.) And
work in tunnels or excavations;
 Leisure/Sport related: driving motorcycles.

II. Hand protection

Arms, hands and fingers are often injured and, therefore, it is vital to wear hand protection equipment
when it is required. The hand protection equipment can ensure protection against heat, cold,
vibrations, burns, cuts by sharp objects, bacteriological risks and chemical contamination.

Examples of hand protection equipment:

 Work gloves and gauntlets;

 Wrist cuff arm nets.

Activities requiring hand protection equipment:

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 Construction and outdoor work;

 Working with vibrating apparatus;
 Working in hot or cold environments;
 Working with chemicals and hazardous elements;
 Manual handling of abrasive or sharp objects.

III. Eye and face protection

Numbers are scary! Every day, 600+ workers worldwide suffer from eye injuries. Such injuries can
be avoided simply by wearing the proper eye and face protection equipment. As examples of such
PPE can be mentioned the following ones:

 Safety glasses and goggles;

 Eye and face shields;
 Eyewear accessories;
 Over specs;
 Visors.

You are encouraged and advised to wear eye and face protection equipment when:

 Working with lasers or power driven tools;

 Using gas or vapor under pressure;
 Performing welding operations;
 Handling hazardous substances.

IV. Respiratory protection

The respiratory protection covers a broad group of PPE: breathing apparatus, full face or half mask
respirators, powered respirators, protective hoods, disposal face masks, detectors, monitors, etc.
Adequate training on how users should use the equipment is always required.

This type of PPE must be present when being in contact with large amounts of gases, powders, dust
and vapors.

V. Hearing protection

The hearing protection equipment is vital when working in an environment with high-sound levels.
The type of hearing protection should not only be suitable for the working environment but also
provide a level of hygiene and comfort to the users. A good practice is to provide employees with a
range of protectors and then allow them to select the ones which suit them the best.

Examples of hearing protection equipment:

 Earplugs and defenders;

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Title: Issue No. 1 3
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 Noise meters;
 Communications sets;
 Acoustic foam.

VI. Foot protection

The foot protection equipment is designed to protect the feet and legs against various hazards, such as
extreme temperatures, crushing, piercing, slipping, cutting, chemicals and electricity. It is typically
required when users are involved in construction activities, working in very cold or hot
environments, working with chemicals and forestry, or when manually handling heavy objects.

As examples of foot protection equipment can be pointed out the following ones:

 Safety boots and shoes;

 Anti-static and conductive footwear.

Body protection

Usually, body protection equipment is required in the following cases:

 For protection against weather conditions when working outdoors;

 Ensuring the high-visibility of users when they work in areas where there is a mixed vehicle
(e.g. Bikes, motors, cars and busses) and pedestrian traffic;
 For users’ protection against extreme temperatures;
 Ensuring protection against entanglement, drowning, chemical contamination, etc.

Examples of body protection equipment:

 Life jackets;
 Clothing for specific weather conditions;
 High-visibility clothing;
 Harnesses and others.

VIII. Height and access protection

This type is highly specialized, and it usually requires users to undergo thorough training before they
are allowed to use it. The height and access protection equipment must be inspected periodically by a
competent person to ensure it is still fit for use and the health and safety of users is not threatened in
any way.

As examples of height and access protection equipment can be mentioned in the following ones:

 Fall-arrest systems;
 Body harnesses;

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 Lowering harnesses;
 Rescue lifting;
 Energy absorbers and others.

Self check

1. List and explain all types of safety.

2. What is construction hazard and risk?

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