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The Meditations of the Emperor
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus
Translated by
George Long, M. A.
The Chesterfield Society

London New York
5 go
CONTENTS.
Page.
Biographical Sketch of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 1
The Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus , , .. . ... 31
Marcus Aurelius, from " Seekers After God." 73
The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 131
Index. 299
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
OF
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
BY
THE TRANSLATOR.
LIFE OF
Marcus Antoninus was born at Eome a. d. 121, on

the 26th of April. His father, Annius Verus, died
while he was praetor. His mother was Domitia Cal-
villa, also named Lucilla. The Emperor Titus Antoninus
Pius married Annia Galeria Faustina, the sister of
Annius Yerus, and was consequently the uncle of Marcus
Antoninus. When Hadrian adopted Antoninus Pius
and declared him his successor in the empire, Antoninus
Pius adopted both Lucius Ceionius Commodus, the son
of Aelius Caesar, and Marcus Antoninus, whose original
name was Marcus Annius Verus. Antoninus then took
the name of Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus, to which
was added the title of Caesar in a. d. 139 the name
;
Aelius belonged to Hadrian's family, and Aurelius

was the name of Antoninus Pius. When Marcus An-
toninus became Augustus, he dropped the name of
Verus and took the name of Antoninus. Accordingly
he is generally named Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, or
simply Marcus Antoninus.
The youth was most carefully brought up. He thanks
the gods (i. 17) that he had good grandfathers, good
parents, a
good sister, good teachers, good associates,
good kinsmen ajid friends, nearly everything good.
2 BIOGRAPHICAL SHETCH OF
He had the happy fortune to witness the example of

his uncle and adoptive father Antoninus Pius, and he
has recorded in his work (i.
16 ;
vi. 30) the virtues of
this excellent man and prudent ruler. Like many
young Romans he hand at poetry and studied
tried his
rhetoric. Herodes Atticus and M. Cornelius Fronto
were his teachers in eloquence. There are extant let-
ters between Fronto and Marcus,* which show the
great affection of the pupil for the master, and the

master's great hopes of his industrious pupil. Marcus
Antoninus mentions Fronto (i. 11) among those to
whom he was indebted for his education.
When he was eleven years old, he assumed the dress
of philosophers, something plain and coarse, became a
hard student, and lived a most laborious, abstemious
life, even so far as to injure his health. Finally he
abandoned poetry and rhetoric for philosophy, and he
attached himself to the sect of the Stoics. But he did
not neglect the study of law, which was a useful prep-
aration for the high place which he was designed to
fill. His teacher was L. Volusianus Maecianus, a dis-
tinguished jurist. We must suppose that he learned
the Roman discipline of arms, which was a necessary
part of the education of a man who afterward led his
troops to battle against a warlike race.
Antoninus has recorded in his first book the names
of his teachersand the obligations which he owed to
each of them. The way in which he speaks of what
he learned from them might seem to savor of vanity
or self-praise, if we look carelessly at the way in which
1
he has expressed himself; but if anyone draws this

*M. Cornelii Fronionis Reliquiae, Berlin, 1816. There are a few
letters between Fronto and Antoninus Pius.
MARCUS A URELIUS ANTONINUS. 3
conclusion, he will be mistaken. Antoninus means to

commemorate the merits of his several teachers, what
they taught and what a pupil might learn from them.
Besides, this book like the eleven other books was for
his own use, and if we may trust the note at the end
of the first book, it was written during one of Marcus
Antoninus' campaigns against the Quadi, at a time
when the commemoration of the virtues of his illustri-
ous teachers might remind him of their lessons and the
practical uses which he might derive from them.
Among his teachers of philosophy was Sextus of
Chaeroneia, a grandson of Plutarch. "What he learned
from man is told by himself (i. 9). His
this excellent
favorite teacher was Q. Junius Rusticus (i. 7), a philos-
opher, and also a man of practical good sense in public
affairs. Rusticus was the adviser of Antoninus after
he became emperor. Young men who are destined
for high places are not often fortunate in those who
are about them, their companions and teachers and I;
do not know any example of a young prince having

had an education which can be compared with that of
Marcus Antoninus. Such a body of teachers distin-
guished by their acquirements and their character will
hardly be collected again and as to the pupil, we have
;
not had one like him since.

Hadrian died in July a. d. 138, and was succeeded
by Antoninus Pius. Marcus Antoninus married
Faustina, his cousin, the daughter of Pius, probably
about a. d. 146, for he had a daughter born in 147.
He received from his adoptive father the title of Caesar

and was associated with him in the administration of
the state. The lather and the adopted son lived
together in perfect friendship and confidence. Anto-
i BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF
ninus was a dutiful son, and the emperor Pius loved

and esteemed him.
Antoninus Pius died in March a. d. 161. The Senate,
it is said, urged Marcus Antoninus to take the sole
administration of the empire, but he associated with

himself the other adopted son of Pius, L. Ceionius
Coramodus, who is generally called L. Yerus. Thus
Rome had two emperors. Yerus was
for the first time
an indolent man of pleasure and unworthy of his
station. Antoninus, however, bore with him, and it is
said that Yerus had sense enough to pay to his col-
league the respect due to his character. A virtuous

emperor and a loose partner lived together in peace,
and their alliance was strengthened by Antoninus
giving to Yerus for wife his daughter Lucilla.
The reign of Antoninus was first troubled by a
Parthian war, in which Yerus was sent to command,
but he did nothing, and the success that was obtained
by the Romans in Armenia and on the Euphrates and
Tigris was due to his generals. This Parthian war
ended in a. d. 165. Aurelius and Yerus had a triumph
(a. d. 166) for the victories in the east. A
pestilence
followed which carried off great numbers in Rome and
Italy, and spread to the west of Europe.
The north of Italy was also threatened by the rude
people beyond the Alps from the borders of Gallia to
the eastern side of the Hadriatic. These barbarians
attempted to break into Italy, as the Germanic nations
had attempted near three hundred years before and ;
the rest of the life of Antoninus, with some intervals,

was employed in driving back the invaders. In 169
Yerus suddenly died, and Antoninus administered the
state alone.
During the German wars Antoninus resided for three
years on the Danube at Carnuntum. The Marcomanni

were driven out of Pannonia and almost destroyed in
their retreat across the Danube; and in a. d. 174 the
emperor gained a great victory over the Quadi.

In a. d. 175 Avidius Cassius, a brave and skillful
Roman commander who was at the head of the troops
in Asia, revolted and declared himself Augustus. But
Cassius was assassinated by some of his officers, and so
the rebellion came to an end. Antoninus showed his
humanity by bis treatment of the family and the par-
tisans of Cassius, and his letter to the Senate in which
he recommends mercy is extant. (Vulcatius, Avidius
Cassius, c.
12.)
Antoninus set out for the east on hearing of Cassius'
revolt. Though he appears to have returned to Rome
he went back to prosecute the war against
in a. d. 174,
the Germans, and it is probable that he marched
direct to the east from the German war. His wife
Faustina, who accompanied him into Asia, died sud-
denly at the foot of the Taurus, to the great grief of
her husband. Capitolinus, who has written the life of
Antoninus, and also Dion Cassius accuse the empress
of scandalous infidelity to her husband and of abom-
inable lewdness. But Capitolinus says that Antoninus
either knew it not or pretended not to know it. Noth-
ing is so common as such malicious reports in all ages,
and the history of imperial Rome is full of them.
Antoninus loved his wife, and he says that she was
"
obedient, affectionate and simple." The same scan-
dal had been spread about Faustina's mother, the wife
of Antoninus Pius, and yet he too was perfectly satis-
fied with his wife. Antoninus Pius says, after her
6 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF
death, in a letter to Fronto, that he would rather have

lived in exile with his wife than in his palace at Rome
without her. There are not many men who would
give their wives a better character than these two
emperors. Capitolinus wrote in the time of Diocletian.
He may have intended to tell the truth, but he is a
poor, feeble biographer. Don Cassius, the most malig-
nant of historians, always reports, and perhaps he
any scandal against anybody.
believed,
Antoninus continued his journey to Syria and Egypt,
and on his return to Italy through Athens he was
initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries. It was the
practice of the emperor to conform to the established
rites of the age and to perform religious ceremonies
with due solemnity. We cannot conclude from this
that he was a superstitious man, though we might per-
haps do so, if his book did not show that he was not.
But this is only one among many instances that a
ruler's public acts do not always prove his real
opinions. A prudent governor Avill not roughly oppose

even the superstitions of his people, and though he may
wish that they were wiser, he will know that he can-
not make them so by offending their prejudices.
Antoninus and his son Commodus entered Home in
triumph, perhaps for some German victories, on the
23d of December, a. d. 176. In the following year
Commodus was associated with his father in the
empire and took the name of Augustus. This year
a. d. 177 is memorable in ecclesiastical history. Attalus
and others were put to death at Lyon for their adher-
ence to the Christian religion. The evidence of this
persecution is a letter preserved by Eusebius (E. H. v. 1;
printed in Routh's Reliquiae SacraB, vol. i. with notes.)
The letter is from the Christians of Vienna and

Lugdunum (Vienne and Lyon) to their Chris-
in Gallia
tian brethren in Asia and Phrygia and it is preserved
;
perhaps nearly entire. It contains a very particular

description of the tortures inflicted on the Christians
in Gallia, and it states that while the persecution was
going on, Attalus a Christian and a Roman citizen
was loudly demanded by the populace and brought
into the amphitheater, but the governor ordered him
to be reserved with the rest who were in prison, until
he had received instructions from the emperor. Many
had been tortured before the governor thought of
applying to Antoninus. The imperial rescript, says
the letter, was that the Christians should be punished,
but if they would deny their faith, they must be re-
leased.On this the work began again. The Christians
who were Roman citizens were beheaded the rest :
were exposed to the wild beasts in the amphitheater.

Some modern writers on ecclesiastical history, when
they use this letter, say nothing of the wonderful
stories of the martyrs' sufferings. Sanctus, as the
letter says, was burned with plates of hot iron till his
bodv was one sore and had lost all human form, but
on being put to the rack he recovered his former
appearance under the torture, which was thus a cure
instead of a punishment. He was afterward torn by
beasts, and placed on an iron chair and roasted. He
died at last.
The letter is one piece of evidence. The writer, who-

ever he was that wrote in the name of the Gallic
Christians, is our evidence both for the ordinarv and
the extraordinary circumstances of the story, and we
cannot accept his evidence for one part and reject the
other. We often receive small evidence as a proof of

a thing which we believe to be within the limits of
probability or possibility, and we reject exactly the

same evidence, when the thing to which it refers,
appears very improbable or impossible. But this is a
false method of inquiry, though it is followed by some
modern writers, who select what they like from a
story and reject the rest of the evidence or if they do
;
not reject it, they dishonestly suppress it. A

man can
only act consistently by accepting all this letter or re-
jecting it all, and we cannot blame him for either.
But he who rejects it may still admit that such a letter
may be founded on real facts and he would make this
;
admission as the most probable way of accounting for

the existence of the letter but if, as he would sup-
:
pose, the writer has stated some things falsely, he can-

not tell what part of his story is worthy of credit.
The Avar on the northern frontier appears to have
been uninterrupted during the visit of Antoninus to
the East, and on his return the emperor again left
Rome to oppose the barbarians. The Germanic people
were defeated in a great battle a. d. 179. During this
campaign the emperor was seized with some contagions
malady, of which he died in the camp at Sirmium
(Mitrovitz) on the Save in Lower Pannonia, but at
Vindebona (Vienna) according to other authorities, on
the 17th of March a. d. 180, in the fifty-ninth year of
his age. His son Commodus was with him. The body
or the ashes probably of the emperor were carried to
Rome, and he received the honor of deification.
Those who could afford it had his statue or bust, and
when Capitolinus wrote, many people still had statues
Qf Antoninus among the Dei Penates or household
MARCUS A URELIU3 ANTONINUS. 9
deities.He was in a manner made a saint. Corn-

modus erected to the memory of his father the An-
tonine column which is now in the Piazza Colonna at
Eome. The bassi rilievi which are placed in a spiral
line round the shaft commemorate the victories of
Antoninus over the Marcomanni and the Quadi, and
the miraculous shower of rain which refreshed the
Roman soldiers and discomfited their enemies. The
statue of Antoninus was placed on the capital of the
column, but it was removed at some time unknown,
and a bronze statue of St. Paul was put in the place by
Pope Sixtus the fifth.
The historical evidence for the times of Antoninus
is very defective, and some of that which remains is
not credible. The most curious is the story about the

miracle which happened in a. d. 174 during the war
with the Quadi. The Roman army was in danger of
perishing by thirst, but a sudden storm drenched
them
with rain, while it discharged fire and hail on their
enemies, and the Romans gained a great victory. All
the authorities which speak of the battle speak also of
the miracle. The Gentile writers assign it to their
gods, and the Christians to the intercession of the
Christian legion in the emperor's army. To confirm
the Christian statement it is added that the emperor
gave the title of Thundering to this legion but Dacier
;
and others, who maintain the Christian report of the

miracle, admit that this title of Thundering or Light-
ning was not given to this legion because the Quadi
were struck with lightning, but because there was a
figure of lightning on their shields, and that this title of
the legion existed in the time of Augustus.
Scaliger also had observed that the legion was called
10 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 02?
Thundering before the reign of Antoninus. We learn

this from Dion Cassius (Lib. 55, c. 23, and the note of
Reimarus) who enumerates all the legions of Augustus'

time. The name Thundering or Lightning also occurs
on an inscription of the reign of Trajan, which was
found at Trieste. Eusebius (v. 5) when he relates the
miracle, quotes Apolinarius, bishop of Hierapolis, as
authority for this name being given to the legion Meli-
tene by the emperor in consequence of the success
which he obtained through their prayers; from which
we may estimate the value of Apolinarius' testimony.
Eusebius does not say in what book of Apolinarius the
statement occurs. Dion says that the Thundering
legion was stationed in Cappadocia in the time of
Augustus. Valesius also observes that in the ISTotitia
of the Impenum Romanum there is mentioned under
the commander of Armenia the Praefectura of the
twelfth legionnamed " Thundering Melitene;" and this
position in Armenia will agree with what Dion says
of its position in Cappadocia. Accordingly Valesius
concludes that Melitene was not the name of the legion,
but of the town in which it was stationed. Melitene
was also the name of the district in which this town was
situated. The legions did not, he says, take their name
from the place where they were on duty, but from
the country in which they were raised, and therefore,
what Eusebius says about the Melitene does not seem
probable to him. Yet Valesius, on the authority of
Apolinarius and Tertullian, believed that the miracle
was worked through the prayers of the Christian sol-
diers in the emperor's army. Rufinus does not give the
name of Melitene to this legion, says Valesius, and
probably he purposely omitted it, because he knew

MARCUS A URELIUS ANTONINUS. H
that Melitene was the name of a town in Armenia
Minor, where the legion was stationed in his time.
The emperor, it is said, made a report of his victory
to the Senate, which we may believe, for such was the
practice; but we do not know what he said in his
letter, for it is not extant. Dacier assumes that the
emperor's letter was purposely destroyed by the Senate,
or the enemies of Christianity, that so honorable a tes-
timony to the Christians and their religion might not
be perpetuated. The critic has, however, not seen
that he contradicts himself when he tells us the
purport of the letter, for he says that it was
destroyed, and even Eusebius could not find it. But
there does exist a letter in Greek addressed bv
Antoninus to the Roman people and the sacred Senate
after this memorable victory. sometimes printed
It is
after Justin's first Apology, but unconnected
it is
totally
with the apologies. This letter is one of the most
stupid forgeries of the many which exist, and it can-
not be possibly founded even on the genuine report of
Antoninus to the Senate. If it were genuine it would
free the emperor from the charge of
persecuting men
because they were Christians, for he says in this false
letter that if a man accuse another
only of being a
Christian and the accused confess and there is nothing
else against him, he must be set free with this mon-
;
strous addition, made by a man

inconceivably igno-
rant, that the informer must be burned alive.*
* Eusebius
(v. 5) quotes Tertullian's Apology to the Roman
Senate in confirmation of the story. Tertullian, he says, writes that
letters of the emperor were extant, in which he declares that his
army was saved by the prayers of the Christians ;

and that he
"threatened to punish with death those who ventured to accuse us."
During the time of Antoninus Pius and Marcus

Antoninus there appeared the first Apology of Jus-
tinus, and under Antoninus the Oration
of Tatian
asrainst the Greeks, which was a fierce attack on the
established religions; the address of Athenagoras to
Marcus Antoninus on behalf of the Christians, and the
Apology of Melito, bishop of Sardes, also addressed to
the emperor, and that of Apolinarius. The first
Apology of Justinus is addressed to Titus Antoninus
Pius and his two adopted sons Marcus Antoninus and
L. Verus but we do not know whether they read it.*
;
The second Apology of Justinus is entitled "to the

Roman Senate ;" but this superscription is from some
copyist. In the first chapter Justinus addresses the
Romans. In the second chapter he speaks of an affair
that had recently happened in the time of Marcus
Antoninus and it seems; and he also
L. Verus, as
directly addresses the emperor, saying of a certain

"
woman, she addressed a petition to thee the emperor,
and thou didst grant the petitition." In other passages
the writer addresses the two emperors, from which we
must conclude that the Apology was directed to them.
Eusebius (E. H. iv. 18) states that the second Apology
was addressed to the successor of Antoninus Pius, and
he names him Antoninus Verus, meaning Marcus
Antoninus. In one passage of this second Apology
It ispossible that the forged letter which is now extant may be one
of those which Tertullian had seen, for he uses the plural number
"letters." A great deal has been written about this miracle of the
Thundering Legion, and more than is worth reading. There is a
dissertation on this supposed miracle in Moyle's Works, London, 172G.
* Orosius
(vii. 14) says that Justinus the philosopher presented
to Antoninus Pius his work in defence of the Christian religion, and
made him merciful to the Christians.
(c. 8), Justinus, or the writer, whoever he may be, says

that even men who followed the Stoic doctrines, when
they ordered their lives according to ethical reason,
were hated and murdered, such as Heraclitus, Muso-
nius in his own all those who in
times and others; for
any way labored according to reason and
to live
avoided wickedness were always hated and this was ;
the effect of the work of demons.

Justinus himself is said to have been put to death at
Rome, because he refused to sacrifice to the gods. It
cannot have been in the reign of Hadrian, as one
authority states; nor in the time of Antoninus Pius, if
the second Apology was written in the time of Marcus
Antoninus and there is evidence that this event took
;
place under Marcus Antoninus and L. Verus, when

Rusticus was prefect of the city.*
* See the
Martyrium Sanctorum Justini, etc., in the works of
Justinus, ed. Otto, vol.ii. 559. "Junius Rusticus Prefectus Urbi
erat sub imperatoribus M. Aurelio et L. Vero, id quod liquet ex
Themistii Orat. xxxiv. Dindorf. p. 451, et ex quodaru illoruni re-
2." (Otto.) The rescript contains the words
scripto, Dig. 49. 1. 1,
"Junium Rusticum arnicum nostrum Prefectum Urbi." The Mar-
tyrium of Justinus and others is written in Greek. It begins: "In
the time of the wicked defenders of idolatry impious edicts were pub-
lished against the pious Christians, both in cities and country places,
for the purpose of compelling them to make offerings to vain idols.
Accordingly the holy men (Justinus, Chariton, a woman Charito,

Pa?on, Liberianus and others) were brought before Rusticus, the pre-
fect of Rome."
The Martyrium gives the examination of the accused by Rusticus.
All of them professed to be Christians. Justinus was asked if he ex
pected to ascend into heaven and to receive a reward for his suffer-
ings if he was condemned to death. He answered that he did not
expect: he was certain of it. Finally, the test of obedience was pro-
posed to the prisoners: they were required to sacrifice to the gods.
All refused, and Rusticus pronounced the sentence, which was that
The persecution in which Poly carp suffered at

Smyrna belongs to the time of Marcus Antoninus.
The evidence for it is the letter of the church of
Smyrna to the churches of Philomelium and the other
Christian churches, and it is preserved by Eusebius (E.
II. iv. 15).But the critics do not agree about the time
of Polycarp's death, differing in the two extremes to
the amount of twelve years. The circumstances of
Polycarp's martyrdom were accompanied by
miracles,
one of which Eusebius 15) has omitted, but it ap-
(iv.
pears in the oldest Latin version of the letter, which

Usher published, and it is supposed that this version
was made not long after the time of Eusebius. The
notice at the end of the letter states that it was tran-
scribed by Caius from the copy of Irenaaus, the disciple
of Polycarp, then transcribed by Socrates at Corinth ;
"after which I Pionius again wrote it out from the

copy above mentioned, having searched it out by the
revelation of Polycarp, who directed me to it, etc."
The story of Polycarp's martyrdom is embellished
with miraculous circumstances which some modern
writers on ecclesiastical history take the liberty of
omitting.*
those who refused to sacrifice to the gods and obey the emperor's
order should be whipped and beheaded according to the law. The
martyrs were then led to the usual place of execution and beheaded.
Some of the faithful secretly carried off the bodies and deposited
them in a fit place.
*
Conyers Middleton, An Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers,
etc., p.126 Middleton says that Eusebius omitted to mention the
dove, which new out of Polycarp's body, and Dodwell and Archbishop
Wake have done the same. Wake says, " I am so little a friend to
such miracles that I thought it better with Eusebius to omit that cir-
cumstance than to mention it from Bp. Usher's Manuscript," which
In order to form a proper notion of the condition of

the Christians under Marcus Antoninus we must go
back to Trajan's time. When the younger Pliny was
governor of Pithy nia, the Christians were numerous in
those parts, and the worshipers of the old religion
were falling off. The temples were deserted, the fes-
tivals neglected, and there were no purchasers of vic-
tims for sacrifice. Those who were interested in the
maintenance of the old religion thus found that their
profitswere in danger. Christians of both sexes and
of all ages were brought before the governor, who did
not know what to do with them. He could come to
no other conclusion than this, that those who confessed
to be Christians and persevered in their religion ought
to be punished if for
; nothing else, for their invincible
obstinac}
7.
He
found no crimes proved against the
Christians, and he could only characterize their religion
as a depraved and extravagant superstition, which
might be stopped, if the people were allowed the op-

portunity of recanting. Pliny wrote this in a letter to
Trajan (Plinius, Ep. x. 97). He asked for the emperor's
directions, because he did not know what to do: He
remarks that he had never been engaged in judicial
inquiries about the Christians, and that accordingly he
did not know what to inquire about or how far to in-
quire and punish. This proves that it was not a new
thing to examine into a man's profession of Christianity
and to punish him for it.* Trajan's Rescript is extant.
manuscript, however, says Middleton, lie afterward declares to be so

well attested that we need not any further assurance of the truth
of it.
* Orosius
(vii. 12) speaks of Trajan's persecution of the Christians,
and of Pliny's application to him having led the emperor to mitigate
He approved of the governor's judgment in the mat-

ter but he said that no search must be made after the
;
Christians if a man was charged with the new religion

;
and convicted, he must not be punished if he affirmed

that he was not a Christian and confirmed his denial
by showing his reverence to the heathen gods. He
added that no notice must be taken of anonymous in-
formations, for such things were of bad example. Tra-
jan was a mild and sensible man, and both motives of
mercy and policy probably also induced him to take as
little notice of the Christians as he could to let them ;
live in quiet, if it were possible. Trajan's Rescript is

the first legislative act of the head of the Roman state
with reference to Christianity which is known to us.
It does not appear that the Christians were further
disturbed under his reign. The martyrdom of Igna-
tius by the order of Trajan himself is not universally
admitted to be an historical fact.*
In the time of Hadrian it was no longer possible for
the Roman government to overlook the great increase
of the Christians and the hostility of the common sort
to them. If the governors in the provinces were will-
ing to let them alone, they could not resist the fanati-
cism of the heathen community, who looked on the
Christians as atheists. The Jews too who were settled
all over the Roman Empire were as hostile to the
his severity. The punishment by the Mosaic law for those who at-
tempted to seduce the Jews to follow new gods was death. If a man
was secretly enticed to such new worship he must kill the seducer,
even if the seducer were brother, son, daughter, wife or friend.
(Deut. xiii.)
* The Martyrium Ignatii, first published in Latin by Archbishop

Usher, is the chief evidence for the circumstances of Ignatius' death.
Christians as the Gentiles were.* With the time of

Hadrian begin the Christian Apologies, which show
plainly what the popular feeling toward the Christians
then was. A rescript of Hadrian to Minucius Fundanus,
the Proconsul of Asia, which stands at the end of Jus-
tin's first Apology 4 instructs the
governor that inno-
cent people must not be troubled and false accusers must
not be allowed to extort money from them the charges ;
against the Christians must be made in due form and

no attention must be paid to popular clamors when ;
Christians were regularly prosecuted and convicted of

illegal acts,they must be punished according to their
deserts; and false accusers also must be punished.
Antoninus Pius is said to have published Eescripts to
the same effect. The terms of Hadrian's
Eescript seem
very favorable to the Christians; but if we understand
it in this sense, that
they were only to be punished like
other people for illegal acts, it would have had no
meaning, for that could have been done without asking
the emperor's advice. The real purpose of the
Eescript
is that Christians must be
punished if they persisted
in their belief, and would not prove their renunciation
* We
have the evidence of Justinus (ad Diognetum, c. 5) to this
effect: "The Christians are attacked
by the Jews as if they were
men of a different race and are persecuted by the Greeks; and those
who hate them cannot give the reason of their enmity."
And in Eusebius, E. H. iv. 8, 9. Orosius (vii. 13) says that
J
Hadrian sent this rescript to Minucius Fundanus, Proconsul of Asia,
after being instructed in books written on the Christian
religion by
Quadratus, a disciple of the Apostles, and Aristides, an Athenian, an
honest and wise man, and Serenus Granius. In the Greek text of
Hadrian's rescript there is mentioned Serenius Granianus, the pre-
decessor of Minucius Fundanus in the government of Asia. This
rescript of Hadrian has clearly been added to the Apology by some
editor,
of it
by acknowledging the heathen religion. This
was Trajan's rule, and we have no reason for suppos-
ing that Hadrian granted more to the Christians than
Trajan did. There is also printed at the end of
Justin's first Apology a rescript of Antoninus Pius to
the commune of Asia, and it is also in Eusebius (E. H.
iv. 13). The date of the Rescript is the third consul-
ship of Antoninus Pius.* The Rescript declares that
the Christians, for they are meant, though the name
Christians does not occur in the Rescript, were not to
be disturbed, unless they were attempting something
against the Roman rule, and no man was to be pun-
ished simply for being a Christian. But this Rescript
is spurious. Any man moderately acquainted with
Roman history will see by the style and tenor that it
is a clumsy forgery.
* Eusebius
(E. H. iv. 12) after giving the beginning of Justinus'
First Apology, which contains the address to T. Antoninus and his
two adopted sons, adds the same emperor being addressed by other
' '
brethren in Asia honored the Commune of Asia with the following

Rescript." This Rescript, which is in the next chapter of Eusebius
(E. H. iv. 13), is in the sole name of Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus
Augustus Armenius, though Eusebius had just before said that he
was going to give us a Rescript of Antoninus Pius. There are some
material variations between the two copies of the Rescript besides the
difference in the title, which difference makes it impossible to say
whether the forger intended to assign this Rescript to Pius or to
Marcus Antoninus.
The author of the Alexandrine Chronicum says that Marcus
being moved by the entreaties of Melito and other heads of the
church wrote an Epistle to the Commune of Asia in which he forbade
the Christians to be troubled on account of their religion. Valesius
supposes this to be the letter or Rescript which is contained in Euse-
bius (iv. 13), and to be the answer to the Apology of Melito, of which
1 shall soon
give the substance. But Marcus certainly did not write
this letter which is in Eusebius, and we know not what answer he
made to Melito.
In the time of Marcus Antoninus the opposition be-

tween the old and the new belief was still stronger, and
the adherents of the heathen religion urged those in
authority to a more regular resistance to the invasions:
of the Christian faith. Melito, in his apology to Mar-
cus Antoninus, represents the Christians of Asia as
persecuted under new imperial orders. Shameless
informers, he says, men who were greedy after the
property of others, used these orders as a means of
robbing those who were doing no harm. He doubts if
a just emperor could have ordered anything so unjust ;
and if the last order was really not from the emperor,
the Christians entreat him not to give them up to their
enemies.* We
conclude from this that there were at
* iv. 26 and Routh's Reliquiae Sacrse, vol. i. and the
Eusebius, ;
notes. The
interpretation of this fragment is not easy. Mosheim
misunderstood one passage so far as to affirm that Marcus promised
rewards to those who denounced the Christians an interpretation
;
which is entirely false. Melito calls the Christian religion " our
philosophy," which began among barbarians (the Jews), and flour-
ished among Roman subjects in the time of Augustus, to the
the
great advantage of the empire, for from that time the power of the
Romans grew great and glorious. He says that the emperor has and
will have as the successor to Augustus' power the good wishes of
men, if be will protect that philosophy which grew up with the
empire and began with Augustus, which philosophy the predeces-
sors of Antoninus honored in addition to the other religions. He
further says that the Christian religion had suffered no harm since
the time of Augustus, but on the contrary had enjoyed all honor and
respect that any man could desire. Nero and Domitian, he says,
were alone persuaded by some malicious men to calumniate the
Christian religion, and
was the origin of the false charges
this
against the Christians. But

was corrected by the emperors who
this
immediately preceded Antoninus, who often by their Rescripts

reproved those who attempted to trouble the Christians. Hadrian,
Antoninus' grandfather, wrote to many, and among them to Fun-
danus, the governor of Asia. Antoninus Pius, when Marcus was
80 IlKKUiM'IIICM. /.'A A'/r// OA*
least Imperial Resoripts or Constitutions <r Marous

A utoninus, which were made the foundation of these
persecutions. The faot of beings Christian was now
a,crime and punished, unless the aooused denied their
religion.
Then come the persecul ions at Smyrna, winch
some modern oritios plaoe in \. i>.
L67,ten years before
the persecution of Lyon. The governors of the prov-
inces under Marous Antoninus might have found
enough even Trajan's Resoript to warrant them in
in
punishing Christians, and the fanatioism of the people

would drive them to persecution, even if
they were
unwilling, But besides the Pad of the Christians
rejecting all the heathen oeremonies, we must not for-
get that they plainly maintained that all the heathen
religions were false. The ( Ihristians thus declared war
against the heathen rites, and it is hardly ueoessary t<>
observe thai this was a declaration of hostility against
the Roman government, whioh tolerated all the various
forms of superstition that existed in the empire, and
oould not consistently tolerate another religion, winch
ir >'.!': ted u i Hi In in in Ihr rm|.jiT, Wrote t the I lull 1 1 lev must,

(jltlfiS,
not trouble iin<

Christians; among others to the people of LarlsBa,
Thessalonioa, the Athenians and all theGreeks, Mellto oonoluded
thus We
are persuaded that thou who Last aboul these
things the
r.iuui' m iinl dun lw\ luul, nn\i ill r mic Hindi in.ui- liunuitio Mini
i I ii
.
pin
losophloal, wilt do all we ash thee
thai This apology was written
after A. D 1 80, the yew in which Verusdled, for 11 speaks of Marous
oniv and son Commodus
bis
according to Melito's testimony
Christians had
onlj been punished for their religion In the time of
Nero mid Doinitlan, and the perseoutiona began again In the time of
Marcus Antoninus, and were Founded on bis orders, which were
abused, as be deems to mean Me distinctly affirms that the race
of thegodlj Is ii"" persecuted and barasaed
bj fresh Imperial orders
'" Asia, a
thing which bad never bappened before." But we know
that all this Is not true, and that Christians bad been punished in
Tmiun'a iimo.
MARCUS AUBELIUS ANTONINUS, 21
declared thatall the rest were false, and all the splen-
did oeremonies of the empire only a worship of devils.
[f we had a true ecclesiastical history, we should
know how (he Roman emperors attempted (<> check
the new religion,
how they enforced their principle of
finally punishing Christians, simply as Christians,
which .Iiisfin in his
A.pology affirms thai they did, and
I have no doubt that ho tells the truth; how far
popular olamor and riots went in this matter, and how
far many fanatical and ignorant Christians, for (hero
were many suoh, contributed to excite the fanaticism
on the Other side, and to embitter the quarrel between
the Roman government and new religion. Our
the
extant ecclesiastical histories are manifestly falsified,
and what truth they contain is
grossly exaggerated;
hut the fact is certain that in the time of Marcus
Antoninus the heathen populations were in open
1
hostility to the Christians, and that under Antoninus

pule men were put to death because they were
Christians. Kusebius, the preface to his fifth hook',
in
remarks that in the seventeenth year of Antoninus'
reign, insome parts of the world the persecution of

the Christians became more violent, and that it pro-
ceeded from the populace in the cities; and he adds in
exaggeration, that wo may infer

his usual stylo of
from what took place in a single nation that, myriads
of martyrs were made in the habitable earth. The
nation which he alludes to is ( iallia ;
and he then pro-
ceeds to give the letter of the churches of Vienna and
Lugdunum. If is probable that, he has assigned the
true cause of the persecutions, the fanaticism of the
populace, and that, both governors and emperor had a

great deal of trouble with these diiiturbances. liow
far Marcus was cognizant of these cruel proceedings

we do not know, for the historical records of his reign
are very defective. He did not make the rule against
the Christians, for Trajan did that and if we admit ;
that he would have been willing to let the Christians

alone, we cannot affirm that it was in his power, for it
would be a great mistake to suppose that Antoninus
had the unlimited authority, which some modern
sovereigns have had. His power was limited by certain
constitutional forms, by the Senate, and by the prece-
dents of his predecessors. We cannot admit that such
a man was anactive persecutor, for there is no evidence
that he was,* though it is certain that he had no good
opinion of the Christians, as appears from his own
words4 But he knew nothing of them except their
*
Except that of Orosius (vii. 15), who says that during the
Parthian war there were grievous persecutions of the Christians in
Asia and Gallia under the orders of Marcus (praecepto ejus), and
"
many were crowned with the martyrdom of saints."
\ See xi. 3. The emperor probably speaks of such fanatics as

Clemens (quoted by Gataker on this passage) mentions. The rational
Christians admitted no fellowship with them. "Some of these
heretics," says Clemens, "show their impiety and cowardice by loving
their lives, saying that the knowledge of the really existing God is true
testimony (martyrdom), but that a man is a self-murderer who bears

witness by his death. We also blame those who rush to death, for
there are some, not of us, but only bearing the same name, who give
themselves up. Wesay of them that they die without being
martyrs, even if they are publicly punished and they give them-
;
selves up to a death which avails nothing, as the Indian Gymnoso-

phists give themselves up foolishly to fire." Cave, in his Primitive
"
Christianity (ii. c. 7), says of the Christians
:
They did flock to the
place of torment faster than droves of beasts that are driven to the
shambles. They even longed to be in the arms of suffering.
Ignatius, though then in his journey to Rome in order to his execu-
tion, yet by the way as he went could not but vent his passionate
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 23
hostility to the Roman religion, and he probably
thought that they were dangerous to the state, not-

withstanding the professions false or true of some of
the Apologists. So much I have said, because it would
be unfair not to state all that can be urged against a
man whom his contemporaries and subsequent ages
venerated as a model of virtue and benevolence. If I
admitted the genuineness of some documents, he would
be altogether clear from the charge of even allowing
any persecutions but as I seek the truth and am sure
;
that they are false, I leave him to bear whatever blame

is his due.* I add that it is quite certain that Anto-
ninus did not derive any of his Ethical principles from
a religion of which he knew nothing.:}:
There is no doubt that the Emperor's Reflections, or
his Meditations, as they are generally named, is a
genuine work. In the first book he speaks of himself,

desire of it : "0
that I might come to those wild beasts, that are pre-
pared for meI heartily wish that I may
; presently meet with them ;
I would and encourage them speedily to devour me, and not be

invite
afraid to set upon me as they have been to others nay, should they
;
refuse it, I would even force them to it ;" and more to the same pur-
pose from Eusebius. Cave, an honest and good man, says all this in
praise of the Christians but I think that he mistook the matter.
;
We admire a man who holds to his principles even to death but ;
these fanatical Christians are the Gymnosophists whom Clemens

treats with disdain.
* Dr. F. C. Baur in his work entitled Das Christenthum und die

Christliche Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte, etc., has examined
this question with great good sense and fairness, and I believe he has
stated the truth as near as our authorities enable us to reach it.
% In the Digest, 48, 19, 30, there

the following excerpt from
is
Modestinus "Si quis aliquid fecerit, quo leves hominum animi

:
superstitione numinis terrerentur, divus Marcus hujusmodi homines

in insulam relegari rescripsit."
his family, and his teachers ; and in other books he

mentions himself. Suidas notices a work of Antoninus
in twelve books, which he names the "conduct of his
own life;" and he cites the book under several words
in his Dictionary, giving the emperor's name, but not
the title of the work. There are also passages cited by
Suidas from Antoninus without mention of the
emperor's name. The true title of the work is un-
known. Xy lander, who published the first edition of
this book (Zurich, 1558, 8vo., with a Latin version),
used a manuscript, which contained the twelve books,
but it is not known where the manuscript is now.
The only other complete manuscript which is known
to exist is Vatican library, but it has no title
in the
and no inscriptions of the several books the eleventh
:
only has the inscription MdpxoiavToxpdropos marked with

an asterisk. The other Vatican manuscripts and the
three Florentine contain only excerpts from the em-
peror's book. All the titles of the excerpts nearly
agree with that which Xylander prefixed to his edition,
Mdpxov Âvroovivov AvroxpdropoZ tcSv etZ savrov fiifiXicc i{3.
This title has been used by all subsequent editors. We
cannot tell whether Antoninus divided his work into
books or somebody else did it. If the inscriptions at
the end of the first and second books are genuine, he
may have made the division himself.
It is plain that the emperor wrote down his thoughts
or reflections as the occasions arose and since they
;
were intended for his own use, it is no improbable con-

jecture that he left a complete copy behind him writ-
ten with his own hand for it is not likely that so
;
diligent a man would use the labor of a transcriber for

such a purpose, and expose his most secret thoughts to
MARCUS AURKL1US ANTONINUS. 25
any other eye. He may have also intended the book

for his son Commodus, who, however, had no taste for
his father's philosophy. Some careful hand preserved
the precious volume; and a work by Antoninus is
mentioned by other late writers besides Suidas.
Many critics have labored on the text of Antoninus.
The most complete edition is that by Thomas Gataker,
1052, 4to. The second edition of Gataker was superin-
tended by George Stanhope, 1697, 4to. There is also
an edition of 1704. Gataker made and suggested many
good corrections, and he also made a new Latin version,
which is not a very good specimen of Latin, but it
generally expresses the sense of the original and often
better than some of the more recent translations. He
added, in the margin opposite to each paragraph, refer-
ences to the other parallel passages and he wrote a
;
commentary, one of the most complete that has been

written on any ancient author. This commentary con-
tains the editor's exposition of the more difficult pas-
sages, and quotations from all the Greek and Roman

writers for the illustration of the text. It is a won-
derful monument of learning and labor, and certainly
no Englishman has yet done anything like it. At the
end of his preface the editor says that he wrote it at
Rotherhithe, near London, in a severe winter, when he
was in the seventy-eighth year of his age, 1651, a time
when Milton, Selden and other great men of the Com-
monwealth time were living; and the great French
scholar Saumaise (Salmasius), with whom Gataker cor-
responded and received help from him for his edition
of Antoninus. The Greek text has also been edited by
J. M. Schultz, Leipzig, 1802, 8vo.; and by the learned
Greek Adamantinus Corai's, Paris, 1816, 8vo. The text
of Schultz was republished by Tauchnitz, 1821.
2G BIOQRAPHTCAL SKETCH OF
are English, German; French, Italian and

There
Spanish translations of Marcus Antoninus, and there
may be others. I have not seen all the English trans-
lations. There is one by Jeremy Collier, 1702, 8vo., a
most coarse and vulgar copy of the original. The
latest French translation by Alexis Pierron in the col-
lection of Charpentier is better than Dacier's, which
has been honored with an Italian version (Udine, 1772).
There is an Italian version (1675) which I have not
seen. It is by a cardinal.
" A man illustrious in the
church, the Cardinal Francis Barberini the elder,

nephew of Pope Urban VIII, occupied the last years
of his life in translating into his native language the
thoughts of the Roman emperor, in order to diffuse

among the faithful the fertilizing and vivifying seeds.
He dedicated this translation to his soul, to make it, as
he says in his energetic style, redder than his purple at
the of the virtues of this Gentile "
sight Pre-
(Pierron,
face).
I have made this translation at intervals after having
used the book for many years. Is is made from the
Greek, but I have not always followed one text and ;
I have occasionally compared other versions with my
own. I made this translation for my own use, because

I found that it was worth the labor but it may be
;
useful to others also, and therefore I determined to
print it. As the original is sometimes very difficult to

understand and still more difficult to translate, it is not
possible that I have always avoided error. But I
believe that I have not often missed the meaning, and
those who will take the trouble to compare the trans-
lation with the original should not hastily conclude
that I am wrong, if they do not agree with me. Some
passages do give the meaning, though at first sight

they may not appear to do so and when I differ from
;
the translators, I think that in some places they are

wrong, and in other places I am sure that they are. I
have placed in some passages a f, which indicates
corruption in the text or great uncertainty in the
meaning. I could have made the language more easy
and flowing, but I have preferred a ruder style as
being better suited to express the character of the
original ; and sometimes the obscurity which may
appear in the version is a fair copy of the obscurity of
the Greek. If I should ever revise this version, I
would gladly make use of any corrections which may
be suggested. If I have not given the best words for
the Greek, I have done the best that I could and in ;
the text I have alwa} s given the same translation of

r
the same word.

The last reflection of the Stoic philosophy that I
have observed is in Simplicias' Commentary on the
Encheiridion of Epictetus. Simphcius was not a
Christian, and such a man was not likely xo be con-
verted at a time when Christianity was grossly cor-
rupted. But he was a really religious man, and he
concludes his commentary with a prayer to the Deity
which no Christian could improve. From the time of
Zeno to Simplicius, a period of about nine hundred
years, the Stoic philosophy formed the characters of
some of the best and greatest men. Finally it became
extinct, and we hear no more of it till the revival of
letters in Italy. Angelo Poliziano met with two very
inaccurate and incomplete manuscripts of Epictetus'
Encheiridion, which he translated into Latin and dedi-
cated to his great patron Lorenzo de' Medici, in whose
28 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
collection he had found the book. Poliziano's version

was printed in the first Bale edition of the Encheiridion,
a. d. 1531 (apud And. Cratandrura). Poliziano recom-

mends the Encheiridion to Lorenzo as a work well
suited to his temper, and useful in the difficulties by
which he was surrounded.
Epictetus and Antoninus have had readers ever since
they were first printed. The little book of Antoninus
has been the companion of some great men. Machia-
velli's Art of War and Marcus Antoninus were the two
books which were used when he was a young man by
Captain John Smith, and he could not have found two
writers better fitted to form the character of a soldier
and a man. Smith is almost unknown and forgotten
in England, his native country, but not in America
where he saved the young colony of Virginia. He
was great in his heroic mind and his deeds in arms, but
greater still in the nobleness of his character. For a
man's greatness lies not in wealth and station, as the
vulgar believe, nor yet in his intellectual capacity,
which is often associated with the meanest moral
character, the most abject servility to those in high
places and arrogance to the poor and lowly but a ;
man's true greatness lies in the consciousness of an

honest purpose in life, founded on a just estimate of
himself and everything else, on frequent self examina-
tion, and a steady obedience to the rule which he
knows to be right, without troubling himself, as the
emperor says he should not, about what others may
think or say, or whether they do or do not do that
which he thinks and says and does.
THE PHILOSOPHY
OF
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus

BY
THE TRANSLATOR
The Philosophy of
It has been said that the Stoic philosophy first

showed its real value when it passed from Greece to
Rome. The doctrines of Zeno and his successors were
well suited to the gravity and practical good sense of
the Romans and even in the Republican period we
;
have an example of a man, M. Cato Uticensis, who

lived the life of a Stoic and died consistentlv with the
opinions which he professed. He was a man, says

Cicero, who embraced the Stoic philosophy from con-
viction not for the purpose of vain discussion, as most
;
did, but in order to make his life conformable to the

Stoic precepts. In the wretched times from the death
of Augustus to the murder of Domitian, there was
nothing but the Stoic philosophy which could console
and support the followers of the old religion under
imperial tyranny and amid universal corruption.
There were even then noble minds that could dare and
endure, sustained by a good conscience and an elevated
idea of the purposes of man's existence. Such were
Paetus Thrasea, Helvidius Priscus, Cornutus, C. Muso-
nius Rufus,* and the poets Persius and Juvenal, whose
* I Lave omitted
Seneca, Nero's preceptor. He was in a sense a
Stoic, and he has said many good things in a very fine way. There is
32 PHILOSOPHY OF
energetic language and manly thoughts may be as

instructive to us now as they might have been to their
contemporaries. Persius died under Nero's bloody

reign, but Juvenal had the good fortune to survive the
tyrant Domitian and to see the better times of Nerva,
Trajan and Hadrian.* His best precepts are derived
from the Stoic school, and they are enforced in his
finest verses by the unrivaled vigor of the Latin
language.
The two best expounders of the later Stoical philos-
ophy were a Greek slave and a Roman emperor.
Epictetus, a Phrygian Greek, was brought to Rome, we
know not how, but he was there the slave and after-
ward the freedman of an unworthy master, Epaphro-
ditus by name, himself a freedman and a favorite of
Nero. Epictetus may have been a hearer of 0. Muso-
nius Rufus, while he was still a slave, but he could
hardly have been a teacher before he was made free.
He was one of the philosophers whom Domitian's
order banished from Rome. He retired to Nicopolis
in Epirus, and he may have died there. Like other
great teachers he wrote nothing, and we are indebted
to his grateful pupil Arrian for what we have of
Epictetus' discourses. Arrian wrote eight books of
the discourses of Epictetus, of which only four remain
a judgment of Gellius (xii. 2) on Seneca, or rather a statement of what
some people thought of his philosophy, and it is not favorable. His
writings and his life must be taken together, and I have nothing
more to say of him here. The reader will find a notice of Seneca and
his philosophy in " Seekers after God," by the Rev. F. W. Farrar.
* Ribbeck has labored to
prove that those Satires, which contain
philosophical precepts, are not the work of the real, but of a false
Juvenal, a Declamator. Still the verses exist, and were written by
somebody who was acquainted with the Stoic doctrines.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS.
and some fragments. We have also from Arrian's

hand the small Encheiridion or Manual of the chief
precepts of Epictetus. There is a a valuable commen-
tary on the Encheiridion by Simplicius, who lived in
the time of the Emperor Justinian.*
in his iirst book (i. 7), in which he grate-
Antoninus
fully commemorates his obligations to his teachers,
says that he was made acquainted by Junius Eusticus
with the discourses of Epictetus, whom he mentions
also in other passages (iv. 41 ;
xi. 34, 36). Indeed, the
doctrines of Epictetus and Antoninus are the same,
and Epictetus is the best authority for the explanation
of the philosophical language of Antoninus and the

exposition of his opinions. But the method of the
two philosophers is entirely different. Epictetus
addressed himself to his hearers in a continuous dis-
course and in a familiar and simple manner. Anton-
inus wrote down his reflections for his own use only,
in short, unconnected paragraphs, which are often
obscure.
The Stoics made three divisions of philosophy,
Physic, Ethic and Logic (viii. 13). This division, we are
told by Diogenes, was made by Zeno of Citium, the
founder of the Stoic sect, and by Chrysippus but ;
these philosophers placed the three divisions in the

following order, Logic, Physic, Ethic. It appears,
however, that this division was made before Zeno's
time and acknowledged by Plato, as Cicero remarks
(Acad. Post. i. 5). Logic is not synonymous with our
term Logic in the narrower sense of that word.
* There is a
complete edition of Arrian's Epictetus, with the com-
mentary of Simplicius by J. Schweighaeuser, 6 vols. 8vo. 1799, 1800.
There is also an English translation of Epictetus by Prof. Long, pub-
lished in this series; Burt's Library of the World's Best Books.
34 PHILOSOPHY OF
Clean thes, a Stoic, subdivided the three divisions,

and made six: Dialectic and Rhetoric, comprised in
Logic Ethic and Politic

; Physic and Theology.
;
This division was merely for practical use, for all

Philosophy is one. Even among the earliest Stoics,
Logic or Dialectic does not occupy the same place as
in Plato it is considered only as an instrument which
:
is to be used for the other divisions of Philosophy.
An exposition of the earlier Stoic doctrines and of

their modifications would require a volume. My object
is to explain only the opinions of Antoninus, so far as
they can be collected from his book.

According to the subdivision of Cleanthes, Phvsic
and Theology go together, or the study of the nature
of Things and the study of the nature of the Deity, so
far as man can understand the Deity, and of his govern-
ment of the universe. This division or subdivision is
not formally adopted by Antoninus, for, as already
observed, there is no method in his book, but it is
virtually contained in it.
Cleanthes also connects Ethic and Politic, or the
study of the principles of morals and the study of the
constitution of civil society ; and undoubtedly he did
well in subdividing Ethic into two parts, Ethic in the
narrower sense and Politic, for though the two are in-
timately connected they are also very distinct, and
many questions can only be properly discussed by
carefully observing the distinction. Antoninus does
not treat of Politic. His subject is Ethic, and Ethic
in its practical application to his own conduct in life
as a man and as a governor. His Ethic is founded on
his doctrines about man's nature, the Universal Nature,
and the relation of every man to everything else. It
is thererore
intimately and inseparably connected with
Physic or the nature of Things, and with Theology or
the nature of the Deity. He advises us to examine
well all the impressions on our minds (<pavradiai) and
to form a right judgment of them, to make just con-
clusions, and to inquire into the meanings of words,
and so far to apply Dialectic, but he has no attempt at
any exposition of Dialectic, and his philosophy is in
substance purely moral and practical. He says (viii.
"
13), Constantly and, if it be possible, on the occasion
of every impression on the soul,* apply to it the prin-
ciples of Physic, of Ethic and of Dialectic:" which is

only another way of telling us to examine the impres-
sion in every possible way. In another passage (iii. 11)
he " To the aids which
says, have been mentioned let
this one still be added : make for thyself a definition
or description of the object (rd <pavradr6v) which is pre-
sented to thee, so as to see distinctly what kind of a
thing it is in its substance, in its
nudity, in its com-
plete entirety, and tell thyself its proper name, and the
names of the things of which it has been compounded
and into which it will be resolved." Such an examina-
tion implies a use of Dialectic, which Antoninus accord-
ingly employed as a means toward establishing his
Physical, Theological and Ethical principles.
There are several expositions of the Physical, Theo-
logical and Ethical principles, which are contained in
q>av radices. We have no word which

* The original is titi itddriZ
expresses cpavradia, for it is not only the sensuous appearance which
comes from an external object, which object is called to <pavradr6y,
but it is also the thought or feeling or opinion which is produced
even when there is no corresponding external object before us. Ac-
cordingly everything which moves the soul is cpavradrov and pro-
duces a (pvaradia.
36 PHILOSOPHY OF
the work of Antoninus and more expositions than 1

;
have read. Kitter (Geschichte der Philosophie, rv.

241), after explaining the doctrines of Epictetus, treats
very briefly and insufficiently those of Antoninus. But
he refers to a short essay, in which the work is done
better.* There is also an essay on the Philosophical
Principles of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus by J. M.
Schultz, placed at the end of his German translation
of Antoninus (Schleswig, 1799). "With the assistance
of these two and his own diligent study a
useful essays
man may form a sufficient notion of the principles of
Antoninus, but he will find it more difficult to expound
them to others. Besides the want of arrangement in
the original and of connection among the numerous
paragraphs, the corruption of the text, the obscurity of
the language and the style, and sometimes perhaps the
confusion in the writer's own ideas besides all this
there is occasionally an apparent contradiction in the
emperor's thoughts, as if his
principles were sometimes
unsettled, as if doubt sometimes clouded his mind. A
man who leads a life of tranquillity and reflection,
who is not disturbed at home and meddles not with
the affairs of the world, keep his mind at ease and
may
his thoughts in one even course. But such a man has
not been tried. All his Ethical philosophy and his
passive virtue might turn out to be idle words if he
were once exposed to the rude realities of human exist-
ence. Fine thoughts andjnoral dissertations from men
who have not workedl and suffered mav be read, but
they will be forgotten. No religion, no Ethical philoso-
phy is worth anything if the teacher has not lived the
* De Marco Aurelio Antonino, ex ipsius Commentariis. Scriptic
PMlologica. Instituit Nicolaus Bachius, Lipsiae, 1826.
"life of an apostle" and been ready to die "the death

ot a martyr." " Not in
passivity (the passive affects),
but in activity, lie the evil and the good of the rational
social animal, just as his virtue and his vice lie not in
passivity, but in activity" (ix. 16). The emperorAn-

toninus was a practical moralist. From his youth he
followed a laborious discipline, and though his high
station placed him above all want or the fear of it, he
lived as frugally and temperately as the
poorest philoso-
pher. Epictetus wanted little, and it seems that he
always had the little that he wanted, and he was con-
tent with it, as he had been with his servile station.
But Antoninus, after his accession to the empire, sat on
an uneasy seat. He had the administration of an em-
pire which extended from the Euphrates to the Atlan-
tic, from the cold mountains of Scotland to the hot
sands of Africa; and we may imagine, though we can-
not know it by experience, what must be the trials, the
troubles, the anxiety and the sorrows of him who has
the world's business on his hands with the wish to do
the best that he can and the certain knowledge that
he can do very little of the good which he wishes.
In the midst of war, pestilence, conspiracy, general
corruption,and with the weight of so unwieldy an em-
pire upon him, we may easily comprehend that An-
toninus often had need of all his fortitude to
support
him. The best and the bravest men have moments of
doubt and of weakness, but if they are the best and the
bravest they rise again from their depression by recur-
ring to first principles, as Antoninus does. The em-
peror says that life is smoke, a
vapor, and St. James, in
his Epistle, is of the same mind that the world is full
;
people, and a man might,

of envious, jealous, malignant
38 PHILOSOPHY OF
be well content to get out of it. He has doubts

per-
haps sometimes even about that to which he holds
most firmly. There are only a few passages of this
kind, but they are evidence of the struggles which
even the noblest of the sons of men had to maintain
ugainst the hard realities of his daily life. A poor
remark it is, which I have seen somewhere, and made
in a disparaging way, that the emperor's reflections
show that he had need of consolation and comfort
in life, and even to prepare him to meet his death.
True that he did need comfort and support, and
we see how he found it. constantly recurs to
pfe"
his fundamental principle thaf~tfae universe is wisely
ordered, that every man is a part of it and must
conform to that order which he cannot change, that
whatever the Deity has done is good, and that all
mankind are a man's brethren, that he must love and
cherish them and try to make them better, even those
who would do him harm. This is his conclusion (ii.
17) "What, then, is that which is able to conduct a
:
man? One thing, and only one Philosophy.

IfBut
this consists in
keeping the divinity within a man free
from violence and unharmed, superior to pains and
pleasures, doing nothing without a purpose, nor yet
falsely and with hypocrisy, not feeling the need of an-
other man's doing or not doing
anything and besides,
;
accepting all that happens and all that is alloted,

as coming from thence, wherever it is, from whence
he himself came and finally Avaiting for death with a
;
cheerful mind as being nothing else than a dissolution

of the elements, of which every
living being is com-
pounded. But if there is no harm to the elements
themselves in each continually changing into
another,
why should a man have any apprehension about the

change and dissolution of all the elements [himself] ?
for it is according to nature and nothing is evil that
;
is according to nature."
The Physic of Antoninus is the knowledge of the
Nature of the Universe, of its government, and of the
relation of man's nature to both. He names the uni
verse "the universal substance," and he adds that
" reason "
governs the universe. He also (vi. 9) uses
" nature of the
the terms " universal natura" or
" the one and
universe." He (vi. 25) calls the universe
all, which wr e name Cosmos or Order." If he ever
seems to use these general terms as significant of the
All, of all that man can in any way conceive to exist,
he still on other occasions plainly distinguishes between
Matter, Material things and Cause, Origin, Reason.*
* I remark, in order to
anticipate any misapprehension, that all
these general terms involve a contradiction. The "one and all," and
the like, and "the whole" imply limitation. "One" is limited;
"all" is limited; the " whole" is limited. We cannot help it. We
cannot find words to express that which we cannot fully conceive.
The addition of "absolute," or any other such word, does not mend
the matter. Even the word God is used by most people, often uncon-
at the same
sciously, in such a way that limitation is implied, and yet
time words are added which are intended to deny limitation. A
Christian martyr, when he was asked what God was, is said to have
answered that God has no name like a man; and Justin says the same
(Apol. ii. 6), "the names Father, God, Creator, Lord and Master
are
not names, but appellations derived from benefactions and acts."
(Compare Seneca, De Benef. iv. 8.) We
can conceive the existence of
a thing, or rather we may have the idea of an existence, without an
"
adequate notion of it, "adequate meaning coextensive and coequal
with the thing. We have a notion of limited space derived from the
dimensions of what we call a material thing, though of space absolute,
if I may use the term, we have no notion at all; and of infinite space
the notion is the same, no notion at all; and yet we conceive it in a

sense, though I know not how, and we believe that space is infinite,
and we cannot conceive it to be finite.

40 PHILOSOPHY OF
This is conformable to Zeno's doctrine that there are

two original principles of all things, that which acts
and that which is acted upon. That which is acted on
isthe formless matter, that which acts is the reason,
God, who is eternal and operates through all matter,
and produces all things. So Antoninus (v. 32) speaks of
the reason which pervades all substance and through
all time by fixed periods (revolutions), administers the
universe. God is eternal, and Matter is eternal. It is
God who gives form to matter, but he is not said to
have created matter. According to this view, which
is as old as Anaxagoras, God and matter exist inde-
pendently, but God governs matter. This doctrine is

simply the expression of the fact of the existence both
of matter and of God. The Stoics did not perplex
themselves with the insoluble question of the origin
and nature of matter.* Antoninus also assumes a
space are inseparable. We derive
* The notions of matter and of
the notion of space from matter and form. But we have no adequate
conception either of matter or of space. Matter in its ultimate reso-
lution is as unintelligible as what men call mind, spirit, or by what-
ever other name they may express the power which makes itself
known by acts.Anaxagoras laid down the distinction between in-
telligence (vov5)and matter, and he said that intelligence impressed
motion on matter, and so separated the elements of matter and gave
them order; but he probably only assumed a beginning, as Simplicius
says, as a foundation of his philosophical teaching. Empedocles
said " The universe always existed." He had no idea of what is
called creation, Ocellus Lucanus (1, 2) maintained that the Universe
was imperishable and uncreated. Consequently it is eternal. He
admitted the existence of God; but his Theology would require some
discussion. On the contrary, the Brachmans, according to Strabo (p.
713, ed. Cas.), taught that the universe was created and perishable;
and the creator and administrator of it pervades the whole. The
author of the book of Solomon's Wisdom says "
Thy Almighty
(xi. 17):
hand made the world of matter without form,"which may mean
that matter existed already. The common Greek word which we
translate
" matter " is It is the stuff that things are made of.
vXrj.
beginning of things, as we now know them but his ;
language is sometimes very obscure. I have endeav-

ored to explain the meaning of one difficult passage
(vii. 75, and the note).
Matter consists of elemental parts of which all
material objects are made. But nothing is permanent
in form. The nature of the universe, according to
Antoninus' expression (iv. 36), " loves nothing so much
as to change the things which are, and to make new
things like them. For everything that exists is in a
manner the seed of that which will be. But thou art
thinking only of seeds which are cast into the earth or
into a womb but this is a very vulgar notion."
;
All
things then are in a constant flux and change some ;
thing's are dissolved into the elements, others come in

" whole universe continues
their places ;
and so the
ever young and perfect." (xii. 23.)
Antoninus has some obscure expressions about what
he calls " seminal principles." He opposes them to the
"
Epicurean atoms (vi. 24), and consequently his seminal
principles" are not material atoms which wander
about at hazard, and combine nobody knows how. In
one passage (iv. 21) he speaks of living principles, souls
after the dissolution of their bodies being received into
the "seminal principle of the universe." Schultz
thinks that by " seminal principles Antoninus means
the relations of the various elemental principles, which
relations are determined by the deity and by which
alone the production of organized beings is possible."
This may be the meaning, but if it is, nothing of any
value can be derived from it.* Antoninus often uses
* The
early Christian writers were familiar with the Stoic terms,
and their writings show that the contest was begun between tho
Christian expositors and the Greek philosophy.
42 PHILOSOPHY OF
the word "Nature" and we must attempt to fix its

meaning. The simple etymological sense of the Greek
word is "production," the birth of what we call
Things. The Romans used Natura, which also means
"birth" originally. But neither the Greeks nor the
Romans stuck to this simple meaning, nor do we.
Antoninus says (x. 6) " Whether the universe is [a
:
concourse of] atoms or Nature [is a system], let this

first be established that I am a part of the whole which
is governed by nature." Here it might seem as if
nature Avere personified and viewed as an active,

efficient power, as something which, if not independent
of the Deity, acts by a power which is given to it by
the Deity. Such, if I understand the expression right,
is the way in which the word Nature is often used
now, though it is plain that many writers use the

word without fixing any exact meaning to it. It is
the same with the expression Laws of Nature, which
some writers may use in an intelligible sense, but
others as clearly use in no definite sense at
all. There
isno meaning in this word Nature, except that which
Bishop Butler assigns to it, when he says, "The only
distinct meaning of that word Natural is Stated, Fixed
or Settled since what is natural as much requires and
;
presupposes an intelligent agent to render it so, viz., to

effect it continually or at stated times, as what is super-
natural or miraculous does to effect it at once." This
is Plato's meaning (De Leg. iv. 715), when he says,
that God holds the beginning and end and middle of
all that exists, and proceeds straight on his course,
making his circuit according to nature (that is, by a
fixed order) ;
and he is continually accompanied by
justice who punishes those who deviate from the divine
law, that is, from the order or course which God

observes.
When we look at the motions of the planets, the
action of what wecall gravitation, the elemental com-
bination of unorganized bodies and their resolution, the
production of plants and of living bodies, their genera-
tion, growth, and their dissolution, which we call their
death, we observe a regular sequence of phenomena,
which within the limits of experience, present and past,
so far as we know the past, is fixed and invariable.
But if this is not so, if the order and sequence of
phenomena, as known to us, are subject to change in
the course of an infinite progression and such change
is conceivable we have not discovered, nor shall we
ever discover, the whole of the order and sequence of
phenomena, in which sequence there may be involved
according to its very nature, that is, according to its
fixed order, some variation of what we now call the
Order or Nature of Things. It is also conceivable that
such changes have taken place, changes in the order of
things, as we are compelled by the imperfection of
language to call them, but which are no changes and ;
further, it is certain that our knowledge of the true

sequence of all actual phenomena, as for instance, the
phenomena of generation, growth, and dissolution is,
and ever must be, imperfect.
We do not fare much better when we speak of
Causes and Effects than when we speak of Nature.
For the practical purposes of life we may use the
terms cause and effect conveniently, and we fix a
may
distinct meaning to them, distinct enough at least to
prevent all
misunderstanding. But the case is differ-
ent when we speak of causes and effects as of Things.
44 PHILOSOPHY OF
All that we know is phenomena, as the Greeks called

them, or appearances which follow one another in a
regular order, as we conceive it, so that if some one
phenomenon should fail in the series, we conceive that
there must either be an interruption of the
series, or
that something else will appear after the
phenomenon
which has failed to appear, and will occupy the vacant
place;and so the series in its progression may be
modified or totally changed. Cause and effect then
mean nothing in the sequence of natural phenomena
beyond what I have said and the real cause, or the
;
transcendant cause, as some would call it, of each suc-

cessive phenomena is in that which is the cause of all
things which are, which have been, and which will be

forever. Thus the word Creation may have a real
sense if we consider it as the first, if we can conceive a
in the present order of natural but
first, phenomena ;
in the vulgar sense a creation of all

things at a certain
time, followed by a quiescence of the first cause and
an abandonment of all sequences of Phenomena to the
laws of Nature, or to the other words that
people may
use, is absolutely absurd.*
*Time and space are the conditions of our thought; but time
infiniteand space infinite cannot be objects of thought, except in a
very imperfect way. Time and space must not in any way be thought
of, when we think of the Deity. " The natural
Swedenborg says,
man may believe that he would have no thought, if the ideas of time,
of space, and of things material were taken aw."-; for
upon those is
founded all the thought that man has. But let him know that the
thoughts are limited and confined in proportion as they do not partake
of time, of space, and of what is material; and that
they are not
limited and are extended, in proportion as
they do not partake of those
things; since the mind is so far elevated above the
things corporeal
and worldly." (Concerning Heaven and Hell, 169.)
Now, though there is great difficulty in understand-

ing the passages of Antoninus, in which he speaks
all
of Nature, of the changes of things and of the

economy
of the universe, I am c onvinced that his sense of
Nature and Natural is thesaTme as-tfralr which 1 have
iHiaTMl^Sd--^ use
wilh^trict_c onsistelicy7~w e
words in_a_clear jvay and r
û^lTo^^^^^^îi^-iaeanin^ in some passages

Js_doubtful, that his view_o Nature wa s in h armony
with his fixed belief in the all-pervading, ever present,
and ever active energy of God (ii. 4; iv. 40 ; x. 1 ; vi.
40 lancTbth eT~passagesT
:
Compare Seneca, De~BenefT~

iv. 7. Swedenborg, Angelic Wisdom, 349-357).
There is much in Antoninus that is hard to under-
stand, and it might be said that he did not fully com-
prehend all that he wrote which would, however, be
;
in no way remarkable, for it happens now that a man
may write what neither he nor anybody can under-

stand. Antoninus tells us (xii. 10) to look at things
and see what they are, resolving them into the
material, the casual, and the relation, or the purpose, by
which he seems to mean something in the nature of
what we call effect, or end. The word Cause is
the difficulty. There is the same word in the Sanscrit ;
and the subtle philosophers of India and Greece,

and the less subtle philosophers of modern times
have all used this word, or an equivalent word, in
a vague way. Yet the confusion sometimes may be
in the inevitable ambiguity of language rather than in
the mind of the writer, for I cannot think that some of
the wisest of men did not know what they intended to
say. When Antoninus says (iv. 36), "that everything
that exists is in a manner the seed of that which will be,"
46 PHILOSOPHY OF
he might be supposed to say what some of the Indian

philosophers have said, and thus a profound truth might
be converted into a gross absurdity. But he says, " in
a manner," and in a manner he said true and in another
;
manner, if you mistake his meaning, he said false.

When Plato said, " Nothing ever is, but is always be-
coming," he delivered a text, out of which we may
derive something for he destroys by it not all prac
;
tical, but all speculative notions of cause and elfect.

The whole series of things, as they appear to must
us,
be contemplated in time, that is in succession, and we
conceive or suppose intervals between one state of
things and another state of things, so that there is
priority and sequence, and interval, and Being, and a
ceasing to Be, and beginning and ending. But there
is nothing of the kind in the Nature of
Things. It is
an everlasting continuity (iv. 45; vii. 75). When
Antoniuus speaks of generation (x. 26), he speaks of
one cause acting, and then another cause taking up the
work, which the former left in a certain state and so
on and we might perhaps conceive that he had some
;
notion like what has been called "the self-evolving

power of nature ;" a fine phrase indeed, the full import
of which I believe that the writer of it did not see, and
thus he laid himself open to the imputation of being a
follower of one of the Hindoo sects, which makes all
things come by evolution out of nature or matter, or
out of something which takes the place of deity, but is
not deity. I would have all men think as they please,
or as they can, and I only claim the same freedom which
I give. When a man writes anything, we may fairly
try to find out all that his words must mean, even if
the result is that they mean what he did not mean ;
and if we not our fault, but

find this contradiction, it is
his misfortune. Now Antoninusperhaps somewhat

is
in this condition in what he says (x. 20), though he
speaks at the end of the paragraph of the power which

acts, unseen by the eyes, but still no less clearly. But
whether in this passage (x. 20) he means that the power
is conceived to be in the different successive causes, or
in something else, nobody can tell. From other pas-

sages, however, I do collect that his notion
of the phe-
nomena of the universe is what I have stated. The
deity works unseen, if we may use such language,
and
perhaps I may, as Job did, or he who wrote the
book
of Job. "In him we live and move and are," said St.
Paul to the Athenians, and to show his hearers that
this was no new doctrine, he quoted the Greek poets.
One of these poets was the Stoic Cleanthes, whose
noble hymn to Zeus or God is an elevated expression of
devotion and philosophy. It deprives Nature of her
power and puts her under the immediate governmeit of
the deity.
" Thee all this heaven, which whirls around the earth,
Obeys and willing follows where thou leadest
>
Without thee, God, nothing is done on earth,

Nor in the ethereal realms, nor in the sea,
Save what the wicked through their folly do."
Ântoninus' conviction of the existence of a divine

power^nd_goy ernment was_fouinj3ed_o n his p erjeefftknT
ôijtheo rder of the univers e.Liê^Spcrates. (Xen. Mem.
iv. 3, 13, etc.), he_jaj^jyiat_thpugh we cannot see the
fprpiS-Qf divine jp pwer s^ we k no\vtliat_ they exist, be-

cause we see their works.
~~**To"tkose who ask, Where hast thou seen the gods,
48 PHILOSOPHY OF
or how dost thou comprehend that they exist and so

worshipest them? I answer, in the first place, that
they may be seen even with the eyes; in the second
place, neither have I seen my own soul and yet I honor
it. Thus, then, with respect to the gods, from what I
constantly experience of their power, from this I com-
prehend that they exist and I venerate them" (xii. 28,
and the note. Comp. Aristotle de Mundo, c. 6 Xen. ;
Mem. 9; Cicero, Tuscul. i. 28, 29; St. Paul's

i.
4,
Epistle to the liomans, i. 19, 20 ; and Montaigne's

Apology for Raimond de Sebonde, ii. c. 12). This is a
very old argument which has always had great weight
with most people and has appeared sufficient. It does
not acquire the least additional strength by being
developed in a learned treatise. It is as intelligible in
its simple enunciation as it can be made. If it is
rejected, there is no arguing with him who rejects it:

and if it is worked out into innumerable particulars,
the value of the evidence runs the risk of being buried
under a mass of words.
Man being conscious that he is a spiritual power, or
an intellectual power, or that he has such a power, in
whatever way he conceives that he has it for I wish
simply to state a fact from this power which he has
in himself, he is led, as Antoninus says, to believe that
there is a greater power, which as the old Stoics tell
us, pervades the whole universe as the intellect* per-
vades man. (Compare Epictetus' Discourses, i. 14 ;
and Voltaire a Mad e Necker, vol. lxvii. p. 278, ed.

.
Lequien.)
*I have always translated the word vovS, "intelligence" or
"intellect." It appears to be the word used by tbe oldest Greek
" "
philosophers to express the notion of intelligence as opposed to
Gpd exists then^Jbtut what do we know of his Nature ?
Antoninus says__thiLt_the_soul-of man is an efflux from.

the divinity. We
have bodies like animals, but we have
reason, intelligence as the gods. Animals have life and
what we call instincts or natural principles of action,
but the rational animal man alone has a rational, intel-
ligent soul. Antoninus insists on this continually: zqcL.
is in m an,*^ndio~u e must constantly attend to the
r
the notion of "matter." I have always translated the word Xoyoi

"
by "reason," and Xoyin6% by the word rational," or perhaps some-
times " reasonable," as I have translated voepoS by the word
" intel-
lectual." Every man who has thought and who has read any philo-
sophical writings knows the difficulty of finding words to express
certain notions, how imperfectly words express these notions, and how
carelessly the words are often used. The various senses of the word
XoyoS are enough to perplex any man. Our translators of the New
Testament (St. John, c. i.) have simply translated 6 XoyoS by "the
word," as the Germans translated it by "das Wort;" but in their
theological writings they sometimes retain the original term Logos.
The Germans have a term Vernunft, which seems to come nearest to
our word Reason, or the necessary and absolute truths, which we
cannot conceive as being other than what they are. Such are what
some people have called the laws-of thought, the conceptions of space
and of time, and axioms or first principles, which need no proof and
cannot be proved or denied. Accordingly the Germans can say,
"Got ist die hochste Vernunft," the Supreme Reason. The Germans
have also a word Verstand, which seems to represent our word
"
"understanding," "intelligence," intellect," not as a thing absolute
which exists by itself, but as a thing connected with an individual
being, as a man. Accordingly it is the capacity of receiving impres-

sions (Vorstellungen, q>avva6iai). and forming from them distinct
ideas (Begriffe), and perceiying differences. I do not think that these
remarks will help the reader to the understanding of Antoninus, or

his use of the words vuvS&nd. XoyoZ. The Emperor's meaning must
be got from his own words, and if it does not agree altogether with
modern notions, it is not our business to force it into agreement, but
simply to find out what his meaning is, if we can.
* " Draw
Comp. Ep. to the Corinthians, i. 3, 17 and James iv. 8,
nigh to God and he will draw nigh to you."

50 PHILOSOPHY OF
divinity within us, for it is only in this way that we can

have any knowledge of the nature of God. The human
soul is in a sense a portion of the divinity, and the soul
alone has any communication with the Deity, for as he

says (xii. 2): "With his intellectual part alone God
touches the intelligence only which has flowed and
been derived from himself into these bodies." In fact,
he says that which is hidden within a man is life that
is the man himself. All the rest is vesture, covering,
organs, instrument, which the living man, the real*
man, uses for the purpose of his present existence.
The air is universally diffused for him who is able to
respire, and so for him who is willing to partake of it
* This also Swedenborg's doctrine of the soul.

is "As to what
concerns the soul, of which it is said that it shall live after death, it
is nothing else but the man himself, who lives in the body, that is,
the interior man, who by the body acts in the world and from whom
the body itself lives" (quoted by Clissold, p. 456 of "The Practical
Nature of the Theological Writings of Emanuel Swedenborg, in a
Letter to the Archbishop of Dublin (Whately)," second edition, 1859;
a book which theologians might read with profit). This is an old
doctrine of the soul, which has been often proclaimed, but never
better expressed than by the
" Auctor de
Mundo," c. 6, quoted by
Gataker in his "Antoninus," p. 486. "The soul by which we live
and have cities and houses is invisible, but it is seen by its works; for
the whole method of life has been devised by it and ordered, and by
it is held together. In like manner we must think also about the
deity, who in power is most mighty, in beauty most comely, in life
immortal, and in virtue supreme: wherefore though he is invisible to
human nature, he is seen by his very works." Other passages to the
same purpose are quoted by Qataker (p. 382). Bishop Butler has the
same as to the soul: " Upon the whole then our organs of sense and
our limbs are certainly instruments, which the living persons, our-
selves, make use of to perceive and move with." If this is not
plain enough, he also says: "It follows that our organized bodies
are no more ourselves, or part of ourselves, than any other matter
around us." (Compare Anton, x. 88.)
the intelligent power, which holds within it all things,

is diffused as wide and free as the air It is
(viii. 54).
by living a divine life that man approaches to a knowl-

edge of the divinity.* It is by following the divinity
within, as Antoninus calls it, that man comes nearest
to the Deity, the supreme good, for man can never
attain to perfect agreement with his internal guide.
" Live with the
gods. And he does live with the gods
who constantly shows to them that his own soul is
satisfied with that which is assigned to him, and that
it does all the demon wishes, which Zeus hath given to
every man for his guardian and guide, a portion of
himself. And this demon is every man's understanding
and reason" (v. 27).
There is in man, that is in the reason, the intelli-
gence, a superior faculty which if it is exercised rules

all the rest. This is the ruling faculty which Cicero
(De Natura Deoruin, ii. 11) renders by the Latin word
" to which
Principatus, nothing can or ought to be
superior." Antoninus often uses this term, and others
which are equivalent. He names it (vii. 64) " the
governing intelligence." The governing faculty is the
master of the soul (v. 26). A man must reverence
*The reader may consult Discourse V. 'Of the existence and
"
nature of God, in John Smith's Select Discourses. " He has prefixed
' '
as a text to this Discourse, the striking passage of Agapetus, Paraenes,

3:
" He who knows himself will know and he who
knows
God;
God will be made God; and he will be made like to God, who
like to
has become worthy of God; and he becomes worthy of God, who does
nothing unworthy of God, but thinks the things that are his, and
speaks what he thinks, and does what he speaks." I suppose that
the old saying, "Know thyself," which is attributed to Socrates and
others, had a larger meaning than the narrow sense which is gener-
ally given toit.
(Agapetus, ed. Stephan. Schoning, Frineker, 1608.
This volume contains also the Paraeneses of Nilus.)
52 PHILOSOPHY OF
only his ruling faculty and the divinity within him.

As we must reverence that which is supreme in the
universe, so we must reverence that which is supreme
in ourselves, and this is that which is of like kind with
that which is
supreme in the universe (v. 21). So, as
Plotinus says, the soul of man can only know the
divine, so far as it knows itself. In one passage (xi. 19)
Antoninus speaks of a man's condemnationof himself,
when the divmer part within him has been over-
jp
owercd ancljdaLuir3Sj;ba:Jte^^ to the
peris hable part, the body, and its gross pleasures. IrT"
a word, the views of Antoninuson~this matter, how-
ever his expressions may vary, are exactly what Bishop
Butler expresses, when he speaks of " the natural
supremacy of reflection or conscience," of the faculty
" which
surveys, approves or disapproves the several
affections of our mind and actions of our lives."
Much matter might be collected from Antoninus on
the notion of the Universe being one animated Being.
But all that he says amounts to no more, as Schultz re-
marks, than this the_soul_of man_ is most inlimately
:
unitedtojbis body, and together_they make o n e anim al,

which .j&e-GalUman ;_so_JheJDeity is most inti mately
united to the world or the material imjverse^_and
together they foTro~6ne~wl!ola But Antoninus did not
view God and the materiaTTmiverse as the same, any
more than he viewed the body and soul of man as one.
Antoninus has no speculations on the absolute nature
of the deity. It^vaûjn otj3Js_fashion to
:
waste his time
"
on what^man-cannot und erstand^-" He~ wasâtisfied
tha t God exists. t hat _he. governs all thi ngs, that man
* " God is infinitely beyond the reach of our narrow capacities."
Locke :
Essay concerning the Human Understanding, ii. chap. 17.
can only have an imperfect knowledge of his nature,

a nd he mus t attain tTTis~lmperfec t knowledge by
rey^r^niuiig-ihe-_divinrty which is~withi.n him7~aird-
keeping it pure.
From all that has been said it follows that the uni-
verse is administered by the Providence of God, and
that things are wisely ordered. (There are passages
all
in which Antoninus expresses doubts, or states different
possible theories of the constitution and government

of
the Universe, but he always recurs to his fundamental
principle, that if we admit the existence
of a deity, we
must also admit that he orders all things wisely and
wellfiv. 27 ;
vi. 1 ;
ix. 28 ;
xii. 5, and many other pas-
sages). Epictetus says (1. 6) thatwe can discern the
providence which rules the world, if we possess two
things, the power of seeing all that happens with
respect to each thing, and a grateful disposition.
rTîit if_ all things are wisely ordered, [how is the
?
\vOTl3~lso l inn5i^^ physical and moraT?j
If, instead of saying that there is evil in the world, we
use the expression which I have used, " what we call
evil," we have partly anticipated the emperor's answer.

"We see and feel and know imperfectly very few things
in the few years that we live, and all tne knowledge
and all the experience of all the human race is positive
ignorance of the whole, which is infinite. Now as our
reason teaches us that everything is in some way
related to and connected with every other thing, all
notion of evil as being in the universe of things is a
contradiction, tor if the whole comes from and is
governed by an intelligent being, it is impossible to

conceive anything in it which tends to the evil or
destruction of the whole (viii. 55 x. 6). Everything ;
54
l
.
PHILOSOPHY OF
is in constant mutation, and yet the whole subsists.

We might imagine the solar system resolved into its
elemental parts, and yet the whole would still subsist
"ever young and perfect."
All things, all forms, are dissolved and new forms
appear. All living things undergo the change which
we call death. If we call death an evil, then all
change an evil. Living beings also suffer pain, and
is
man most of all, for he suffers both in and by*

suffers
his body and by his intelligent part. Men suffer also
from one another, and perhaps the largest part of
human suffering comes to man from those whom he
calls his brothers. Antoninus says (viii. 55), "Gen-
erally, wickedness does no harm at all to the universe ;
and particularly, the wickedness [of one man] does

no harm to another. It is only harmful to him who
has it in his power to be released from it as soon as
he shall choose." The first part of this is perfectly
consistent with the doctrine that the whole can sus-
tain no or harm.
evil The second, part must be
explained by the Stoic principle that there is no evil
in anything which is not in our power. "What wrong
Ave suffer from another is his evil, not ours. But this
is an admission that there is evil in a sort, for he who
does wrong does evil, and if others can endure the

wrong, still there is evil in the wrong doer. jSnton-
mus (xi. IS) gives many excellent precepts with
respect to wrongs and injuries, and lnVpr ecepts are .
practical.
He teaches us to bear what we cannot
avoid, and his lessons may be just as useful to him
who denies the being and the government of God as
to him who believes in both. There no direct
is
answer in Antoninus to the objections which may be

MARCUS A TJRELIUS ANTONINUS. 55
made to the existence and providence of God because

of the moral disorder and suffering which are in the
world, except this answer which he makes in reply to
the supposition that even the best men may be extin-
guished by death. He says if it is we may be sure
so,
that if it
ought to have been otherwise, the gods
would have ordered it otherwise (xii. 5). His convic-
tion of the wisdom which we may observe in the gov-
ernment of the world is too strong to be disturbed by
any apparent irregularities in the order of things.
That these disorders exist is a fact, and those who
would conclude from them against the being and gov-
ernment of God conclude too hastily. We all admit
that there is an order in the material world, a Nature,
in the sense in which that word has been explained, a
constitution, what we call a system, a relation of parts

to one another and a fitness of the whole for some-
thing. So in the constitution of plants and of animals

there an order, a fitness for some end. Sometimes
is
the order, as we conceive it, is interrupted, and the

end, as we conceive it, is not attained. The seed, the
plant or the animal sometimes perishes before it has
passed through all its changes and done all its uses.
It according to Nature, that is a fixed order, for
is
some to perish early and for others to do all their uses

and leave successors to take their place. So man
has a corporeal and intellectual and moral consti-
tution fit for certain uses, and, on the whole, man
perforins these uses, dies and leaves other men

in his place. So society exists, and a social state
is
manifestly the Natural State of man, the State
for which his Nature fits him; and society amid
innumerable irregularities and disorders still sub-
sists; and perhaps we may say that the history of
56 PHILOSOPHY OF
the past and our present knowledge give us a reason-

able hope that its disorders will diminish, and that
order, its governing principle, may be more firmly
established. As order then, a fixed order, we may
say, subject to deviations, real or apparent, must be
admitted to exist in the whole Nature of things, that
which we call disorder or evil as it seems to us, does
not in any way alter the fact of the general constitu-
tion of things having a Nature or fixed order. No-
body will conclude from the existence of disorder that
order is not the rule, for the existence of order both
physical and moral is proved by daily experience and
all past experience. We cannot conceive how the
order of the universe is maintained we cannot even
;
conceive how our own life from day to day is con-

tinued, nor how we perform the simplest movements
of the body, nor how we grow and think and act,
though we know many of the conditions which are

necessary for all these functions. Knowing nothing,
then, of the unseen power which acts in ourselves
except by what is done, we know nothing of the
power which acts through what we call all time and
all space but seeing that there is a nature or fixed
;
order in all things known to us, it is conformable

to the nature of our minds to believe that this uni-
versal Nature has a cause which operates continually,
and that we are totally unable to speculate on the
reason of any of those disorders or evils which we
perceive. This I believe is the answer which may be
collected from all that Antoninus has said.*
* Clean tlies
says in his hymn:
"For things good and bad to One thou formest,
all
So that One everlasting reason governs all."
See Bishop Butler's Sermons, Sermon XV. ' '
Upon the Ignorance

of Man."
MARCUS A URELIUS ANTONINUS. 5?
The origin of evil an old question. Achilles tells

is
Priam (Iliad, that Zeus has two casks, one

24, 527)
filled with good things and the other with bad, and
that he gives to men out of each according to his
for we cannot
pleasure and so we must be content,
;
alter the will of Zeus. One of the Greek commenta-

tors asks how must we reconcile this doctrine with
what we find in the first book of the Odyssey, where
the king of the gods says, Men say that evil comes to
them from us, but they bring it on themselves through
their own folly. The answer is plain enough, even to
the Greek commentator. The poets make both Achilles
and Zeus speak appropriately to their several charac-
ters. Indeed, Zeus says plainly that men do attribute
their sufferings to the gods, but they do it falsely, for
they are the cause of their own sorrows.
Epictetus, in hisEncheiridion(c. 27), makes

short work
of the question of evil. He says: "As a mark is not
set up for the purpose of missing it, so neither does the
nature of evil exist in the Universe." This will appear
obscure enough to those who are not acquainted with
Epictetus, but he always knows what
he is talking
about. Wedo not set up a mark in order to miss it,
though we may miss it. God, whose existence Epic-
tetus assumes, has not ordered all things so that his
purpose shall fail. Whatever there may be of what

we call evil, evil, as he expresses it, does
the Nature of
not exist that is, not a part of the constitution
evil is
or nature of Things. If there were a principle of evil
in the constitution of things, evil would no longer be
evil, as Simplicius argues, but evil

would be good.
Simplicius (c. 34, [27]) has a long and curious
dis-
course on this text of Epictetus, and it is amusing

and instructive.
& PHILOSOPHY OF
One passage more will conclude this matter. Tv

contains all that the emperor could say (ii. 11) " Tg :
go from among men, if there are gods, is not a thin<r

to be afraid of, for the gods will not involve thee in
evil; but if indeed they do not exist, or if they have no
concern about human affairs, what is it to me to live in
a universe devoid of gods or devoid of providence?
But in truth they do exist, and they do care for human
things, and they have put all the means in man's power
to enable him not to fall into real evils. And as to the
rest, if there was anything evil they would have pro-
vided for this should be altogether in a
also, that it
man's power not to fall into it. But that which does
not make a man worse, how can it make a man's life
worse ? But neither through ignorance, nor having
the knowledge, but not the power to guard against or
correct these things, is it possible that the nature of
the Universe has overlooked them nor is it possible ;
that it has made so great a mistake, either through

want of power or want of skill, that good and evil
should happen indiscriminately to the good and the
bad. But death certainly and life, honor and dishonor,
pain and pleasure all these things equally happen to
good and bad men, being things which make us neither
better nor worse. Therefore they are neither good nor
evil."
The Ethical part of Antoninus' Philosophy follows
from his general principles. The end ofalhhis philosophy
is to live comformably
_to ât meT^Both/aTman's^ own
imtufeTa/n^^ sh op Butler i
has explained what the Greek philosophers meant when

they spoke of living according to Nature, and he sa} ?
r
that when it is explained, as he has explained it and a*

MARCUS A UJIELIUS ANTONINUS. 59
they understood it, it is "a manner of speaking not
loose and undeterminate, but clear and distinct, strictly

just and true." To live according to Nature is to live
according to a man's whole nature, not according to a
part of it, and to reverence the divinity within him as
the governor of all his actions. "To the rational
animal the same act is according to nature and accord-
ing to reason"* (vii. 11). That which is done contrary
to reason is also an act contrary to nature, to the whole
nature, though it is certainly comformable to some part
of man's nature, or it could not be done. Man is made
for action, not for idleness or pleasure. As plants and
animals do the uses of their nature, so man must do his
(v. 1).
Man must also live comformably to the universal
nature, comformably to the nature of all things of which

he is one; and as a citizen of a political community he
must direct his life and actions with reference to those
among whom, and for whom, among other purposes,
he lives, f A man must not retire into solitude and
cut himself off from his fellow men. He must be
ever active to do his part in the great whole. All
men are his kin, not only in blood but still more by
participating in the same intelligence and by being a
portion of the same divinity. A man cannot really be
injured by his brethren, for no act of theirs can make
him bad, and he must not be angry with them nor
hate them: "For we are made for co-operation, like
feet, like hands, like eyelids, like the rows of the upper
and lower teeth. To act against one another t hen is
* This is what Juvenal means when he says (xiv. 321)-^
Nunquam aliud Natura aliud Sapientia dicit.
J-
See viii. 52: and Persius iii. 66.
60 PHILOSOPHY OF
contrary to nature and it is acting against one another

;
"
to be vexed and to turn away (ii. 1).
fTurther he says " Take pleasure in one thing and

:
rest in it, in passing from one social act to another

" "
social act, thinking of God (vi. 7). Again : Love
mankind. Follow God " (vii. 31). It is the charac-
teristic of the rational soul for a man to love his neigh-
bor (xi. Antoninus teaches in various passages
1).
the forgiveness of injuries, and we know that he also
practiced what he taughtTj Bishop Butler remarks
that " this divine precept to forgive injuries and to
love our enemies, though to be met with in Gentile
moralists, yet is in a peculiar sense a precept of
Christianity, as our Saviour has insisted more upon it
than on any other single virtue." The practice of this
precept is the most difficult of all virtues. Antoninus
often enforces and gives us aid toward following it.
it
When we av^ we feel anger and resentment,

injured,
and the feeling is natural, just and useful for the con-
servation of society. It is useful that wrong doers
should feel the natural consequences of their actions,
among which is the disapprobation of society and the
resentment of him who is wronged. But revenge, in

the proper sense of that word, must not be practiced.
u T he best
way of avejigm^lhyjejf!L^sJ^he^mperor,
" is not to become l ike the wrong doer." It is plain by
this thathe does not mean thatTwe" should in any case
practice revenge; but he says to those who talk of
revengmg wrongs, Be not like him who has done the
wrong. Socrates in the Crito (c. 10) says the same in
other words, and St. Paul (Ep. to the Romans, xii. 17).
" When a man has done thee
any wrong, immediately
consider with what opinion about good or evil he has
done wrong. For when thou hast seen this, thou wilt
pit}'"
him andwilt neither wonder nor be angry "
(vii. 26).
Antoninus would not deny that wrong natu-
rally produces the feeling of anger and resentment, for
this is implied in the recommendation to reflect on the
nature of the man's mind who has done the wrong,
and then you will have pity instead of resentment; and
so it comes to the same as St. Paul's advice to be angry
and sin not which, as Butler well explains it, is not a
;
recommendation to be angry, which nobody needs, for

anger is a natural passion, but it is a warning against
allowing anger to lead us into sin. _In_^shprt the

emperor's doctrine about wrongful acts is this wrong
:
doers~ô~noTT^now~what goocLand bad areytheôffend

out ofngnorajicân^mThe sense^fjthe3_toics^this is
true. Though kind of ignorance will never be

this
admitted as a legal excuse, and ought not to be
admitted as a full excuse in any way by society, there
may be grievous injuries, such as it is in a man's power
to forgive without harm to society and if he forgives
;
because he sees that his enemies know not what they

do, he is acting in the spirit of the sublime prayer,
"
Father, forgive them, for they know not what they
do."
_ CThe emperor's moral philosophy was not a feeble,
narrow system, which teaches a man to look directly
to his own happiness, though a man's happiness or
tranquillity is indirectly promoted by living as he ought

to do. A man must live conformably to the universal
nature, which means, as the emperor explains it in
many passages, that a man's actions must be conform-
able to his true relations to all other human beings,
both as a citizen of a political community and as a
62 PHILOSOPHY OF
\ member of the whole human family. This implies,

and he often expresses it in the most forcible language,
that a man's words and actions, so far as they affect
others, must be measured by a fixed rule, which
in
their consistency with the conservation and the

interests of the particular society of which he is a
member, and of the whole human race. To live com-
formably to such a rule, a man must use his rational
faculties in order to discern clearly the consequences
and full effect of all his actions and of the actions of
others ;
live a life of contemplation and
he must not
reflection only,though he must often retire within
himself to calm and purify his soul by thought,* but
he must mingle in the work of man and be a fellow-
laborer for the general good.
Ama n should have an_object orjmrpose in life, that
he imty"ciirect all his energias fco Jtj~oT~couTslTargood
(
oljjecEiiirTr He who has not one~objecTor purpose
of cannot be one and the same all through his life
life,
(xi. Bacon has a remark to the same effect, on

21).
the best means of " reducing of the mind unto virtue
and good estate ;
which is the electing and propound-
ing unto a man's self good and virtuous ends

of his life,
such as may be in a reasonable sort within his compass
to attain." He is a happy man who has been wise
enough to do this when he was young and has had the
a man
opportunities; but the emperor seeing well that
cannot always be so wise in his youth, encourages him-
self to do it when he can, and not to let life slip away
before he has begun. He who can propose to himself
good and virtuous ends of life, and be true to them,
cannot fail to live co mformabry to his own interest and
* Ut nemo in sese tentat descendere, nemo. Persius, iv. 2h
MARCUS A UREL1 US ANTONINUS. 63
the universal interest, for in the nature of things they

are one. If a thing is not good for the hive, it is not
good for the bee (vi. 54).
One passage may end " If the
this matter. gods have
determined about me and
about the things which must
happen to me, they have determined well, for it is not
easy even to imagine a deity without forethought and ;
as to doing me harm, why should they have any desire

toward that? For what advantage would result to
them from this or to the whole, which is the special
object of their providence? But
they have not de-
if
termined about me individually, they have certainly

determined about the whole at least and the things ;
which happen by way of sequence in this general

arrangement I ought to accept with pleasure and to be
content with them. But if they determine about
nothing which it is wicked to believe, or if we do
believe it, let us neither sacrifice nor pray nor swear
by them, nor do anything else which we do as if the

gods were present and lived with us but if, however,
the gods determine about none of the things which con-
cern us, I am able to determine about myself, and I can
inquire about that which is useful and that is useful to
;
every man which is conformable to his own constitution

and nature. But my nature is rational and social and ;
my city and country, so far as I am Antoninus, is Eorae ;
but so far as I am a man, it is the world. The things

then which are useful to these cities are alone useful
to me" (vi. 44).
It would be
tedious, and it is not necessary to state
the emperor's opinions on all the ways in which a man
may profitably use his understanding toward perfect-
ing himself in practical virtue. The passages to this
I
64 \ PHILOSOPHY OF
purpose are in all parts of his book, but as they are in

no order or connection, a man must use the book a
long time before he will find out all that is in it. A
few words may be added here. If we analyze all other
things, we find how insufficient they are for human life
and how truly worthless many of them are. Virtue
alone is indivisible, one, and perfectly satisfying. The
notion of Virtue cannot be considered vague or un-
settled, because a man may find it difficult to explain
the notion fully to himself or to expound it to others
in such a way as to prevent cavilling. Virtue is a
whole, and no more consists of parts than man's intelli-
gence does and yet we speak of various intellectual
;
faculties as a convenient way of expressing the various

powers which man's intellect shows by his works. In
the same way we may speak of various virtues or parts
of virtue, in a practical sense, for the purpose of show-
ing what particular virtues we ought to practice in
order to the exercise of the'whole of virtue that is, as
much as man's nature is capable of.
The prime principle in man's constitution is social.
The next in order is not to yield to the persuasions of
the body when they are not conformable to the rational
principle, which must govern. The third is freedom
from error and from deception. " Let then the
ruling
principle holding fast to these things go straight on,
and it has what is its own" (vii. 55). The emperor
,sjLLei^ts_jusjtic-^
the rest (x. 11), and thisha d been sa id_long before his
time.
It is true that all people have some notion of what is
meant by justice as a disposition of the mind, and some

notion about acting in conformity to this disposition ;
but experience shows that men's notions about justice

are as confused as their actions are inconsistent with
the true notion of justice. The_ emperor's notion of
justicejsclear enough, but not jrractical enough foTaTT
" Let
majaki nd. theiîe^freedoni^romTperturbations
with respect to the things which come from the exter-
nal cause, and let there be justice in the things done by
virtue of the internal cause that is, let there be move-
ment and action terminating in this, in social acts, for
this is according to thy nature" (ix. 31). In another
place (ix. 1) he says that "he who acts unjustly acts
impiously," which follows of course from all that he
says in various places. He insists on the practice of
truth as a virtue and as a means to virtue, which no
doubt it is: for lying, even in indifferent things,
weakens the understanding, and lying maliciously is
as great a moral offense as a man can be guilty of,
viewed both as showing an habitual disposition and
viewed with respect to consequences. He couples the
notion of justice with action. A man must not pride
himself on having some fine notion of justice in his
head, but he must exhibit his justice in act, like St.
James' notion of faith. But this is enough.
The Stoics and Antoninus among them call some
things beautiful and some ugly, and as they are beauti-
ful so they are good, and as they are ugly so they are
evil or bad (ii. 1). All these things good and evil are
in our power, absolutely some of the stricter Stoics
would say in a manner only, as those who would not
;
depart altogether from common sense would say prac-

;
tically they are to a great degree

in the power of some
persons and in some circumstances, but in a small

degree only in other persons and in other circuru-
66 PHILOSOPHY OH
stances. The Stoics maintain man's free will as to the

things which are in his power; for as to the things
which are out of his power, free will terminating in
very action is of course excluded by the terms of the
expression. I hardly know if we can discover exactly
Antoninus' notion of the free will of man, nor is the
question worth the inquiry. What he does mean and
does say is intelligible. All the things which are not
in our power are indifferent they are neither good
:
nor bad morally. Such are life, health, wealth, power,

disease, poverty and death. Life and death are all
men's portion. Health, wealth, power, disease and
poverty happen to men indifferently to the good and
to the bad to those who live according to nature and
;
to those who donot.* "\Lifejây^4Jiajemperor, "is

a war fare and a stranger's sojourn, andjjjiiJialiie~i^
oblivion" (ii.~TV).y Alter speaking of~~those men who
have clisturBecniie world and then died, and of the
death of philosophers such as Heraclitus and Democri-
tus, who wasdestroyed by lice, and of Socrates, whom
other lice enemies) destroyed, he says: "What
(his
means all this? Thou hast embarked, thou hast made
the voyage, thou art come to shore get out. If ;
indeed to another life, there is no want of gods, not

even there. But if to a state without sensation, thou
wilt cease to be held by pains and pleasures, and to be
a slave to the vessel which is as much inferior as that
* " All events come alike to there is one event to the righteous
all;
and to the wicked; to the good and to the clean and to the unclean,"
etc. Ecclesiastes, ix. v. 2; and v. 3: "This is an evil among all
1
things that are done under the sun, that there is one event unto all."
In what sense "evil " is meant here seems rather doubtful. There is
no doubt about the Emperor's meaning. Compare Epictetus, Encheiri-
dion, c. i., etc.; and the doctrine of the Brachmans (Strabo, p. 713,
ed. Cas.).
which serves it is superior for the one is intelligence

;
and deity the other is earth and corruption " (iii. 3).
;
It_js_n ot death that a man-shoul d fear. bu The should

fear jiejzgr_J)eginning to live acco rding to^TTaCure
(xii. 1). JjtVrxjmaji_sJ]X)uJ^^
to discharge hisjjvrty ,
arirl to t.r onhlp. himself ^Rhont.
nothing !?IseTjIe should li ve such a life that he

sTiaTTaTways beready^for death, andl_ahaJl depart,
content wlie^^the^^sa^nmolis^GOjaes. For what is
deatfri "^T~cessation of the impressions through the
senses,and of the pulling of the strings which move
the appetites and of the discursive movements of the
thoughts, and of the service to the flesh " (vi. 28).

Death is such as generation is, a mystery of nature
(iv. 5). In another passage, the exact meaning of
which is perhaps doubtful (ix. 3), he speaks of the child
which leaves the womb, and so he says the soul at
death leaves its envelope. As the child is born or
comes into life by leaving the womb, so the soul may
on leaving the body pass into another existence which
is perfect. I am not sure if this is the emperor's
meaning. Butler compares it with a passage in Strabo

(p. 713) about the Brachmans' notion of death being
the birth into real life and a happy life to those who
have philosophized; and he thinks that Antoninus
may allude to this opinion.*
* Seneca
(Ep. 102) has the same, whether an expression of his
own opinion, or merely a fine saying of others employed to embellish
his writings, I know not. After speaking of the child being prepared
in the womb to live this life, he adds, "Sic per hoc spatium, quod ab
infantia patet in senectutem, in alium naturae sumimur partum. Alia
origo nos expectat, alius rerum status." See Ecclesiastes, xii. 7; and
Lucan, i. 457:
"
Longae, canitis si cognita, vitse
Mors media est."
68 PHILOSOPHY OF
Antoninus' opinion of. a futiêJ^feJsjiojdiereiiiLQar.ly

e^ê^ssed. Hiidoctrine of the nature of the soul of
necessity implies that it does not perish absolutely, for
a portion of the divinity cannot perish. The opinion
is at least as old as the time of
Epicharmus and Euri-
pides what comes from earth goes back to earth, and
;
what comes from heaven, the divinity, returns to him

who gave it. But I find nothing clear in Antoninus
as to the notion of the man existing after death so as
to be conscious of his sameness with that soul which
occupied his vessel of clay. He seems to be perplexed
on this matter, and finally to have rested in
this, that
God or the gods will do whatever is best and consist-
ent with the university of things.
Nor, I think, does he speak conclusively on another
Stoic doctrine, which some Stoics practiced, the antici-
pating the regular course of nature by a man's own
act. The reader will find some passages in which this
is touched on, and he may make of them what he can.
But there are passages in which the emperor encour-
ages himself to wait for the end patiently and with
tranquillity and certainly it is consistent with all his
;
best teaching that a man should bear all that fallsTo

i vesT~~He
]
fijsôTjin^
s h ould not,
^hl$refore7abnaê"t3^^
ness by his own act. Whether he contemplates
any
possible cases in which a man should die by his own
hand, I cannot tell, and the matter is not worth a
curious inquiry, for I believe it would not lead to
any
certain result as to his opinion on this point. I do not
think that Antoninus, who never mentions Seneca,
though he must have known all about him, would have
agreed with Seneca when he gives as a reason for
MARCUS A URELIUS ANTONINUS. 6&
suicide, that the eternal law, whatever he means, has

made nothing better for us than this, that it has given
us only one way of entering into life and many ways
of going out of it The ways of going out indeed are
many, and that is a good reason for a man taking care
of himself.*
Happiness wasjiot_the_di a Stoic's life,
The jk^mkuof lifj^gojij^nifi

f] in
tli^jrj^ptîiiFar
rnan shoulcL p ursue his own ha ppine ss^ Many ,
m
think that they are seeking happiness when they are
only seeking the gratification of some particular pas-
sion, the strongest that they have. The end of a man
as already explained, to live conformably to nature,
is,
and he will thus obtain happiness, tranquillity of mind

and contentment (iii. 12; viii. 1, and other places). As m
a meansof living conformably to nature he must study

if
QieIfcmiLJ3hi^ its proper
js_plmej_w2sjIoTn^jo^ good and evil of ;
justice, orth&_giving__to every lmmTiis due fortitude, ;
orlihir
^duriiig_oiLJa^ pain ; arm^Jtenj^rance,
whicEls modera tjonînâll things. By thus living con-
formably to nature the Stoic obtained all that he
wished or expected. His_reward was in hisjvjrtuous
life, and he Avas satisfied with thatT^SoIneljreek poet
long ago wrote :
For virtue only of all human things

Takes her reward not from the hands of others.
Virtue herself rewards the toils of virtue.
^Soine_M_Jthe_-Slxacs_nideei ss ed thems elvesjn

Vry_5jiîgamVahsur44eri lout the wise man's self
*See Plinius, H. N. ii. c. 7; Seneca, De Provid. c. 6; and Ep. 70;
" Nihil melius aeterna
lex," etc.
70 PHILOSOPHY OF MARCUS A URELIUS ANTONINUS.
sufficien cy they elevated him to the rank of a deity.*

;
BuVthese were only talkersanxTISctnTeTsTsuch as those

in all ages who utter fine words, know little of human
affairs,and care only for notoriety. \_Epictetus and
Antoninus both by precept and example labored to
improve themselves and others and if we discover ;
imperfections in their teaching, we must still honor

these great men who attempted to show that there is
in man's nature and in the constitution of things
su fficien t reason for living a virtuous life. It is diffi-
_
cult enough i^ritv^-tts-we~TmghtnEoTTv^ difficult even
^^
for any man to live in such a way as to satisfy himself,

if he exercises only in a moderate degree the power of
reflecting upon and reviewing his own conduct and if ;
all men cannot be brought to the same opinions in

morals and religion, it is at least worth while to give
them good reasons for as much as they can be per-
suaded to accept.
* J. Smith on " the Excellency and Noble-
in his Select Discourses
"
ness of True Religion has remarked on this Stoical arrogance.
(c. vi.)
He finds it in Seneca and others. In Seneca certainly_1_and^rjerhaps

something of it in Epictetus; but it isn^tja^SSioiuims.
MARCUS AURELIUS
FROM
SEEKERS AFTER GOD."

BY
Rev. F. W. FARRAR, D.D., F.R.S.,
Canon of Westminster.
MARCUS AURELIUS.
CHAPTER I.
THE EDUCATION OF AN EMPEEOE.

The life of the noblest of Pagan Emperors may well
follow that of the noblest of Pagan slaves. Their giory
shines the purerand brighter from the midst of a cor-
rupt and deplorable society. Epictetus showed that-a-
Phrygian slave could live a WfojA iheLTpftiest exalta-
tion; Aureaus proyeii_ihaiL.a Roman Emperor could
liv ealjfejof^ tlieTde^pegt humility. The one a for-
eigner, feeble, deformed, ignorantTôrn in squalor, bred

in degradation, the despised chattel of a despicable
freedman, surrounded by every depressing, ignoble,

and pitiable circumstance of life showed how one
who seemed born to be a wretch could win noble hap-
piness and immortal memory the other a Roman,
;
a patrician, strong, of heavenly beauty, of nc-ble ances-

tors, almost born to the purple, the favorite m
Emper-
ors, the greatest conqueror, the greatest philosopher,
the greatest ruler of his time proved forever that it
is possible to be virtuous, and tender, and holy, and
contented in the midst of sadness, even on an irrespon-

sibleand imperial throne. Strange that, of the two,
the Emperor is even sweeter, more simple, more ad-
74 USSA Y ON MARCUS A UREL1 US.
mirable, more humbly and touchingly resigned, than

the slave. In him Stoicism lose$ all its haughty, self;-
,
assertion, all its impracticable paradox, for aT manly

melancholy which at once troubles and charms the
" It " that in him the
heart. seems," says M. Martha,
philosophy of heathendom grows less proud, draws
nearer and nearer to a Christianity which it ignored or
which it despised, and is ready to fling itself into the
arms of the Unknown God.'
'
In the sad Meditations
of Aurelius we
find a pure serenity, sweetness, and
docility to the commands of God, which before him
were unknown, and which Christian grace has alone
surpassed. If he has not yet attained to charity in all
that fullness of meaning which Christianity has given to
the word, he has already gained its unction, and one
cannot read his book, unique in the history of Pagan
philosophy, without thinking of the sadness of Pascal
and the gentleness of Fenelon. "We must pause before
this soul, so lofty and so pure, to contemplate ancient
virtue in its softest brilliancy, to see the moral delicac}^
to which profane doctrines have attained how they
laid down their pride, and how penetrating a grace
they have found in their new simplicity. Xo^makejthe
-
example^yejt-SBe-trikin^^royjden^ whichâccertb"
fngjto' the_StQics, does nothing by chance, determined^
Jthat the example of these_simple virtue^hSuHLbloom
in the midst ofjkllJmman grandeur that charity
should be t aught bv thaûccessoT^ ofblood-stained
X?a?sars, and humbleness of h eartJjyi^jrJEmperor^
Aurelius has always exercised a powerful fascination
over the minds of eminent men. " If you set aside,
for a moment, the contemplation of the Christian veri-
ties," says the eloquent and thoughtful Montesquieu,,
BY CANON FARRAR. 75
" search
throughout all nature, and you will not find a
grander object than the Antonines. One feels
. . .
a secret pleasure in speaking of this Emperor one ;
cannot read his life without a softening feeling of

emotion. He produces such an effect upon our minds
that we think better of ourselves, because he inspires
us with a better opinion of mankind." " It is more
delightful," says the great historian, Niebuhr, to speak
of Marcus Aurelius than of any man in history; for if
there is any sublime human virtue it is his. He was \>
certainly the noblest character of his time, and I know
no other man who combined such unaffected kindness,
mildness, and humility, with such conscientiousness, ,
and severity toward himself. We possess innumerable

busts of him, for every Roman of his time was anxious
to possess his portrait, and if there is anywhere an ex-
pression of virtue it is in the heavenly features of

Marcus Aurelius."
Marcus Aurelius was born on April 26, a. d. 121.
His more correct designation would be Marcus Anton-
inus, but since he bore several different names at dif-
ferent periods of his life, and since at that age nothing
was more common than a change of designation, it is
hardly worth while to alter the name by which he is
most popularly recognized. His father, Annius Verus,
who died in his Praetorship, drew his blood from a
line of illustrious men who claimed descent from Numa,
the second King of Rome. His mother, Domitia Cal-
villa, was also a lady of consular and kingly race.
The character of both seems to have been worthy of
their high dignity. Of his father he can have known
little, since Annius died when Aurelius was a mere
infant ;
but in his Meditations he has left us a grateful
\
76 BSSA Y
^
ON MAMms AURELl US.
\ \ /v
memorial of both his parents/ He says that from his
grandfather he learned (or, might have learned) good
morals and the government of his
temper from the
;
reputation and remembrance of his father, modesty

and manliness; from his mother,
piety, and benefi-
cence, and abstinence not only from evil deeds, hut even
from evil thoughts ; and, further,
simplicity of life far
removed from the habits of the rich.
The childhood and boyhood of Aurelius fell
during
the reign of Hadrian. The times were better than
those which we have contemplate^ in the
reigns of the
Caesars. After the suicide of Nero and the brief
reigns
of Galba and Otho, the Roman had breathed more
worl^
freely for a time under the rough gôod humor of Ves-
pasian and the philosophic virtue ol Titus. The reign
of Domitian, indeed, who succeeded his brother Titus,
was scarcely less terrible and infamous than that of
Caius or of Nero but that prince,
;
shortly before his
murder, had dreamed that a golden neck had grown
out of his own, and interpreted the dream to indicate
that a better race of princes should follow him. The
dream was fulfilled. Whatever may have been their
other faults, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, were wise and
kind-hearted rulers Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aure-
;
lius were
among the very gentlest and noblest sovereigns
whom the world has ever seen.
Hadrian, though an able, indefatigable, and, on the
whole, beneficial Emperor, was a man whose charac-
ter was stained with serious faults. It is, however,
greatly to his honor that he recognized in Aurelius, at
the early age of six years, the
germs of those extra-
ordinary virtues which afterward blessed the empire
and elevated the sentiments of mankind. "Hadrian's
B Y CANON FARRA R. 77
"
bad and sinful habits left him," says Niebuhr, when
he gazed on the sweetness of that innocent child.
Playing on the boy's paternal name of Verus, he
called him V&rissimus, Athe most true.'" It is inter-
esting to find that this trait of character was so early

"
developed in one who thought that all men should r
speak as they think, with an accent of heroic verity."

Toward the end of his long reign, worn out with
disease and weariness, Hadrian, being childless, had
adopted as his son L. Ceionius Commodus, a man who

had few recommendations but his personal beauty.
Upon his death, which took place a year afterward,
Hadrian, assembling the senators round his sick bed,
adopted and presented to them as their future Emperor
Arrius Antoninus, better known by the surname of
Pius, which he won by his gratitude to the memory of
his predecessor. Had Aurelius/ /been older he was
then but seventeen it is k#6w4r tliat Hadrian would
have chosen him, and not Antoninus, for his heir. The ^"
j ji)
latter, indeed, who was then fifty two years old, w*as \P/</y
only selected on the express condition that he should

in turn adopt both Marcus Aurelius and the son of the
deceased Ceionius. Thus, at the age of seventeen^
Aurelius, who, even from his infancy, had been loaded
with conspicuous distinctions, saw himself the ac-
knowledged heir to the empire of the world.
We are happily able, mainly from his own writings,
to give some sketch of the influences and the educa-
tion which had formed him for this exalted station.
He was brought up in the house of his grandfather,
a man who had been three times consul. He makes it
a matter of congratulation and thankfulness to the
gods, that lie had not been sent to any public school,
7fc B88AY ON MARCUS AUBELIU&
where he would have run the risk of being tainted by

that frightful corruption into which, for many years,
the Roman youth had fallen. He expresses a sense of
obligation to his great-grandfather for having supplied
hull with good teachers at home, and for the conviction
tnat on such things a man should spend liberally.
There was nothing jealous, barren, or illiberal, in the
training he received. He was fond of boxing, wrest
ling, running he was an admirable player at ball, and
;
he was fond of the perilous excitement of hunting the

wild boar. Thus, his healthy sports, his serious studies,
his moral instruction, his public dignities and duties,
all contributed to form his character in a beautiful and
manly mold. There are, however, three respects in

wjiichjnsê^lucation seems especially worthy^flToticej
I m ean the d iligence, the gratitude, djxdîe^hai'cliness
in_which Ee_wa^_ejicou^êdl3xôthers, and whicTTTie
practiced with all
-
thejirdor of generous conviction.
iTliitBeHbest sense of the word,^^[ure1iiis ws&lMli-
gent. He alludes more than once in his Meditations
to the inestimable value of time, and to his ardent
desire to gain more leisure for intellectual pursuits. He
flung himself with his usual undeviating steadfastness

of purpose into every branch of study, and though he
deliberately abandoned rhetoric, he toiled hard at
philosophy, at the discipline of arms, at the adminis-

tration of business, and at the difficult study of Roman
jurisprudence. One of the acquisitions for which he

expresses gratitude to his tutor Rusticus, is that of
reading carefully, and not being satisfied with the
superficialunderstanding of a book. In fact, so stren-
uous was his labor, and so great his abstemiousness,
that his health suffered by the combination of the two.
B Y CANON FA RRAR. 79
His opening remarks show that he remembered

2.
all teachers even the most insignificant with

his
sincere gratitude. He regarded each one of them as a
man from whom something could be learned, and from
whom he actually did learn that something. Hence
the honorable respect a respect as honorable to him-
self as to them which he paid to Fronto, to Kusticus,
to Julius Proculus, and others whom his noble and
conscientious gratitude raised to the highest dignities
ol the State. He even thanks the gods that " he made
haste to piace those who brought him up in the station
of honor which they seemed to desire, without putting
them off with mere hopes of his doing it some, time
after, because they were then still young." He was

far the superior of these men, not only- socially but
even morally and intellectually yet from the height
;
of his exalted rank and character he delighted to asso-

ciate with them on the most friendly terms, and to
treat them, even till his death, with affection and
honor, to place their likenesses among his household
gods, and visit their sepulchres with wreaths
and
victims.
3. His hardiness and self-denial were perhaps still
more remarkable. I wish that those boys of our day,
who think it undignified to travel second-class, who
dress in the extreme of fashion, wear roses in their
button-holes, and spend upon ices and strawberries
what would maintain a poor man for a year, would
learn how infinitely more noble was the abstinence of
this young Roman, who thon^h bm*n--in the mid stôf^
splendor and luxury ,Tearned from the

first to loathe
~the~peTty vice"ofgTuTtony, and to despise the

unman-
liness of self-indulgence. Very early in life he joined
80 B8SA T ON MARCUS A TJRELTUS.
the glorious fellowship of those who esteem it not onl V

a dutgj uT a pl easure
".To scorn delights, and live laborious days,
md had learned "endurance of labor, and to want^

little, aDdô~rwor^~^with~Eis' mvn~Tiands." In his
eleventh year TuTbecome acquainted with JJiognetus,
who first introduced him to the Stoic philosophy, and
in his twelfth year he assumed the Stolc~aress7^ This
"
philosophy taught him to prefer a plank bed and skin,
and whatever kind belongs to the Grecian
else of the
"
discipline." It is said that " the skin
was a concession
to the entreaties of his mother, and that the young
philosopher himself would have chosen to sleep on the
bare boards or on the ground. Yet he acted thus
without self-assertion and without ostentation. His
friends found him always cheerful ; and his calm
features in which a dignity and thoughtfulness of
spirit contrasted with the bloom and beauty of a pure
and honorable boyhood were never* Overshadowed
with ill-temper or with gloom.
The guardians of Marcus Aurelius had gathered
around him all the most distinguished literary teachers
of the age. Never had a prince a greater number of
eminent instructors never were any teachers made
;
happy by a more grateful, a more humble, a more

blameless, a more truly royal and glorious pupil. Long
years after his education had ceased, during his cam-
paign among the Quadi, he wrote a sketch of what
he owed to them. This sketch forms the first book
of his Meditations, and is characterized throughout by
the most unaffected simplicity and modesty.
The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius were, in fact,
BY CANON FARRAR. 81
his private diary they are a noble soliloquy with his

;
own heart, an honest examination of his own con-

science; there is not the slightest trace of their having
been intended for any eye but his own. In them he

was acting on the principle of St. Augustine " Go up :
into the tribunal of thy conscience, and set thyself

before thyself." He was ever bearing about
'*
A silent court of justice in himself,
Himself the judge and jury, and himself
The prisoner at the bar,"
And writing amid all the cares and distractions of a

war which he detested, he averted his eyes from the
manifold weariness which daily vexed his soul, and
calmly sat down to meditate on all the great qualities
which he had observed, and all the good lessons that
he mip-ht have learned from those who had instructed
his boyhood, and surrounded his manly years.
And what had he learned? learned heartily to
admire, and (we may say) learned to practice also ? A
sketch of his first book will show us. "What he had
gained from his immediate parents we have seen
already, and we will make a brief abstract of his other
obligations.
From " his governor " to which of his teachers this
name applies we are not sure he had learned to avoid
factions at the races, to work hard, and to avoid list-
ening to slander ; from Diognetus, to despise frivolous
superstitions, and to practice self-denial ;
from Apoll-
onius, undeviating steadiness of purpose,endurance of
misfortune, and the reception of favors without being
humbled by them from Sextus of Chasronea (a grand-
;
son of the celebrated Plutarch), tolerance of the igno-

rant, gravity without affectation, and benevolence of
82 SS8A Y ON MARCUS A UURL1 US.
heart from Alexander, delicacy in correcting others

; ;
from Severus, " a disposition to do good, and to give

to others readily, and to cherish good hope, and to
believe that I am beloved of my friends;" from Maxi-
mus, "sweetness and dignity, and to do what was set
before me without complaining ;" from Alexander the
"
Platonic, not frequently to say to any one, nor to write
in a letter, that I have no leisure ; nor continually to
'/w excuse the neglect of ordinary duties by alleging
^ urgent occupations."
To one or two others his obligations were. still more
lv aJ characteristic and important. From Eusticus, for in-
stance, an excellent and able man, whose advice for
v..
years he was accustomed to respect, he had learned to
despise sophistry and display, to write with simplicity,
to be easily pacified, to be accurate, and an inesti-
mable benefit this, and one which tinged the color of
his whole become acquainted with the Dis-
life to
courses of Epictetus. And from his adoptive father,
the great Antoninus Pius, he had derived advantages
still more considerable. In him he saw the example
of a sovereign and statesman firm, self-controlled,
modest, faithful, and even tempered a man who de- ;
$ ^ spised flattery and hated meanness who honored the

;
wise and distinguished the meritorious who was in- ;
different to contemptible trifles, and indefatigable in

earnest business one, in short, " who had a perfect
;
and invincible soul," who, like Socrates, " was able

both to abstain from and to enjoy those things which
many are too weak to abstain from and cannot enjoy
without excess."* Piety, serenity, sweetness, disre-
*
My quotations from Marcus Aurelius will be made (by permis-
sion) from ike forcible and admirably accurate translation of Mr.
BY CANON FARRAR. 53
gard of empty fame, calmness, simplicity, patience, are

virtueswhich he attributes to him in another full-
length portrait (vi. 30) which he concludes with the
words, "Imitate all this, that thou mayest have as
good a conscience when thy last hour comes as he had.'
3
He concludes these reminiscences of thankfulness

with a summary of what he owed to the gods.
[Xnd
for what does he thanks the gods ? for
being wealthy,
anoPnoble, and an eniperor ? Nay, for no vulgar or
dubious blessings such as these, but^forjthe. ^guidance
wîch_Jjînexl_înHn philosophy, and for the grace
whicji_kej3tjiii]^^
genuine modesty comesôutr As" the excellent divine
used to say when he saw a criminal led past for execu-
tion, "There, but for the grace of God, goes John
Bradford," so, after thanking the gods for the good-
ness of all his family and relatives, Aurelius
says,
"
Further, I owe it to the gods that I was not hurried
into any offense against any of them, though I had a
disposition which, if opportunity had offered, might
have led me to do something of this kind ; but through
their favor there never was such a concurrence of cir-
cumstances as put me to the trial. Further, that I
was subjected to a ruler and father who took away all
pride from me, and taught me that it was possible to
live in a palace without guards, or embroidered
dresses,
or torches, and statues, and such-like show, but to live
very near to the fashion of a private person, without
being either mean in thought or remiss in action that ;
after having fallen into amatory passions I was cured ;
Long. In thanking Mr. Long, I may be allowed to add that the

English reader will find in his version the best means of becoming
acquainted with the purest and noblest book of antiquity.
84 E88A Y ON MARCUS A URELIUS.
that though it was ray mother's fate to die young, she

spent the last years of her life with me that when- ;
ever I wished to help any man, I was never told that

I had not the means of doing it that I had abundance ;
of good masters for my children for all these things :
require the help of the gods and fortune."

The whole of the Emperor's Meditations deserve the
profound study of this age. The self-denial which they
display is a rebuke to our ever-growing luxury their ;
generosity contrasts favorably with the increasing

bitterness of our cynicism their contented acqui-
;
escence in God's will rebukes our incessant restless-

ness ;
above all, their constant elevation shames that
multitude of little vices, and little meannesses, which
lie like a scurf over the conventionality of modern life.
But this earlier chapter has also a special value for the
young. It offers a picture which it would indeed be

better for them and for us if they could be induced to
study. If even under
" Tliat fierce light that beats upon the throne,"
the of Marcus Aurelius shows no moral stain, it is

life
more remarkable that the free and beautiful boy-

still
hood of this Roman prince had early learned to recog-

nize only the excellences of his teachers, their patience
and firmness, their benevolence and sweetness, their
integrity and virtue. Amid the frightful universality
of moral corruption he preserved a stainless conscience
and a most pure soul he thanked God in language
;
which breathes the most crystalline delicacy of senti-

ment and language, that he had preserved uninjured
the flower of his early life, and that under the calm
influences of his home in the country, and the studies
BY CANON FARRAR. 85
of philosophy, he had learned to value chastity as the

sacred girdle of youth, to be retained and honored to
" " a
his latest years. Surely," says Mr. Carlyle, day
is coming when it will be known what virtue is
again
in purity and continence of life ; how divine is the
blush of young human cheeks; how high, beneficent,
sternly inexorable is the duty laid on every creature
in regard to these particulars. "Well, if such a day
never come, then I perceive much else will never come.
Magnanimity and depth of insight will never come ;
heroic purity of heart and of eye noble pious valor

;
to amend us, and the age of bronze and lacquers, how

can they ever come ? The scandalous bronze-lacquer
age of hungry animalisms, spiritual impotencies, and
mendacities will have to run its course till the pit
swallow it."
86 ESSAY ON MARCUS AUBELIUS,
CHAPTER II.
THE LIFE AND THOUGHTS OF MARCUS AURELIUS.
On the death of Hadrian in a. d. 138, Antoninus

Pius succeeded to the throne, and, in accordance with
the late Emperor's conditions, adopted Marcus Aure-
lius and Lucius Commodus. Marcus had been be-
trothed at the age of fifteen to the sister of Lucius
Commodus, but the new Emperor broke, off the en-
gagement, and betrothed him instead to his daughter
Faustina. The marriage, however, was not celebrated
till seven years afterward, a. d. 146.
The long reign of Antoninus Pius is one of those

happy periods that have no history. An almost un-
broken peace reigned at home and abroad. Taxes
were lightened, calamities relieved, informers discour-
aged confiscations were rare, plots and executions were
;
almost unknown. Throughout the whole extent of

his vast domain the people loved and valued their Em-
peror, and the Emperor's one aim was to further the

happiness of his people. He, too, like Aurelius, had
learned that what was good for the bee was good for
the hive. He strove to live as the civil administrator
of an unaggressive and united republic; he disliked
war, did not value the military title of Imperator, and
never deigned to accept a triumph.
With this wise and eminent prince, who was as
amiable in his private relations as he was admirable in
B T CANON FARRA R. 87
the discharge of his public duties, Marcus Aurelius

spent the next twenty-three years of his life. So close
and intimate was their union, so completely did they
regard each other as father and son, that during all
that period Aurelius never slept more than twice away
from the house of Antoninus. There was not a shade
of jealousy between them; each was the friend and
adviser of the other, and, so far from regarding his
destined heir with suspicion, the emperor gave him the
designation "Caesar," and heaped upon him all the
honors of the Roman Commonwealth. It was in vain
that the whisper of malignant tongues attempted to
shake this mutual confidence. Antoninus once saw the
mother of Aurelius prayer before the statue
in earnest
" What do
of Apollo. you think she is praying for so
intently V asked a wretched mischief-maker of the
name of Valerius Omulus " It is that you may die, and
:
her son reign." This wicked suggestion might have

driven a prince of meaner character into violence and
disgust, but Antoninus passed it over with the silence
of contempt.
It was the main delight of Antoninus to enjoy the
quiet of his country villa. Unlike Hadrian, who tra-
versed immense regions of his vast dominion, Antoninus
lived entirely either at Rome, or in his beautiful
villa at Lorium, a little sea-coast village about twelve
miles from the capital. In this villa he had been born,
and here he died, surrounded by the reminiscences of
his childhood. home it was his special
In this his real
pleasure to lay aside the pomp and burden of his
" "
imperial rank. He did not," says Marcus, take the
bath at unseasonable hours he was not fond of build-
;
ing houses, nor curious about what he eat, nor about

88 ESSA Y ON MARCUS A URELIUS.
the texture and color of his clothes, nor about the

beauty of his slaves." Even the dress he wore was the
work of the provincial artist in his little native place.
So far from checking the philosophic tastes of his
adopted son he fostered them, and sent for Apollonius
of Chalcisto be his teacher in the doctrines of Stoicism.
In one of his notes to Fronto, Marcus draws the picture
of their simple country occupations and amusements.
Hunting, fishing, boxing, wrestling, occupied the

leisure of the two princes, and they shared the rustic
" I have
festivities of the vintage. dined," he writes,
" on a little bread. . . ."We perspired a great deal,
shouted a great deal, and left some gleanings of the
vintage hanging on the trellis work. . . .When I
got home I studied a little, but not to much advantage
* I had a long talk with my mother, who was lying on
*
her couch." Who knows how much Aurelius and how
J much the world may have gained from such conversa-
"*^ tion as this with a mother from whom he had learned
^ to hate even the thought of evil ? Nor will any one
despise the simplicity of heart which made him mingle
-5 with the peasants as an amateur vintager, unless he is
so tasteless and so morose as to think with scorn of
Scipio and Laelius as they gathered shells on the sea-
shore, or of Henry IV as he played at horses with his
1
little boys on all-fours. The capability of unbending
thus, the genuine cheerfulness which enters at due
times into simple amusements, has been found not
rarely in the highest and purest minds.
For many years no incident of importance broke the
even tenor of Aurelius' life. He lived peaceful, happy,
prosperous, and beloved, watching without envy the
increasing years of his adopted father. But in the
BY CANON FARRAR. '
89
year 161, when Marcus was now forty years old,

Antoninus Pius, who had reached the age of seventy-
live, caught a fever at Lorium. Feeling that his end
was near, he summoned his friends and the chief men
of Rome to his bedside, and there (without saying a
word about his other adopted son, who is generally
known by the name of Lucius Verus) solemnly recom-
mended Marcus to them as his successor and then ; 5
giving to the captain of the guard the watchword of

"Equanimity," as though his earthly task was over, he
ordered to be transferred to the bedroom of Marcus
the little golden statue of Fortune, which was kept in
the private chamber cf the emperors as an omen of iwv-

public prosperity.
Tlie_y^rxJirstj23iblic act of the new Emperor was one
of splendid g enerosity, namely, the admission of his
adoptiv e bro ther Lucius Verus into the fullest partici-
pation of im perial honors, the Tribunitian and procon-
sular_powers, and the titles Caesar and Augustus. The
admission of Lucius Yerus to a share of the empire
was due to the innate modesty of Marcus. As he was
a devoted student, and cared less for manly exercises,
in which Verus excelled, he thought that his adoptive
brother would be a better and more useful general
than himself, and that he could best serve the State
by retaining the civil administration, and entrusting
to his brother the management of war. Yerus, how-
ever, as soon as he got away from the immediate influ-
ence and ennobling society of Marcus, broke loose
from all decency, and showed himself to be a weak
and worthless personage, as unfit for war as he was
for all the nobler duties of peace, and capable of noth-
ing but enormous gluttony and disgraceful self-indul-

90 E88A T ON MA ROUS A UREL1 US.
gence. Two
things only can be said in his favor the :
one, that,though depraved, he was wholly free from

cruelty; and the other, that he had the good sense to
submit himself entirely to his brother, and to treat
him with the gratitude and deference which were
his due.
Marcus had a large family by Faustina, and in the
first year of his reign his wife bore twins, of whom
the one who survived became the wicked and detested
Emperor Commodus. As though the birth of such a
child were in itself an omen of ruin, a storm of calam-
ity began at once to burst over the long tranquil State.

An inundation of the Tiber flung down houses and
streets over a great part of Rome, swept away multi-
tudes of cattle, spoiled the harvests, devastated the
fields, and caused a distress which ended in wide-
spread famine. Men's minds were terrified by earth-

quakes, by the burning of cities, and by plagues or
noxious insects. To these miseries, which the Em-
perors did their best to alleviate, was added the hor-
rors of wars and rumors of wars. The Partians, under
their king, Vologeses, defeated and all but destroyed
a Roman army, and devastated w ith impunity
r
the
Roman province of Syria. The wild tribes of the
Catti burst over Germany with fire and sword ;
and
the news from Britain was full of insurrection and
tumult. Such were the elements of trouble and discord
which overshadowed the reign of Marcus Aurelius
from its very beginning down to its weary close.
As the Partian war wT as the most important of the
three, Yerus was sent to quell it, and but for the
ability of his generals the greatest of whom w as r
Avidius Cassius would have ruined irretrievably the

BY CANON FARRAR. 91
fortunes of the Empire. These generals, however,

vindicated the majesty of the Roman name, and Yerus
returned in triumph, bringing back with him from the
East the seeds of a terrible pestilence which devastated
the whole Empire, and by which, on the outbreak of
fresh wars, Verus himself was carried off at Aquileia.
Worthless as he was, Marcus, who in his lifetime
had so often pardoned and concealed his faults, paid
him the highest honors of sepulcre, and interred his
ashes in the mausoleum of Hadrian. There were not
wanting some who charged him with the guilt of frat-
ricide, asserting that the death of Yerus had been
has- L,
tened by his means !
I have only one reason for alluding to atrocious and
contemptible calumnies like these, and that is because

since, no doubt, such whispers reached
his ears
tbey help to account for that deep, unutterable mel-

ancholy which breathes through the little golden book
of the Emperor's Meditations. We find, for instance,
among them this isolated fragment :
"A black character, a womanish character, a stub-

born character, bestial, childish, animal, stupid, coun-
terfeit, scurrilous, fraudulent, tyrannical."
We know not of whom he was thinking perhaps of
Nero, perhaps of Caligula, but undoubtedly also of
men whom he had seen and known, and whose very
existence darkened his soul. The same sad spirit
breathes also through the following passages :
"
Soon, very soon, thou wilt be ashes, or a skeleton,
and either a name or not even a name but name is
;
sound and echo. And the things which are much

valued in lifeare empty, and rotten, and trifling, and
little dogs biting one another, and little children guar-
92 ESBA T OK MARCUS A UREL1 US.
reling, laughing, and then straightway weeping. .But

fidelity, and modesty, and justice and truth are fled
" "
Olympus from the wide-spread
'
Up to earili.'
(v. 33.)
" It would be a man's
happiest lot to depart from
mankind without having had a taste of lying, and
hypocrisy, and luxury, and pride. However, to breathe
out one's life when a man has had enough of those things
is the next best voyage, as the saying is" (ix. 2).
"Enough of this wretched life, and murmuring, and
apish trifles. Why art thou thus disturbed ? What is
there new in this? What unsettles thee? . . .
Towards the gods, then, now become at last more

"
simple and better (ix. 37). The thought is like that
which dominates through the Penitential Psalms of
David that we may take refuge from men, their
malignity, and their meanness, and find rest for our
souls in God. From men David has wo hope; mock-
ery, treachery, injustice, are all that he expects
from
them the bitterness of his enemies, the far-off indiffer-
ence of his friends. JSTor does this greatly trouble him,
so long as he does not wholly lose the light of God's
"I had no place to and no
countenance. flee unto,
man cared for my soul. I cried unto thee, O

Lord,
and said, Thou art my hope, and my portion in the
land of the living." " Cast me not away from Thy
presence, and take not Thy Holy Spirit
from me."
But whatever may have been his impulse at times
"
to give up in despair all attempt to improve the little
"
breed of men around him, Marcus had schooled his
gentle spirit to live continually in far other feelings.

Were men contemptible ? It was all the more reason
why he should himself be noble. Were men petty,
BY GANON FARRAR. 93
and malignant, and passionate, and unjust ? In that

proportion were they all the more marked out for pity
and tenderness, and in that proportion was he bound
to the utmost of his ability to show himself great, and
forgiving, and calm, and true. Thus Marcus turns his
very bitterest experience to gold, and from the vile^
ness of others, which depressed his lonely life, so far
from suffering himself to be embittered as well as
saddened, he only draws fresh lessons of humanity and
love.
"
He says, for instance, Begin the morning by saying
to thyself, J shall meet with the busybody, the tmgrate-
ful, arrogant, deceitful, envious, unsocial. All these
things happen to them by reason of their ignorance of
what is good and evil. But I w ho have seen the
T
nature of the good that it is beautiful, and of the bad

that it is ugly, and the nature of him that does wrong
that is akin to me, . and that it partakes of
. .
the same portion of the divinity, I can neither be

injured by any of them, for no one can fix on me what
isugly, nor can I be angry with kinsman, nor hate
my
him. For we are made for co operation, like feet, like
hands, like eyelids, like the rows of the upper and
lower teeth. To act against one another then is con-
trary to nature and it is acting against one another
;
" Another of his

to be vexed and turn away (ii. 1).
rules, and an eminently wise one, was to fix his

thoughts as much as possible on the virtues of others,
rather than on their vices. " When thou wishest to
delight thyself, think of the virtues of those who live
with thee the activity of one, the modesty of another,
the liberality of a third, and some other good quality
of a fourth." What a rebuke to the contemptuous
94 ESSA T ON MARC US A UREL1 US.
cynicism which we are daily tempted display to ! "An

" with
infinite being comes before us," says Eobertson,
a whole eternity wrapped up in his mind and soul, and
we proceed to classify him, put a label upon him, as we
would upon ajar, saying, This is rice, that is jelly, and
this pomatum ; and then we think we have saved our-
selves the necessity of taking off the cover. How
differently our Lord treated the people who came to
Him! . .
consequently, at His touch each
.
one
out his spark of light."
gave peculiar
Here, again, is a singularly pithy, comprehensive,
and beautiful piece of advice :
" Men exist for the sake of one another. Teach them
"
or hear with them (viii. 59).
" The
And again : best way of avenging thyself is
not to become like the wrong doer."

And again, " If any man has done wrong, the harm
is his own. But perhaps he has not done wrong"
(ix. 38).
Most remarkable, however, are the nine rules which
he drew up for himself, as subjects for reflection when
any one had offended him, viz. :
1. That men were made for each other even the :
inferior for the sake of the superior, and these for the
sake of one another.
2. The invincible influences that act upon men, and
mold their opinions and their acts.
3. That sin is mainly error and ignorance an invol-
untary slavery.
4. That we are ourselves feeble, and by no means
immaculate and that often our very abstinence from

;
faults is due more to cowardice and a care for our
reputation than to any freedom from the disposition

to
commit them.
B T CANON FA RRAR. 95
5. That our judgments are apt to be very rash and

" And in short a
premature. man must learn a great
deal to enable him to pass a correct judgment on
another man's acts."
6. When thou art much vexed or grieved, consider
that man's life is only a moment, and after a short

time we are all laid out dead.
7. That no wrongful act of another can bring shame
on us, and that it is not men's acts which disturb us,

but our own opinions of them.
8. That our own anger hurts us more than the acts
themselves.
9. That benevolence is invincible, if it be not an
nor acting a part. " For what will the
affected smile,
most violent man do to thee if thou continuest benevo-
lent to him? gently and calmly correcting him, ad-
monishing him when he is trying to do thee harm,

saying, Not so, my child: we are constituted by nature
'
for something else: I shall certainly not be injured, but

thou art injuring thyself, my child.'' And show him
with gentle tact and by general principles that this is
so, and that even bees do not do as he does, nor any
gregarious animal. And this you must do simply,
unreproachfully, affectionately without rancor, and
;
if possible when you and he are alone" (xi. 18).
''Not so, my child; thou art injuring thyself, my

child." all antiquity show anything tenderer
Can
than or anything more close to the spirit of
this,
Christian teaching than these nine rules ? They were
worthy of the men who, unlike the Stoics in general,
considered gentleness to be a virtue, and a proof at
once of philosophy and of true manhood. They are
written with that effusion of sadness and benevolence
to which it is difficult to find a parallel. They show
96 JBBBA T ON MA ROUS A TTREL1 US.
how completely Marcus had triumphed over all petty

malignity, and how earnestly he strove to fulfill his
own precept of always keeping the thoughts so sweet
and clear, that " if any one should suddenly ask,
'What hast thou now in thy thoughts ? with perfect
openness thou mightest immediately answer, This or
'
"
that.' In short, to give them their highest praise,
they would have delighted the great Christian Apostle
who wrote :
"Warn them that they are unruly, comfort the

feeble minded, support the weak, be patient toward all
men. See that none render evil for evil unto any
man; but ever follow that which is good, both among
"
yourselves, and to all men (1 Thess. iv. 14, 15).
"Count him not as an enemy, but admonish him as

a brother" (2 Thess. iv. 15).
"
Forbearing one another, and forgiving one another,
"
ifany man have a quarrel against any (Col. iii. 13).
Kay, are they not even in full accordance with the
mind and spirit of Him who said :
" If
thy brother trespass against thee, go and tell
him his fault between thee and him alone: if he shall
hear thee thou hast gained thy brother"
In the life of Marcus Aurelius, as in so many lives,
we are able to trace the great law of compensation.
His exalted station, during the later years of his life,
threw him among many who were false and Phari-
saical and base but his youth had been spent under
;
happier conditions, and this saved him from falling

into the sadness of those whom neither man nor
woman please. In his earlier years it had been his lot
to see the fairer side of humanity, and the recollection
of those pure and happy days was like a healing tree
thrown into the bitter and turbid waters of his reign.
BY CANON FARRAR. 97
CHAPTER III.
THE LIFE AND THOUGHTS OF MARCUS AURELIUS (cOTi-
tinued).
Marcus was now the undisputed lord of the Roman

world. lie was seated on the dizziest and most
for human
splendid eminence which it was possible
grandeur to obtain.
But this imperial elevation kindled no glow of pride
or self-satisfaction in his meek and chastened nature.
Herjgarded himself as being in fact the servant o_
alir~jEvaOiII25^^ h e r(i >
or the ram among the flock s, to confro nt everyjjeril in

his ow n per sonJ to__bg_fpreniost in all the jiardships of _,
war and Jêjxu2stjLleeply-4mam
peace. The registry of the citizens, thesuppression of
litigation, the elevation of public morals, the restrain-
ing of consanguineous marriages, the care of minors,

the retrenchment of public expenses, the limitation of
gladiatorial games and shows,
the care of roads, the
restoration of senatorial privileges, the appointment of
none but worthy magistrates, even the regulation of
street traffic these and numberless other duties so
completely absorbed his attention that, in spite of in-
different health, they often kept him at severe labor
from early morning till long after midnight. His posi-
tion indeed often necessitated his presence at games
and shows, but on these occasions he occupied himself
98 ESSA Y ON MARCUS A UBELIUS.
either in reading, or being read to, or in writing notes.

He was one of those who held that nothing should be
done hastily, and that few crimes were worse than the
waste of time. It is to such views and such habits
that we owe the compositions of his works. His
meditations were written amid the painful self-denial
and distracting anxieties of his wars with the Quadi
and the Marcomanni, and he was the author of other
works which unhappily have perished. Perhaps of all
the lost treasures of antiquity there are few which Ave
should feel a greater wish to recover than the lost
autobiography of this wisest of emperors and holiest
of Pagan men.
"
As for the external trappings of his rank those
gorgeous adjuncts and pompous circumstances which
excite the wonder and envy of mankind no man could
have shown himself more indifferent to them. He
recognized indeed the necessity of maintaining the
dignity of his high position. "Every moment," he
says,
. ...
" think steadilv as a Roman and a man to do
what thou hast in hand with perfect and simple dignity,

and affection, and freedom, and justice" (ii. 5) and;
" Let the

again, Deity which is in thee be the guardian
of a living being, manly and of ripe age, and engaged
in matters political, and a Roman, and a ruler, who
has taken his post like a man waiting for the signal
which summons him from life" (iii. 5).
But he did
not think it necessary to accept the fulsome honors
and degrading adulations which were so dear to many
of his predecessors. He refused the pompous blas-
phemy of temples and altars, saying that for every
true ruler the world was a temple, and all good men
were priests. He declined as much as possible all
BY CANON FARRAR. 99
golden statues and triumphal designations. All inevit-

able luxuries and splendor, such as his public duties
rendered indispensable, he regarded as a mere hollow
show. Marcus Aurelius felt as deeply as our own
Shakespeare seems to have felt the unsubstantiality,
the fleeting evanescence of all earthly things he would ;
have delighted in the sentiment that,
" We are such, stuff

As dreams are made on, and our little life
"
Is rounded by a sleep.
" When we have meat before us," he says, " and such
eatables, we receive the impression that this is the
dead body of a fish, and this is the dead body of a
bird, or of a pig and, again, that this Falerian is only
;
a little grape-jtcice, and this purple robe some sheep's

wool dyed with the Mood of a shell-fish : such then are
these impressions, and they reach the things them-
selves and penetrate them, and so we see what kind of
things they are. Just in the same way where . . .
there are things which appear most worthy of our

approbation, we ought to lay them bare, and look at
their worthlessness, and strip them of all the words by
which they are exalted " (vi. 13).
" What is worth
being valued ? To be received with
clapping of hands ? No. Neither must we value the
clapping of tongues, for the praise which comes from
the many a clapping of tongues " (vi. 16).
is
"
x\sia, Europe, are corners of the universe all the ;
sea is a drop in the universe Athos a little clod of the

;
universe all the present time is a point in eternity.

;
All things are little, changeable, perishable " (vi. 36).

And to Marcus too, no less than to Shakespeare, it
seemed that
"All the world's a stage,
And allthe men and women merely players;"
for he writes these remarkable words :
" The of show, plays on the stage, flocks

idle business
of sheep, herds, exercises with spears, a bone cast to little

dogs, a bit of bread in fish-ponds, labor ings of ants, and
burden - carrying runnings about of frightened little
mice, puppets pulled by strings this is what life
resembles. It is thy duty then, in the midst of such
things, to show good humor, and not a proud air to ;
understand, however, that every man is worth just so

much as the things are worth about which he busies
himself.
In fact, the Court was to Marcus a burden he tells ;
Philos^phy_jras his moth er, E mpire

us himself that
on!yJ3Js.tejmiot h4_it was only his repose in the one
that rendered even tolerable to him the burdens of the
other. Emperor as he was, he thanked the gods for
having enabled him to enter into the souls of a
Thrasea, an Helvidius, a Cato, a Brutus. Above all,
he seems to have had a horror of ever becoming like
some of his predecessors he writes;
:
" Take care

that thou art not made into a Caesar * ;
take care thou art not dyed with this dye. Keep
thy-
self then simple, good, pure, serious, free from affecta-
tion, a friend of justice, a worshipper of the gods,

kind, affectionate, strenuous in all proper acts. Eever-
ence the gods and help men. Short is life. There is
* Marcus here invents what M.
Martha justly calls "an admir-
able barbarism" to express his disgust towards such men
opa
ft?) ccTtvKaidaoGjQt/S "take care not to be Ccesarisecl."
BY CANON FARRAR. 101
only one fruit of this terrene life / a pious disposition

"
and social acts (iv. 19).
It is the same conclusion as that which sorrow forced
" Let us
from another weary and less admirable king :
hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God,

and keep His commandments for this is the whole
;
duty of man."
But it is time for us to continue the meager record
of the of Marcus, so far as the bare and gossiping
life
compilations of Dion Cassius,* and Capitolinus, and the

scattered allusions of other writers can enable us to do
SO. ^ .
Jv,
v
It must have been with a heavy heart that he set \>
out once more for German}^ to face the dangerous^
rising of the Quadi and Marcomanni. To obtain sol-
diers sufficient to fill up the vacancies in his army
\^ which had been decimated by the plague, he was
forced to enroll slaves, and to obtain money he had to
sell the ornaments of the palace, and even some of the
Empress' jewels. Immediately before he started his

heart was wrung by the death of his little boy, the
y twin-brother of Commodus, whose beautiful features

are preserved for us on coins. Early in the war,
still
as he was trying the depth of a ford, he was assailed

by the enemy with a sudden storm of missiles, and was
only saved from imminent death by being sheltered
beneath the shields of his soldiers. One battle was
fought on the ice of the wintry Danube. But by far
the most celebrated event of the war took place in a
great victory over the Quadi which he won in a. d.
174, and which was attributed by the Christians to
* As
epitomized by Xipbilinus.
1 02 B8SA T ON MARC US A URELIUS.
what is known as the "Miracle of the Thunderim:

Legion."
Divested of extraneous additions, the fact which
all
occurred as by the evidence of medals,
established
v^'
and by one of the bassi-relievi on the " Column of
^^ Antonine," appears to have been as follows. Marcus
Aurelius and his army had been entangled in a mount-
*
^ ain defile, into which they had too hastily pursued a
sham retreat of the barbarian archers. In this defile,
unable either to fight or to fly, pent in by the enemy,
burnt up with the scorching heat and tormented by
thirst,they lost all hope, burst into wailing and
groans, and yielded to a despair from which not even
the strenuous efforts of Marcus could arouse them.
At the most critical moment of their danger and
misery the clouds began to gather, and heavy showers
of rain descended, which the soldiers caught in their
shields and helmets to quench their own thirst and
that of their horses. While they were thus engaged
the enemy attacked them but the rain was mingled
;
with hail, and fell with blinding fury in the faces of

the barbarians. The storm was also accompanied
with thunder and lightning, which seems to have
damaged the enemy, and filled them with terror, while
no casualty occurred in the Eoman ranks. The Romans
accordingly regarded this as a Divine interposition,
and achieved a most decisive victory, which proved to
be the practical conclusion of a hazardous and impor-
tant war.
The Christians regarded the event not as providential
but as miraculous, and attributed it to the prayers of
their brethren in a legion which, from this circum-
"
stance, received the name of the Thundering Legion."
It is, however, now known that one of the legions,

distinguished by a flash of lightning which was rep-
resented on their shields, had been known by this
name since the time of Augustus and the Pagans
;
themselves attributed the assistance which they had

received sometimes to a prayer of the pious Emperor
and sometimes to the incantations of an Egyptian
sorcerer named Arnuphis.
Oneof the Fathers, the passionate and eloquent Ter-
tullian, attributes to this deliverance an interposition
of the Emperor in favor of the Christians, and appeals
which he acknowl-
to a letter of his to the Senate in
edged how effectual had been the aid he had received
from Christian prayers, and forbade any one hereafter
to molest the followers of the new religion, lest they
should use against him the weapon of supplication
which had been so powerful in his favor. This letter
is preserved at the end of the Apology of Justin Mar-
tyr, and it adds that, not only are no Christians to be

injured or persecuted, but that any one who informed
against them is to be buried alive We see at once
!
that this letter is one of those impudent and transpar-

ent forgeries in which the literature of the first five
centuries unhappily abounds. What was the real
relation of Marcus to the Christians we shall consider
hereafter.
To the gentle heart of Marcus, all war, "even when
accompanied with victories, was eminently distasteful ;
and in such painful and ungenial occupations no small

part of his life was passed. What he thought of war
and of its successes is graphically set forth in the fol-
lowing remark :
"A
spider is proud when it has caught a fly, and an-
104 ESSA T ON MARCUS A URELIUS.
other when he lias caught a poor hare, and another

when he has taken a little fish in a net, and another
when he has taken wild boars or bears, and another
when he has taken Sarmatians. Are not these robbers,
when thou examinest their principles ?" He here con-
demns his own involuntary actions but it was his un-
;
happy destiny not to have trodden out the embers of

this war before he was burdened with another far
more painful and formidable.
This was the revolt of Avidius Cassius, a general 01
j the old blunt Roman type, whom, in spite of some
ominous warnings, Marcus both loved and trusted.
\ The ingratitude displajêd by such a man caused Mar-
fr,
cus the deepest anguish but he was saved from all
;
^*-v dangerous consequences by the wide-spread affection

v
which he had inspired by his virtuous reign.
The very
soldiers of the rebellious general fell away
^ > from him and, after he had been a nominal Emperor

;
^ v^for only three months and six days, he was assassinated

*
by some of his own officers. His head was sent to
.
V ^ 3 Marcus, who received it with sorrow, and did not hold

~ out to the murderers the
slightest encouragement,
yj ^ ^< The
vy
joy of success was swallowed up in regret that

;,
his enemy had not lived to allow him the luxury of a
.
genuine forgiveness. He begged the Senate to pardon
> all the family of Cassius, and to suffer this
single lile
to be the only one forfeited in consequence of civil
*
war. The Fathers received these proofs of clemency
with the rapture which they deserved, and the Senate-
house resounded with acclamations and blessings.
Never had a formidable conspiracy been more quietly
and effectually crashed. Marcus traveled through the
provinces which had favored the cause of Avidius
B T CANON FA RRAR. 105
Cassius,and treated them all with the most complete

and indulgent forbearance. When he arrived in Syria,
the correspondence of Cassius was brought to hin,
and, with a glorious magnanimity of which history
affords but few examples, he consigned it all to the
flames unread.
During this journey of pacification, he lost his wife
Faustina, who died suddenly in one of the valleys of
Mount Taurus. History, or the collection of anecdotes
which at this period often passes as history, has
assigned to Faustina a character of the darkest
in-
famy, and it has even been made a charge against

Aurelius that he overlooked or condoned her offences.
As far as Faustinais concerned, we have not much to
there is strong reason to believe that

say, although
many of the stories told of her are scandalously
exaggerated, if not absolutely false. Certain it is, that
most of the imputations upon her memory rest on the
malignant anecdotes recorded by -Dion, who dearly
loved every piece of scandal which degraded human
nature. The specific charge brought against her of
having tempted Cassius from his allegiance is wholly
unsupported, even if it be not absolutely incompatible
with what we find in her own extant letters and, ;
finally, Marcus himself not only

loved her tenderly, as
the kind mother of his eleven children, but in his
Meditations actually thanks the gods for having granted
" such a
him wife, so obedient, so affectionate, and so
simple." No doubt Faustina was unworthy of her
husband but surely it is the glory and not the shame
;
of a noble nature to be averse from jealousy and

suspicion, and totrust to others more deeply than they
deserve.
So blameless was the conduct of Marcus Aureliua

that neither the malignity of contemporaries nor the
spirit of posthumous scandal has
succeeded in discover-
ing any flaw in the extreme integrity of his life and
principles. But meanness will not be balked of its
victims. The hatred of all excellence which made
Caligula try to put down the memory of great men
rages, though less openly, in the minds of many.

They delight to degrade human life into that dull and
barren plain " in which every molehill is a mountain,
and every thistle a forest-tree." Great men are as
small in their eyes as they are said to be in the eyes of
their valets; and there are multitudes who, if they
find
" Some stain or blemish in a name of note,
Not grieving that their greatest are so small,
Innate themselves with some insane delight,
And judge all nature from her feet of clay,
Without the will to lift their eyes, and see
Her godlike head crown'd with spiritual fire,
"
And touching other worlds.
This I suppose is the reason why, failing to drag

down Marcus Aurelius from his moral elevation, some
have attempted to assail his reputation because of the
supposed vilenesr. of Faustina and the actual depravity
of Commodus. Of Faustina I have spoken already.
Respecting Commodus, I think it sufficient to ask with
.
Solomon " Who knoweth whether his son shall be a
:
wise man or a fool?" Commodus was but nineteen

when his father died for the first three years of his
;
reign he ruled respectably and acceptably. Marcus

Aurelius had left no effort untried to have him trained
aright by the first teachers and the wisest men whom
the age produced ;
and Herodian distinctly tells us
that he had lived virtuously up to the time of his

father's death. Setting aside natural affection alto-
gether, and even assuming (as I should conjecture from
one or two passages of his Meditations) that Marcus
had misgivings about his son, would it have been easy,
would it have been even possible, to set aside on gen-
eral grounds a son who had attained to years of
maturity? However this may be, if there are any

who think itw orth w hile to censure Marcus because,
r T
after all, Commodus turned out to be but " a warped

slip of wilderness," their censure is hardly sufficiently
discriminating to deserve the trouble of refutation.
;'
But Marcus Aurelius cruelly persecuted the Chris-
tians." Let us briefly consider this charge. That
persecutions took place in his reign is an undeniable
fact, and is sufficiently evidenced by the Apologies of
Justin Martyr, of Melito, Bishop of Sardis, of Athena-
goras, and of Apollinarius, as well as by the Letter of
the Church of Smyrna describing the martyrdom of
Polycarp, and that of the Churches of Lyons and
Vienne to their brethren in Asia Minor. It is fair,
however, to mention that there is some documentary
evidence on the other side Lactantius clearly asserts
;
that under the reigns of those excellent princes who

succeeded Domitian the Church suffered no violence
from her enemies, and " spread her hands toward the
East and the West ;" Tertullian, writing but twenty
years after the death of Marcus, distinctly says (and
Eusebius quotes the assertion), that there were letters
of the Emperor, in which he not only attributed his
delivery the Quadi to the prayers of Christian
among
Thundering Legion," but ordered any
soldiers in the
who informed against the Christians to be most
108 E88A T ON MARCUS A URELIUS.
severely punished and at the end of the works of

;
Justin Martyr is found a letter of similar purport,

which is asserted to have been addressed by Marcus to
the Senate of Eome. We
may sot aside these peremp-
tory testimonies, we may believe that Tertullian and
Eusebius were mistaken, and that the documents to
which they referred were spurious but this should ;
make us also less certain about the prominent participa-

tion of the Emperor in these persecutions. My own
belief is a belief which could be supported by
(and it is
many critical arguments), that his share in causing

them was almost infinitesimal. If those who love his
memory reject the evidence of Fathers in his favor,
they may be at least permitted to withhold assent from
some of the assertions in virtue of which he is con-
demned.
Marcus in his Meditations alludes to the Christians
once only, and then it is to make a passing complaint
of the indifference to death, which appeared to him, as
it appeared to Epictetus, to arise, not from any noble
principles, but from mere obstinacy and perversity.

That xie shared the profound dislike with which
Christians were regarded is very probable. That he
was a cold-blooded and virulent persecutor is utterly
unlike his whole character, essentially at variance with
his habitual clemency, alien to the spirit which made
him interfere in every possible instance to mitigate the
severity of legal punishments, and may in short be

regarded as an assertion which is altogether false.
Who will believe that a man who, during his reign,
built and dedicated but one single temple, and that a
Temple to Beneficence that a man who so far from
;
showing any jealousy respecting foreign religions

BY CANON FAMRAM. 109
allowed honor to be paid to them all that a man

;
whose writings breathe on every page the inmost spirit

of philanthropy and tenderness, went out of his way
to join in a persecution of the most innocent, the
most courageous, and the most inoffensive of his
subjects?
The true state of the case seems to have been this.
The deep wr hich, during the whole reign
calamities in
of Marcus, the Empire was involved, caused widespread
and roused into peculiar fury the feelings of
distress,
the provincials against men whose atheism (for such
they considered it to be) had kindled the anger of the
gods. This fury often broke out into paroxysms of
popular excitement, which none but the firmest-minded
governors were able to moderate or to repress. Marcus,
when appealed to, simply let the existing law take its
usual course. That law was as old as the time of
Trajan. The young Pliny, Governor of Bithynia, had
written to ask Trajan how he was to deal with, the
Christians, whose blamelessness of life he fully
admitted, but whose doctrines, he said, had emptied
the temples of the gods, and exasperated their wor-
shipers. Trajan, in reply, had ordered that the
Christians should not be sought for, but that, if they
were brought before the governor, and proved to be
contumacious in refusing to adjure their religion, they
were then to be put to death. Hadrian and Pius Anto-
ninus had continued the same policy, and Marcus Aure-
lius saw no reason to alter it. But this law, which
in quiet times might become a mere dead letter, might
at more troubled periods be converted into a dangerous
engine of persecution, as it was in the case of the

venerable Polycarp, and in the unfortunate Churches
HO ESSA T ON MARCUS A URELIUS.
of Lvons and Yienne. The Pao-ans believed that

the reason why their gods were smiling in secret,
"
Looking over wasted lands,
Blight and famine, plague and earthquake, roaring deeps and fiery
sands,
Clanging fights, and flaming towns, and sinking ships, and praying
hands,
was the unbelief and impiety of these hated Galileans,

causes of offence which could only be expiated by the
death of the guilty. " Their enemies," says Tertullian,
" call aloud for the blood of the
innocent, alleging this
vain pretext for their hatred, that they believe the
Christians to be the cause of every public misfortune.
If the Tiber has overflowed its banks, or the Nile has
not overflowed, if heaven has refused its rain, if famine
or the plague has spread its ravages, the cry is imme-
diate,
'
The Christians to the lions.' " In the first
three centuries the cry of "No Christianity" became
at times as brutal, as violent, and as unreasoning as
the cry of " No Popery " has often been in modern
days. It was infinitely less disgraceful to Marcus to
lend his ear to the one than it has been to some emi-
nent modern statesmen to be carried away by the
insensate fury of the other.
To what extent is Marcus Aurelius to be condemned
for the martyrdoms which took place in his reign ?
Not, I think, heavily or indiscriminately, or with vehe-
ment sweeping censure. Common justice surely de-
mands that we should not confuse the present with the
past, or pass judgment on the conduct of the Emperor
as though he were living in the nineteenth century,
or as though he had been acting in full cognizance of
the Gospels and the stories of the Saints. Wise and
BY CANON FARRAR. Ill
good men before him had, in their haughty ignorance,

spoken of Christianity with execration and contempt.
The philosophers who surrounded his throne treated
it with jealousy and aversion. The body of the nation
firmly believed the current rumors which charged its
votaries with horrible midnight assemblies, rendered
infamous by Thyestian banquets and the atrocities of
nameless superstitions. These foul calumnies these
hideous charges of cannibalism and incest were sup-
ported by the reiterated perjury of slaves under tort-
ure,which in that age, as well as long afterward, was
preposterously regarded as a sure criterion of truth.
Christianity in that day was confounded with a multi-
tude of debased and foreign superstitions; and the
Emperor in his judicial capacity, if he ever encountered
Christians at all, was far more likely to encounter
those who were unworthy of the name, than to be-
come acquainted with the meek, unworldly, retiring
virtues of the calmest, the holiest, and the best. When
we have given their due weight to considerations such
as these we shall be ready to pardon Marcus Aure-
lius for having, in this matter, acted ignorantly,
and to admit that in persecuting Christianity he may
most honestly have thought that he was doing God
service. The very sincerity of his belief, the conscien-
tiousness of his rule, the intensity of his philanthropy,
the grandeur of his own philosophical tenets, all con-
make him a worse enemy of the Church than
spired to
a brutal Commodus or a disgusting Heliogabalus.
And yet that there was not in him the least propensity
to persecute that these persecutions were for the most
;
part spontaneous and accidental that they were in

;
no measure due to his direct instigation, or in special

112 E88A Y ON MARCUS A URELIUS.
accordance with his desire, is clear from the fact thai

the martyrdoms took place in Gaul and Asia Minor,
not in Rome. There must have been hundreds of
Christians in Rome, and under the very eye of the
Emperor ; nay, there were even multitudes of
Christians in his own army yet we never hear of his
;
having molested any of them. Melito, Bishop of

Sardis, in addressing the Emperor, expresses a doubt
as to whether he was really aware of the manner in
which his Christian subjects were treated. Justin
Martyr, in his Apology, addresses him in terms of per-
fect confidence and deep respect. In short he was in
"
this matter blameless, but unfortunate." It is
painful to think that the venerable Polycarp and the

thoughtful Justin may have forfeited their lives foi
their principles, not only in the reign of so good a
man, but even by virtue of his authority ; but we must
be very uncharitable or very unimaginative if we can
not readily believe that, though they had received the
crown of martyrdom from his hands, the redeemed
spirits of those great martyrs would have been the
first to welcome this holiest of the heathen into the
presence of a Saviour whose Church he persecuted, but

to whose indwelling Spirit his virtues were due, whom
ignorantly and unconsciously he worshiped, and
whom, had he ever heard of Him and known Him, he
would have loved in his heart and glorified by the con-
sistency of his noble and stainless life.
The persecution of the Churches in Lyons and
Vienne happened in a. d. 177. Shortly after this
period fresh wars recalled the Emperor to the North.
It is said that, in despair of ever seeing him again, the
chief men of Borne entreated him to address them his
B Y CANON FARRA R. 113
farewell admonitions, and that for three days he dis-

coursed to them on philosophical questions. When he
arrived at the seat of war, victory again crowned his
arms. But Marcus was now getting old, and he was
worn out with the toils, trials, and travels of his long
and weary He sunk under mental anxieties and
life.
bodily fatigues, and after a brief illness died in Pan-
nonia, either at Vienna or Sirmium, on March 17, a. d.

180, in the fifty-ninth year of his age and the
twentieth of his reign.
Death to him was no calamity. He was sadly aware
that " there is no man so fortunate that there shall
not be by him when he is dying some who are pleased
with what is going to happen. Suppose that he was a
good and wise man, will there not be at least some one
to say of him, Let us at last breathe freely, being
'
relieved from this school-master. It is true that he

was harsh to none of us, but I perceive that he tacitly
condemns us.' Thou wilt consider this when
. . .
thou art dying, and will depart more contentedly by

reflecting thus:
'
I am
going a,w&y from a life in which
even on behalf of whom I have striven,
my associates,
and cared, and prayed so much, themselves wish me to
depart, hoping perchance to get some little advantage
by it.' "Why then should a man cling to a longer stay
here ? Do not, however, for this reason go away less
kindly disposed to them, but preserving thy own char-
acter, and continuing friendly, and benevolent, and
kindP And dreading death far less than he dreaded
any departure from the laws of virtue, he exclaims,
" O
Come Death, for fear that at last I should
quickly,
forget myself !" This utterance has been well com-
pared to the language which Bossuet put into the
114 "in ESSAY ON MARCUS AUREL1U8.
"
mouth of a Christian soul : Death, thou dost not
trouble my designs, thou accomplishest them. Haste,
then, O favorable Death ! Nunc Dimittis."
. . .
A nobler, a gentler, a purer, a sweeter soul a soul

less elated by prosperity, or more constant in adver-
sity a soul more fitted by virtue, and chastity, and
self-denial to enter into the eternal peace, never passed
into the presence of its Heavenly Father. We are not
surprised that all, whose means permitted it, possessed
themselves of his statues, and that they were to be
seen for years afterward among the household gods of
heathen families, who felt themselves more hopeful
and more happy from the glorious sense of possibility
which was inspired by the memory of one who, in the
midst of difficulties, and breathing an atmosphere
heavy with corruption, yet showed himself so wise, so
great, so good a man.
O framed for nobler times and calmer hearts!
O studious thinker, eloquent for truth!
Philosopher, despising wealth and death,
But patient, childlike, full of life and love!
BY CAN9ST FARRAR. 115
CIIAPTER IT.
THE "MEDlTiVHONs" OF MAKCU3 AUEELIUS.
Empeeor as he was, Marcus Aurelius found himself

in a hollow and trouhlous world but he did not give
;
himself up to idle regret or querulous lamentations.

If these sorrows and perturbations came from the
hand that smote him "
gods, he kissed the ;
he deliv-
ered up his broken sword to Fate the conquerer with
a humble and a manly heart." In any case he had
duties to do, and he set himself to perform them with
a quiet heroism zealously, conscientiously, even
cheerfully.
The principles of the Emperor are not reducible to
the hard and definite lines of a philosophic system.
But the great laws which guided his actions and
molded his views of life were few and simple, and in
his book of Meditations, which is merely his private
diary written to relieve his mind amid all the trials of

war and government, he recurs to them again and
"
again. Plays, war, astonishment, torpor, slavery,"
he says "
to himself, will wipe out those holy principles
of thine;" and this is why he committed those princi-
ples to writing. Some of these I have already adduced,
and others 1 proceed to quote, availing myself, as
before, of the beautiful and scholar-like translation of
Mr. George Long.
A U pain, and misfortune, and ugliness seemed to the
116 JBBSA Y ON MARCUS A URELIUS.
Emperor to be most wisely regarded under a threefold

aspect, namely, if considered in reference to the gods,
as being due to laws beyond their control ; if consid-
ered with reference to the nature of things, as being
subservient and necessary; and if considered with
reference to ourselves, as being dependent on the
amount of indifference and fortitude with which we
endure them.
The following passages will elucidate these points of
view:
" The intelligence of the Universe is social. Accord-
ingly it has made the inferior things for the sake of
the superior, and it has fitted the superior to one
another" (v. 30).
"
Things do not touch the soul, for they are eternal,
and remain immovable; but our perturbations come
only from the opinion which is within. The . . .
Universe is Transformation; life is opinion'''' (iv. 3).

"To the jaundiced honey tastes bitter, and to those
bitten by mad dogs water causes fear and to little ;
children the ball is a fine thing. Why, then, am I

angry? Dost thou think that a false opinion has less
power than the bile in the jaundiced, or the poison in

him who is bitten by a mad dog" (vi. 51) ?
"How easy it is to repel and to wipe away every
impression which is troublesome and unsuitable, and
"
immediately to be at tranquillity (v. 2).
The passages which Marcus speaks of evil as a
in
relative thing as being good in the making the
unripe and bitter bud of that which shall be hereafter
a beautiful flower although not expressed with per-
fect clearness, yet indicate his belief that our view of
evil things rises in great measure from our
inability to
perceive the great whole of which they are but sub-

servient parts.
" All " come from that universal
things," he says
ruling power, either directly or by way of consequence.
And accordingly the gaping jaws, and that which
liorCs
is poisonous, and every hurtful thing, as a thorn, as
mud, are after-products of the grand and beautiful.

Do not therefore imagine that they are of another
kind from that which thou dost venerate, but form a
just opinion of the source of all."
In another curious passage he says that all things
which are natural and congruent with the causes which
produce them have a certain beauty and attractiveness
of their own for instance, the splittings and corruga-
;
tions on the surface of bread when it has been baked.

" And when they are quite ripe gape open ;
again, figs
and in the ripe olives the very circumstances of their
being near to rottenness adds a peculiar beauty to the

fruit. And the ears of corn bending down, and the
foWs eyebrows, and the foam which flows from the
mouth of wild boars, and many other things though
they are far from being beautiful, if a man should ex-
amine them severally still, because they are conse-
quent upon the things which are formed by nature,
help to adorn them, and they please the mind so that;
if a man should have a feeling and deeper insight
about the things found in the universe there is hardly

one of those which follow by way of consequence which
will not seem to him to be in a manner disposed so as
"
to give pleasure (iv. 2).
This congruity to nature the following of nature,
and obedience to all her laws is the key -formula to
the doctrines of the Koman Stoics.
118 ESSA Y ON MARCUS A UREL1 VS.
"
Everything which is in any way beautiful is beau-
and terminates in itself, not having praise
ful in itself,
as part of itself. Neither worse, then, nor better is a
thing made by being praised . . . Is such a thing
as an emerald made worse than it was, if it is not
praised f or gold, ivory, purple, a lyre, a little knife, a
flower, a shrub (iv. 20.) V
"
Everything harmonizes with me which is harmoni-
ous to thee, O Universe. Nothing for me is too early
nor too late, which is in due time for thee. Every-
thing is fruit to me which thy seasons bring, O Nature !
from thee are all things, in thee are all things, to thee
all things return. The poet says, Dear city of Cecrops ;
and wilt not thou say, Dear city of God ? n (iv. 23.)
"Willingly give thyself up to fate, allowing her

to spin thy thread into whatever thing she pleases "
(iv. 34).
And here, in a very small matter getting out of
bed a morning is one practical application of the
in
formula:
"In the morning when thou risest unwillingly, let
these thoughts be present, I am rising to the work of
'
a human being. Why, then, am I dissatisfied if I am

going to the things for which
do I exist, and for which
I was brought into the world? Or have I been made
for this, to lie in the bedclothes and keep myself
warm V '
But this is more pleasant.' Dost thou exist,
then, to take thy pleasure, and not for action or exer-
tion ? Dost thou not see the little plants, the little
birds, the ants, the spiders, the bees, working together

to put in order their several parts of the universe?
And art thou unwilling to do the work of a human
being, and dost thou not make haste to do that which
BY CANON FARBAR. ,
,
, 119
is according to thy nature?" (v. 1.) ["Go to the ant,

thou sluggard consider her ways, and be wise !"]
;
The same principle, that Nature has assigned to us

our proper place that a task has been given us to
perform, and that our only care should be to perform
it aright, for the blessing of the great Whole of which
we are but insignificant parts dominates through the
admirable precepts which the Emperor lays down for
the regulation of our conduct toward others. Some
men, he says, do benefits to others only because they
expect a return ; some men even, if they do not
demand any return, are not forgetful that they have
rendered a benefit but others do not even know what
;
they have done, but are like a vine which has produced
grapes, and seeks for nothing more after it has pro-
duced its proper fruit. So we ought to do good to
others as simple and as naturally as a horse runs, or a
bee makes honey, or a vine bears grapes, season after
season, without thinking of the grapes which it has
borne. And in another passage, "What more dost
thou want when thou hast done a service to another ?
Art thou not content to have done an act conformable
to thy nature, and must thou seek to be paid for it,
just as if the eye demanded a reward for seeing, or the
feet for walking ?"
"
Judge every word and deed which is according to
nature to be fit for thee, and be not diverted by the
blame which follows . but if a thing is good to
. .
"
be done or said, do not consider it unworthy of thee
(v. 3).
Sometimes, indeed, Marcus Aurelius wavers. The

overpower him. "Such as bathing appears
evils of life
"
to thee," he says, oil, sweat, dirt, filthy water,
all
120 ESSA 7 ON MARCUS A UBELIUS.
things disgusting so is every part of life and every

>
" and again " Of human

thing (viii. 24) ; : life the time
is a point, and the substance is in a flux, and the per-
ception dull, and the composition of the whole body
subject to putrefaction, and the soul a whirl, and
fortune hard to divine, and fame a thing devoid of
judgment." But more often he retains his perfect
and " Either
tranquillity, says, thou livest here, and
hast already accustomed thyself to it, or thou art going
away, and this was thine own will ;
or thou art dying,
and hast discharged thy duty. But
besides these things
there is nothing. Be of good cheer, then " (x. 22).
"Take me, and cast me where thou wilt, for then I
shall keep my divine part tranquil, that is, content, if
it can feel and act conformably to its proper constitu-
tion " (viii. 45).
There something delightful in the fact that even
is
in the Stoic Philosophy there was some comfort to
keep men from despair. To a holy and scrupulous

conscience like that of Marcus, there would have been
an inestimable preciousness in the Christian doctrine
" Of that divine
of the forgiveness of the sins."
mercy of that sin-uncreating power the ancient
world knew nothing ; but in Marcus we find some dim
and faint adumbration of the doctrine, expressed in a
manner which might at least breathe calm into the
spirit of the philosopher, though it could never reach
the hearts of the suffering multitude. For " suppose,"
he says, "that thou hast detached thyself from the
natural unity for thou wast made by nature a part,
but now hast cut thyself off yet here is the beautiful
provision that it is in thy power again to unite thyself.
God has allowed this to no other part after it has
D 7 CANON FARRAR. 121
been separated and cut asunder, to come together

ao-ain. But consider the goodness with vjhich lie has
it in his power, when
privileged man ; for He has put
he has been separated, to return and to be reunited, and
"
to resume his place." And elsewhere he says, If you
cannot maintain a true and magnanimous character, go
courageously into some corner where you can
main-
tain them or if even there you fail, depart at once
;
from life, not with passion, but with modest and

simple freedom which will be to have done at
least
one laudable act." Sad that even to Marcus Aurelius

death should have seemed the only refuge from the
to be wise
despair of ultimal e failure in the struggle
and good !
Marcus valued temperance and self-denial as being

the best means of keeping his heart strong and pure ;
but weare glad to learn he did not value the rigors of

asceticism. Life brought with it enough, and more
than enough, of antagonism to brace his nerves;
enough, and more than enough, of the rough wind of
to add
adversity in his face to make it unnecessary
more by his own actions. " It is not fit," he says,
"that I should give myself pain, for I have never
"
intentionally given pain even to another (viii. 42).
It was a commonplace of ancient philosophy that

the life of the wise man should be a contemplation of,
and a preparation for, death. It certainly was so with
Marcus Aurelius. The thoughts of the nothingness of
man, and of that great sea of oblivion which shall
hereafter swallow up all that he is and does, are ever
to which he
present to his mind they are thoughts
;
recurs more constantly than any other, and from which

he always draws the same moral lesson.
122 MSSA T ON MARCUS A URELIUS.
" Since
it possible that thou mayest depart from
is
life thisvery moment, regulate every act and thought

accordingly. Death certainly, and life, honor
. . .
and dishonor, pain and pleasure, all these

things happen
equally to good men and bad, being things which
make us neither better nor worse. Therefore
they are
neither good nor evil" (ii. 11).
Elsewhere he says that Hippocrates cured diseases
and died; and the Chaldasans foretold the future and
died and Alexander, and Pompey, and Ccesar killed
;
thousands, and then died and lice destroyed ; Demo-

critus, and other lice killed Socrates and ; Augustus,
and and daughter, and all his descendants,
his wife,
and are dead and Vespasian and all
all his ancestors,
;
his Court, and all who in his

day feasted, and married,
and were sick, and chaffered, and fought, and
flattered,
and plotted, and grumbled, and wished other
people to
die, and pined to become kings or consuls, are dead ;
and all the idle people who are doing the same
things
now are doomed to die; and all human things are
smoke, and nothing at all and it is not for us, but for
;
the gods, to settle whether we play the

play out, or
"
only a part of it. There are many grains offrankin-
cense on the same altar ; one, falls before, another falls
after ; but it makes no difference" And the moral of
all these " Death
thoughts is, hangs over thee while
thou livest; while "
it is in thy power be good (iv. 17).
"Thou hast embarked, thou hast made the
voyage,
thou hast come to shore; get out. If, indeed, to
another there is no want of gods, not even there.
life
But to a state without sensation, thou wilt cease to
if
be held by pains and pleasures" (iii. 3).

Nor was Marcus at all comforted under
present
annoyances by the thought of posthumous fame.

" How
ephemeral and worthless human things are,"
he says, " and what was yesterday a little mucus, to-
morrow will be a mummy or ashes." " Many who
are now praising thee, will very soon blame thee, and
neither a posthumous name is of any value, nor repu-
tation, nor anything else." What has become of all
great and famous men, and all they desired, and all
"
they loved ? They are smoke, and ash, and a tale,
or not even a tale." After all their rages and envy-
ings, men are stretched
out quiet and dead at last.
Soon thou wilt have forgotten all, and soon all will
have forgotten thee. But here, again, after such
thoughts, the same moral is always introduced again
:
" Pass then

through the little space of time conform-
as
ably to nature, and end the journey in content, just
an olive falls of when it is ripe, blessing nature who
the tree on which it grew."
and thanking
produced it,
" troubles me, lest I should do some-
One thing only
thing which the constitution of man does not allow,
or in the way which it does not allow, or what it does
not allow now."
To quote the thoughts of Marcus Aurelius is to me
a fascinating task. Buthave already let him speak
I
so largely for himself that by this time the reader will
have some conception of his leading motives. It only
remains to adduce a few more of the weighty and
golden sentences in which he lays down his rule
of life.
" To
say all in a word, everything which belongs
to
the body is a stream, and what belongs to the soul is
a dream and vapor; and life is a warfare, and a
stranger's sojourn, and after fame is oblivion. What,
then, is that which is able to enrich a man? One
124 E88A T ON MARCUS A UEELW8.
thing, and only one philosophy. But this consists in

spirit within a man free
keeping the guardian from
violence and unharmed, superior to pains and pleas-
ures, doing nothing without a purpose, nor yet falsely,
ind with hypocrisy . . .
accepting all that happens
and all that is allotted . . . and finally waiting
for death with a cheerful
mind" (ii. IT).
" If thou findest in human life anything better than
in a word,
justice, truth, temperance, fortitude, and,
than thine own soul's satisfaction in the things which
"tenables thee to do according to right reason, and in
the condition that is assigned to thee without thy own
choice if, I say, thou seest anything better than this,
;
turn to it with all thy soul, and enjoy that which thou
hast found to be the best. But if thou find- ...
est everything else smaller and of less value than this,
give place to nothing else. . . .

Simply and freely
"
choose the better, and hold to it (iii. 6).
"
Body, soul, intelligence : to the body belong sensa-
tions, to the soul appetites, to the intelligence princi-
ples." To be impressed by the senses is peculiar to

animals; to be pulled by the strings of desire belongs
to effeminate men, and to men like Phalaris or Nero ;
to be guided only by intelligence belongs to atheists
and and "men who do their impure deeds
traitors,
when they have shut the doors. There . . .
remains that which is peculiar to the good man, to he

pleased and content with
what happens, and with the
thread which is spun for him ; and not to defile the
divinity which planted in his breast, nor disturb it

is
by a crowd of images but to preserve it tranquil,

;
following it obediently as a god, neither saying any-

thing contrary to truth, nor doing anything contrary
"
to justice (iii. 16).
B Y CANON FA RRAR. 125
"Men seek retreats for themselves, houses in the

country, sea-shores, and mountains, and thou too art
wont to desire such things very much. But this is
altogether a mark of the commonest sort of men, for
it is thy power whenever thou shalt chose to retire
in
into thyself. For nowhere either with more quiet or
with more freedom does a man retire than into his own-
soid, particularly when he has within him such
thoughts that by looking into them he is immediately
in perfect tranquillity, which is nothing else than the
"
good ordering of the mind (iv. 3).
"
Unhappy am
I, because this has happened to me ?
Not so, but happy am I though this has happened to
me, because I continue free from pain neither ;
crushed by the present, nor fearing the future "

(iv. 19).
It is just possible that in some of these passages
some readers may detect a trace of painful self-con-
sciousness, and imagine that they detect a little grain
of self-complacence. Something of self consciousness
is perhaps inevitable in the
diary and examination of
his own
conscience by one who sat on such a lonely
height but self-complacency there is none. Nay, there
;
is sometimes even a cruel sternness in the way in which

the Emperor speaks of his own self. He certainly
dealt not with himself in the manner of a dissembler
with God. " When," he says (x. 8),
" thou
hast assumed
the names of a man who is
good, modest, rational,
magnanimous, cling to those names ;
and if thou
shouldst lose them, quickly return to them. . . .
For to continue to he such as thou hast hitherto been, and

to be torn in pieces, and defiled in such a life, is the
character of a very stupid man, and one over-fond of
126 ESSA T ON MARCUS A URELIUS.
his life,and like those half-devoured fighters with wild

heasts,who, though covered with wounds and gore, still
entreat to he kept till the following day, though they
will he exposed in the same state to the same claws and
hltes. Therefore fix thyself in the possession of these
few names: and if thou art able to abide in them,
abide as if thou were removed to the Islands of the
Blest." Alas to Aurelius, in this life, the Islands of

!
the Blest were very far away. Heathen philosophy

was exalted and eloquent, but all its votaries were sad ;
to " the peace of God, which passeth all understand-

ing," it was not given them to attain. We see Marcus
"
wise, self-governed, tender, thankful, blameless," says
Mr. Arnold, "yet with all this agitated, stretching out
his arms for something beyond tendentemque manue
ripcB idterioris amoreP
I will quote, in conclusion, but three short precepts :
" Be and seek not external nor the
cheerful, help,
tranquillity which others give. A man must stand
erect, not he kept erect hy others" (iv. 5).
" Be like the promontory against which the waves con-
tinually break, hut it stands firm and tames the fury of
the water around it " (iv. 49).
This comparison has been used many a time since
the days of Marcus Aurelius. The reader will at once
recall Goldsmith's famous lines :
" As some tall cliff that rears its awful

form,
Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm,
Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread,
"
Eternal sunshine settles on its head. j
" Short is the little that remains to thee of life. I
Live as on a mountain. For it makes no difference

whether a man lives there or here, if he lives every-
B Y CANON FA BEAR. 127
where in the world as in a civil community. Let men

see, let them know a real man who lives as he was
meant to live. If they cannot endure him, let them
"
kill him. For that is better than to live as men do
(x. 15).
Such were some of the thoughts which Marcus
Aurelius wrote in his diary after days of battle with
the Quadi, and the Marcomanni, and the Sarmatae.
Isolated from others no less by moral grandeur than
by the supremacy of his sovereign rank, he sought the
society of his own noble soul. I sometimes imagine
that I see him seated on the borders of some gloomy
Pannonian forest or Hungarian marsh through the ;
darkness the watch-fires of the enemy gleam in the dis-

tance but both among them, and in the camp around
;
him, every sound is hushed, except the tread of the

sentinel outside the imperial tent and in that tent;
long after midnight the patient Emperor by the

sits
light of his solitary lamp, and ever and anon, amid his
lonely musings, he pauses to write down the pure and
holy thoughts which shall better enable him, even in a
Roman palace, even on barbarian battle-fields, daily to
tolerate the meanness and the malignity of the men
around him daily to amend his own shortcomings,
;
and, as the sun of earthly life begins to set, daily to

draw nearer and nearer to the Eternal Light. And
when I thus think of him, I know not whether the
whole of heathen antiquity, out of its gallery of stately
and royal figures, can furnish a nobler, or purer, or
more lovable picture than that of this crowned
philosopher and laurelled hero, who was yet one of
the humblest and one of the most enlightened of all
ancient " Seekers after God."
THE MEDITATIONS
OF

i.
From my grandfather Verus* [I learned] good

morals and the goverment of my temper.
2. the reputation and remembrance of my
From
father,:}:modesty and a manly character.
3. From my mother, piety and beneficence, and
abstinence, not only from evil deeds, but even from
evil thoughts; and further simplicity in my way of
living, far removed

from the habits of the rich.
4. From my great-grandfather, not to have fre-
|
quented public schools, and to have

had good teachers
at home, and to know that on such things a man should
spend liberally.
* Annius Verus was his
grandfather's name. There is no verb in
this section connected with the word "from," nor in the following
sections of this book; and it is not quite certain what verb should be
supplied. What have added may express the meaning here, though
I
there are sectionswhich it will not fit. If he does not mean to say-
that he learned of these good things from the several persons whom
he mentions, he means that he observed certain good qualities in
them, or received certain benefits from them, and it is implied that
he was the better for it, or at least might have been; for it would be
a mistake to understand Marcus as saying that he possessed all the
virtues which he observed in his kinsmen and teachers.
% His father's name was Annius Verus.

His mother was Domitia Calvilla, named also Lucilla.
| Perhaps his mother's grandfather, Catilius Severus.

132 TEE MEDITATIONS OF
5. From my governor, to be neither of the green nor

of the blue party at the games in the Circus, nor a
partizan either of the Parmularius or the Scutarius at
the gladiators' fightsfrom him too I learned endurance
;
of labor, and towant little, and to work with my own

hands, and not to meddle with other people's affairs,
and not to be ready to listen to slander.
6. From
Diognetus,* not to busy myself about
trifling things,and not to give credit to what was said
by miracle- workers and jugglers about incantations
and the driving away of demons and such things and ;
not to breed quails [for fighting], nor to give myself up

passionately to such things and to endure freedom of
;
speech and to have become intimate with philosophy ;

;
and to have been a hearer, first of Bacchius, then of

Tandasis and Marcianus and to have written dialogues
;
in my youth and to have desired a plank bed and

;
skin, and whatever else of the kind belongs to the

Grecian discipline.
7. From Rusticus^: I received the impression that my
character required improvement and discipline and ;
from him I learned not to be led astray to sophistic

emulation, nor to writing on speculative matters, nor
* In the works of Justinus there is printed a letter to one
Diognetus, whom the writer names "most excellent." He was a
Gentile, but he wished very much to know what the religion of the
Christians was, what God they worshipped, and how this worship
made them despise the world and death, and neither believe in the
gods of the Greeks nor observe the superstition of the Jews and ;
what was this love to one another which they had, and why this new
kind of religion was introduced now and not before. My friend, Mr.
Jenkins, rector of Lyminge in Kent, has suggested to me that this
Diognetus may have been the tutor of M. Antoninus.
\ Q. Junius Ilusticus was a Stoic philosopher, whom Antoninus
valued highly, and often took his advice. (Capitol. M. Antonin.
iii.)
to delivering little hortatory orations, nor to snowing

myself off as a man who practices much discipline, or
does benevolent acts in order to make a display ; and
to abstain from rhetoric, and poetry, and fine writing;
and not to walk about in the house in my outdoor
dress, nor to do other things of the kind and to write
;
my letterswith simplicity, like the letter which

Rusticus wrote from Sinuessa to my mother; and with
respect to those who have offended me by words,
or
done me wrong, to be easily disposed to be pacified and
reconciled, as soon as they have shown a readiness to
be reconciled and to read carefully, and not to be
;
satisfied with a superficial understanding of a book ;
nor hastily to give my assent to those who talk over-

much and I am indebted to him for being acquainted
;
with the discourses of Epictetus, which he communi-

cated to me
out of his own collection.
8. FromApollonius* I learned freedom of will and
undeviating steadiness of purpose; and to look to
nothing not even for a moment, except to reason
else, ;
and tobe always the same, in sharp pains, on the

occasion of the loss of a child, and in long illness and ;
to see clearly in a living example that the same man

can be both most resolute and yielding, and not peevish
in giving his instruction; and to have had before my
eyes a man who
clearly considered his experience and
his skill in expounding philosophical principles as the
smallest of his meritsand from him I learned how to
;
receivefrom friends what are esteemed favors, without

being either humbled by them or letting them pass
unnoticed.
Apollonius of Chalcis came to Rome in the time of Pius to be

*
Marcus' preceptor. He was a rigid Stoic.

134 THE MEDITATIONS OF
9. From Sextus,* a benevolent disposition, and the
example of a family governed in a fatherly manner,

and the idea of living conformably to nature and ;
gravity without affectation, and to look carefully after

the interests of friends, and to tolerate ignorant per-
sons, and those who form opinions without considera-
tion :he had the power of readily accommodating
himself to all, so that intercourse with him was more
agreeable than any flattery and at the same time he
;
was most highly venerated by those who associated

with him and he had the faculty both of discovering
:
and ordering, in an intelligent and methodical way,

the principles necessary for life and he never showed
;
anger or any other passion, but was entirely free from

passion, and also most affectionate and he could ex- ;
press approbation without noisy display, and he pos-

sessed much knowledge without ostentation.
10. From Alexander:}: the grammarian, to refrain
from fault-finding, and not in a reproachful way to
chide those who uttered any barbarous or solecistic
or strange-sounding expression but dexterously to ;
introduce the very expression which ought to have

been used, and in the way of answer or giving con-
firmation, or joining in an inquiry about the thing
itself, not about the word, or by some other fit sug-
gestion.
11. From Fronto I learned to observe what envy
* Sextus of
Chseronea, a grandson of Plutarch, or nephew, as
some say but more probably a grandson.
;
\ Alexander was a Grammaticus, a native of Phrygia. He wrote

a commentary on Homer; and the rhetorician Aristides wrote a pane-
gyric on Alexander in a funeral oration.
M. Cornelius Fronto was a rhetorician, and in great favor with
Marcus. There are extant various letters between Marcus and
Fronto.
MARCUS A URELIU8 ANT0NINV8. 135
and duplicity and hypocrisy are in a tyrant, and that
generally those among us who are called Patricians

are rather deficient in paternal affection.
12. From Alexander the Platonic, not
frequently
nor without necessity to say to any one, or to write
in a letter, that I have no leisure nor continually to
;
excuse the neglect of duties required by our relation

to those with whom we live, by alleging urgent occu-
pations.
13. From Catulus,* not to be indifferent when a
friend finds fault, even if he should find fault without
reason, but to try to restore him to his usual disposi-
tion and to be ready to speak well of teachers, as it
;
isreported of Domitius and Athenodotus ; and to love

my children truly.
14. From my brother* Severus, to love my kin, and
to love truth, and to love justice; and through him
I learned to know Thrasea, Helvidius, Cato, Dion,
Brutus and from him I received the idea of a polity
;
in which there is the same law for all, a polity admin-

istered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom
of speech, and the idea of a kingly government which
respects most of all the freedom of the governed I ;
learned from him alsof consistency and undeviating

steadiness in my regard for philosophy, and a disposi-
* Cinna
Catulus, a Stoic philosopher.
\ The word hrother may not be genuine. Antoninus had no

brother. It has been supposed that he may mean some cousin.
Schultz in his translation omits " brother, " and says that this Severus
is probably Claudius Severus, a
peripatetic.
We know, from Tacitus {Anncd. xiii.,xvi. 21
and other passages),
,
who Thrasea and Helvidius were.

Plutarch has written the lives of
the two Catos, and of Dion and Brutus. Antoninus probably alludes
to Cato of Utica, who was a Stoic.
and to give to others readily, and to

tion to do good,
cherish good hopes, and to believe that I am loved by
my friends and in him I observed no concealment
;
of his opinions with respect to those whom he con-

demned, and that his friends had no need to con-
jecture what he wished or did not wish, but it was
quite plain.
15. From Maximus* I learned self-government, and
not to be led aside by anything and cheerfulness in
;
all circumstances, as well as in illness; and a just

admixture in the moral character of sweetness and
dignity, and to do what was set before me without
complaining. I observed that everybody believed that
he thought as he spoke, and that in all that he did he
never had any bad intention; and he never showed
amazement and surprise, and was never in a hurry,
and never put off doing a thing, nor was perplexed nor
dejected, nor did he ever laugh to disguise his vexa-
tion, nor, on the other hand, was he ever passionate
or suspicious. He was accustomed to do acts of be-
neficence, and was ready to forgive, and was free from
allfalsehood; and he presented the appearance of a
man who could not be diverted from right rather than
of a man who had been improved. I observed, too,
that no man could ever think that he was despised by
Maximus, or ever venture to think himself a better
man. He had also the art of being humorous in an
agreeable way.
16. In my father;}: I observed mildness of temper,
* Claudius Maximus was a Stoic philosopher, who was highly
esteemed.also by Antoninus Pius, Marcus' predecessor. The character
of Maximus is that of a perfect man. (See viii. 25.)
\ He means his adoptive father, his predecessor, the Emperct
Antoninus Pius. Compare vi. 30.
and unchangeable resolution in the things which he

had determined after due deliberation; and no vain-
glory in those things which men call honors
and a ;
love of labor and perseverance; and a readiness to

listen to those who had anything to propose for the
common weal and undeviating firmness in giving to
;
every man according to his deserts and a knowledge

;
derived from experience of the occasions for vigorous

action and for remission. And I observed that he had
overcome all passion for joys and he considered him-
;
self no more than any other citizen, and he released his

friends from all obligation to sup with him or to
attend him of necessity when he went abroad, and
those who had failed to accompany him, by reason of
any urgent circumstances, always found him the same.
I observed, too, his habit of careful inquiry in all mat-
ters of deliberation, and his persistency, and that he
never stopped his investigation through being satis-
fied with appearances which first present themselves ;
and that his disposition was to keep his friends, and

not to be soon tired of them, nor yet to be extravagant
in his affection ; and to be satisfied on all occasions,
and cheerful and
;
to foresee things a long way off, and
to provide for the smallest without display; and to
check immediately popular applause and flattery and ;
to be ever watchful over the things that were neces-

sary for the administration of the empire,
and to be a
good manager of the expenditure, and patiently to
endure the blame which he got for such conduct and ;
he was neither superstitious with respect to the gods,

nor did he court men by by trying to please
gifts or
them, or by flattering the populace but he showed
;
sobriety in all things and firmness, and never any

138 THE MED ITA TI0N8 OF
mean thoughts or action, nor love of novelty. And

the things which conduce in any way to the commod-
ity of life, and of which fortune gives an abundant
supply, he used without arrogance and without excus-
ing himself so that when he had them, he enjoyed
;
them without affectation, and when he had them not

he did not want them. No one could ever say of him
that he was either a sophist or a [home-bred] flippant
slave or a pedant but every one acknowledged him to
;
be a man ripe, perfect, above flattery, able to manage

his own and other men's affairs. Besides this, he hon-
ored those who were true philosophers, and he did not
reproach those who pretended to be philosophers, nor
yet was he easily led by them. He was also easy in
conversation, and he made himself agreeable without
any offensive affectation. He took a reasonable care
of his body's health, not as one who was greatly
attached to life, nor out of regard to personal appear-
ance, nor yet in a careless way, but so that, through his
own attention, he very seldom stood in need of the phy-
sician's art or of medicine or external applications. He
was most ready to give way without envy to those who
possessed any particular faculty, such as that of elo-
quence or knowledge of the law or of morals, or of any-
thing else and he gave them his help, that each might
;
enjoy reputation according to his deserts and he always

;
acted conformably to the institutions of his country,

without showing any affectation of doing so. Further,
he was not fond of change, nor unsteady, but he loved
same places, and to employ himself about
to stay in the
the same things and after his paroxysms of headache
;
he came immediately fresh and vigorous to his usual

occupations. His secrets were not many, but very
few and very rare, and these only about public mat-
ters; and he showed prudence and economy in the
exhibition of the public spectacles and the construction
of public buildings, his donations to the
people, and in
such things, for he was a man who looked to what
ought to be done, not to the reputation which is got
by a man's acts. He did not take the bath at unsea-
sonable hours he was not fond of building houses, nor
;
curious about what he eat, nor about the texture and

color of his clothes, nor about the beauty of his slaves.*
His dress came from Lorium, his villa on the coast, and
from Lanuvium generally.:}: We know how he behaved
to the toll-collector at Tusculum who asked his par-
don and such was all his behavior. There was in
;
him nothing harsh, nor implacable, nor violent, nor, as

one may say, anything carried to the sweating point :
but he examined all things severally, as if he had abun-

dance of time, and without confusion, in an orderly
way, vigorously and consistently. And that might be
applied to him which is recorded of Socrates, that he
was able both to abstain from, and to enjoy, those things
which many are too weak to abstain from, and cannot
enjoy without excess. But to be strong enough both
to bear the one and to be sober in the other is the
mark of a man who has a perfect and invincible soul,
such as he showed in the illness of Maximus.
17. To the gods I am indebted for having good
grandfathers, good parents, a good sister, good teach-
ers, good associates, good kinsmen and friends, nearly
* This is corrupt and the exact meaning is uncertain.
passage
Lorium was a villa on the coast north of Rome, and there
X
Antoninus was brought up, and he died there. This also is corrupt.
Xenophon, Memorab. i. 3. 15.

140 THE MEDITA TIONS OF
everything good. Further, I owe it to the gods that I

was not hurried into any offense against any of them,
though I had a disposition which, if opportunity had
offered, might have led me to do something of this
kind; but, through their favor, there never was such a

concurrence of circumstances as put me to the trial.
Further, I am thankful to the gods that I was not
longer brought up with my grandfather's concubine,
and that I my youth, and that
preserved the flower of
I did not make
proof of my virility before the proper
season, but even deferred the time that I was subjected
;
to a ruler and a father who was able to take away all

pride from me, and to bring me to the knowledge that
it is possible for a man to live in a palace without want-
ing either guards or embroidered dresses, or torches

and statues, and such-like show but it is in such a ;
man's power to bring himself very near to the fashion

of a private person, without being for this reason either
meaner in thought, or more remiss in action, with
respect to the things which must be done for the public
interest in a manner that befits a ruler. I thank the
gods for giving me such a brother,* who was able by

his moral character to rouse me to vigilance over my-
self, and who, at the same time, pleased me by his
respect and affection ;

that my children have not been
stupid nor deformed in body ; that I did not make more
proficiency in rhetoric, poetry, and the other studies,
in which I should perhaps have been completely en-
gaged, if I I was making progress in

had seen that
them ;
that I haste to place those who brought
made
me up in the station of honor, which they seemed to
* The emperor had no brother, except L. Verus, his brother by
adoption.
MARCUS A URELIUS ANTONINUS. 14;
desire, without putting them off with hope of my doing

it some time after, because they were then still young;
that I knew Apollonius, Eusticus, Maximus; that I
received clear and frequent impressions about living ac-
cording to nature, and what kind of a life that is, so that,
so far as depended on the gods, and their gifts and help,
and inspirations, nothing hindered me from forthwith
living according to nature, though I still fall short of
it through my own fault, and
though not observing the
admonitions of the gods, and, I may almost say, their
direct instructions that my body has held out so long in
;
such a kind of life that I never touched either Benedicta

;
or Theodotus, and that, after having fallen into ama-

tory passions, I was cured and, though I was often out
;
of humor with Rusticus, I never did anything of which

I had occasion to repent that, though it was my
;
mother's fate to die young, she spent the last years of her
life with me; that whenever I wished to
help any man
in his need, or on any other occasion, I was never told
that I had not the means of doing it and that to my-
;
selfthe same necessity never happened, to receive

any
thing from another; that I have such a wife,* so
obedient, and so affectionate, and so simple; that I had
abundance of good masters for my children and that ;
remedies have been shown to me by dreams, both

others, and against blood-spitting and giddiness;;}:
. . and that, when I had an inclination to philos-
,
ophy 1 did not fall into the hands of any sophist, and
that I did not waste my time on writers [of
histories],
or in the resolution of syllogisms, or
occupy myself
about the investigation of appearances in tne heavens ;
* See the
Life of Antoninus,
t Tliis is corrupt
for all these things require the help of the gods and
fortune.
Among the Quadi at the Granua.*
* The Quadi
lived in the southern part of Bohemia and Moravia;
and Antoninus made a campaign against them. (See the Life.)
Granua is probably the river Graan, which flows into the Danube.
If these words are genuine, Antoninus may have written this first
book during the war with the Quadi. In the first edition of Anto-
<
ninus, and in the older editions, the first three sections of the second
book make the conclusion of the first book. Gataker placed them at
the beginning of the second book.
II.
Begin the morning by saying to thyself, I shall meet

with the busybody, the ungrateful, arrogant, deceitful,
envious, unsocial. All these things happen to them
by reason of their ignorance of what is good and evil.
But I who have seen the nature of the good that it is
beautiful, and of the bad that it is ugly, and the nature
of him who does wrong, that it is akin to me, not [only]
of the same blood or seed, but that it participates in
[the same] intelligence and [the same] portion of the
divinity, I can neither be injured by any of them, for
no one can fix on me what is ugly, nor can I be angry
with my kinsman, nor hate him. For we are made
for co-operation, like feet, like hands, like eyelids, like
the rows of the upper and lower teeth.* To act
against one another then is contrary to nature ;
and it
is acting against one another to be vexed and to turn

away.
2. Whatever this is that I am, it is a little flesh and
breath, and the ruling part. Throw away thy books ;
no longer distract thyself it : is not allowed ;

but as if
thou wast now dying, despise the flesh it is blood and ;
bones and a network, a contexture of nerves, veins and

arteries. See the breath also, what kind of a thing it
is air, and not always the same, but every moment
;
sent out and again sucked in. The third then is the
*Xenophon, Mem. ii. 3. 18.

ruling part : Thou art an old man no

consider thus : ;
longer be a slave, no longer be pulled by the

let this
strings like a puppet to unsocial movements,

no longer
be either dissatisfied with thy present lot, or shrink
from the future.
3. All that from the gods is full of providence.
is
That which from fortune is not separated from

is
nature or without an interweaving and involution with

the things which are ordered by Providence. From
thence all things flow and there is besides necessity,
;
and that which is for the advantage of the whole uni-

verse, of which thou art a part. But that is good for
of nature which the nature of the whole
every part
brings, and what serves to maintain this nature. Now
the universe is preserved, as by the changes of the
elements so by the changes of things compounded of

the elements. Let these principles be enough for thee ;
let them always be fixed opinions. But cast away the

thirst after books, that thou mayest not die murmur-
ing, but cheerfully, truly, and from thy heart thankful

to the gods.
4. Remember how long thou hast been putting off
these things, and how often thou hast received an
opportunity from the gods, and yet dost
not use it.
Thou must now at last perceive of what universe thou
..art a part, and of what administrator
of the universe
thy existence is an efflux, and that a limit of time

is
fixed for thee, which if thou dost not use for clearing
away the clouds from thy mind, it will go and thou

wilt go,and it will never return.
5.Every moment think steadily as a Roman and a
man to do what thou hast in hand with perfect and
simple dignity, and feeling of affection, and freedom,
and justice and to give thyself relief from all other

;
thoughts. And thou wilt give thyself relief, if thou

doest every act of thy life as if it were the last, laying
aside all carelessness and passionate aversion from the
commands of reason, and all hypocrisy, and self-love,
and discontent with the portion which has been given
to thee. Thou seest how few the things are, the which
if a man lays hold of, he is able to live a life which
flows in quiet, and is like the existence of the gods ;
for the gods on their part will require nothing more

from him who observes these things.
6. Do wrong* to thyself, do wrong to thyself, my
soul but thou wilt no longer have the opportunity of
;
honoring thyself. Every man's life is sufficient. f But

thine isnearly finished, though thy soul reverences not
itself, but places thy felicity in the souls of others.
7. Do the things external which fall upon thee dis-
tract thee? Give thyself time to learn something new
and good, and cease to be whirled around. But then
thou must also avoid being carried about the other
way. For those too are triflers who have wearied
themselves in life by their activity, and } et have no 7
object to which to direct every movement, and, in a

word, all their thoughts.
8. Through not observing what
is in the mind of
another a man has seldom been seen to be unhappy ;
but those who do not observe the movements of their

own minds must of necessity be unhappy.
This thou must always bear in mind, what is the
9.
nature of the whole, and what is my nature, and how

this is related to that, and what kind of a
part it is of
what kind of a whole; and that there is no one who
*
Perhaps it should be " thou art doing violence to thyself."
hinders thee from always doing and saying the things

which are according to the nature of which thou art a
part.
10. Theophrastus, in his comparison of bad acts
such a comparison as one would make in accordance
with the common notions of mankind says, like a
true philosopher, that the offenses which are committed
through desire are more blameable than those which
are committed through anger For he who is excited
by anger seems to turn away from reason with a
certain pain and unconscious contraction but he who ;
offends through desire, being overpowered by pleasure,

seems to be in a manner more intemperate and more
womanish in his offenses. Kightly then, and in a
way worthy of philosophy, he said that the offense
which is committed with pleasure is more blameable
than that which is committed with pain and on the ;
whole the one is more like a person who has been first
wronged and through pain is compelled to be angry ;
but the other is moved by his own impulse to do

wrong, being carried toward doing something by desire.
11. Since it is possible* that thou mayest depart from
life this very moment, regulate every act and thought
accordingly.^: But to go away from among men, if

there are gods, is not a thing to be afraid of, for the
gods will not involve thee in evil but if indeed they do ;
not exist, or if they have no concern about human

affairs, what is it to me to live in a universe devoid of
gods or devoid of providence ? But in truth they do

exist, and they do care for human things, and they have
* Or it may mean "since it is in thy power to depart ;" which
gives a meaning somewhat different.
X See Cicero, Tuscul. i. 49.

put all the means in man's power to enable him not to

fall into real evils. And as to the rest, if there was
anything evil, they would have provided for this also,
that itshould be altogether in a man's power not to
fall into it. Now, that which does not make a man
worse, how can it make a man's life worse? But
neither through ignorance, nor having the knowledge,
but not the power to guard against or correct these
things, is it possible that the nature of the universe has
overlooked them nor is it possible that it has made so

;
great a mistake, either through want of power or wj.nt

of skill, that good and evil should happen indiscrimi-
nately to the good and the bad. But death certainly,
and life, honor and dishonor, pain and pleasure, all
these things equally happen to good men and bad,
being things which make us neither better nor worse.
Therefore they are neither good nor evil.
12. How quickly all these things disappear, in the
universe the bodies themselves, but in time the remem-
brance of them what is the nature of all sensible
;
things, and particularly those which attract with the

bait of pleasure or terrify by pain, or are noised abroad
by vapory fame how worthless, and contemptible,

;
and sordid and perishable, and dead they are all

this it is the part of the intellectual faculty to observe.
To observe toowho these are whose opinions and
voices give reputation; what death is, and the fact
that, if a man looks at it in itself, and by the abstract-
ive power of reflection resolves into their parts all the
things which present themselves to the imagination in
it, he will then consider it to be nothing else than an
operation of nature and if any one is afraid of an

;
operation of nature he is a child. This, however, is

not only an operation of nature, but it is also a thing

which conduces to the purposes of nature. To observe,
too, how man comes near to the deity, and by what
part of him, and when this part of man is so disposedf
(vi. 28).
13. Nothing is more wretched than a man who
traverses everything in a round, and pries into the
things beneath the earth, as the poet* says, and seeks

by conjecture what is in the minds of his neighbors,
without perceiving that it is sufficient to attend to the

demon within him, and to reverence it sincere] v. And
reverence of the demon consists in keeping it pure
from passion and thoughtlessness, and dissatisfaction
with what comes from gods and men. For the things
from the gods merit veneration for their excellence ;
and the things from men should be dear to us by
reason of kinship and sometimes even, in a manner,
;
they move our pity by reason of men's ignorance of

good and bad this defect being not less than that
;
which deprives us of the power of distinguishing

things that are white and black.
14. Though thou shouidest be going to live three
thousand years, and as many times ten thousand years,
still remember that no man loses any other life than
this which he now lives, nor lives any other than this
which he now loses. The longest and shortest are
thus brought to the same. For the present is the
same to all, though that which perishes is not the
same ;f and so that which is lost appears to be a mere
moment. For a man cannot lose either the past or the
future for what a man has not, how can any one take
:
this from him ? These two things then thou must

* Pindar in the Theaetetus of Plato. See xi. 1.
bear in mind : the one, that all things from eternity

are of like forms and come round in a circle, and that
it makes no difference whether a man shall see the
same things during a hundred years or two hundred, or
an infinite time; and the second, that the longest liver
and he who will die soonest lose just the same. For
the present is the only thing of which a man can be
deprived, if it is true that this is the only thing which
he has, and that a man cannot lose a thing if he has
it not.
Remember that all is opinion. For what was
15.
said by the Cynic Monimus is manifest and manifest :
too is the use of what was said, if a man receives what

may be got out of it as far as it is true.
The soul of man does violence to itself, first of
16.
all, when it becomes an abscess and, as it were, a tumor

on the universe, so far as it can. For to be vexed at
anything which happens is a separation of ourselves
from nature, in some part of which the natures of all
other things are contained. In the next place, the soul
does violence to itself when it turns away from any
man, or even moves toward him with the intention of
injuring, such as are the souls of those who are angry.
In the third place, the soul does violence to itself when
it is overpowered by pleasure or by pain. Fourthly,
when it plays a part, and does or
says anything insin-
cerely and untruly. Fifthly, when it allows any act
of its own and any movement to be without an aim,
and does anything thoughtlessly and without consider-
ing what it is, it being right that even the smallest
things be done with reference to an end and the end ;
of rational animals is to follow the reason and the law

of the most ancient city and polity.
17. Of humanlife the time is a point, and the sub-
stance in a flux, and the perception dull, and the

is
composition of the whole body subject to putrefaction,

and the soul a whirl, and fortune hard to divine, and
fame a thing devoid of judgment. And, to say all in a
word, everything which belongs to the body is a stream,
and what belongs to the soul is a dream and vapor, and
life is a warfare and a stranger's sojourn, and after-
fame is oblivion. What, then, is that which is able to

conduct a man ? One thing, and only one philosophy.
But this consists in keeping the demon within a man
free from violence and unharmed, superior to pains and
pleasures, doing nothing without a purpose, nor yet

falsely and with hypocrisy, not feeling the need of an-
other man's doing or not doing anything ;
and besides,
accepting all that happens, and all that is allotted, as
coming from thence, wherever it is, from whence he
himself came; and, finally, waiting for death with a
cheerful mind, as being nothing else than a dissolution
of the elements of which every living being is com-
pounded. But if there is no harm to the elements
themselves in each continually changing into another,
why should a man have any apprehension about the
change and dissolution of all the elements? For it
is according to nature, and nothing is evil which is
according to nature.
This in Carnuntum.*
* Carnuntum was a town of Pannonia, on the south side of the
Danube, about thirty miles east of Vindobona (Vienna). Orosius (vii.

15) and Eutropius (viii. 13) say that Antoninus remained three years
at Carnu 'turn during his war with the Marcomanni.
MARC US A URELIUS ANTONIN US. 151
III.
We ought to consider not only that our life is daily

wasting away and a smaller part of it is left, but an-
other thing also must be taken into the account, that if
a man should live longer it is quite uncertain whether
the understanding will still continue sufficient for the
comprehension of things, and retain the power of con-
templation which strives to acquire the knowledge of
the divine and the human. For if he shall begin to fall
into dotage, perspiration and nutrition and imagination
and appetite, and whatever else there is of the kind,
will not fail ;
but the power of making use of our-
selves, and filling up the measure of our duty, and
clearly separating allappearances, and considering
whether a man should now depart from life, and
whatever else of the kind absolutely requires a dis-
ciplined reason, all this is already extinguished. We
must make haste then, not only because we are daily
nearer to death, but also because the conception of
things and the understanding of them cease first.
2. We ought to observe also that even the things
which follow after the things which are produced
according to nature contain something pleasing and
attractive. For instance, when bread is baked some
parts are split at the surface, and these parts which
thus open, and have a certain fashion contrary to the
purpose of the baker's art, are beautiful in a manner,
and in a peculiar way excite a desire for eating. And

again, figs, when they are quite ripe, gape open, and in
the ripe olives the very circumstance of their being
near to rottenness adds a peculiar beauty to the fruit.
And the ears of corn bending down, and the lion's eye-
brows, and the foam which liows from the mouth of
wild boars, and many other things though they are
far from being beautiful, if a man should examine
them severally still, because they are consequent
upon the things which are formed by nature, help to
adorn them, and they please the mind so that if a ;
man should have a feeling and deeper insight with

respect to the things which are produced in the uni-
verse, there is hardly one of those which follow by way
of consequence which will not seem to him to be in a
manner disposed so as to give pleasure. And so he
will see even the real gaping jaws of wild beasts with
no pleasure than those which painters and sculp-
less
tors show by imitation; and in an old woman and an
old man he will be able to see a certain maturity and
comeliness ; and the attractive loveliness of young per-
sons he will be able to look on with chaste eyes and
;
many such things will present themselves, not pleasing

to every man, but to him only who has become truly
familiar with nature and her works.
3. Hippocrates after curing many diseases himself
fell and died. The Chaldasi foretold the deaths of
sick
many, and then fate caught them too. Alexander,

and Pompeius, and Caius Cassar, after so often com-
pletely destroying whole cities, and in battle cutting to
pieces many ten thousands of cavalry and infantry,
themselves too at last departed from life. Heraclitus,
after so many speculations on the conflagration of the
universe, was filled with water internally and died

smeared all over with mud. And lice destroyed Demo-
critus; and other lice killed Socrates. "What means
all this ? Thou hast embarked, thou hast made the
voyage, thou art come to shore get out. If indeed
;
to another life, there is no want of gods, not even

there. But if to a state without sensation, thou wilt
cease to be held by pains and pleasures, and to be a
slave to the vessel, which is as much inferior as that
which serves it is superior ;f for the one is intelligence
and deity the other is earth and corruption.
;
4. Do not waste the remainder of thy life in thoughts
about others, when thou dost not refer thy thoughts to

some object of common utility. For thou losest the
opportunity of doing something else when thou hast
such thoughts as these. What is such a person doing,
and why, and what is he saying, and what is he
thinking of, and what is he contriving, and whatever
else of the kind makes us wander away from the ob-
servation of our own ruling power. We ought then
to check in the series of our thoughts everything that
is without a purpose and useless, but most of all the
overcurious feeling and the malignant; and a man

should use himself to think of those things only about
which if one should suddenly ask, What hast thou now
in thy thoughts ? with perfect openness thou mightest

immediately answer This or that so that from thy
:
;
words it should be plain that everything in thee is

simple and benevolent, and such as befits a social
animal, and one that cares not for thoughts about
pleasure or sensual enjoyments at all, nor has any
rivalry or envy and suspicion, or anything else for
which thou wouldst blush if thou shouldst say that thou
hadst it in thy mind. For the man who is such and

no longer delays being among the number of the
best,
is like a
priest and minister of the gods, using too the
[deity] which is planted within him, which makes the
man uncontaminated by pleasure, unharmed by any
pain, untouched by any insult, feeling no wrong, a
fighter in the noblest fight, one who cannot be over-
powered by any passion, dyed deep with justice,
accepting with all his soul everything which happens
and is assigned to him as his portion and not; often,
nor yet without great necessity and for the
general
interest, imagining what another says, or does, or
thinks. For it is only what belongs to himself that
he makes the matter for his
activity and he con-
;
stantly thinks of that which is allotted to himself out

of the sum total of
things, and he makes his own acts
fair, and he is persuaded that his own portion is
good.
For the lot which is assigned to each man is carried
along with him and carries him along with it.f And
he remembers also that every rational animal is his
kinsman, and that to care for all men is according to
man's nature; and a man should hold on to the
opin-
ion not of all but of those only who confessedly live
according to nature. But as to those who live not so,
he always bears in mind what kind of men
they are,
both at home and from home, both
by night and by
day, and what they are, and with what men they live
an impure life. Accordingly, he does not value at all
the praise which comes from such men, since
they are
not even satisfied with themselves.
5. Labor not
unwillingly, nor without regard to the
common interest, nor without due consideration, nor
with distraction nor let studied ornament set off
;
thy
thoughts, and be not either a man of many words, or

busy about too many things. And further, let the
deity which is in thee be the guardian of a living
being, manly and of ripe age, and engaged in matter
political,and a Roman, and a ruler, who has taken his
post like a man waiting for the signal which summons
him from life, and ready to go, having need neither of
oath nor of any man's testimony. Be cheerful also,
and seek not external help nor the tranquillity which
others give. A
man then must stand erect, not be
kept erect by others.
6. If thou findest in human life anything better
than temperance, fortitude, and, in a
justice, truth,
word, anything better than thy own mind's self-
satisfaction in the things which it enables thee to do
according to right reason, and in the condition that is

assigned to thee without thy own choice ; if, I say,
thou seest anything better than this, turn to it with
all thy soul, and enjoy that which thou hast found to
be the best. But if nothing appears to be better than

the deity which is planted in thee, which has sub-
jected to itself all thy appetites, and carefully ex-
amines all the impressions, and, as Socrates said, has
detached itself from the persuasions of sense, and has
submitted itself to the gods, and cares for mankind ;
if thou findest everything else smaller and of less
value than this, give place to nothing else, for if thou

dost once diverge and incline to it, thou wilt no
longer without distraction be able to give the prefer-
ence to that good thing which is thy proper posses-
sion and thy own; for it is not right that anything of
any other kind, such as praise from the many, or
power, or enjoyment of pleasure, should come into
competition with that which is rationally and politi-

cally [or, practically] good. All these things, even
though they may seem to adapt themselves [to the
better things] in a small degree, obtain the superiority
all at once,and carry us away. But do thou, I say,
simply and freely choose the better, and hold to it.
But that which is useful is the better. "Well then, if it
isonly useful to thee as a rational being, keep to it ;
but if it is only useful to thee as an animal, say so,

and maintain thy judgment without arrogance only ;
take care that thou makest the inquiry by a sure

method.
7. Never value anything as profitable to thyself
which shall compel thee to break thy promise, to lose

thy self-respect, to hate any man, to suspect, to curse,
to act the hypocrite, to desire anything which needs
walls and curtains for he who has preferred to every-
;
thing else his own intelligence and demon and the

worship of its excellence, acts no tragic part, does not
groan, will not need either solitude or much company ;
and, what is chief of all, he will live without either

pursuing or flying from [death] ;* but whether for a
longer or a shorter time he shall have the soul in-
closed in the body, he cares not at all for even if he ;
must depart immediately, he will go as readily as if he

were going to do anything else which can be done
with decency and order taking care of this only, all
;
through life, that his thoughts turn not away from

anything which belongs to an intelligent animal and a
member of a civil community.
In the mind of one who is chastened and purified
8.
thou wilt find no corrupt matter, nor impurity, nor

*
Cornp. ix. 3.
any sore skinned over. Nor is his life incomplete

when fate overtakes him, as one may say of an actor
who leaves the stage before ending and finishing the
play. is in him nothing servile, nor
Besides, there
affected,nor too closely bound [to other things], nor
yet detached* [from other things], nothing worthy of
blame, nothing which seeks a hiding-place.
9. Reverence the
faculty which produces opinion.
On this it entirely depends whether there
faculty
thy ruling part any opinion inconsistent
shall exist in
with nature and the constitution of the rational
animal. And this faculty promises freedom from
hasty judgment, and friendship toward men, and
obedience to the gods.
10. Throwing away, then, all things, hold to these
only which are few ;
and besides bear in mind that
every man lives only this present time, which is an in-
divisible point, and that all the rest of his life is either
past or it is uncertain. Short then is the time which
every man lives, and small the nook of the earth
where he lives and short too the longest posthumous
;
fame, and even this only continued by a succession of

poor human beings, who will very soon die, and who
know not even themselves, much less him who died
long ago.
11. To the aids which have been mentioned let this
one still Make for thyself a definition or
be added :
description of the thing which is presented to thee, so

as to see distinctly what kind of a thing it is in its
substance, inits nudity, in its
complete entirety, and
tell thyself its proper name, and the names- of the
things of which it has been compounded, and into
* 34.
Comp. viii.
which it will be resolved. For nothing is so productive

of elevation of mind as to be able to examine
methodically and truly every object which is presented
to thee in life, and always to look at things so as to
see at the same time what kind of universe this is,
and what kind of use everything performs in it, and
what value everything has with reference to the
whole, and what with reference to man, who is a
citizen of the highest city, of which all other cities
are like families what each thing is, and of what it is
;
composed, and how long it is the nature of this thing

to endure which now makes an impression on me, and
what virtue I have need of with respect to it, such as
gentleness, manliness, truth, fidelity, simplicity, con-
tentment, and the rest. Wherefore, on every occasion
a man should say This comes from God ; and this is
:
according to the apportionment! and spinning of the

thread of destiny, and such-like coincidence and
chance and this is from one of the same stock, and a
;
kinsman and partner, one who knows not however

what is according to his nature. But I know for this ;
reason I behave toward him according to the natural

law of fellowship with benevolence and justice. At
the same time, however, in things indifferent* I
attempt to ascertain the value of each.
12. If thou workest at that which is before thee, fol-
lowing right reason seriously, vigorously, calmly, with-

out allowing anything else to distract thee, but keep-
ing thy divine part pure, as if thou shouldst be bound
to give it back immediately if thou holdest to this, ;
expecting nothing, fearing nothing, but satisfied with

* "
' '
Est et horum quae media appellamus grande discrimen.
Seneca, Ep. 82.
thy present activity according to nature, and with

heroic truth in every word and sound which thou
utterest, thou wilt live happy. And there is no man
who is able to prevent this.
13. As
physicians have always their instruments and
knives ready for cases which suddenly require their
skill, so do thou have principles ready for the under-
standing of things divine and human, and for doing

everything, even the smallest, with a recollection of
the bond which unites the divine and human to one
another. For neither wilt thou do anything well
which pertains to man without at the same time hav-
ing a reference to things divine nor the contrary.
;
14. No longer wander at hazard for neither wilt

;
thou read thy own memoirs,* nor the acts of the

ancient Romans and
Hellenes, and the selections from
books which thou wast reserving for thy old age4
Hasten then to the end which thou hast before thee,
and, throwing away idle hopes, come to thy own aid,
if thou carest at all for thyself, while it is in
thy
power.
15. They know not how many things are signified
by the words stealing, sowing, buying, keeping quiet,

seeing what ought to be done for this is not effected
;
by the eyes, but by another kind of vision.

16. Body, soul, intelligence to the body belong
;
sensations, to the soul appetites, to the intelligence

principles. To receive the impressions of forms by
*
Memoranda, notes and the like. See i. 17.
% Compare Fronto, ii. 9; a letter of Marcus to Fronto, who was

then consul: "Feci tamen mihi per hos dies excerpta ex libris
sexaginta in quinque tomis." But he says some of them were small
books.
means of appearances belongs even to animals; to be

of desire belongs both to wild
pulled by the strings*
beasts and to men who have made themselves into
women, and to a Phalaris and a Nero and to have ;
the intelligence that guides to the things which appear

suitable belongs also to those who do not believe in the
gods, and who betray their country,

and do their
impure deeds when they have shut the doors. If then
everything else is common to all that I
have mentioned,
there remains that which is peculiar to the good man,
to be pleased and content with what happens, and with
the thread which is spun for him and not to defile ;
the which is planted in his breast, nor disturb

divinity
it by a crowdof images, but to preserve it tranquil,
following it
obediently as a god, neither saying any-
con-
thing contrary to the truth, nor doing anything
trary to justice. And if all men refuse
to believe that
he lives a simple, modest, and contented life, he is
neither angry with any of them, nor does he deviate
from the way which leads to the end of life, to which
a man ought to come pure, tranquil, ready to depart,
and without any compulsion perfectly reconciled to his
lot.
* De Legibus, and Antoninus, 2; vii. 3; xii. 19.

ii.
Compare Plato,
MARCUS A UBELIUS ANTONINUS. 161
IV.
That which rules within, when it is according to
nature, is so affected with respect to the events which
happen, that it always easily

adapts itself to that
which is possible and is presented to it. For it requires
no definite material, but it moves toward its purpose,*
under certain conditions however; and it makes a
material for itself out of that which opposes it, as fire
lays hold of what falls into it, by which a small light
would have been extinguished but when the fire is :
strong, it soon appropriates to itself the matter which

is
heaped on it, and consumes it, and rises higher by
means of this very material.
Let no act be clone without a purpose, nor other-
2.
wise than according to the perfect principles of art.

3. Men seek retreats for themselves, houses in the
country, sea-shores and mountains and thou too art ;
wont to desire such things very much. But this is

altogether a mark of the most common sort of men,
for it is in thy power whenever thou shalt choose to
retire into thyself. For nowhere, either with more
quiet or more freedom from trouble, does a man retire
than into his own soul, particularly w hen he has r
within him such thoughts that by looking into them

he is immediately in perfect tranquillity and I affirm ;
* "towards tliat which leads." The exact translation

Literally
is doubtful. See Gataker's note.
that tranquillity nothing else than the good order-

is
ing of the mind. Constantly then give to thyself this

retreat, and renew thyself; and let thy principles be
brief and fundamental, which, as soon as thou shalt
recur to them, will be sufficient to cleanse the soul
completely, and to send thee back free from all discon-
tent with the things to which thou returnest. Fo*
with what art thou discontented % With the badness
of men? Recall to thy mind this conclusion, that
rational animals exist for one another, and that to
endure is a part of justice, and that men do wrong
involuntarily and consider how many already, after
;
mutual enmity, suspicion, hatred and fighting, have

been stretched dead, reduced to ashes and be quiet at
;
last. But perhaps thou art dissatisfied with that

which is assigned to thee out of the universe. Recall
to thy recollection this alternative ; either there is
providence or atoms [fortuitous concurrence of things] ;
or remember the arguments by which it has been
proved that the world is a kind of political community
[and be quiet at last]. But perhaps corporeal things
will still fasten upon thee. Consider then further that
the mind mingles not with the breath, whether moving
gently or violently, when it has once drawn itself apart
and discovered its own power, and think also of all
that thou hast heard and assented to about pain and
pleasure [and be quiet at last]. But perhaps the desire
of the thing called fame will torment thee. See how
soon everything is forgotten, and look at the chaos of
infinite time on each side of [the present], and the
emptiness of applause, and the changeableness and

want of judgment in those who pretend to give praise,
and the narrowness of the ;>ace within which it i
MARCUS A URELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 63
circumscribed [and be quiet at last]. For the whole

earth is a point, and how small a nook in it is this thy
dwelling, and how few are there in it, and what kind
of people are they who will praise thee.
This then remains : Remember to retire into this
littleterritory of thy own,* and, above all, do not dis-
tract or strain thyself, but be free, and look at things
as a man, as a human being, as a citizen, as a mortal.
But among the things readiest to thy hand to which
thou shalt turn, there be these, which are two. One
let
is that things do not touch the soul, for they are
external and remain immovable but our perturbations ;
come only from the opinion which is within. The

other is that all these things, which thou seest, change
immediately and will no longer be and constantly ;
bear in mind how many of these changes thou hast

already witnessed. The universe is transformation :
life isopinion.
4. If our intellectual part is common, the reason
also, in respect of which we are rational beings, is

common ;
if this is so, common also is the reason
which commands us what to and what not to do
do, ;
ifthis is so, there is a common law also if this is so, ;
we are fellow-citizens if this is so, we are members of

;
some political community if this is so, the world is in

;
a manner a state.^; For of what other common politi-

cal community will any one say that the whole human
race are members? And from thence, from this com-
mon political community comes also our very intel-
lectual faculty and reasoning faculty and our capacity
* Tecum curta supellex.
habita, noris quam sit tibi Persius,
iv. 52.
| Compare Cicero De Legibus, i. 7.

forlaw or whence do they come ? For as my earthly

;
part is a portion given to me from certain earth, and

that which is watery from another element, and that
which is hot and fiery from some peculiar source (for
nothing comes out of that which is nothing, as nothing
also returns to non-existence), so also the intellectual
part comes from some source.

5. Deathis such as
generation is, a mystery of
nature a composition out of the same elements, and a
;
decomposition into the same and altogether not a

;
thing of which any man should be ashamed, for it is

not contrary to [the nature of] a reasonable animal,
and not contrary to the reason of our constitution.
6. It is natural that these thingsshould be done by
such persons, it is a matter of necessity and if a man
;
will not have it so, he will not allow the fig-tree to

have juice. But by all means bear this in mind, that
within a very short time both thou and he will be
dead and soon not even your names will be left
;
behind.
7. Take away thy opinion, and then there is taken
away the complaint, " I have been harmed." Take
away the complaint, " I have been harmed," and the
harm is taken away.
8. That which does not make a man worse than he
was, also does not make his life worse, nor does it
harm him either from without or from within.
9. The nature of that which is [universally] useful
has been compelled to do this.

10. Consider that everything which happens, hap-
pens justly, and if thou observest carefullj thou wilt

r
,
find it to be so. I do not say only with respect to the
continuity of the series of things, but with respect to

what is just, and as if it were done by one who assigns

to each thing Observe then as thou hast
its value.
begun and whatever thou doest, do it in conjunction

;
with this, the being good, and in the sense in which a

man is properly understood to be good. Keep to this
in every action.
11.Do not have such an opinion of things as he has
who does thee wrong, or such as he wishes thee to
have, but look at them as they are in truth.
12. A man should always have these two rules in
readiness the one, to do only whatever the reason of
;
the ruling and legislating faculty may suggest for the

use of men the other, to change thy opinion, if there
;
is any one at hand who sets thee right and moves thee
from any opinion. But this change of opinion must

proceed only from a certain persuasion, as of what is
just or of common advantage, and the like,
not because
it
appears pleasant or brings reputation.
13. Hast thou reason? I have. Why then dost not
thou use it ? For if this does its own work, what else
dost thou wish ?
14. hast existed as a part. Thou shalt dis-

Thou
appear in that which produced thee but rather thou ;
shalt be received back into its seminal principle by

transmutation.
15. Many grains of frankincense on the same altar ;
one falls before, another falls after ; but it makes no

difference.
Within ten days thou wilt seem a god to those
16.
to whom thou art now a beast and an ape, if thou wilt
return to thy principles and the worship of reason.
17. Do not act as if thou w ert going to
r
live ten
thousand years. Death hangs over thee. While thou
livest, while it is in thy power, be good.
18. How much

trouble he avoids who does not look
to see what his neighbor says or does or thinks, but
only to what he does himself, that it may be just and
pure; or as Agathonf says, look not round at the de-
praved morals of others, but run straight along the
line without deviating from it.
19. He who has a vehement desire for posthumous
fame does not consider that every one of those who
remember him will himself also die very soon then ;
again also they who have succeeded them, until the

whole remembrance shall have been extinguished as it
is transmitted through men who foolishly admire and
perish. But suppose that those who will remember

are even immortal, and that the remembrance will be
immortal, what then is this to thee? And I say not
what is it to the dead, but what is it to the living.
"What is praise, exceptf indeed so far as it hasf a cer-
tain utility ? For thou now rejectest unseasonably the
gift of nature, clinging to something else. . .
.f
Everything which is in any way beautiful is

20.
beautiful in itself, and terminates in itself, not having
praise as part of itself. Neither worse then nor better

isa thing made by being praised. I affirm this also
of the things which are called beautiful by the vulgar ;
for example, material things and works of art. That
which is really beautiful has no need of anything not ;
more than law, not more than truth, not more than
benevolence or modesty. Which of these things is
beautiful because it is praised, or spoiled by being
blamed ? Is such a thing as an emerald made worse
than it was, if it is not praised ? or gold, ivory, purple,
a lyre, a little knife, a flower, a shrub ?
21. If souls continue to exist, how does the air con-
MARCUS A URELIUS A NTONINUS. 167
tain them from eternity? But how does the earth

contain the bodies of those who have been buried
from time so remote ? For as here the mutation of
these bodies after a certain continuance, whatever it
be, and their dissolution make room for
may other
dead bodies; so the souls which are removed into the
air after subsisting for some time are transmuted and dif-
fused, and assume a fiery nature by being

received into
the seminal intelligence of the universe, and in this way
make room for the fresh souls which come to dwell
there. And this is the answer which a man might
to exist.
give on the hypothesis of souls continuing
But we must not only think of the number of bodies
which are thus buried, but also of the number of
animals which are daily eaten by us and the other
animals. For what a number is consumed, and thus
in a manner buried in the bodies of those who feed on
them ? And nevertheless this earth receives them by
reason of the changes [of these bodies] into blood,
and the transformations into the aerial, or the fiery
element.
What is the investigation into the truth in this mat-
ter ? The division into that which is material and that
which the cause of form [the formal] (vii. 29).
is
22. not be whirled about, but in every movement

Do
have respect to justice, and on the occasion of every
impression maintain the faculty of comprehension [or
understanding].
23. Everything harmonizes with me, which is har-
monious to thee, O Universe. Nothing for me is too
early nor too late, which is in due
time for thee.
Everything is fruit to me which thy seasons bring, O
Nature from thee are all things, in thee are all things,
:
X6S THE MEDITATIONS OF
to thee all things return. The poet says, Dear City

of Cecrops and wilt not thou say, Dear city of Zeus?
;
24. thyself with few things, says

the philos-
Occupy
opher, thou wouldst be tranquil. But consider if it
if
would not be better to say, Do what is necessary, and

whatever the reason of the animal which is naturally
social requires,and as it requires. For this brings not
only the tranquillity which comes
from doing well,
but also that which comes from doing few things.
For the greatest part of what we say and do being un-
necessary, if a man takes this away,
he will have more
leisure and uneasiness.
less Accordingly on every
occasion a should ask himself, Is this one of the
man
unnecessary things ? Now a man should take away
not
only unnecessary acts, but also unnecessary thoughts,

for thus superfluous acts will not follow after.
25. Try how the life of the good man suits thee,
the life of him who is satisfied with his portion out of
the whole, and satisfied with his own just acts and
benevolent disposition.
26. Hast thou seen those things? Look also at
these. Do not disturb thyself. Make thyself all
simplicity.Does any one do wrong? It is to himself
that he does the wrong. Has anything happened to
thee ? Well, out of the universe from the beginning
everything which happens has been apportioned
and
spun out to thee. In a word, thy life is short.
Thou
must turn to profit the present by the aid of reason
and justice. Be sober in thy relaxation.
27. Either it is a well arranged universe* or a chaos
huddled together, but still a universe. But can a
* Antonius here uses the word ho6/uoS both in the sense of tha
Universe and of Order; and it is difficult to express his meaning.
certain order subsist in thee, and disorder in the All %

And this, too, when all things are so separated and
diffused and sympathetic.
28. A black character, a womanish character, a
stubborn character, bestial, childish, animal, stupid,
counterfeit, scurrilous, fraudulent, tyrannical.
29. If he is a stranger to the universe who does not
know what is in it, no less is he a stranger who does
not know what is going on it. He is a runaway, who
flies from he is blind, who shuts the eyes
social reason ;
of the understanding he is poor, who has need of

;
another, and has not from himself all things which are
useful for life. He is an abscess on the universe who
withdraws and separates himself from the reason of
our common nature through being displeased with the
things which happen, for the same nature produces
this, and has produced thee too he is a piece rent
;
asunder from the state, who tears his own soul from
that of reasonable animals, which is one.
30. The one is a philosopher without a tunic, and the
other without a book here is another half-naked.
;
Bread I have not, he says, and I abide by reason.

And I do not get the means of living out of my learn-
ing^ and I abide [by my reason].
31. Love the art, poor as it may be, which thou
hast learned, and be content with it and pass through ;
the rest of life like one who has intrusted to the gods
with his whole soul all that he has, making thyself
neither the tyrant nor the slave of any man.
32. Consider, for example, the times of Yespasian.
Thou wilt see all these things, people marrying, bring-
ing up children, sick, dying, warring, feasting, traffick-

ing, cultivating the ground, flattering, obstinately
arrogant, suspecting, plotting, wishing for some to die,

grumbling about the present, loving, heaping up
treasure, desiring consulship, kingly power. "Well,
then, that life of these people no longer exists at all.
Again, remove to the times of Trajan. Again, all is
the same. Their life, too, is gone. In like manner
view also the other epochs of time and of whole
nations, and see how many after great efforts soon fell
and were resolved into the elements. But chiefly thou
shouldst think of those whom thou hast thyself known
distracting themselves about idle things, neglecting to
do what was in accordance with their proper constitu-
tion, and to hold firmly to this and to be content with
it. And herein it is necessary to remember that the
attention given to everything has its proper value and
proportion. For thus thou wilt not be dissatisfied, if
thou appliest thyself to smaller matters no further than
is fit.
33. The words which were formerly familiar are

now antiquated ;
names of those who were
so also the
famed of old, are now in a manner antiquated :
Camillus, Csbso, Volesus, Leonnatus, and a little after

also Scipio and Cato, then Augustus, then also Hadri-
anus and Antoninus. For all things soon pass away
and become a mere tale, and complete oblivion soon
buries them. And I say this of those who have shone
in awondrous way. For the rest, as soon as they
have breathed out their breath, they are gone, and no
man speaks of them. And, to conclude the matter,
what is even an eternal remembrance ? A mere
nothing. What, then, is that about which we ought to
employ our serious pains ? This one thing, thoughts
and acts social, and words which never lie, and a
just,
disposition which gladly accepts all that happens, as

necessary, as usual, as flowing from a principle and
source of the same kind.
34. Willingly give thyself up to Clotho [one of the
fates],allowing her to spin thy thread f into whatever
things she pleases.
35. only for a day, both that w hich
r
Everything is
remembers and that which is remembered.

36. Observe constantly that all things take
place by
change, and accustom thyself to consider that the
nature of the Universe loves nothing so much as to
change the things which are and to make new things
like them. For everything that exists is in a manner
the seed of that which will be. But thou art thinking
only of seeds which are cast into the earth or into a
womb but this is a very vulgar notion.
:
37. Thou
wilt soon die, and thou art not yet simple,
nor free from perturbations, nor "without suspicion of
being hurt by external things, nor kindly disposed
toward all nor dost thou yet place wisdom only in
;
acting justly.
38. Examine men's ruling principles, even those of
the wise, what kind of things they avoid, and what
kind they pursue.
39. What is evil to thee does not subsist in the
ruling principle of another nor yet in ; any turning
and mutation of thy corporeal covering. Where is it
then? It is in that part of thee in which subsists the

power of forming opinions about evils. Let this power
then not form [such] opinions, and all is well. And if
that which is nearest to it, the poor body, is cut, burnt,
filled with matter and rottenness, nevertheless let the
part which forms opinions about these things be quiet,

that is, let it judge that nothing is either bad or good
which can happen equally to the bad man and the good.
For that which happens equally to him who lives con-
trary to nature and to him who lives according to
nature, is neither according to nature nor contrary to
nature.
40. Constantly regard the universe as one living
being, having one substance and one soul; and observe

how all things have reference to one perception, the
perception of this one living being and how all things
;
act with one and how all things are the

movement ;
co-operating causes of all things which exist observe ;
too the continuous spinning of the thread and the

contexture of the web.
41. Thou art a little soul bearing about a corpse, as
Epictetus used to say (i.

c. 19).
42. It is no for things to undergo change,

evil
and no good for things to subsist in consequence of
change,
43. Time is like a river made up of the events which
happen, and a violent stream for as soon as a thing

;
has been seen, it is carried away, and another comes in

its place,and this will be carried away too.
44. Everything which happens is as familiar and
well known as the rose in spring and the fruit in
summer for such is disease, and death, and calumny,
;
and treachery, and whatever else delights fools or

vexes them.
45. In the series of things those which follow are
always aptly fitted to those which have gone before ;^

for this series is not like a mere enumeration of dis-
jointed things, which has only a necessary sequence,

but it is a rational connection and as all existing
:
things are arranged together harmoniously, so the

things which come into existence exhibit no mere suc-
cession, but a certain wonderful relationship (vi. 38 ;
vii. 9 ;
vii. 75, note).
46.Always remember the saying of Heraclitus, that
the death of earth is to become water, and the death
of water is to become air, and the death of air is to
become fire, and reversely. And think too of him who
forgets whither the way leads, and that men quarrel
with that with which they are most constantly in
communion, the reason which governs the universe ;
and the things which they daily meet with seem to

them strange and consider that we ought not to act
:
and speak as if we were asleep, for even in sleep we

seem to act and speak and that f we ought not, like
;
children who learn from their parents, simply to act

and speak as we have been taught.f
47. If any god told thee that thou shalt die to-mor-
row, or certainly on the day after to-morrow, thou

wouldst not care much whether it was on the third
day or on the morrow, unless thou wast in the highest
degree mean-spirited for how small is the differ-
ence? so think it no great thing to die after as many
years as thou canst name rather than to-morrow.
48. Think continually how many physicians are
dead after often contracting their eyebrows over the
sick and how many astrologers after predicting with
;
great pretensions the deaths of others and how many

T
;
philosophers after endless discourses on death or im-

mortality ;
how many heroes after killing thousands ;
and how many tyrants who have used their power

over men's lives with terrible insolence as if they were
immortal ; and how many cities are entirely dead, so
174 THE MEDJTA TIOJVS OF
to speak, Helice* and Pompeii and Herculaneum, and

others innumerable. Add to the reckoning all whom
thou hast known, one after another. One man after
burying another has been laid out dead, and another
buries him and all this in a short time.
;
To conclude,
always observe how ephemeral and worthless human
things are, and what was yesterday a little mucus, to-
morrow will be a mummy or ashes. Pass then through
this little space of time conformably to nature, and
end thy journey in content, just as an olive falls off
when it is ripe, blessing nature who produced it, and
thanking the tree on which it grew.
49. Be like the promotory against which the waves
continually break, but it stands firm and tames the

fury of the water around it.
Unhappy am I, because this has happened to me
Not so, but Happy am I, though this has happened to
me, because I continue free from pain, neither crushed
by the present nor fearing the future. For such a
thing as this might have happened to every man but ;
every man would not have continued free from pain

on such an occasion. Why, then, is that rather a mis-
fortune than this a good fortune ? And dost thou in
all cases call that a man's misfortune, which is not a
deviation from man's nature ? And does a thing seem to

thee to be a deviation from man's nature, when it is not
contrary to the will of man's nature? Well, thou kno west
the will of nature. Will then this which has happened
prevent thee from being just, magnanimous, temper-
ate, prudent, secure against inconsiderate opinions and
*
Ovid, Met. xv. 293:
Si quaeras Helicen et Burin Acliaidas urbes,
Invenies sub aquis.
falsehood will it prevent thee from having modesty,

;
freedom, and everything else, by the presence of

which man's nature obtains all that is its own ? Re-
member, too, on every occasion which leads thee to
vexation to apply this principle: not that this is a mis-
fortune, but that to bear it nobty is good fortune.
50. It is a vulgar, but still a useful help toward con-
tempt of death, to pass in review those who have
tenaciously stuck to life. What more then have they
gained than those who have died early? Certainly
they lie in their tombs somewhere at last, Cadicianus,
Fabius, Julianus, Lepidus, or any one else like them,
Avho have carried out many to be buried, and then
were carried out themselves. Altogether the inter-
val is small [between birth and death] ;
and consider
with how much trouble, and in company with what
sort of people, and in what a feeble body this interval
is laboriously passed. Do
not then consider life a
thing of any value, f For look to the immensity of
time behind thee, and to the time which is before thee,
another boundless space. In this infinity then what is
the difference between him who lives three days and
him who lives three generations ?*
51. Always run to the short way and;
the short way
is the naturalaccordingly say and do everything in
:
conformity with the soundest reason. For such a

purpose frees a man from trouble, f and warfare, and
all artifice and ostentatious display,
* An Homer's Nestor, who was living at the war of
allusion to
Troy among the third generation, like old Parr with his hundred and
fifty-two years, and some others in modern times who have beaten
Parr by twenty or thirty years, if it is true; and yet they died at last.
V.
In the morning when thou risest unwillingly, let this
thought be present I am rising to the work of a
human being. Why then am I dissatisfied if I am
going to do the things for which I exist and for which
I was brought into the world ? Or have I been made
for this, to lie in the bedclothes and keep myself warm ?
But this is more pleasant. Dost thou exist then to
take thy pleasure, and not at all for action or exer-
tion ? Dost thou not see the little plants, the little
birds, the ants, the spiders, the bees working together
to put in order their several parts of the universe ?
And art thou unwilling to do the work of a human
being-, and dost thou not make haste to do that wiiich
is according to thy nature? But it is necessary to take
rest also. It is necessary however nature has fixed
:
bounds to this too she has fixed bounds both to eating

:
and drinking, and yet thou goest beyond these bounds,

beyond what is sufficient yet in thy acts it is not so,
;
but thou stoppest short of what thou canst do. So

thou lovest not thyself, for if thou didst, thou wouldst
love thy nature and her will. But those who love
their several arts exhaust themselves in working at
them unwashed and without food; but thou valuest
thy own nature less than the turner values the turning
art, or the dancer the dancing art, or the lover of
money values his money, or the vainglorious man his
glory. And such men, when they

little have a violent
affection to a thing, choose neither to eat nor to sleep
rather than to perfect the things which they care for.
But are the acts which concern society more vile in
thy eyes and less worthy of thy labor ?
2. How easy it is to repel and to wipe away every
impression which is troublesome or unsuitable,

and
immediately to be in all tranquilly.
3. Judge every word and deed which are according
to nature to be fit for thee and be not diverted by

;
the blame which follows from any people, nor by their

words, but if a thing is good to be done or said, do not
consider it unworthy of thee. For those persons have
their peculiar leading principle and follow their pecu-
liar movement which things do not thou regard, but
;
go straight on, following thy own nature and the com-

mon nature and the way of both is one.
;
4. I go through the things which happen according
to nature until I shall fall and rest, breathing out my

breath into that element out of which I daily draw it
in, and falling upon that earth
out of which my father
collected the seed, and my mother the blood, and my
nurse the milk out of which during so many years I
;
have been supplied with food and drink which bears

;
me when I tread on it and abuse it for so many

purposes.
5. Thou sayest, men cannot admire the sharpness of
thy wits Be it so but there are many other things

;
of which thou canst not say, I am not formed for them

by nature. Show those qualities then which are alto-
gether in thy power sincerity, gravity, endurance of
:
labor, aversion to pleasure, contentment with thy por-

tion and with few things, benevolence, frankness, no
love of superfluity, freedom, from trifling magnanimity.

Dost thou not see how many qualities thou art imme-
diately able to exhibit, in which there is no excuse of
natural incapacity and unfitness, and yet thou still
remainest voluntarily below the mark? or art thou
compelled through being defectively furnished by
nature to murmur, and to be stingy, and to flatter, and
to find fault with thy poor body, and to try to please
men, and to make great display, and to be so restless
in thy mind ? No, by the gods but thou mightest
;
have been delivered from these things long ago. Only

if in truth thou canst be charged with being rather
slow and dull of comprehension, thou must exert thy-

self about this also, not neglecting it nor yet taking
pleasure in thy dullness.

6. One man, when he has done a service to another,
isready to set it clown to his account as a favor con-

ferred. Another is not ready to do this, but still in his
own mind he thinks of the man as his debtor, and he
knows what he has done. A
third in a manner does
not even know what he has done, but he is like a vine
which has produced grapes, and seeks for nothing
more after it has once produced its proper fruit. As a
horse when he has run, a dog when he has tracked the
game, a bee when it has made the honey, so a man
when he has done a good act, does not call out for
others to come and see, but he goes on to another act,
as a vine goes on to produce again the grapes in
season. Must a man then be one of these, who in a
manner act thus without observing it ? Yes. But this
very tiling is necessary, the observation of what a man
is
doing; for, it may be said, it is characteristic of the
social animal to perceive that he is working in a social
MAROUe A URELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 79
manner, and indeed to wish that his social partner also

should perceive it. It is true what thou say est, but
thou dost not rightly understand what is now said ;
and for this reason thou wilt become one of those of
whom I spoke before, for even they are misled by a
certain show of reason. But if thou wilt choose to
understand the meaning of what is said, do not fear
that for this reason thou wilt omit any social act.
7. A
prayer of the Athenians Eain, rain, O dear
:
Zeus, down on the plowed fields of the Athenians,

and on the plains. In truth we ought not to pray at
all, or we ought to pray in this simple and noble
fashion.
8. Just as we must understand when it is said, That
iEsculapius prescribed to this man horse-exercise, or

bathing in cold water, or going without shoes, so we
must understand it when it is said, That the nature of
the universe prescribed to this man disease or mutila-
tion or loss of anything else of the kind. For in the
first case prescribed means something like this: he
prescribed this for this man as a thing adapted to pro-

cure health ; and in the second case it means, that
which happens* to [or suits] every man is fixed in a
manner for him suitably to his destiny. For this is
what we mean when we say that things are suitable to
us, as the workmen say of squared stones in walls or
the pyramids, that they are suitable, when they fit
them to one another in some kind of connection. For
there is altogether one fitness [harmony]. And as
the universe is made up out of ail bodies to be such a
body as it is, so out of all existing causes necessity
[destiny] is made up to be such a cause as it is. And
*In this section there is a play on the meaning of dvpfiaivetv.
even those who are completely ignorant understand

what I mean, for they say, It [necessity, destiny]
brought this to such a person. This, then, was
brought and this was prescribed to him. Let us then
receive these things, as well as those which JEsculapiu?
prescribes. Many, as a matter of course, even among

his prescriptions, are disagreeable, but we accept them
in the hope of health. Let the perfecting and accom-
plishment of the things, which the common nature
judges to be good, be judged by thee to be of the same
kind as thy health. And so accept everything which
happens, even if it seem disagreeable, because it leads
to this, to the health of the universe and to the pros-
perity and felicity of Zeus [the universe]. For he

would not have brought on any man what he has brought,
if it were not useful for the whole. Neither does the
nature of anything, whatever it may be, cause any-
thing which is not suitable to that which is directed by
it. For two reasons, then, it is right to be content
with that which happens to thee the one, because it
;
was done for thee and prescribed for thee, and in a

manner had reference to thee, originally from the
most ancient causes spun with thy destiny and the ;
other, because even that which comes severally to

every man is to the power which administers the uni-
verse a cause of felicity and perfection, nay even of its
very continuance. For the integrity of the whole is
mutilated, if thou cuttest off anything whatever from
the conjunction and the continuity either of the parts
or of the causes. And thou dost cut off, as far as it is
in thy power, when thou art dissatisfied, and in a
manner triest to put anything out of the way.
9. Be not disgusted, nor
discouraged, nor dissatisfied,
ifthou dost not succeed in doing everything according

to right principles; but when thou hast failed, return
back again, and be content if the greater part of what
thou doest is consistent with man's nature, and love
this to which thou returnest and do not return to
;
philosophy as if she were a master, but act like those

who have sore eyes and apply a bit of sponge and egg,
or as another applies a plaster, or drenching with
water. For thus thou wilt not fail to f obey reason
and thou wilt repose in it. And rem ember that philoso-
phy requires only the things which thy nature requires;
but thou wouldst have something else which is not ac-
cording to nature. It may be objected, Why, what
is more agreeable than this [which I am doing]? But
is not this the very reason why pleasure deceives us?
And consider if magnanimity, freedom, simplicity,

equanimity, piety, are not more agreeable. For what
is more agreeable than wisdom itself, when thou
thinkest of the security and the happy course of all
things which depend on the faculty of understanding
and knowledge?
10. Things are in such a kind of envelopment that
they have seemed to philosophers, not a few nor those

common philosophers, altogether unintelligible; nay
even to the Stoics themselves they seem difficult to
understand. And all our assent is changeable; for
where is the man who never changes? Carry thy
thoughts then to the objects themselves, and consider
how short-lived they are and worthless, and that they
may be in the possession of a filthy wretch or a whore or
a robber. Then turn to the morals of those who live
with thee, and it is hardly possible to endure even the
most agreeable of them, to say nothing of a man being
hardly able to endure himself. In such darkness then,

and dirt, and in so constant a flux, both of substance
and of time, and of motion, and of things moved, what
there is worth being highly prized, or even an object of
serious pursuit, I cannot imagine. But on the contrary
it is a man's duty to comfort himself, and to wait for
the natural dissolution and not to be vexed at the delay,

but to rest in these principles only: the one, that
nothing will happen to me which is not conformable to
the nature of the universe; and the other, that it is in
my power never to act contrary to my god and
demon: for there is no man who will compel me to
this.
11. About what am I now employing my own soul ?
On every occasion I must ask myself this question,

and inquire, what have I now in this part of me which
they call the ruling principle ? and whose soul have I
now ? that of a child, or of a young man, or of a feeble
woman, or of a tyrant, or of a domestic animal, or of
a wild beast ?
12. What kind of things those are which appear
good to the many, we may learn even from this. For

if any man should conceive certain things as being
really good, such as prudence, temperance, justice,

fortitude,he would not after having first conceived
these endure to listen to anythingf which should not
be in harmony with what is really good.f But if a
man has first conceived as good the things which
appear to the many to be good, he will listen and
readily receive as very applicable that which was said
by the comic writer. fThus even the many perceive
the difference! For Avere it not so, this saving would
not offend and would not be rejected [in the first
case], while we receive it when it is said of wealth,

and of the means which further luxury and fame, as
said fitly and wittily. Go on then and ask if we
should value and think those things to be good, to
which after their first conception in the mind the words
of the comic writer might be aptiy applied that he
who has them, through pure abundance has not a place
to ease himself in.
13. I am composed of the formal and the material ;
and neither of them will perish into non-existence, as

neither of them came into existence out of non-
existence. Every part of me then will be reduced by
change into some part of the universe, and that again
will change into another part of the universe, and so
on forever. And by consequence of such a change I
too exist, and those who begot me, and so on forever
in the other direction. For nothing hinders us from
saying so, even if the universe is administered according
to definite periods [of revolution].
14. Reason and the reasoning art [philosophy] are
powers which are sufficient for themselves and for

their own works. They move then from a first prin-
ciple which is their own, and they make their way to
the end which is proposed to them; and this is the
reason why such acts are named Catorthoseis or right
acts, which word signifies that they proceed by the
right road.
15. None of these things ought to be called a man's,
which do not belong to a man, as man. They are not
required of a man, nor does man's nature promise
them, nor are they the means of man's nature attain-
ing its end. Neither then does the end of man lie in
these things, nor yet that which aids to the.accoin-
plishraent of this end, and that which aids toward this

end is that which is good. Besides, if any of these
things did belong to man, it would not be right for a
man to despise them and to set himself against them ;
nor would a man be worthy of praise who showed that

he did not want these things, nor would he who stinted
himself in any of them be good, if indeed these things
were good. But now the more of these things a man
deprives himself of, or of other things like them, or
even when he is deprived of any of them, the more
patiently he endures the loss, just in the same degree
he is a better man.
16. Such as are thy habitual thoughts, such also will
be the character of thy mind for the soul is dyed by
;
the thoughts. Dye it then with a continuous series of

such thoughts as these for instance, that where a
:
man can live, there he can also live well. But he must
live in a palace well then, he can also live well in a
palace. And again, consider that for whatever pur-
pose each thing has been constituted, for this it has
been constituted, and toward this it is carried and its ;
end is in that toward which it is carried and where ;
the end is, there also is the advantage and the good of
each thing. ~Now the good for the reasonable animal
is society for that we are made for society has been
;
shown above.* Is it not plain that the inferior exist

for the sake of the superior? but the things which
have life are superior to those which have not life, and
of those which have life the superior are those which
have reason.
17. To seek what is impossible is madness and it is :
*Comp. ii. 1.
MARCUS A URELIU8 ANTONINUS. 1 85
impossible that the bad should not do something of this

kind.
18. Nothing happens to any man which he is not
formed by nature to bear. The same things happen to
another, and either because he does not see that they
have happened or because he would show a great
spirit he is firm and remains unharmed. It is a shame
then that ignorance and conceit should be stronger
than wisdom.
19. Things themselves touch not the soul, not in the
least degree nor have they admission to the soul, nor
;
can they turn or move the soul but the soul turns
:
and moves itself alone, and whatever judgments it may

think proper to make, such it makes for itself the
things which present themselves to it.
20. In one respect man is the nearest thing to me,
so far as I must do good to men and endure them. But
so far as some men make themselves obstacles to my
proper acts, man becomes to me one of the things

which are indifferent, no less than the sun or wind or
a wild beast. Now it is true that these may impede
my action, but they are no impediments to ray affects
and disposition, which have the power of acting con-
ditionally and changing: for the mind converts and
changes
CD every hindrance to its activity into an aid
/ %j
:
7
and so that which is a hindrance is made a furtherance

to an act and that which is an obstacle on the road
;
helps us on this road.

21. Reverence that which is best in the universe;
and which makes use of all things and
this is that
directs all things. And in like manner also reverence
that which is best in thyself; and this is of the same
kind as that. For in thyself also, that which makes
use of everything else, is this, and thy life is directed

by this.
22. That which does no harm to the State, does no
harm to the citizen. In the case of every appearance
of harm apply this rule if the State is not harmed by
:
this, neither am
harmed. But if the State is harmed,
I
thou must not be angrj^ with him who does harm to
the State. Show him where his error is.
23. Often think of the rapidity with which things

pass by and disappear, both the things which are and
the things which are produced. For substance is like
a river in a continual flow, and the activities of things
are in constant change, and the causes work in infinite
varieties and there is hardly anything which stands
;
still. And consider this which is near to thee, this

boundless abyss of the past and of the future in which
all things disappear. How then is he not a fool who is
puffed up with such things or plagued about them and

makes himself miserable ? for they vex him only for a
time, and a short time.
24. Think of the universal substance, of which thou
hast a very small portion and of universal time, of
;
which a short and indivisible interval has been assigned

to thee ;
and of that which is fixed by destiny, and
how small a part of it thou art.
25 Does another do me wrong? Let him look to it.
He has his own disposition, his own activity. I now

have what the universal nature wills me to have; and
I do what my nature now wills me to do.
26. Let the part of thy soul which leads and governs
be undisturbed by the movements in the flesh, whether
of pleasure or of pain and let it not unite with them,
;
but let it circumscribe itself and limit those affects to

their parts. But when these affects rise up to the

mind by virtue of that other sympathy that naturally
exists in a body which is all one, then thou must not
strive to resist the sensation, for it is natural : but let
not the ruling part of itself add to the sensation the
opinion that it is either good or bad.
27. Live with the gods. And he does live with the
gods who constantly shows to them that his own soul
is satisfied with that which is assigned to him, ami
that it does all that the demon wishes, which Zeus
hath given to every man for his guardian and guide, a
portion of himself. And this is every man's under-
standing and reason.
28. Art thou angry with him whose arm-pits stink ?
Art thou angry with him whose mouth smells foul ?
"What good will this anger do thee ? He has such a
mouth, he has such arm-pits it is necessary that such:
an emanation must come from such things but the

man has reason, it will be said, and he is able, if he
takes pains, to discover wherein he offends I wish
thee well of thy discovery. Well, then, and thou hast
reason :
by thy rational faculty stir up his rational
faculty ;
show him his error, admonish him. For if he
listens, thou wilt cure him, and there is no need of
anger, [f Neither tragic actor nor whore. f]*
29. As thou intendest to live when thou art gone
out, . . so it is in thy power to live here. But if
.
men do not permit thee, then get away out of life, yet
so as if thou Avert suffering no harm. The house is
smoky, and I quit it. Why dost thou think that this
*This is imperfect or corrupt, or both. I Lave translated it
literally and left it imperfect.
J Epictetus, i. 25, 18.

is any trouble ? But so long as nothing of the kind

drives me out, I remain, am free, and no man shall
hinder me from doing what I
choose and I choose to ;
do what is according to the nature of the rational and

social animal.
30. The intelligence of the universe is social.
Accordingly it has made the inferior things for the

sake of the superior, and it has fitted the superior to one
another. Thou seest how it has subordinated, co-ordi-
nated and assigned to everything its proper portion,

and has brought together into concord with one
another the things which are the best.
31. How hast thou behaved hitherto to the gods,
thy parents, brethren, children, teachers, to those who
looked after thy infancy, to thy friends, kinsfolk, to
thy slaves? Consider if thou hast hitherto behaved
to all in such a way that this may be said of thee :
Never has wronged a man in deed or word.
And call to recollection both how many things thou

hast passed through, and how many things thou hast
been able to endure and that the history of thy life
:
is now complete, and thy service is ended: and how

many beautiful things thou hast seen and how many :
pleasures and pains thou hast despised and how many ;
things called honorable thou hast spurned and to how ;
many ill - minded folks thou hast shown a kind

disposition.
32. "Why do unskilled and ignorant souls disturb
him who has skill and knowledge? What soul then
has skill and knowledge? That which knows bemn-
ning and end, and knows the reason which pervades
all substance and through all time by fixed periods

[revolutions] administers the universe.
33. Soon, very soon, thou wilt be ashes, or a skeleton,
and either a name or not even a name ;
but name is
sound and echo. And the things which are much
valued in life are empty and rotten and trilling, and
dogs biting one another, and little children
[like] little
quarrelling, laughing, and then straightway weeping.
But fidelity and modesty and justice and truth are
fled
Up to Olympus from the wide-spread earth.
Hesiod, Works, etc., v. 197.
"What then is there which still detains thee here? If
the objects of sense are easily changed and never

stand still, and the organs of perception are dull and
easily receive false impressions and the poor soul
;
an exhalation from blood. But to have good

itself is
repute amid such a world as this is an empty thing.

Why then dost thou not wait in tranquillity for thy
end, whether it is extinction or removal to another
state ? And until that time comes, what is sufficient ?
"Why, what else than to venerate the gods and bless
them, and to do good to men, and to practice tolerance
and self-restraint * but as to everything which is
;
beyond the limits of the poor flesh and breath, to

remember that this is neither thine nor in thy power.
34. Thou canst pass thy life in an equable flow of
happiness, if thou canst go by the right way, and

think
and act in the right way. These two things are com-
* This is the Stoic
precept dvsxov xai drte'xov. The first part
teaches us to be content with men and things as they are. The
second part teaches us the virtue of self restraint, or the government
of our passions.
190 THE MEDTTA TTONS OF
mon both to the soul of God and to the soul of man,

and to the soul of every rational being, not to be
hindered by another and to hold good to consist in
;
the disposition to justice and the practice of it, and in

this to let thy desire find its termination.
35. If this is neither my own badness, nor an effect
of my own badness, and the common weal is not
injured, why am I troubled about

it? and what is the
harm to the common weal (
36. Do not be carried along inconsiderately by the
appearance of things, but give help [to all] according

to thy ability and their litness and if they should;
have sustained loss in matters which are indifferent, do

not imagine this to be a damage. For it is a bad
habit. But as the old man, when he went away,
asked back his foster-child's top, remembering that it
was a top, so do thou in this case also.
When thou art calling out on the Rostra, hast thou
forgotten, man, what these things are 1 Yes ;
but they
are objects of great concern to these people wilt thou
too then be made a fool for these things I was once '(
a fortunate man, but I lost it, I know not how. But

fortunate means that a man has assigned to himself a
good fortune and a good fortune is good disposition
;
of the soul, good emotions, good actions.*

*This section is unintelligible. Many of the words may be
corrupt, and the general purport of the section cannot be discovered.
Perhaps several things have been improperly joined in one section.
I have translated it nearly literally. Different translators give the
section a different turn, and the critics have tried to mend what they
cannot understand.
MA BO US A Ull ELI US A NTONIN US. 1 91
VI.
The is obedient and com-

SUBSTANCE of the universe
pliant; and the reason which governs it has in itself
no cause for doing evil, for it has no malice, nor does
it do evil to
anything, nor is anything harmed by it.
l>nt all things are made and
perfected according to
this reason.
2. Let it make no
difference to thee whether thou
art cold or warm, if thou art doing thy duty and ;
whet her thou art drowsy or satisfied with sleep; and

whether ill-spoken of or praised and whether dying ;
or doing something else. For it is one of the acts of

life, this act by which we die it is sufficient then in
;
this act also to do well what we have in hand

(vi. 22, 28).
Look within. Let neither the peculiar quality of
.'{.
anything nor its value escape thee.

4. All existing things soon change, and they will
either bo reduced to vapor, if indeed all substance is

one, or they will bo dispersed.
5. The reason which governs knows what its own
disposition is, and what it does, and on what material
it works.
6. The best way of avenging thyself is not to become
like |
thewrong doer].
7. Tako pleasure in one thing and rest in it, in
passing from one social act to another social act, think-

ing of God.
8. The ruling principle is that which rouses and
turns itself, and while it makes itself such as it is and
it wills to be, it also makes
such as everything which
happens appear to itself to be such as it wills.
9. In conformity to the nature of the universe
every
single thing is accomplished, for certainly it is not in
con form ity to any other nature that each thing is
accomplished, either a nature which externally com-
prehends this, or a nature which is comprehended
within this nature, or a nature external and inde-
pendent of this (xi. 1, vi. 40, viii.
50).
10. The universe is either a confusion, and a mutual
involution of things, and a dispersion ;
or it is unity
and order and providence. If then it is the former,
why do I desire to tarry in a fortuitous combination
of things and such a disorder ? and why do I care about
anvthing else than how I shall at last become earth?
and why am I disturbed, for the dispersion of my ele-
ments will happen whatever I do. But if the other
supposition is true, I venerate, and I am firm, and I
trust in him who governs (iv. 27).
11. When thou hast been compelled by circum-
stances to be disturbed in a manner, quickly return to
thyself and do not continue out of tune longer than
the compulsion lasts; for thou wilt have more mastery
over the harmony by continually recurring to it.
12. If thou hadst a step-mother and a mother at the
same time, thou wouldst be dutiful to thy step-mother,
but still thou wouldst constantly return to thy mother.
Let the court and philosophy now be to thee step-
mother and mother; return to philosophy frequently
MARCUS A TJREL1 US ANTONINUS. 193
and repose in her, through whom what thou meetest

with in the court appears to thee tolerable, and thou
appearest tolerable in the court.
13. "When we have meat before us and such eatables,
we receive the impression, that this is the dead body
of a fish, and this is the dead body of a bird or of a pig ;
and again, that this Falernian is only a little grape

juice, and this purple robe some sheep's wool dyed
with the blood of a shell-fish ;
such then are these im-
pressions, and they reach the things themselves and
penetrate them, and so we see what kind of things
they are. Just in the same way ought we to act all
through life, and where there are things which appear
most worthy of our approbation, we ought to lay them
bare and look at their worthlessness and strip them of
all the words by which they are exalted. For outward
show is a wonderful perverter of the reason, and when
thou art most sure that thou art employed about
things worth thy pains, it is then that it cheats thee
most. Consider then what Crates says of Xenocrates
himself.
14. Most of the things which the multitude admire
are referred to objects of the most general kind, those
which are held together by cohesion or natural organi-
zation, such as stones, wood, fig-trees, vines, olives.
But those which are admired by men, who are a little
more reasonable, are referred to the things which are
held together by a living principle, as flocks, herds.
Those which are admired by men who are still more
instructed are the things which are held together by a
rational soul, not however a universal soul, but rational
so far as it is a soul skilled in some art, or expert in some
other way, or simply rational so far as it
possesses a
number of slaves. But he who values a rational soul,

a soul universal and fitted for political life, regards
nothing else except this and above all things he keeps
;
his soul in a condition and in an activity conformable

to reason and social life, and he co-operates to this end
with those who are of the same kind as himself.
15. Some things are hurrying into existence, and
others are hurrying out of it and of that which is
;
coming into existence part is already extinguished.

Motions and changes are continually renewing the
world, just as the uninterrupted course of time is
always renewing the infinite duration of ages. In
this flowing stream then, on which there is no abiding,
what is there of the things which hurry by on which
a man would set a high price ? It would be just as if
a man should fall in love with one of the sparrows
which fly by, but it has already passed out of sight.
Something of this kind is the very life of every man,
like the exhalation of the blood and the respiration of
the air. For such as it is to have once drawn in the air
and to have given it back, which we do every moment,
just the same as it is with the whole respiratory power,
which thou didst receive at thy birth yesterday and
the day before, to give it back to the element from
which thou didst first draw it.
16. Neither is transpiration, as in plants, a thing to
be valued, nor respiration, as in domesticated animals
and wild beasts, nor the receiving of impressions by
the appearances of things, nor being moved by desires
as puppets by strings, nor assembling in herds, nor
being nourished by footl for this is just like the act of
;
separating and parting with the useless part of our

food. "What then is worth being valued? To be re-
ceived with clapping of hands? No. Neither must

we value the clapping of tongues for the praise which
comes from the many is a clapping of tongues. Sup-
pose then that thou hast given up this worthless thing
called fame, what remains that is worth valuing?
This, in my opinion, to move thyself and to restrain
thyself in conformity to thy proper constitution, to
which end both all employments and arts lead. For
every art aims at this, that the thing which has been
made should be adapted to the work for which it has
been made and both the vine-planter who looks after
;
the vine, and the horse-breaker, and he who trains the

dog, seek this end. But the education and the teach-
ing of youth aim at something. In this then is the
value of the education and the teaching. And if this
is thou wilt not seek anything else. Wilt thou
well,
not cease to value many other things too? Then thou
wilt be neither free, nor sufficient for thy own happi-
ness, nor without passion. For of necessity thou must
be envious, jealous, and suspicious of those who can
take away those things, and plot against those who
have that which is valued by thee. Of necessity a
man must be altogether in a state of perturbation who
wants any of these things and besides, he must often
;
find fault with the gods. But to reverence and honor

thy own mind will make thee content with thyself,
and in harmony with society, and in agreement with
the gods, that is, praising all that they give and have
ordered.
17. Above, below, all around are the movements of
the elements. But the motion of virtue is in none of
these ;
it is
something more divine, and advancing by
a way hardly observed it
goes happily on its road.
18. How strangely men act. They will not praise

those who
are living at the same time and living with
themselves but to be themselves praised by posterity,
;
by those whom they have never seen or ever will see,

this they set much value on. But this is very much
the same as if thou shouldst be grieved because those
who have lived before thee did not praise thee.
19. Ifa thing is difficult to be accomplished by thyself,
do not think that it is impossible for man but if any- ;
thing is possible for man and conformable to his nature,

think that this can be attained by thyself too.
20. In the gymnastic exercises suppose that a man
has torn thee with his nails, and by dashing against
thy head has inflicted a wound. Well, we neither
show any signs of vexation, nor are we offended, nor
do we suspect him afterward as a treacherous fellow ;
and yet we are on our guard against him, not however

as an enemy, nor yet with suspicion, but we quietly
get out of his way. Something like this let thy be-
havior be in all the other parts of life let us overlook
;
many things in those who

are like antagonists in the
gymnasium. For it is in our power, as I said, to get
out of the way, and to have no suspicion nor hatred.
21. If any man is able to convince me and show me
that I do not think or act right, I will gladly change ;
for I seek the truth by which no man was every in-
jured. But he is
injured who abides in his error and
ignorance.
22. I do my duty: other things trouble me not;
for they are either things without life, or things with-
out reason, or things that have rambled and know not
the way.
23. As to the animals which have no reason, and
generally all things and objects, do thou, since thou

hast reason and they have none, make use of them
with a generous and liberal spirit. But toward
human beings, as they have reason, behave in a social
spirit. And on all occasions call on the gods, and do
not perplex thyself about the length of time in which
thou shalt do this ; for even three hours so spent are
sufficient.
24. Alexander the Macedonian and his groom by
death were brought to the same state for either they ;
were received among the same seminal principles of

the universe, or they were alike dispersed among the
atoms.
25. Consider how many things in the same indivisi-
ble time take place in each of us, things which concern
the body and things which concern the soul and so ;
thou wilt not wonder if many more things, or rather

all thing's which come into existence in that which is
the one and all, which we call Cosmos, exist in it at
the same time.
26. If any man should propose
to thee the question,
how the name Antoninuswritten, wouldst thou with
is
a straining of the voice utter each letter ? What then

if they grow angry, wilt thou be angry too? Wilt
thou not go on with composure and number every
letter ? Just so then in this life also remember that
every duty is made up of certain parts. These it is
thy duty to observe and without being disturbed or
showing anger toward those who are angry with thee
to go on thy way and finish that which is set before
thee.
27. How cruel it is not to allow men to strive after
the things which appear to them to be suitable to their
nature and profitable And yet in a manner thou dost

!
not allow them to do this, when thou art vexed because

they do wrong. For they are certainly moved toward
things because they suppose them to be suitable to
their nature and profitable to them. But it is not
so. Teach them then, and show them without being
angry.
28. Death is a cessation of the impressions
through
the senses, and of the pulling of the strings which
move the appetites, and of the discursive movements
of the thoughts, and of the service to the flesh (ii. 12).
29. It is a shame for the soul to be first to
give way
in this life, when thy body does not give way.
30. Take care that thou art not made into a Cassar,
that thou art not dyed with this dye ;
for such things
happen. thyself then simple, good, pure, serious,
Keep
free from
affectation, a friend of justice, a worshiper
of the gods, kind, affectionate, strenuous in all
proper
acts. Strive to continue to be such as philosophy
wished to make thee. Eeverence the gods, and help
men. Short is life. There is only one fruit of this
terrene life, a pious disposition and social acts. Do
everything as a disciple of Antoninus. Remember his
constancy in every act which was conformable to
reason, and his evenness in all things, and his piety,
and the serenity of his countenance, and his sweetness,
and his disregard of empty fame, and his efforts to
understand things and how he would never let any-
;
thing pass without having first most carefully exam-

ined it and clearly understood it and how he bore
;
with those who blamed him unjustly without blaming

them in return how he did nothing in a hurry and
; ;
how he listened not to calumnies, and how exact an

examiner of manners and actions he was and not ;
given to reproach people, nor timid, nor suspicious,

nor a sophist; and with how little he was satisfied,
such as lodging, bed, dress, food, servants and how ;
laborious and patient; and how he was able on account

of his sparing diet to hold out to the evening, not
even requiring to relieve himself by any evacuations
except at the usual hour and his firmness and uni-
;
formity in his friendships; and how he tolerated

freedom of speech in those who opposed his opinions ;
and the pleasure that he had when any man showed

him anything better; and how religious he was with-
out superstition. Imitate all this that thou mayest
have as good a conscience, when thy last hour comes,
as he had (i. 16).
31. Return to thy sober senses and call thyself back ;
and when thou hast roused thyself from sleep and hast
perceived that they were only dreams which troubled
thee, now in thy waking hours look at these [the
things about thee] as thou didst look at those [the
dreams].
32. I consist of a little body and a soul. Now to
this little body things are indifferent, for it is not
all
able to perceive differences. But to the understanding
those things only are indifferent, which are not the
works of its own activity. But whatever things are
the works of its own activity, all these are in its
power. And of these, however, only those which are

done with reference to the present for as to the ;
future and the past activities of the mind, even these

are for the present indifferent.
33. Neither the labor which the hand does nor that
of the foot is contrary to nature, so long as the foot
does the foot's work and the hand the hand's. So

then neither to a man as a man is his labor contrary to
nature, so long as it does the things of a man. But if
the labor is not contrary to his nature, neither is it an

evil to him.
34. How many pleasures have been enjoyed by
robbers, patricides, tyrants.
35. Dost thou not see how the handicraftsmen ac-
commodate themselves up to a certain point to those
who are not skilled in their craft nevertheless they
cling to the reason [the principles] of their art and do
not endure to depart from it ? Is it not strange if the
architectand the physician shall have more respect to
the reason [the principles] of their own arts than man
to his own reason, which is common to him and the
gods?
36. Asia, Europe are corners of the universe ; all the
sea a drop in the universe ; Athos a little clod of the
universe ; all the present time is a point in eternity.
All things are little, changeable, perishable. All
things come from thence, from that universal ruling
power either directly proceeding or by way of sequence.
And accordingly the lion's gaping jaws, and that which
is poisonous, and every harmful thing, as a thorn, as
mud, are after-products of the grand and beautiful.

Do not then imagine that they are of another kind
from that which thou dost venerate, but form a just
opinion of the source of all (vii. 75).
37. He who has seen present things has seen all,
both everything which has taken place from all eternity
and everything which will be for time without end;
for all things are of one kin and of one form.
38. Frequently consider the connection of all things
in the universe and their relation to one another. For
MARCUS A URELIVS ANTONINUS. 201
in a manner all things are implicated with one another,

and all in this way are friendly to one another for ;
one thing comes in order after another, and this is by

virtue of thef active movement and mutual conspira-
tion and the unity of the substance (ix. 1).
39. Adapt thyself to the things with which thy lot
has been cast; and the men among whom thou hast
received thy portion, love them, but do it truly
[sincerely].
40. Every instrument, tool, vessel, if it does that for
which it has been made, is well, and yet he who made
not there. But in the things which are held to-

it is
gether by nature there is within and there abides in

them the power which made them wherefore the ;
more is it fit to reverence this power, and to think,

that, if thou dost live and act according to its will,
everything in thee is in conformity to intelligence.
And thus also in the universe the things which belong
to it are in conformity to intelligence.
41. "Whatever of the things which are not within
thy power thou shalt suppose to be good for thee or
evil, it must of necessity be that, if such a bad thing
befall thee or the loss of such a good thing, thou wilt
blame the gods, and hate men too, those who are the
cause of the misfortune or the loss, or those who are
suspected of being likely to be the cause and indeed ;
we do much injustice, because we make a difference

between these things [because we do not regard these
things as indifferentf]. But if we judge only those
things which are in our power to be good or bad, there
remains no reason either for finding fault with God or
standing in a hostile attitude to man.*
*Cicero, De Natura Deorooi, iii. 32.
202 THE MEDITATION'S OF
42. We are all working together to one end, some

with knowledge and design, and others without know-
ing what they do as men also when they are asleep,
;
of whom it is Heraclitus, I think, who says that they

are laborers and co-operators in the things which take
place in the universe. But men co-operate after dif-
ferent fashions: and even those co operate abundantly,
who find fault with what happens and those who try
to oppose it and to hinder it for the universe had ;
need even of such men as these. It remains then for

thee to understand among what kind of workmen thou
placest thyself; for he who rules all things will cer-
tainly make a right use of thee, and he will receive
thee among some part of the co-operators and of those
whose labors conduce to one end. But be not thou
such a part as the mean and ridiculous verse in the
play, which Chrysippus speaks of.*
43. Does the sun undertake to do the work of the
rain, or JEsculapius the work

of the Fruit-bearer [the
earth] ? And how with respect to each of the

is it
stars, are they not different, and yet they work to-
gether to the same end ?

44. If the gods have determined about me and about
the things which must happen to me, the}^ have de-
termined well, for it is not easy even to imagine a
deity without forethought and as to doing me harm,
;
why should they have any desire toward that? for

what advantage would result to them from this or to
the whole, which the special object of their provi-
is
dence? But if they have not determined about me

individually, they have certainly determined about the
whole at least, and the things which happen by way
*Plutarch, adversus Stoicos, c. 14.
of sequence in this general arrangement I ought to

accept with pleasure and to be content with them. But
ifthey determine about nothing which it is wicked
if we do believe it, let us neither sacrifice
to believe, or
nor pray nor swear by them, nor do anything else
which we do as if the gods were present and lived
with us but if, however, the gods determine about
none of the things which concern us, I am able to
determine about myself, and I can inquire about that
which is useful and that is useful to every man which
;
is conformable to his own constitution and nature.

But my nature is rational and social and my city and
;
country, so far as I am Antoninus, is Rome, but so far

as I am a man, it is the world. The things then which
are useful to these cities are alone useful to me.
45. Whatever happens to every man, this is for the
interest of the universal ;
this might be sufficient. But
further thou wilt observe this also as a general truth,
ifthou dost observe, that whatever is profitable to any
man is
profitable also to other men. But let the word
profitable be taken here in the common sense as said
of things of the middle kind [neither good nor bad].
46. As it happens to thee in the amphitheater and
such places, that the continual sight of the same
things and the uniformity make the spectacle weari-
some, so it is in the whole of life for all things above,
;
below, are the same and from the same. How long
then?
47. Think continually that all kinds of men and of
all kinds of pursuits and of all nations are dead, so
that thy thoughts come down even to Philistion and
Phoebus and Origanion. Now turn thv thoughts to
the other kinds [of men]. To that place then we
must remove, where there are so many great orators,

ami so many noble philosophers, Heraclitus, Pytha-
goras, Socrates so many heroes of former days, and
;
so many generals after them, and tyrants besides ;
these, Eudoxus, Hipparchns, Archimedes, and other

men of acute natural talents, great minds, lovers of
labor, versatile, confident, mockers even of the perish-
able and ephemeral life of man, as Menippus and such
as are like him. As
to all these consider that they
have long been in the dust. What harm then is this
to them ; and what to those whose names are alto-
gether unknown? One thing here is worth a great

deal, to pass thy life in truth and justice, with a benevo-
lent disposition even to liars and unjust men.
4S. When thou wishest to delight thyself, think of
the virtues of those who live with thee for instance,
;
the activity of one, and the modesty of another, and

the liberality of a third, and some other good quality
of a fourth. For nothing delights so much as the
examples of the virtues, when they are exhibited in
the morals of those who live with us and present them-
selves in abundance, as far as is possible. Wherefore
we must keep them before us.
49. Thou art not dissatisfied, I suppose, because thou
weighest only so many litre and not three hundred. Be

not dissatisfied then that thou must live only so many
years and not more for as thou art satisfied with the
;
amount of substance which has been assigned to thee,

so be content with the time.
50. Let us try to persuade them [men]. But act
even against their will, when the principles of justice
lead that way. If, however, any man by using force
stands in thy way, betake thyself to contentment and
tranquillity, and at the same time employ the

hinderance toward the exercise of some other virtue ;
and remember that thy attempt was with a reservation

[conditionally], that thou didst not desire to do impos-
sibilities. What then didst thou desire? Some such
effort as this. But thou attainest thy object, if
the things to which thou wast moved are [not]
accomplished.!
51. He who loves fame considers another man's
activity to be his own good and he who loves
;
pleasure, his own but he who has under-

sensations ;
standing, considers his own acts to be his own good.

52. It is in our power to have no opinion about a
thing, and not to be disturbed in our soul for things ;
themselves have no natural power to form our

judgments.
53.Accustom thyself to attend carefully to what is
said by another, and as much as it is

possible, be in the
speaker's mind.
54. That which is not good for the swarm, neither is
it
good for the bee.
55. If sailors abused the helmsman or the sick the
doctor, would they listen to anybody else ; or how
could the helmsman secure the safety of those in
the ship or the doctor the health of those whom he
attends ?
56. How many together with whom I came into the
world are already gone out of it.
57. To the jaundiced honey tastes bitter, and to
those bitten by mad dogs water causes fear and to ;
little ohildren the ball is a fine thing-. Whv then am

I angry? Dost thou think that a false opinion has
less power than the bile in the jaundiced or the poison
in him who is bitten by a mad dog.
58. No man will hinder thee from living according

to the reason of thy own nature nothing will happen
:
to thee contrary to the reason of the universal

nature.
59. What kind of people are those whom men wish
to please, and for what objects, and by what kind of
acts? How soon will time cover all things, and how
many it has covered already.
MARC US A URELIUS ANTONINUS. 207
VII.
What badness? It is that which thou hast often

is
seen. And on the occasion of everything which

happens keep this in mind, that it is that which thou
hast often seen. Everywhere up and down thou wilt
find the same things, with which the old histories are
filled, those of the middle ages and those of our own

day; with which cities and houses are filled now.
There is nothing new ;
all things are both familiar and
short lived.
2. How can our principles become dead, unless the
impressions [thoughts] which correspond to them are

extinguished ? But it is in thy power continuously to
fan these thoughts into a flame. I can have that
opinion about anything, which I ought to have. If I
can, why am I disturbed? The things which are ex-
ternal to my mind have no relation at all to my mind.
Let thisbe the state of thy affects, and thou standest
erect. To
recover thy life is in thy power. Look at
things again as thou didst use to look at them for in ;
this consists the recovery of thy life.

3. The idle business of show, plays on the stage, flocks
of sheep, herds, exercises with spears, a bone cast to

little dogs, a bit of bread into fish-ponds, laborings of
ants and burden-carrying, runnings about of fright-
ened little mice, puppets pulled by strings [all alike].
It is thy duty then in the midst of such things to show
good humor and not a proud air to understand, how-

;
ever, that every man is worth just so much as the

things are worth about which he busies himself.
4. In discourse thou must attend to what is said, and
in everv movement thou must observe what is doing.

And in the one thou shouldst see immediately to what
end it refers, but in the other watch carefully what is
the thing signified.
5. understanding sufficient for this or not? If
Is my
it is work as an instrument
sufficient I use it for the
given by the universal nature. But if it is not suffi-

cient, then either I retire from the work and give way
to him who is able to do it better, unless there be some
reason why I ought not to do so or I do it as well as I
;
can, taking to help me the man who with the aid of

my ruling principle can do what is now fit and useful
for the general good. For whatsoever either by m}7 self
or with another I can do, ought to be directed to this
only, to that which is useful and well-suited to society.
6. How many by fame have
after being celebrated
been given up to oblivion and how many who have
;
celebrated the fame of others have long been dead.

7. Be not ashamed to be helped for it is thy busi-
;
ness to do thy duty like a soldier in the assault on a

town. How then, if being lame thou canst not mount
up on the battlements alone, but with the help of
another it is possible?
8. Let not future things disturb thee, for thou wilt
come to them, if it shall be necessary, having with thee

the same reason which now thou usest for present
things.
9. All things are implicated with one another, and
the bond is holy ; and there is hardly anything uncon-
nected with any other thing. For things have been

co-ordinated, and they combine to form the same uni-
verse [order]. For there is one universe made up of
all things, and one god who pervades all things, and
one substance, and one law, [one] common reason in
all intelligentanimals, and one truth if indeed there
;
is also one perfection for all animals which are of the
same stock and participate in the same reason.

10. Everything material soon disappears in the sub-
stance of the whole; and everything formal [causal] is
very soon taken back into the universal reason; and
the memory of everything is very soon overwhelmed
in time.
11. To the rational animal the same act is according
to nature and according to reason.
12. Be thou erect, or be made erect (hi. 5).
13. Just as it is with the members in these bodies
which are united in one, so it is with rational beings
which exist separate, for they have been constituted
for one co-operation. And the perception of this will
be more apparent to thee, if thou often sayest to thy-
self that I am a member \jie'Xoi\ of the system of
rational beings. But if [using the letter r\ thou sayest
that thou art a part [Me'pos], thou dost not yet love men
from thy heart beneficence does not yet delight thee
;
for its own sake; thou still doest it barely as a thing

of propriety, and not yet as doing good to thyself.
14. Let there fall externally what will on the parts
which can feel the effects of this fall. For those parts
which have felt will complain, if they choose. But I,
unless I think that what has happened is an evil, am
not injured. And it is in my power not to think so.
15. Whatever any one does or says, I must be good.
just as if the gold, or the emerald,

were
or the purple
ahvays saying this, Whatever any one does or says, I
must be emerald and keep my color.
16. The ruling faculty does not disturb itself ;
I
mean, does not frighten itself or cause itself pain.f

But if any one else can frighten or pain it, let him do
so. For the faculty itself will not b} its own opinion
7
turn itself into such ways. Let the body itself take
care, if it can, that it suffer nothing, and let it speak,
if it suffers. But the soul itself, that which is subject
to fear, to pain, which has completely the power of
forming an opinion about these things, will suffer
nothing, for it will never deviate into such a judgment.
The leading principle in itself wants nothing, unless it
makes a want for itself and therefore it is both free
;
from perturbation and unimpeded, if it does not dis-

turb and impede itself.
17. Eudaemonia [happiness] is a good demon, or a
good thing. What then art thou doing here, O

imagination ? go away, I entreat thee by the gods, as
thou didst come, for I want thee not. But thou art
come according to thy old fashion. I am not angry
with thee ; only go away.
18. Is any man afraid of change? Why what can
take place without change ? What then is more pleas-
ing or more suitable to the universal nature ? And
canst thou take a bath unless the wood undergoes a
change ? And canst thou be nourished, unless the food
undergoes a change ? And can anything else that is
useful be accomplished without change? Dost thou
not see then that for thyself also to change is just the
same, and equally necessary for the universal nature ?
19. Through the universal substance as through a
furious torrent all bodies are carried, being by their

nature united with and co-operating with the whole,
as the parts of our body with one another. How many
a Chrysippus, how many a Socrates, how many an
Epictetus has time already swallowed up ? And let
the same thought occur to thee with reference to every
man and thing (v. 23; vi. 15).
20. One thing only

troubles me, lest I should do
something which the constitution of man does not
allow, or in the way which it does not allow, or what
it does not allow now.
21. Near is thy forgetfulness of all things and near ;
the forgetfulness of thee by all.
22. It is peculiar to man to love even those who do

wrong. And this happens, if when they do wrong it
occurs to thee that they are kinsmen, and that they do
wrong through ignorance and unintentionally, and
that soon both of you will die and above all, that the ;
wrong-doer has done thee no harm, for he has not

made thy ruling faculty worse than it was before.
23. The universal nature out of the universal sub-
stance, as if it were wax, now molds a horse, and

when it has broken this up, it uses the material for a
tree, then for a man, then for something else and ;
each of these things subsists for a very short time.

But it is no hardship for the vessel to be broken up,
just as there was none in its being fastened together
(viii. 50).
24. A
scowling look is altogether unnatural when ;
it isoften assumed,* the result is that all comeliness

dies away, and at last is so completely extinguished
that it cannot be again
,.-.,., lighted
up at all.
Try to con-
Si . . . ... , . - ,
- *
* This is corrupt.
212 THE MEDITA TIONS OF
elude from this very fact that it is contrary to reason.

For if even the perception of doing wrong shall
depart, what reason is there for living any longer ?
25. Nature which governs the whole will soon
change all things which thou seest, and out of their
substance will make other things, and again other
things from the substance of them, in order that the
world may be ever new (xii. 23).
26. When a man has done thee any wrong, imme-
diately consider with what opinion about good or evil

he has done wrong. For when thou hast seen this,
thou wilt pity him, and wilt neither wonder nor be
angry. For either thou thyself thinkest the same
thing to be good that he does, or another thing of the
same kind. It is thy duty then to pardon him.
But if thou dost not think such things to be good or
evil, thou wilt more readily be well disposed to him
who is in error.
27. Think not so much of what thou hast not as of
what thou hast but of the things which thou hast
:
select the best, and then reflect how eagerly they

would have been sought, if thou hadst them not. At
the same time, however, take care that thou dost not
through being so pleased with them accustom thyself
to overvalue them, so as to be disturbed if ever thou
shouldst not have them.
28. Retire into thyself. The rational principle which
rules has this nature, that it is content with itself when
it does what is just, and so secures
tranquillity.
29. Wipe out the imagination. Stop the pulling of
the strings. Confine thyself to the present. Under-
stand well what happens either to thee or to another-
Divide and distribute every object into the casual
[formal] and the material. Think of thy last hour.

Let the wrong which is done by a man stay there
where the wrong was done (viii. 29).
30. Direct thy attention to what is said. Let thy
understanding enter into the things that are doing and
the things which do them (vii. 4).
31. Adorn thyself with simplicity and modesty and
with indifference toward the things which lie between
virtue and vice. Love mankind. Follow God. The
poet says that Law rules all.f And it is enough to
remember that law rules all.*
32. About death : whether it is a dispersion, or a
resolution into atoms, or annihilation, it is either
extinction or change.
33. About pain the pain which is intolerable carries
:
us off but that which lasts a long time is tolerable

; ;
and the mind maintains its own tranquillity by retiring

into itself,f and the ruling faculty is not made worse.
But the parts which are harmed by pain, let them, if
they can, give their opinion about it.
34. About fame look at the minds [of those who

:
seek fame], observe what they are, and what kind of

things they avoid, and what kind of things they
pursue. And consider that as the heaps of sand piled
on one another hide the former sands, so in life the
events which go before are soon covered by those
which come after.
35. From Plato :$ the man who has an elevated
mind and takes a view and of all substance,
of all time
dost thou suppose it possible for him to think that
human life is an} thing great? It is not possible, he
T
*Tlie end of this section is unintelligible.
X Plato, Pol. vi. 486.

said. Such a man then will think that death also is no

evil. Certainly not.
36. From Antisthenes : It is royal to do good and
to be abused.
37. It is a base thing for the countenance to be
obedient and to regulate and compose itself as the
mind commands, and for the mind not to be regulated
and composed by itself.
38. It isnot right to vex ourselves at things,

For they care nought about it.*
39. To the immortal gods and us give joy.
40. Life must be reaped like the ripe ears of corn :
One man born another dies4

is ;
41. If gods care not for me and for my children,

There is a reason for it.
42. For the good is with me, and the just.
43. No joining others in their wailing, no violent
emotion.
44. From Plato : But
||
I would make this man a
sufficient answer, which is this : Thou say est not well,
if thou thinkest that a man who is good for anything
at all ought to compute the hazard of life or death,
and should not rather look to this only in all that he
does, whether he is doing what is just or unjust, and
the works of a good or a bad man.
45. For thus it is, men of Athens, in truth
fl
wher- ;
* From the
Bellerophon of Euripides.
X From the Hypsipyle of Euripides. Cicero (Tuscul. iii. 25),
has translated six lines from Euripides, and among them are these
two lines :
Reddenda terrse est terra : turn vita omnibus

Metenda ut fruges : Sic jubet necessitas.
See Aristophanes, Acharnenses, v. 661.
\
From the Apologia, c. 16.
ever a man has placed himself thinking it the best

place for him, or has been placed by a commander,
there in my opinion he ought to stay and to abide the
hazard, taking nothing into the reckoning, either death
or anything else, before the baseness [of deserting his
post].
46. But, my good friend, reflect whether that which
is noble and good is not something different from
saving and being saved for as to a man living such or
;
such a time, at least one who is really a man, consider

if this is not a thing to be dismissed from the thoughts :
and there must be no love of life: but as to these

matters a man must intrust them to the deity and
believe what the women say, that no man can escape
his destiny, the next inquiry being how he may best
live the time that he has to live.*
47. Look round at the courses of the stars, as if thou
wert going along with them and constantly consider
;
the changes of the elements into one another for such ;
thoughts purge away the filth of the terrene life.

48. This is a fine saying of Plato 4 That he who is
discoursing about men should look also at earthly

things as if he viewed them from some higher place ;
should look at them in their assembles, armies, agri-

cultural labors, marriages, treaties, births, deaths, noise
of the courts of justice, desert places, various nations
of barbarians, feasts, lamentations, markets, a mixture
of all things and an orderly combination of contraries.
49. Consider the past ;
such great changes of polit-
ical supremacies. Thou mayest foresee also the things
which will be. For they will certainly be of like form,
* c. 68 (512).
Plato, Gorgias,
% It is said that this is not in the extant writings of Plato.
and it is not possible that they should deviate from the
order of the things which take place now accordingly :
to have contemplated human life for forty years is the

same as to have contemplated it for ten thousand
years. For what more wilt thou see ?
50. That which has grown from the earth to the
earth,
But that which has sprung from heavenly seed,
Back to the heavenly realms returns.*
This is either a dissolution of the mutual involution
of the atoms, or a similar dispersion of the unsentient
elements.
51. With food and drinks and cunning magic arts
Turning the channel's course to 'scape from

death 4
The breeze which heaven has sent
We must endure, and toil without complaining.
52. Another may be more expert in casting his
opponent but he is not more social, nor more modest,
;
nor better disciplined to meet all that happens, nor

more considerate with respect to the faults of his
neighbors.
53.Where any work can be done conformably to
is common to gods and men, there we
the reason which
have nothing to fear for where we are able to get
;
profit by means of the activity which is successful and

proceeds according to our constitution, there no
harm
is to be suspected.
54. Everywhere and at all times it is in thy power
piously to acquiesce in thy present condition,

and to
behave justly to those who are about thee, and to
* From the Chrysippus of Euripides.
% The first two lines are from the Supplices of Euripides, v. 1110.
MARCUS A URELIUS ANTONINUS. 21 7
exert thy skill upon thy present thoughts, that nothing

shall steal into them without being well examined.
55. Do not look around thee to discover other men's
ruling principles, but look straight to this, to what
nature leads thee, both the universal nature through
the things which happen to thee, and thy own nature
through the acts which must be done by thee. But
every being ought to do that which is according to its
constitution and all other things have been consti-
;
tuted for the sake of rational beings, just as among

irrational things the inferior for the sake of the
superior, but the rational for the sake of one another.

The prime principle then in man's constitution is the
social. And the second is not to yield to the per-
suasions of the body, for it is the peculiar office of the
rational and intelligent motion to circumscribe itself,
and never to be overpowered either by the motion of
the senses or of the appetites, for both are animal but
;
the intelligent motion claims superiority and does not

permit itself to be overpowered by the others. And
with good reason, for it is formed by nature to use all
of them. The third thing in the rational constitution
is freedom from error and from Let then
deception.
the ruling principle holding fast to these things go
straight on,and it has what is its own.
56. Consider thyself to be dead, and to have com-
pleted thy life up to the present time ; and live accord-

ing to nature the remainder which is allowed thee.
57. Love that only which happens to thee and is
spun with the thread of thy destiny. For what is
more suitable %
58. In everything which happens keep before thy
eyes those to whom the same things happened, and

how they were vexed, and treated them as strange

things, and found fault with them and now where ;
are they ? Nowhere. Why then dost thou too choose

to act in the same way ? and why dost thou not leave
these agitations which are foreign to nature, to those
who cause them and those who are moved bv them '?
And why art thou not altogether intent upon the right
way of making use of the things which happen to
thee? for then thou wilt use them well, and they will
be a material for thee [to work on]. Only attend to
and resolve to be a good man in every act
thyself,
which thou doest and remember *
;
59. Look within. "Within is the fountain of good,

and it will ever bubble up, if thou wilt ever dig.
60. The body ought
to be compact, and to show no
irregularity either in motion or attitude. For what
the mind shows in the face bv maintaining in it the 1
expression of intelligence and propriety, that ought to

be required also in the whole body. But all these
things should be observed without affectation.
61. The art of life is more like the wrestler's art
than the dancer's, in respect of this, that it should
stand ready and firm to meet onsets which are sudden
and unexpected.
62. Constantly observe who those are whose appro-
bation thou wishest to have, and what ruling prin-
ciples they possess. For then thou wilt neither blame
those who offend involuntarily, nor wilt thou want
their approbation, if thou lookest to the sources of
their opinions and appetites.
* This section is
obscure, and the conclusion is so corrupt that it
5s impossible to give any probable meaning to it. It is better to
leave it as it is than to patch it up, as some critics and translators
have done.
63. soul, the philosopher says, is involuntarily

Every
deprived of truth consequently in the same way it is
;
deprived of justice and temperance and benevolence

and everything of the kind. It is most necessary to
bear this constantly in mind, for thus thou wilt be
more gentle toward all.
64. In every pain thought be present, that

let this
there is nor does it make the govern-
no dishonor in it,
ing intelligence worse, for it does not damage the

intelligence either so far as the intelligence is rational
or so far as it is social. Indeed in the case of most
pains let this remark of Epicurus aid thee, that pain is
neither intolerable nor everlasting, if thou bearest in
mind that it has its limits, and if thou addest nothing
to it in imagination and remember this, too, that we
:
do not perceive that many things which are disagree-

able to us are the same as pain, such as excessive drowsi-
ness, and the being scorched by heat, and the having no
appetite. When then thou art discontented about any
of these things, say to thyself, that thou art yielding
to pain.
65. Take care not to feel toward the inhuman, as
they feel toward men.

66. How do we know if Telauges was not superior
in character to Socrates? for it is not enough that
Socrates died a more noble death, and disputed more
skillfully with the sophists, and passed the night
in
the cold with more endurance, and that when he was
bid to arrest Leon* of Salamis, he considered it more
noble to refuse, and that he walked in a swaggering
* Leon of Salamis. See Plato, Epist. 7 c. 20

; Apolog. ; Epic-
tetus, iv. 1, 160; iv. 7, 30.
way in the streets* though as to this fact one may

have great doubts if it was true. But we ought to
inquire, what kind of a soul it was that Socrates pos-
sessed, and if he was able to be content with berns
just toward men and pious toward the gods, neither
idly vexed on account of men's villainy, nor yet making
himself a slave to any man's ignorance, nor receiving
as strange anything that fell to his share out of the
universal, nor enduring it as intolerable, nor allowing
his understanding to sympathize with the affects of
the miserable flesh.
67. Nature has not so mingledf [the intelligence] with
the composition of the body, as not to have allowed
thee the power of circumscribing thyseif and of bring-
ing under subjection to thyself all that is thy own;
for it is very possible to be a divine man and to be
recognized as such by no one. Always bear this in
mind and another thing too, that very little indeed
;
isnecessary for living a happy life. And because thou

hast despaired of becoming a dialectician and skilled in
the knowledge of nature, do not for this reason re-
nounce the hope of being both free and modest and
social and obedient to God.
68. It is in thy power to live free from all
compul-
sion in the greatest tranquillity of mind, even if all
the world cry out against thee as much as they choose,
and even if wild beasts tear in pieces the members of
thiskneaded matter which has grown around thee.
For what hinders the mind in the midst of all this
from maintaining itself in tranquillity, and in a just
judgment of all surrounding things, and in a ready
use of the obj ects which are presented to it, so that
* Nub. 302.
Aristopb.au,
the judgment may say to the thing which falls under

its observation: This thou art in substance [reality],
though in men's opinion thou mayest appear to be of

a different kind and the use shall say to that which
;
falls under the hand Thou art the thing that I was
:
seeking for to me that which presents itself is always

;
a material for virtue, both rationaland political, and,

in a word, for the exercise of art, which belongs to
man or God. For everthing which happens has a
relationship either to God or man, and is neither new
nor difficult to handle, but usual and apt matter to
work on.
69. Theperfection of moral character consists in
this, inpassing every day as the last, and in being
neither violently excited, nor torpid, nor playing the
hypocrite.
TO. The gods who are immortal are not vexed be-
cause during so long a time they must tolerate contin-
ually men such as they are and so many of them bad ;
and besides this, they also take care of them in all
ways. But thou, who art destined to end so soon, art

thou wearied of enduring the bad, and this too when
thou art one of them ?
71. It is a ridiculous thing for a man not to fly from
his own badness, which is indeed possible, but to fly
from other men's badness, which is impossible.
72. Whatever the rational and political [social]
faculty finds to be neither intelligent nor social, it
properly judges to be inferior to itself.

73. When thou hast done a good act and another
has received why dost thou still look for a third thing
it,
besides these, as fools do, either to have the reputation

of having done a good act or to obtain a return ?
74.No man is tired of receiving what is useful. But

useful to act according to nature. Do not then
it is
be tired of receiving what is useful by doing it to

others.
75. The nature of the All moved to make the uni-
verse. But now either everything that takes place
comes by way of consequence or [continuity] or even ;
the chief things toward which the ruling power of the

universe directs its own movement are governed by
no rational principle. If this is remembered it will
make thee more tranquil in many things (vi. 44 ;
ix.
28)*
* It is not easy to understand this section. It has been suggested
that there is some error in rj dX6yi6za, etc. Some of the trans-
latorshave made nothing of the passage, and they have somewhat
perverted the words. The first proposition is, that the universe was
made by some sufficient power. A beginning of the universe is
assumed, and a power which framed an order. The next question
is, How are things produced now; or, in other words, by what power
do forms appear in continuous succession ? The answer, according to

Antoninus, may be this: It is by virtue of the original constitution
of things that all change and succession have been effected and are
effected. And this is intelligible in a sense, if we admit that the
universe is always one and the same, a continuity of identity; as
much one and the same as man is one and the same, which he
believes himself to be, though he also believes, and cannot help believ-
ing, that both in his body and in his thoughts there is change and
succession. There is no real discontinuity then in the universe and ;
if we say that there was an order framed in the beginning and that
the things which are now produced are a consequence of a previous

arrangement, we speak of things as we are compelled to view them,
as forming a series or succession just as we speak of the changes
;
in our own bodies and the sequence of our own thoughts. But as
there are no intervals, not even intervals infinitely small, between
any two supposed states of any one thing, so there are no intervals,
not even infinitely small, between what we call one thing and any
other thing which we speak of as immediately preceding or follow-
MARCUS AVRELIUS ANTONINUS. 223
ing it. What we call time is an idea derived from our notion of a
succession of things or events, an idea which is a part of our con-
stitution, but not an idea which we can suppose to belong to an
infinite intelligence and power. The conclusion then is certain that
the present and the past, the production of present things and the
supposed original order, out of which we say tbat present things
now come, are one and the present productive power and the so-
;
called past arrangement are only different names for one thing. I
suppose then that Antoninus wrote here as people sometimes talk

now, and that his real meaning is not exactly expressed by his words.
There are certainly other passages from which, I think, that we may
collect that he had notions of production something like what I have
expressed.
We now come to "or even the chief things
the alternative:
. . .
principle." do not exactly know what he means by
I
rd Hvpicjrara, "the chief," or "the most excellent," or whatever

it is. But as he speaks elsewhere of inferior and superior things,
and of the inferior being for the use of the superior, and of rational
beings being the highest, he may here mean rational beings. He also,
in this alternative, assumes a governing power of the universe, and
that it acts by directing its power toward these chief objects, or
making its special, proper, motion toward them. And here he uses
the noun "movement," which contains the same notion as
(dpjtnf)
the verb (oopjiir]6E) "moved," which he used at the beginning of the
paragraph when he was speaking of the making of the universe. If
we do not accept the first hypothesis, he says, we must take the con-
clusion of the second, that the "chief things toward which the
ruling power of the universe directs its own movement are governed
by no rational principle." The meaning then is, if there is a mean-
ing in it, that though there is a governing power, which strives to
give effect to its efforts, we must conclude that tbere is no rational
direction of anything, if the power which first made the universe
does not in some way govern it still. Besides, if we assume that
anything is or now exists without the action of the
now produced
supreme and yet that this intelligence makes an effort
intelligence,
to act, we obtain a conclusion which cannot be reconciled with the
nature of a supreme power, whose existence Antoninus always
assumes. The tranquillity that a man may gain from these reflec-
tions must result from his rejecting the second hypothesis, and
accepting the first whatever may be the exact sense in which the
;
emperor understood the first. Or, as he says elsewhere, if there is

no providence which governs the world, man has at least the power
of governing himself according to the constitution of his nature ;
and so he may be tranquil, if he does the best that he can.

If there is no error in the passage, it is worth the labor to dis-
cover the writer's exact meaning for I think that he had a meaning,
;
though people may not agree what it was. (Compare ix. 28.) If I
have rightly explained the emperor's meaning in this and other pas-
of a great question.
sages, he has touched the solution
MABGUb A VRELIUS ANTONINUS. 225
VIII.
This reflection also tends to the removal of the desire
of empty fame, that it is no longer in thy power to
have lived the whole of thy life, or at least thy life
from thy youth upward, like a philosopher; but both
to many others and to thyself it is plain that thou art
far from philosophy. Thou hast fallen into disorder
then, so that it is no longer easy for thee to get the
reputation of a philosopher; and thy plan of life also
opposes it. If then thou hast truly seen where the
matter lies, throw away the thought, How thou shalt
seem [to others], and be content if thou shalt live
the rest of thy life in such wise as thy nature wills.
Observe then what it wills, and let nothing else distract
thee for thou hast had experience of many wander-
;
ings without having found happiness anywhere, not

nor in wealth, nor in reputation, nor in
in syllogisms,
enjoyment, nor anywhere. Where is it then? In

doing what man's nature requires. How then shall a
man do this? If he has principles from which come
his affects and his acts. What principles? Those
which good and bad the belief that there is
relate to :
nothing good for man, which does not make him just,
temperate, manly, free and that there is nothing bad,
;
which does not do the contrary to what has been

mentioned.
2. On the occasion of every act ask thyself, How is
this with respect to me ? Shall I repent of it ? A

little time and I am dead, and all is gone. What more
do I seek, if what I am now
doing is the work of an
intelligent living being,and a social being, and one
who is under the same law with God ?
3. Alexander and Caius* and Pompeius, what are
they in comparison with Diogenes and Heraclitus and

Socrates ? For they were acquainted with things, and
their causes [forms], and their matter, and the ruling
principles of these men were the same [or conformable

to their pursuits]. But as to the others, how many
things had they to care for, and to how many things
were they slaves.
4. [Consider] that men will do the same things
nevertheless, even though thou shouldst burst.

5. This is the chief
thing Be not perturbed, for all
:
things are according to the nature of the universal ;

and in a little time thou wilt be nobody and nowhere,
like Hadrianus and Augustus. In the next place
having fixed thy eyes steadily on thy business look at
it, and at the same time remembering that it is thy
duty to be a good man, and what man's nature

demands, do that without turning aside and speak as ;
it seems to thee most just, only let it be with a
good disposition and with modesty and without

hypocrisy.
6. The nature of the universal has this work to do,
toremove to that place the things which are in this, to
change them, to take them away hence, and to carry
them there. All things are change, yet we need not
fear anything new. All things are familiar [to us] ;
but the distribution of them still remains the same.

* Caius is C. Julius Csesar, the dictator and Pompeius is Cn.
;
Pompeius, named Magnus.

7. Every nature is contented with itself when it goes

on its way well and a rational nature goes on its way
;
well, when in its thoughts it assents to nothing false or

uncertain, and when it directs its movements to social
acts only, and when it confines its desires and aversions

to the things which are in its power, and when it is
satisfied with everything that assigned to it by the

is
common nature. For of this common nature every

particular nature is a part, as the nature of the leaf is
a part of the nature of the plant except that in the ;
plant the nature of the leaf is part of a nature which

has not perception or reason, and is subject to be
impeded but the nature of man is part of a nature
;
which is not subject to impediments, and is intelligent

and just, since it gives to everything in equal portions
and according to its worth, times, substance, cause
[form], activity, and incident. But examine, not to
discover that any one thing compared with any other
single thing is equal in all respects, but by taking all
the parts together of one thing and comparing them
with all the parts together of another.
8. Thou hast not leisure [or ability] to read. But
1-hou hast leisure [or ability] to thou
check arrogance :
hast leisure to be superior to pleasure and pain thou :
hast leisure to be superior to love of fame, and not to

be vexed at stupid and ungrateful people, nay even to
care for them.
9. Let no man any longer hear thee finding fault
with the court life or with thy own (v. 16).

10. Repentance is a kind of self-reproof for having
neglected something useful but that which is good

;
must be something useful, and the perfect good man

should look after it. But no such man would ever
repent of having refused any sensual pleasure. Pleasure

then is neither good nor useful.
11. This thing, what is it in itself, in its own consti-
tution? What is its substance and material? And
what its causal nature [or form] ? And what is it doing
in the world ? And how long does it subsist ?
12. When thou risest from sleep with reluctance,

remember that it is according to thy constitution and
according to human nature to perform social acts, but
sleeping is common also to irrational animals. But

that which is
according to each individual's nature
isalso more peculiarly its own, and more suitable to its
nature, and, indeed, also more agreeable (v. 1).

13. Constantly and, if it be possible, on the occasion
of every impression on the soul, apply to it the princi-
ples of Physic, of Ethic, and of Dialectic.

Whatever man thou meetest with, immediately
14.
say to thyself What opinions has this man about good

:
and bad ? For if with respect to pleasure and pain

and the causes of each, and with respect to fame and
ignominy, death and life he has such and such
opinions,
it seem nothing wonderful or strange to me, if he
will
does such and such things and I shall bear in mind;
that he is compelled to do so.*

15. Kemember that as it is a shame to be
surprised
if the fig-tree produces figs, so it is to be surprised if
the world produces such and such things of which it
is productive and for the physician and the helms-
;
man it is a shame to be surprised, if a man has a fever,

or if the wind is unfavorable.
16. Remember that to change thy opinion and to
follow him who corrects thy error is as consistent with
* Antoninus V. 16.
Thucydides, iii. 10.
freedom as it is to persist in thy error. For it is thy

own, the activity which is exerted according to thy
own movement and judgment, and indeed according
to thy own
understanding too.
a thing is in thy own power, why dost thou
17. If
do it ? but if it is in the power of another, whom dost
thou blame ? the atoms [chance] or the gods? Both are
foolish. Thou must blame nobody. For if thou canst,
correct [that which is the cause] but if thou canst ;
not do this, correct at least the thing itself but if thou ;
canst not do even this, of what use is it to thee to find

fault? for nothing should be done without a purpose.
18. That which has died falls not out of the universe.
If stays here, it also changes here, and is dis-
it
solved into its proper parts, which are elements of the

universe and of thyself. And these too change, and
they murmur not.
19. Everything exists for some end, a horse, a vine.
"Why dost thou wonder ? Even the sun will say, I

am for some purpose, and the rest of the gods will
say the same. For what purpose then art thou ? To
enjoy pleasure ? See if common sense allows this.
20.Nature has had regard in everything no less to
the end than to the beginning and the continuance,
just like the man who throws up a ball. What good
is it then for the ball to be thrown
up, or harm for it
to come down, or even to have fallen ? And what
good
is it to the bubble while it holds together, or what
harm when it is burst ? The same may be said of a
light also.
21. Turn it and see what kind
[the body] inside out,
of thing it is; and when it has grown old, what kind
of thing it becomes, and when it is diseased.
230 \THE MEDITATIONS OF
Short lived are both the praiser and the praised, and
the rememberer and the remembered : and all this in
a nook of this part of the world and not even here
;
do all agree, no, not any one with himself and the :
whole earth too is a point.

22. Attend to the matter which is before thee,
whether it is an opinion or an act or a word.
Thou sufferest this justly for thou choosest rather
:
to become good to-morrow than to be good to-day.

23. AmI doing anything? I do it with reference
to the good of mankind. Does anything happen to
me? I receive it and refer it to the gods, and the
scource of all things, from which all that happens is
derived.
24. Such as bathing appears to thee oil, sweat, dirt,
filthy water, all things disgusting so is every part of
and everything.
life
25. Lucilla saw Verus die, and then Lucilla died.

Secunda saw Maximus die, and then Secunda died.
Epitynchanus saw Diotimus die, and then Epityncha-
nus died. Antoninus saw Faustina die, and then
Antoninus died. Such is everything. Celer saw
Hadrianus die, and then Celer died. And those sharp-
witted men, either seers or men inflated with pride,
where are they ? for instance, the sharp-witted men,
Charax and Demetrius the Platonist and Eudasmon,
and any one else like them. All ephemeral, dead long
ago. Some indeed have not been remembered even
for a short time, and others have become the heroes of
fables, and again others have disappeared even from
fables. Remember this, then, that this little com-
pound, thyself, must either be dissolved, or thy poor
breath must be extinguished, or be removed and placed
elsewhere.
MARCUS A URELTUS ANTONINUS. 231
a man to do the proper works

26. It is satisfaction to
of a man. Nowa proper work of a man to be
it is
benevolent to his own kind, to despise the movements

of the senses, to form a just judgment of plausible
appearances, and to take a survey of the nature of the
universe and of the things which happen in it.
27. There are three relations [between thee and
other things] the one to the body which surrounds
:
thee the second to the divine cause from which all

;
things come to all ;

and the third to those who live
with thee.
28. Pain is either an evil to the body then let the
body say what it thinks of it or to the soul but it is ;
in the power of the soul to maintain its own serenity

and tranquillity, and not to think that pain is an evil.
For every judgment and movement and desire and
aversion is within, and no evil ascends so high.
29. "Wipe out thy imaginations by often saying to
thyself : now it is in my power to let no badness be in
this soul,nor desire, nor any perturbation at all but ;
looking at all things I see what is their nature, and I

use each according to its value. Remember this power
which thou hast from nature.
30. Speak both in the senate and to every man, who-
ever he may be, appropriately, not with any affecta-
tion ;
use plain discourse.
31. Augustus' court, wife, daughter, descendants,
ancestors, sister, Agrippa, kinsmen, intimates, friends,
Areius,* Mascenas, physicians and sacrificing priests
the whole court is dead. Then turn to the rest, not
* Areius was a philosopher, who was intimate with Augustus ;
Sucton, Augustus, c. 89 Plutarch, Antoninus, 80 Dion Cassius, 51,

; ;
c. 16.
considering the death of a single man, [but of a whole

race], as of the Pompeii and that which is inscribed
;
on the tombs Then consider

the last of his race.
what trouble those before them have had that they
might leave a successor and then, that of necessity
;
some one must be the last. Again here consider the

death of a whole race.
thy duty to order thy life well in every
32. It is
single act and if every act does its duty, as far as is

;
possible, be content; and no one is able to hinder thee

so that each act shall not do its duty but something
external will stand in the way. Nothing will stand
in the way of thy acting justly and soberly and con-
siderately, but perhaps some other active power will
be hindered. Well, but by acquiescing in the hin-
derance and by being content to transfer thy efforts to
that which is allowed, another opportunity of action
is immediately put before thee in place of that which
was hindered, and one which will adapt itself to this
ordering of which we are speaking.

33. Receive [wealth or prosperity] without arn>
gance ;
and be ready to let it go.
34. If thou didst ever see a hand cut off, or a foot,
or a head, lying anywhere apart from the rest of the
body, such does a man make himself, as far as he can,
who is not content with what
happens, and separates
himself from others, or does anything unsocial. Sup-
pose that thou hast detached thyself from the natural
unity for thou wast made by nature a part, but now
thou hast cut thyself off yet here there is this beauti-
ful provision, that it is in thy power
again to unite
thyself. God has allowed this to no other part, after
it has been separated and cut asunder, to come
together again. But consider the kindness by which

he has distinguished man, for he has put it in his
power not to be separated at all from the universal ;
and when he has been separated, he has allowed him
and to be united and to resume his place as a
to return
part.
35. As
the nature of the universal has given to ever}r
rational being all the otherpowers that it has,f so we
have received from it this power also. For as the
universal nature converts and fixes in its predestined
place everything which stands in the way and opposes
it, and makes such things a part of itself, so also the
rational animal is able to make every hinderance its
own material, and to use it for such purposes as it
may
have designed.
36. Do not disturb thyself by thinking of the whole
of thy life. Let not thy thoughts at once embrace all
the various troubles which thou mayest expect to
befall thee but on every occasion ask thyself, What
:
is there in this which is intolerable and

past bearing?
for thou wilt be ashamed to confess. In the next
place remember
that neither the future nor the past
pains thee, but only the present. But this is reduced
to a very little, if thou only circumscribest it, and
chidest thy mind, if it is unable to hold out
against
even this.
Does Panthea or Pergamus now sit by the tomb
37.
of Verus?* Does Chaurias or Diotimus sit by the tomb
of Hadrianus ? That would be ridiculous. Well, sup-
pose they did sit there, would the dead be conscious
of it? and if the dead were conscious, would thev be
*" Verus" is a of and the true
conjecture Saumaise, perhaps
reading.
234 TEE MEDITATIONS OP
pleased? and if they were pleased, would that make

them immortal? Was it not in the order of destiny
that these persons too should first become old women
and old men and then die ? What then would those
do after these were dead? All this is foul smell and
blood in a bag.
38. If thou canst see sharp, look and judge wisely,f
says the philosopher.

39. In the constitution of the rational animal I see
no virtue which is opposed to justice but I see a ;
virtue which is opposed to love of pleasure, and that

is temperance.
40. Ifthou takest away thy opinion about that
which appears to give thee pain, thou thyself standest
in perfect security. Who is this self ? The reason.
But I am not reason. Be it so. Let then the reason
itself not trouble itself. But if any other part of thee
suffers, let ithave its own opinion about itself (vii. 16).
Hinderance to the perceptions of sense is an evil
41.
to the animal nature. Hinderance to the movements
[desires] is equally an evil to the animal nature.
And
something else also is equally an impediment and an
evil to the constitution of plants. So then that which
is a hinderance to the intelligence is an evil to the
intelligent nature. Apply all these things then to

thyself. Does pain or sensuous pleasure affect thee ?
The senses will look to that. Has any obstacle opposed
thee in thy efforts toward an object? if indeed thou
wast making this effort absolutely [unconditionally, or
without any reservation], certainly this obstacle is an
evil to thee considered as a rational animal. But if
thou takest [into consideration] the usual course of
things, thou hast not yet been injured
nor even ini-
peded. The things however which are proper to the

understanding no other man is used to impede, for
neither fire, nor iron, nor tyrant, nor abuse, touches it
in any way. When it has been made a sphere, it
continues a sphere (xi. 12).
42. It is not fit that I should give myself pain, for I
have never intentionally given pain even to another.
43. Different things delight different people. But
it is delight to keep the ruling faculty sound with-
my
out turning away either from any man or from any
of the things which happen to men, but looking at
and receiving all with welcome eyes and using every
thing according to its value.

44. See that thou secure this present time to thyself ;
for those who rather pursue posthumous fame do not

consider that the men of after time will be exactly
such as these whom they cannot bear now ; and both
are mortal. And what is it in any way to thee if
these men of after time utter this or that sound, or
have this or that opinion about thee.
45. Take me and cast me where thou wilt ;
for there
I shall keep my divine part tranquil, that is, content,
if it can feel and act
conformably to its proper con-
stitution. Is this [change of place] sufficient reason
why my soul should be unhappy and worse than it

was, depressed, expanded, shrinking, affrighted ? and
what wilt thou find which is sufficient reason for this.*
46. Nothing can happen to any man which is not a
human accident, nor to an ox which is not according
to the nature of an ox, nor to a vine which is not
* seems to have a passive sense. It is
opeyof-iEvrj in this passage
an apt expression for it and some of the other words.
difficult to find
A comparison with xi. 12, will help to explain the meaning.
according to the nature of a vine, nor to a stone which

is not proper to a stone. If then there happens to each
thing both what is usual and natural, why shouldst

thou complain? For the common nature brings
nothing which may not be borne by thee.
47. If thou art pained by any external
thing, it is
not this thing that disturbs thee, but thy own judg-
ment about it. And it is in thy power to wipe out
this judgment now. But if
anything in thy own dis-
position gives thee pain, who hinders thee from cor-
recting thy opinion? And even if thou art pained
because thou art not doing some particular thing
which seems to thee to be right, why dost thou not
rather act than complain? But some insuperable
obstacle is in the way ? Do
not be grieved then, for
the cause of its not being done depends not on thee.
But it is not worth while to live, if this cannot be
done. Take thy departure then from life contentedly,
just as he dies who is in full activity, and well pleased
too with the things which are obstacles.
48. Remember that the ruling faculty is invincible,
when it is satisfied with itself, if it does
self-collected
nothing which does not choose to do, even if it resist

it
from mere obstinacy. What then will it be when it

forms a judgment about anything aided by reason and
deliberately ? Therefore the mind which is free from
passions is a citadel, for man has nothing more secure
to which he can fly for refuge and for the future be
inexpugnable. He then who has not seen this is an
ignorant man ;
but he who has seen it and does not fly
to this refuge is
unhappy.
49. Say nothing more to thyself than what the first
appearances report. Suppose that it has been reported

to thee that a certain person speaks ill of thee. This

has been reported but that thou hast been injured,
;
that has not been reported. I see that my child is

sick. I do see but that he is in danger, I do not see.
;
Thus then always abide by the first appearances, and

*idd nothing thyself from within, and then nothing
happens to thee. Or rather add something, like a man
who knows everything that happens in the Avorld.
50. A cucumber is bitter. Throw it away. There
are briars in the road. Turn aside from them. This
is enough. Do not add, And why were such things
made in the world ? For thou wilt be ridiculed by a
man who is acquainted with nature, as thou wouldst
be ridiculed by a carpenter and shoemaker if thou
didst find fault because thou seest in their workshop
shavings and cuttings from the things which they

make. And yet they have places into which they can
throw these shavings and cuttings, and the universal
nature has no external space but the wondrous part of
;
her art that though she has circumscribed herself,

is
everything within her which appears to decay and to

grow old and to be useless she changes into herself,
and again makes other new things from these very
same, so that she requires neither substance from with-
out nor wants a place into which she may cast that
which decays. She is content then with her own
space, and her own matter, and her own art.
51. Neither in thy actions be sluggish, nor in thy
conversation without method, nor wandering in thy
thoughts, nor let there be in thy soul inward conten-
tion nor external effusion, nor in life be so busy as to
have no leisure.
Suppose that men kill thee, cut thee in pieces, curse

238 THE MEDITA TI0N8 OF
thee. "What then can these things do to prevent thy

mind from remaining pure, wise, sober, just 2 For
instance, if a man should stand by a limpid pure spring,
and curse it, the spring never ceases sending up potable
water and if he should cast clay into it or filth, it
;
will speedily disperse them and wash them out, and

will not be at all polluted. How then shalt thou pos-
sess a perpetual fountain [and not a mere well] ? By
formingf thyself hourly to freedom conjoined with
contentment, simplicity and modesty.
52. He who does not know what the world is, does
not know where he is. And he who does not know
for what purpose the world exists, does not know who
he is, nor what the world is. But he who has failed
in any one of these things could not even say for what
purpose he exists himself. What then dost thou think

of him who [avoids or] seeks the praise of those who
applaud, of men who know not either where they are
or who they are ?
53. Dost thou wish to be praised by a man who
curses himself thrice every hour? Wouldst thou wish
to please a man who does not please himself? Does a
man please himself who repents of nearly everything
that he does ?
54. No longer let thy breathing only act in concert
with the air which surrounds thee, but let thy intelli-
gence also now be in harmony with the intelligence
which embraces all things. For the intelligent power
is no less diffused in all parts and pervades all things
for him who is willing to draw it to him than the

aerial power for him who is able to respire it.
55. Generally, wickedness does no harm at all to the

universe; and particularly, the wickedness [of one
man] does no harm to another. It is only harmful to

him who has it in his power to be released from it, as
soon as he shall choose.
56. To mv own free will the free will of mv neigh-
bor is just as indifferent as his poor breath and flesh.
For though we are made especially for the sake of one
another, still the ruling power of each of us has its
own office, for otherwise neighbor's wickedness
my
would be my harm, w hich God
has not willed in order
T
that un happiness may not depend on another.

my
57. The sun appears to be poured down, and in all
directions indeed it is diffused, yet it is not effused.
For this diffusion is extension Accordingly its rays
:
are called Extensions [dxTivei\ because they are ex-

tended [and tov kt sir e6Q<xi\* But one may judge
what kind of a thing a ray is, if he looks at the sun's
light passing through a narrow opening into a
darkened room, for it is extended in a right line, and,
as it were, is divided when it meets with any solid body
which stands in the wT ay and intercepts the air beyond ;
but there the light remains fixed and does not glide or
fall off. Such then ought to be the outpouring and
diffusion of the understanding, and it should in no
way be an effusion, but an extension, and it should

make no violent or impetuous collision with the obsta-
cles which are in its way nor yet fall down, but be
;
fixed and enlightened that which receives it. For a

body will deprive itself of the illumination, if it does
not admit it.
58. He who fears death either fears the loss of sen-
sation or a different kind of sensation. But if thou
shalt have no sensation, neither wilt thou feel any
* A piece of bad etymology.
harm and if thou shalt acquire another kind of sensa-

;
tion, thou wilt be a different kind of living being, and

thou wilt not cease to live.
59. Men exist for the sake of one another. Teach
them then or bear with them.
60. In one way an arrow moves, in another way the
mind. The mind, indeed, both when it exercises
caution and when it is employed about inquiry, moves
straight onward not the less, and to its object.
61. Enter into every man's ruling faculty ;
and also
let every other man enter into thine.*
*
Compare Epictetus, iii. 9, 12.
IX.
He who acts unjustly acts impiously. For since the

universal nature has made rational animals for the sake
of one another to help one another according to their
deserts, but in no way to injure one another, he who
transgresses her Avill, is clearly guilty of impiety

toward the highest divinity. And he too who lies is
guilty of impiety to the same divinity for the uni- ;
versal nature is the nature of things that are; and
things that are have a relation to all things that come

into existence.* And further, this universal nature is
named truth, and is the prime cause of all things that
are true. He then who lies intentionally is guilty of
impiety inasmuch as he acts unjustly by deceiving and ;
he also who lies unintentionally, inasmuch as he is at

variance with the universal nature, and inasmuch as he
disturbs the order by fighting against the nature of
the world ; for he fights against it, who is moved of
himself to that which is contrary to truth, for he had
* " As there isnot any action or natural event, which we are
acquainted with, so single and unconnected as not to have a respect
to some other actions and events, so, possibly each of them, when it
has not an immediate, may yet have a remote, natural relation to
other actions and events, much beyond the compass of this present
world." Again: "Things seemingly the most insignificant imagin-
able, are perpetually observed to be necessary conditions to other
things of the greatest importance; so that any one thing whatever,
may, for aught we know to the contrary, be a necessary condition to
any other." (Butler's Aaalogy, Chap. 7. See all the chapter.)
243 TEM MKDITATIOWS OF
red powers from nature through the neglect of

which he is not able now to distinguish falsehood from
-
th. And. indeed, he who pursue- pleasure as good,

and avoids rain as eviL is guilty of impiety. For of
ss ty such a man must often find fault with the
universal nature, alleging th; I it ass jus th::;^? bo the

ad the Rood contrary to their deserts, because
:. the bad are in the enjoyment of pleasure
things which procure pleasure, but the
ssess the
pain foi their share and the things

which
se pain. And further, he who is afraid of pain will
Les also be afirai some of the things which
I :
will en in the world, and even this is imp:

. . . .
pursues pleasure will not abstain

from
injusl . and this is plainly impiety. Xow. with
respect to the things toward which the universal
natn -
-equally affected for it would not have nu
~
th, unless it was -
wily afl I th
rd these they w sh to follow nature should be
: tfa a me mind with it. and equally affected. AVith
I I and pleasure, or death and life,
pain, then,
-honor, which the universal nature
equally, whoever is not equally affect*
r
empl s
sf
acting umj jusly. And I say that the uni-
:
.'.ploys them
equally, instead of saying
b en alike to those who are produced in
s series and tc tl se who come . fter them
: . tain original movement of Provi-
g to which it moved krom a certain
-
_ this ordering of things, having conceived
-
: the things which were to and
be.
rers ictive of beings and of
ngea and of such like successions i,vii. 75).
2. It would be a man's happiest lot to

depart from
mankind without having had any taste of lying and
hypocrisy and luxury and pride. However to breathe
out one's life when a man has had enough of these
things is the next best voyage, as the saying is. Hast
thou determined to abide with vice, and has not
experience yet induced thee to fly from this pestilence ?
For the destruction of the understanding is a pesti-
lence, much more, indeed, than any such corruption
and change of this atmosphere which surrounds us.
For this corruption is a pestilence of animals so far as
they are animals ;
but the other is a pestilence of men.
so far as they are men.
3.Do not despise death, but be well content with
it, since this too is one of those things which nature
wills. For such
it is to be
as young and to grow old,
and and to reach maturity, and to have
to increase
teeth and beard and gray hairs, and to beget, and to
be pregnant, and to bring forth, and all the other
natural operations which the seasons of thy life bring,
such also is dissolution. This, then, is consistent with
the character of a reflecting man, to be neither care-
less nor impatient nor contemptuous with respect to
death, but to wait for it as one of the operations of

nature. As thou now waitest for the time when the
child shall come out of thy wife's womb, so be ready
for the time when thy soul shall fall out of this
envelope.* But if thou requirest also a vulgar kind
of comfort which shall reach thy heart, thou wilt be
made best reconciled to death by observing the objects
from which thou art going to be removed, and the
morals of those with whom thy soul will no longer be
* See note of the
Philosophy, p. 67.
mingled. For it is no way right to be offended with

men, but it is thy duty to care for them and to bear
with them gently and yet to remember that thy
;
departure will be not from men who have the same

principles as thyself. For this is the only thing, if
there be any, which could draw us the contrary way
and attach us to life, to be permitted to live with those
w ho have the same principles as ourselves. But now
r
thou seest how great is the trouble arising from the

discordance of those who live together, so that thou
mayest say, Come quick, O death, lest perchance I, too,

should forget myself.
4. He who does wrong does wrong against himself.
He w ho T
acts unjustly acts unjustly to himself, because
he makes himself bad.
5. He often acts unjustly who does not do a certain
thing ;
not only he who does a certain thing.
6. Thy present opinion founded on understanding,
and thy present conduct directed to social good, and

thy present disposition of contentment with every
thing which happensf that is enough.
7. Wipe out imagination check : desire :
extinguish
appetite keep the ruling faculty in its own power.
:
8. Among the animals which have not reason one
life is distributed but among reasonable animals one

;
intelligent soul is distributed just as there is one:
earth of all things which are of an earthly nature,

and we see by one light, and breathe one air, all of us
that have the faculty of vision and all that have life.
9. All things which participate in anything which
is common to them all move toward that which is of
the same kind with themselves. Everything which is

earthly turns toward the earth, everything which is
liquid flows together, and everything which is of an

aerial kind does the same, so that they require some-
thing to keep them asunder, and the application of

force. Fire indeed moves upward on account of the
elemental fire, but it is so ready to be kindled together
with all the fire which is here, that even every sub-
stance which is somewhat
dry, is easily ignited, because
there is less mingled with it of that which is a hinder-
ance to ignition. Accordingly, then everything also
which participates in the common intelligent nature
moves in like manner toward that which is of the
same kind with itself, or moves even more. For so
much as it is superior in comparison with all other
same degree also is it more ready to
things, in the
mingle with and to be fused with that w hich is akin
T
to it.Accordingly among animals devoid of reason

we find swarms of bees, and herds of cattle, and the
nurture of young birds, and in a manner, loves for ;
even in animals there are souls, and that power which

brings them together is seen to exert itself in the
superior degree, and in such a way as never has been
observed in plants nor in stones nor in trees. But in
rational animals there are political communities and
friendships, and families and meetings of people and ;
in wars, treaties and armistices. But in the things

which are still superior, even though they are sepa-
rated from one another, unity in a manner exists, as in
the stars. Thus the ascent to the higher degree is able
to produce a sympathy even in things which are sepa-
rated. See, then, what now takes place. For only
intelligent animals have now forgotten this mutual
desire and inclination, and in them alone the property
of flowing together is not seen. But still, though men
strive to avoid [this union], they are caught and held

by it, for their nature is too strong for them ;
and thou
wilt see what I say, if thou only observest. Sooner,
then, will one find anvthing earthv which conies in
contact with no earthy thing than a man altogether
separated from other men.
10. Both man and God and the universe produce
fruit at the proper seasons each produces it.
;
But if
usage has especially fixed these terms to the vine and
like things, this is nothing. Reason produces fruit
both for all and for itself, and there are produced from
it other things of the same kind as reason itself.
11. If thou art able, correct by teaching those who

do wrong; but if thou canst not, remember that indul-
gence is
given to thee for this purpose. And the gods,
too, are indulgent to such persons and for some pur-
;
poses they even help them to get health, wealth,

reputation so kind they are. And
;
it is in thy power
also or say, who hinders thee?
;
12. Labor not as one who is wretched, nor vet as

one who would be pitied or admired but direct thy ;
will to one thing only, to put thyself in motion and to

check thyself, as the social reason requires.
13. To-dav I have got out of all trouble, or rather I
have cast out all trouble, for it was not outside, but
within and in my opinions.
14. All things are the same, familiar in experience,
and ephemeral in time, and worthless in the matter.
Everything now is just as it was in the time of those
whom we have buried.
15. Things stand outside of us, themselves hy them-
selves, neither knowing aught of themselves, nor ex-

pressing any judgment. What is it, then, which does
judge about them ? The ruling faculty.
16. Not in passivity, but in activity lie the evil and

the good of the rational social animal, just as his virtue
and his vice lie not in passivity, but in activity.*
For the stone which lias been thrown up it is no
17.
evil to come down, nor indeed any good to have been
carried up (viii. 20).
18. Penetrate inward into men's leading principles,
and thou wilt see what judges thou art afraid of, and
what kind of judges they are of themselves.
19. All things are changing and thou thyself art ;
in continuous mutation and in a manner in continuous
destruction, and the whole universe too.

20. It is thy duty to leave another man's
wrongful
act there where it is (vii. 29, ix. 38).
21. Termination of activity, cessation from move-
ment and opinion, and in a sense their death, is no
evil. Turn thy thoughts now to the consideration of
thy life, thy life as a child, as a youth, thy manhood,
thy old age, for in these also every change was a death.
Is this anything to fear? Turn thy thoughts now to
thy life under thy grandfather, then to thy life under
thy mother, then to thy life under thy father and as ;
thou findest many other differences and changes and

terminations, ask thyself, Is this anything to fear ? In
like manner, then, neither are the termination and
cessation and change of thy whole life a thing to be
afraid of.
22. Hasten [to examine] thy own ruling faculty and
that of the universe and that of thy neighbor thy ;
own that thou mayest make it just and that of the ;
universe, that thou mayest remember of what thou art

* '
omnis
Virtutis laus in actione consistk." (Cicero, De
Off, i 6.)
a part and that of thy neighbor, that thou mayest

;
know whether he has acted ignorantly or with knowl-

edge, and that thou mayest also consider that his ruling
faculty is akin to thine.
23. As thou thyself art a component part of a social
system, so let every act of thine be a component part
of social life. Whatever act of thine then has no
reference, either immediately or remotely, to a social
end, this tears asunder thy life, and does not allow it
to be one, and it is of the nature of a mutin}^ just as
when in a popular assembly a man acting by himself
stands apart from the general agreement.
24. Quarrels of little children and their sports, and
poor spirits carrying about dead bodies [such is every-

thing] and so what is exhibited in the representation
;
of the mansions of the dead strikes our eyes more

clearly.
25. Examine into the quality of the form of an
object, and detach it altogether from material part,
its
and then contemplate it; then determine the time, the

longest which a thing of this peculiar form is naturally
made to endure.
26. Thou hast endured infinite troubles through not
being contented with thy ruling faculty, when it does

the things which it is constituted by nature to do. But
enough f [of this].
27. "When another blames thee or hates thee, or
when men say about thee anything injurious, approach
their poor souls, penetrate within, and see what kind
of men they are. Thou wilt discover that there is no
reason to take any trouble that these men may have
this or that opinion about thee. However, thou must
be well-disposed toward them, for by nature they are
MARCUS A URELIUS ANTONINUS. 2-19
friends. And the gods too aid them in all ways, by

dreams, by signs, toward the attainment of those things
on which they set a value, f
28. The periodic movements of the universe are the
same, up and down from age to age. And either the

universal intelligence puts itself in motion for every
separate effect, and if this is so, be thou content with
that which is the result of its activity; or it puts itself
in motion once, and everything else comes by way of
sequence in a manner ;
or indivisible elements are the
origin of all things. In a word, if there is a god,

all is
well ; and if chance rules, do not thou also be governed

by it (vi. 44, vii. 75).
Soon will the earth cover us all then the earth, too, :
will change, and the things also which result from
change will continue to change forever, and these

again forever. For if a man reflects on the changes
and transformations which follow one another like
wave after wave and their rapidity, he will despise
everything which is perishable (xii. 21).
29. The universal cause is like a winter torrent : it
carries everything along with it. But how worthless

are all these poor people who are engaged in matters
political, and, as they suppose, are playing the philoso-
pher! All Well then, man: do what
drivelers.
nature now Set thyself in motion, if it is in
requires.
thy power, and do not look about thee to see if any
*
one will observe it nor yet expect Plato's Republic
;
:
but be content if the smallest thing goes on well, and

consider such an event to be no small matter. For who
can change men's opinions % And without a change of
* Those who wish to know what Plato's Republic is, may now
study it in the accurate translation of Davies and Vaughan.
opinions what else is there than the slavery of men

who groan while they pretend to obey ? Come now
and tell me of Alexander and Philippus and Demetrius
of Phalerum. They themselves shall judge whether
they discovered what the common nature required, and
trained themselves accordingly. But if they acted like
tragedy heroes, no one has condemned me to imitate
them. Simple and modest is the work of philosophy.
Draw me not aside to insolence and pride.
30. Look down from above on the countless herds of
men and their countless solemnities, and the infinitely
varied voyagings in storms and calms, and the differ-
ences among those who are born, who live together,
and die. And consider, too, the life lived by others in
olden time, and the life of those who will live after
thee, and the life now lived among barbarous nations,
and how many know not even thy name, and how
many will soon forget it, and how they who, perhaps,
now are praising thee will very soon blame thee, and
that neither a posthumous name is of any value, nor
reputation, nor anything else.
31. Let there be freedom from perturbations with
respect to the things which come from the external

cause ;
and let there be justice in the things done by
virtue of the internal cause, that is, let there be move-
ment and action terminating in this, in social acts, for
this is according to thy nature.
32. Thou canst remove out of the way many useless
things those which disturb thee, for they lie
among
entirely in thy opinion and thou wilt then gain for
;
thyself ample space by comprehending the whole uni-

verse in thy mind, and by contemplating the eternity
of time, and observing the rapid change of every sev-
eral thing, how short is the time from birth to dissolu-

tion, and the illimitable time before birth as well as
the equally boundless time after dissolution.
33. All that thou seest will quickly perish, and those
who have been spectators of its dissolution will very
soon perish too. And he who dies at the extremest
old age will be brought into the same condition with
him who died prematurely.
34. What are these men's leading principles, and
about what kind of things are they busy, and for what
kind of reasons do they love and honor ? Imagine that
thou seest their poor souls laid bare. When they
think that they do harm by their blame or good by
their praise, what an idea !
35. Loss is nothing else than change. But the uni-

versal nature delights in change, and in obedience to
her all things are now done well, and from eternity
have been clone in like form, and will be such to time
without end. What, then, dost thou say? That all
things have been and all things always will be bad,
and that no power has ever been found in so many
gods to rectify these things, but the world has been
condemned to be bound in never-ceasing evil ?
(iv. 45,
vii. 18.)
36. The rottenness of the matter which is the foun-

dation of everything water, dust, bones, filth
! or ;
again, marble rocks, the callosities of the earth and ;
gold and the sediments and garments, only

silver, ;
bits of hair; and purple dye, blood; and everything

else is of the same kind. And that which is of the
nature of breath, is also another thing of the same
kind, changing from this to that.
37. Enough of this wretched life and murmuring
and apish tricks. Why art thou disturbed? What is
there new in this ? What unsettles thee ? Is it the

form of the thing? Look at it. Or is it the matter?
Look at it. But besides these there is nothing.
Toward the gods, then, now become at last more sim-
ple and better. It is the same whether we examine
these things for a hundred years or three.
38. If any man has done wrong, the harm is his
own. But perhaps he has not done wrong.
39. Either all things proceed from one intelligent
source and come together as in one body, and the part
ought not to find fault with what is done for the
benefit of the whole; or there are only atoms, and
nothing else than mixture and dispersion. Why, then,
art thou disturbed ? Say to the ruling faculty, Art
thou dead, art thou corrupted, art thou playing the
hypocrite, art thou become a beast, dost thou herd and
feed with the rest ?*
40. Either the gods have no power or they have
power. If, then, they have no power, why dost thou

pray to them? But if they have power, why dost
thou not pray for them to give thee the faculty of not
fearing any of the things which thou fearest, or of not
desiring any of the things which thou desirest, or not
being pained at anything, rather than pray that any
of these things should not happen or happen? for cer-
tainly if they can co-operate with men, they can co-
operate for these purposes. But perhaps thou wilt
say, the gods have placed them in thy power. Well,
* There is some
corruption at the end of this section but I think
;
that the translation expresses the emperor's meaning Whether intelli-

-
.
gence rules all things or chance rules, a man must not be disturbed.
He must use the power that he has, and be tranquil.
MARCUS AURELTU8 ANTONINUS. 25?
then, not better to use what is in thy power like

is it
a free man
than to desire in a slavish and abject way
what is not in thy power ? And who has told thee
that the gods do not aid us even in the things which
are in our power? Begin, then, to pray for such
things, and thou wilt see. One man prays thus How :
shall I be able to lie with that woman ? Do thou pray

thus How shall I not desire to lie with her ? Another
:
prays thus: How shall I be released from this?

Another prays How shall I not desire to be released ?
:
Another thus: How shall I not lose my little son?

Thou thus How shall I not be afraid to lose him ? In
:
fine, turn thy prayers this way, and see what comes.
41. Epicurus says, In my sickness my conversation
was not about bodily sufferings, nor, says he, did I
my
talk on such subjects to those who visited me but I ;
continued to discourse on the nature of things as

before, keeping to this main point, how the mind,
while participating in such movements as go on in the
poor flesh, shall be free from perturbations and main-
tain its proper good. Nor did I, he says, give the
physicians an opportunity of putting on solemn looks,
as if they were doing something great, but my life
went on well and happily. Do, then, the same that he
did both in sickness, if thou art sick, and in any other
circumstances for never to desert philosophy in any
;
events that may befall us, nor to hold trifling talk either
with an ignorant man or with one unacquainted with
nature, is a principle of all schools of philosophy but ;
to be intent only on that which thou art now doing

and on the instrument by which thou doest it.
42. When thou art offended with any man's shame-
less conduct, immediately ask thyself, Is it possible,
then, that shameless men should not be in the world ?
It is not possible. Do not, then, require what is impos-

sible. For this man also is one of those shameless men
who must of necessity be in the world. Let the same
considerations be present to thy mind in the case of
the knave, and the faithless man, and of every man
who does wrong in any way. For, at the same time,
that thou dost remind thyself that it is impossible that
such kind of men should not exist, thou wilt become
more kindly disposed toward every one individually.
It useful to perceive this, too, immediately when the
is
occasion arises, what virtue nature has given to man to

oppose to every wrongful act. For she has given to
man, as an antidote against the stupid man, mildness,
and against another kind of man some other power.
And in all cases it is possible for thee to correct by
teaching the man who is gone astray for every man ;
who errs misses his object and is gone astray. Besides

wherein hast thou been injured ? For thou wilt find
that no one among those against whom thou art
irritated has done anything by which thy mind could
be made worse but that which is evil to thee and
;
harmful has its foundation only in the mind. And

what harm is done or what is there strange, if the man
who has not been instructed does the acts of an unin-
structed man ? Consider whether thou shouldst not
rather blame thyself, because thou didst not expect
such a man to err in such a way. For thou hadst
means given thee by thy reason to suppose that it was
likely that he would commit this error, and yet thou
hast forgotten and art amazed that he has erred. But
most of all when thou blamest a man as faithless or
ungrateful, turn to thyself. For the fault is manifestly
thy own, whether thou didst trust that a man who had
such a disposition would keep his promise, or when
conferring thy kindness thou didst not confer it abso-
lutely, nor yet in such way as to have received from
thy very act all the profit. For what more dost thou
want when thou hast done a man a service? Art thou
not content that thou hast done
something conforma-
ble to thy nature, and dost thou seek to be
paid for it ?
Just as if the eye demanded a recompense for
seeing,
or the feet for walking. For as these members are
formed for a particular purpose, and by working
according to their several constitutions obtain what is
their own so also as man is formed by nature to acts
;
of benevolence, when he has done

anything benevolent
or in any other way conducive to the common interest,
he has acted conformably to his constitution, and he
gets what is his own.
X.
Wilt thou, then, never be good and. simple
my soul,
and one and naked, more manifest than the body
which surrounds thee? Wilt thou never enjoy an
affectionate and contented disposition? Wilt thou
never be full and without a want of any kind, longing
for nothing more, nor desiring anything, either ani-
mate or inanimate, for the enjoyment of pleasures ?
nor yet desiring time wherein thou shalt have longer
enjoyment, or place, or pleasant climate, or society of
men with whom thou may est live in harmony ? but wilt
thou be satisfied with thy present condition, and
pleased with all that is about thee, and wilt thou con-
vince thyself that thou hast everything and that it
comes from the gods, that everything is well for thee,
and will be well whatever shall please them, and what-
ever they shall give for the conservation of the perfect
living being,* the good and just and beautiful, which
generates and holds together all things, and contains
and embraces all things which are dissolved for the
production of other like things? Wilt thou never be
such that thou shalt so dwell in community with gods
and men as neither to find fault with them at all, nor
to be condemned by them ?
2. Observe what thy nature
requires, so far as thou
* That God as lie is defined But the con-
is, (iv. 40), by Zeno.
fusion between gods and God is strange.
art governed by nature only then do it and accept it,

;
if thy nature, so far as thou art a living being, shall

not be made worse by it. And next thou must observe
what thy nature requires so far as thou art a living
being. And all this thou mayest allow thyself, if thy
nature, so far as thou art a rational animal, shall not
be made worse by it. But the rational animal is conse-
quently also a political [social] animal. Use these
rules, then, and trouble thyself about nothing else.
3. Everything which happens either
happens in such
wise as thou art formed by nature to bear it, or as
thou art not formed by nature to bear it. If, then, it
happens to thee in such
way as thou art formed by
nature to bear do not complain, but bear it as thou
it,
art formed by nature to bear it. But if it happens in

such wise as thou art not formed by nature to bear it,
do not complain, for it will perish after it has con-
sumed thee. Remember, however, that thou art
formed by nature to bear everything, with respect to
which it depends on thy own opinion to make it endur-
able and tolerable, by thinking that it is either
thy
interest or thy duty to do this.
4. If a man is mistaken, instruct him
kindly and
show him his error. But if thou art not able, blame
thyself, or blame not even thyself.
5. Whatever
may happen to thee, it was prepared
for thee from all eternity; and the implication of
causes was from eternity spinning the thread of thy
being, and of that which is incident to it (iii. 11 iv. 26). ;
6. Whether the universe is [a concourse of] atoms,

or nature a system], let tiiis
[is first be established,
that I am a part of the whole which is governed by
nature ; next, I am in a manner intimately related to
the parts which are of the same kind with myself.

For remembering this, inasmuch as I am a part, I shall
be discontented with none of the things which are
assigned to me out of the whole for nothing is in-
;
jurious to the part, if it is for the advantage of the

whole. For the whole contains nothing which is not
for its advantage and all natures indeed have this
;
common principle, but the nature of the universe has

this principle besides, that it cannot be compelled even
by any external cause to generate anything harmful to

itself. By remembering, then, that I am a part of
such a whole, I shall be content with everything that
happens. And inasmuch as I am in a manner inti-
mately related to the parts which are of the same
kind with myself, I shall do nothing unsocial, but I
shall rather direct myself to the things which are of
the same kind with myself, and I shall turn all my
efforts to the common interest, and divert them from
the contrary. Now, if these things are done so, life
must flow on happily, just as thou mayest observe that
the life of a citizen is happy, who continues a course of
action which is advantageous to his fellow-citizens, and
is content with whatever the state may assign to him.
7. The parts of the whole, everything, I mean, which
is naturally comprehended in the universe, must of

necessity perish ;
but let this be understood in this
sense, that they must undergo change. But if this is

naturally both an evil and a necessity for the parts,
the whole would not continue to exist in a good con-
dition, the parts being subject to change and consti-
tuted so as to perish in various ways. For whether
did nature herself design to do evil to the things which
are parts of herself, and to make them subject to evil
MARCUS A URELIUS ANTONINUS. 25ft
and of necessity fall into evil, or have such results

happened without her knowing it ? Both these sup-
positions, indeed, are incredible. But if a man should
even drop the term Nature [as an efficient power],
and should speak of these things as natural, even then
it would be ridiculous to affirm at the same time that
the parts of the whole are in their nature subject to

change, and at the same time to be surprised or vexed
as if something were happening contrary to nature,
particularly as the dissolution of things is into those
things of which each thing is composed. For there is

either a dispersion of the elements out of which every
thing has been compounded, or a change from the

solid to the earthly and from the airy to the aerial, so
that these parts are taken back into the universal
reason, whether this at certain periods is consumed by
fire or renewed by eternal changes. And do not
imagine that the solid and the airy part belong to thee
from the time of generation. For all this received its
accretion only yesterday and the day before, as one
may say, from the food and the air which is inspired.
This, then, which has received [the accretion], changes,
not that which thy mother brought forth. But sup-
pose that this [which thy mother brought forth] im-
plicates thee very much with that other part, which
has the peculiar quality [of change], this is nothing in
fact in the way of objection to what is said.*
* The end of this section is

perhaps corrupt. The meaning is
very obscure. I have given that meaning which appears to be con-
sistent with the whole argument. The emperor here maintains that the
essential part of man is unchangeable, and that the other parts, if
they change or perish, do not affect that which really constitutes tli8
man. See the Philosophy of Antoninus, p. 50, note.
260 .
THE MEDITATIONS OF
8. "When thou hast assumed these names, good, mod-

a man of equanimity, and magnani-
est, true, rational,
mous, take care thou dost not change these names ;
and if thou shouldst lose them, quickly return to

them. And remember that the term Rational was in-
tended to signify a discriminating attention to every
several thing and freedom from negligence and that ;
Equanimity is the voluntary acceptance of the things

which are assigned to thee by the common nature ;
and that Magnanimity is the elevation of the intelli-

gent part above the pleasurable or painful sensations
of the flesh, and above that poor thing called fame,
and death, and all such things. If, then, thou main-
tamest thyself in the possession of these names, with-
out desiring to be called by these names by others,
thou wilt be another person and wilt enter on another
life. For to continue to be such as thou hast hitherto
been, and to be torn in pieces and defiled in such a
life, is the character of a very stupid man and one
overfond of his life, and like those half-devoured fight-
ers with wild beasts, who, though covered with wounds
and gore, still intreat to be kept to the following day,
though they will be exposed in the same state to the
same claws and bites.* Therefore fix thyself in the
possession of these few names and if thou art able
:
to abide in them, abide as if thou wast removed to

certain islands of the Happy 4 But if thou shalt
* See
Seneca, Epp. 70, on these exhibitions which amused the
people of those days. These fighters were the Bestlarii, some of
whom may have been criminals, but even if they were, the exhibi-
tionwas equally characteristic of the depraved habits of the spectators.
The islands of the Happy, or the Fortunatas Insula?, are spoken
\
of by the Greek and Roman writers. They were the abode of
Heroes, like Achilles and Diomedes, as we see in the Scolion of Har-
MARCUS A URELTVS ANTONINUS. 261
perceive that thou fallest out of them and dost not

maintain thy hold, go courageously into some nook
where thou shalt maintain them, or even depart at
once from life, not in passion, but with simplicity and
freedom and modesty, after doing this one [laudable]
thing at least in thy life, to have gone out of it thus.
In order, however, to the remembrance of these
names, it will greatly help thee, if thou rememberest
the gods, and that they wish not to be flattered, but
wish all reasonable beings to be made like themselves ;
and if thou rememberest that what does the work of

a fig-tree is a fig-tree, and that what does the work of
a dog is a dog, and that what does the work of a bee
is a bee, and that what does the work of a man is a
man.
9. Mimi,* war, astonishment,
torpor, slavery, will daily
wipe out those holy principles of thine, fllow many
things without studying nature dost thou imagine, and
how many dost thou neglect ? But it is thy duty so to
modius and Aristogiton. Sertorius heard of the islands at Cadiz from
some sailors who had been there, and he had a wish to go and live in
them and rest from his troubles. (Plutarch, Sertorius, c. 8.) In the
Odyssey, Proteus told Menelaus that he should not die in Argos, but
be removed to a place at the boundary of the earth where Rhada-
manthus dwelt :
(Odyssey, iv. 565.)
For there in sooth man's life is easiest:

Nor snow nor raging storm nor rain is there,
But ever gently breathing gales of Zephyr
Oceanus sends up to gladden man.
It is certain that the writer of the Odyssey only follows some old
legend without having any knowledge of any place which corresponds

to his description. The two islands which Sertorius heard of may be
Madeira and the adjacent island. (Compare Pindar, 01. ii. 129.)
* Corais " hatred " in
conjectured juidoi place of Mimi, Roman
plays in which action and gesticulation were all or nearly all.
look on and so to do everything, that at the same time

the power of dealing with circumstances is perfected,
and the contemplative faculty is exercised, and the
confidence which comes from the knowledge of each
several thing is maintained without showing it, but
yet not concealed. For when wilt thou enjoy simplic-
ity, when gravity, and when the knowledge of every
several thing, both what it is in substance, and what
place it has in the universe, and how long it is formed

to exist, and of what things it is compounded, and to
whom it can belong, and who are able both to give it
and take it away %
10. A spider is proud when it has caught a fly, and
another when he has caught a poor hare, and another
when he has taken a little fish in a net, and another
when he has taken wild boars, and another when he
has taken bears, and another when he has taken Sar-
matians. Are not these robbers, if thou examinest
their opinions ?
*
11.Acquire the contemplative way of seeing how
all things change into one another, and constantly
attend to it, and exercise thyself about this part [of

philosophy]. For nothing is so much adapted to pro-
duce magnanimity. Such a man has put off the body,
and, as he sees that he must, no one knows how soon,
go away from among men and leave everything here, he
gives himself up entirely to just doing in ail his
actions, and in everything else that happens he resigns
himself to the universal nature. But as to what any
man shall say or think about him, or do against him, he
* Marcus means to He himself
say that conquerors are robbers.
warred against Sarmatians, and was a robber, as he says, like the
rest. But compare the life of Avidius Cassius, c. 4, by Vulcatius.
never even thinks of it, being himself contented with

these two things, with aciing justly in what he now
does, and being satisfied with what is now assigned to
him and he lays aside all distracting and busy pur-
;
suits, and desires nothing else than to accomplish the
straight course through the law,* and by accomplish-

ing the straight course to follow God.
12. What need is there of suspicious fear, since it is
in thy power to inquire what ought to be done? And
if thou seest clear, go
by this way content, without
turning back but if thou dost not see clear, stop and
:
take the best advisers. But if any other things oppose

thee, go on according to thy powers with due consid-
eration, keeping to that which appears to be just.
For it is best to reach this object, and if thou dost fail,
let thy failure be in attempting this. He who follows
reason in all things is both tranquil and active at the
same time, and also cheerful and collected.
13. Inquire of thyself as soon as thou wakest from
sleep whether it will make any difference to thee, if
another does what is just and right. It will make no

difference (vi. 32 viii. 55). ;
Thou has not forgotten, I suppose, that those who

assume arrogant airs in bestowing their praise or
blame on others, are such as they are at bed and at
board, and thou hast not forgotten what they do, and
what they avoid and what they pursue, and how the}'
steal and how they rob, not with hands and feet, but
with their most valuable part, by means of which there
is produced, when a man chooses, fidelity, modesty,
truth, law, a good demon [happiness]? (vii. 17.)
* the law, he means the divine law, obedience to the will of
By
tfod.
To her who gives and takes back all, to nature,

14.
the man who is instructed and modest says, Give what
thou wilt take back what thou wilt. And he says
;
this proudly, but obediently and well pleased

not
with her.
15. Short is the little which remains to thee of life.
Live as on a mountain. For it makes no difference
whether a man lives there or here, if he lives every-
where in the world as in a state [political community].
Let men see, let them know a real man who lives
according to nature. If they cannot endure him, let
them kill him. For that is better than to live thus [as
men do].
No longer talk at all about the kind of man that
16.
a good man ought to be, but be such.
17. Constantly contemplate the whole of time and
the whole of substance, and consider that all individual
things as to substance are a grain of a fig, and as to
time, the turning of a gimlet.
18. Look at everything that exists, and observe that
it is already in dissolution and in change, and as it
were putrefaction or dispersion, or that everything is

so constituted by nature as to die.
19. Consider what men are when they are eating,
sleeping, generating, easing themselves and so forth.

Then what kind of men they are when they are im-
periousf and arrogant, or angry and scolding from
their elevated place. But a short time ago to how
many they were slaves and for what things and :
after a little time consider in what a condition they

will be.
20. That is for the good of each thing, which the
universal nature brings to each. And it is for its
good at the time when nature brings it.

"
21. The earth loves the shower ;" and "the solemn
ether loves :" and the universe loves to make what-

ever is about to be. I say then to the universe, that I
love as thou lovest. And is not this too said, that
"this or that loves [is wont] to be produced."*

Either thou livest here and hast already accus-
22.
tomed thyself to it, or thou art going away, and this
was thy own will or thou art dying and hast dis-
:
charged thy duty. But besides these things there is

nothing. Be of good cheer, then.
23. Let this always be plain to thee, that this piece
of land is like any other; and that all things here are
the same with things on the top of a mountain, or on
the sea-shore, or wherever thou choosest to be. For
thou wilt find just what Plato says, Dwelling within
the walls of a city as in a shepherd's fold on a mount-
ain. [The three last words are omitted in the trans-
lation.]^:
24. What is my ruling faculty now to me? and of
what nature am I now making it ? and for what pur-
pose I now using it ? is it void of understanding ?
am
is loosed and rent asunder from social life? is it
it
melted into and mixed with the poor flesh so as to

move together with it ?
* These words are from

Euripides. They are cited by Aristotle,
Ethic. Nicom. viii. 1. It was the fashion of the Stoics to work on
the meanings of words. So Antoninus here takes the verb cpiXec,

"loves," which has also the sense of "is wont," "uses," and the
like. finds in the common language of mankind a philosophical
He
truth, and most great truths are expressed in the common language
of life; some understand them, but most people utter them, without
knowing how much they mean.
% Plato, Theaet. 174 D.
E. But compare the original with the
use that Antoninus has made of it.
266 THE MED ITA TIONS OF
25. He who flies from his master is a runaway but

;
the law is master, and he who breaks the law is a run-

away. And he also who
is grieved or angry or af raid,+
is something has been or is or shall

dissatisfied because
be of the things which are appointed by him who rules
all things, and he is Law, and assigns to every man
Avhat is fit. He then who fears or is grieved or is

angry is a runaway.*
26. A
man deposits seed in a womb and goes away,
and then another cause takes it, and labors on it and
makes a child. What a thing from such a material !
Again, the child passes food down through the throat,

and then another cause takes it and makes perception
and motion, and in fine life and strength and other
things how many and how strange
;
Observe then !
the things which are produced in such a hidden way,

and see the power just as we see the power which
carries things downward and upward, not with the
eyes, but still no less plainly (vii. 75).
Constantly consider how all things such as they

27.
now are, in time past also were and consider that they
;
will be the same again. And place before thy eyes

entire dramas and stages of the same form, whatever
thou hast learned from thy experience or from older
history; for example, the whole court of Hadrianus,
and the whole court of Antoninus, and the whole court
of Philippus, Alexander, Croesus for all those were ;
such dramas as we see now, only with different actors.

28. Imagine every man who is grieved at anything
or discontented to be like a pig which is sacrificed and
kicks and screams.
* Antoninus is here
playing on the etymology of vopoS, law, as
signment, that which assigns (re/êi) to every man his portion.
Like this pig also is he who on his bed in silence

laments the bonds in which we are held. And con-
sider that only to the rational animal is it given to
follow voluntarily what happens but simply to follow
;
is a necessity imposed on all.
29. Severally on the occasion of everything that

thou doest, pause and ask thyself, if death is a dread-
ful thing because it deprives thee of this.
30. When thou art offended at anv man's fault,
forthwith turn to thyself and reflect in what like man-
ner thou dost err thyself for example, in thinking
;
that money is a good thing, or pleasure, or a bit of
reputation, and the like. For by attending to this

thou wilt quickly forget thy anger, if this considera-
tion also is added, that the man is compelled for what ;
else could he do ? or, if thou art able, take away from

him the compulsion.
31. When thou hast seen Satyron* the Socratic,f
think of either Eutyches or Hymen, and when thou
hast seen Euphrates, think of Eutychion or Silvanus,
and when thou hast seen Alciphron think of Tropseo-
phorus, and when thou hast seen Xenophon think of
Crito^: or Severus, and when thou hast looked on thy-
self, think of any other Cassar, and in the case of every
one do in like manner. Then let this thought be in
thy mind, Where then are those men ? Nowhere, or

*
Nothing is known of Satyron or Satyrion; nor, I believe, of
Eutyches or Hymen. Euphrates is honorably mentioned by Epictetus
(iii. 15, 8; iv. 8, 17). Pliny (Epp. i. 10), speaks very highly of him.
He obtained the permission of the Emperor Hadrian to drink poison,
because he was old and in bad health (Dion Cassius. 69, c. 8).
JCrito is the friend of Socrates; and he was, it appears, also a

friend of Xenophon. When the emperor says "seen," he does not
mean with the eyes.
nobody knows where. For thus continuously thou

wilt look at human things as smoke and nothing at
all ; especially if thou reflectest at the same time that
what has once changed will never exist
again in the
infinite duration of time. But thou, in what a brief
space of time is thy existence? And why art thou
not content to pass through this short time in an
orderly way ? What matter and opportunity [for thy
activity] art thou avoiding? For what else are all
these things, except exercises for the reason, when it
has viewed carefully and by examination into their
nature the things which happen in life? Persevere
then until thou shalt have made these things
thy own,
as the stomach which is strengthened makes all things
itsown, as the blazing fire makes flame and brightness
out of everything that is thrown into it.
32. Let it not be in any man's
power to say truly of
thee that thou art not simple, or that thou art not
good but let him be a liar whoever shall think
;
any-
thing of this kind about thee and this is altogether in
;
thy power. For who is he that shall hinder thee from

being good and simple? Do thou only determine
to live no longer, unless thou shalt be such. For
neither does reason allow [thee to
live], if thou art not
such.*
33. What is that which as to this material [our
life]
can be done or said in the way most conformable to
reason. For whatever this may be, it is in thy power
to do it or to say it, and do not make excuses that thou
art hindered. Thou wilt not cease to lament till thy
mind is in such a condition that, what luxury is to
those who enjoy pleasure, such shall be to thee, in the
*
Compare Epictetus, i. 29, 28,
MARCUS A URELIUS ANTONINUS. 2G9
matter which is subjected and

presented to thee, the
doing of the things which are conformable to man's
constitution for a man ought to consider as an enjoy-
;
ment everything which it is in his power to do accord-

ing to his own nature. And it is in his power every-
where. Now, it is not given to a cylinder to move
everywhere by its own motion, nor yet to water nor to
fire, nor to anything else which is governed by nature
or an irrational soul, for the things which check them
and stand in the way are many. But intelligence and
reason are able to go through everything that
opposes
them, and in such manner as they are formed by nature
and as they choose. Place before thy eyes this facility
with which the reason will be carried through all
things, as fire upward, as a stone downward, as a cyl-
inder down an inclined surface, and seek for nothing-
further. For all other obstacles either affect the body
only which is a dead thing or, except through opinion
;
and the yielding of the reason itself, they do not crrish

nor do any harm of any kind for if they did, he who
;
felt it would
immediately become bad. Now, in the
case of all things which have a certain constitution,
whatever harm may happen to any of them, that
which is so affected becomes consquently -worse but ;
in the like case, a man becomes both better, if one

may
say so, and more worthy of praise by making a right
use of these accidents. And finally remember that
nothing harms him who is
really a citizen, which does
not harm the state nor yet does anything harm the
;
statewhich does not harm law [order] and of these;
things which are called misfortunes not one harms law.

"What then does not harm law does not harm either
state or citizen.
34. To him who is penetrated by true principles even

the briefest precept and any common pre-
is sufficient,
cept, toremind him that he should be free from grief

and fear. For example :
Leaves, some the wind scatters on the ground

So is the race of men.*
Leaves, also, are thy children ; and leaves, too, are they
who cry out as if they were worthy of credit and
bestow their praise, or on the contrary curse, or
secretly blame and leaves, in like manner,
and sneer ;
are those who shall receive and transmit a man's fame

to after-times. For all such things as these "are pro-
duced in the season of spring," as the poet says then ;
the wind casts them down; then the forest produces

other leaves in their places. But a brief existence is
common to all things, and yet thou avoidest and pur-
suest all things as if they would be eternal. A little
time, and thou shalt close thy eyes and him who ;
has attended thee to thy grave another soon will

lament.
35. The healthy eye ought to see all visible things
and not to say, I wish for green things for this is the ;
condition of a diseased eye. And

the healthy hearing
and smelling ought to be ready to perceive all that
can be heard and smelled. And the health}7 stomach
ought to be with respect to all food just as the mill
with respect to all things which it is formed to grind.
And accordingly the healthy understanding ought to
be prepared for everything winich happens but that ;
which says, Let my dear children live, and let all men
praise whatever I may do, is an eye which seeks for
green things, or teeth which seek for soft things.
*
Homer, II. vi. 146.
36. There is no man so fortunate that there shall

not be by him when he is dying some who are pleased
with what is going to happen.* Suppose that he was
a good and wise man, will there not be at last some
one to say to himself, Let us at last breathe freely
being relieved from this school-master ? It is true that
1
he was harsh to none of us, but I perceived that he

tacitly condemns us. This is what is said of a good
man. But in our own case how many other things
are there for which there are many who wish to get
rid of us. Thou wilt consider this then when thou
art dying, and thou wilt depart more contentedly by
reflecting thus I am going away from such a life, in
:
which even my associates in behalf of whom 1 have

striven so much, prayed, and cared, themselves wish
me to depart, hoping perchance to get some little
advantage by it. "Why then should a man cling to a
longer stay here ? Do not, however, for this reason go
awa}^ kindly disposed to them, but preserving thy
less
own character, and friendly and benevolent and mild,
and on the other hand not as if thou wast torn away ;
but as when a man

dies a quiet death, the poor soul is
easily separated from the body, such also ought thy

departure from men to be, for nature united thee to
them and associated thee. But does she now dissolve
the union \
Well, I am
separated as from kinsmen, not
however dragged resisting, but without compulsion ;
for this too is one of the things according to nature.
37. Accustom thyself as much as possible on the
occasion of anything being done by any person to
*
He says hckxov but as lie affirms in other places that death is
no he must mean what others may call an evil, and he means
evil,
" what is
only going to happen."
272 THE MEDITA TI0N8 OF
inquire with thyself, For what object is this man

doing this? but begin with thyself, and examine
thyself first.
38. Remember that this which pulls the strings is

the thing vhichv ishidden within this is the power
:
of persuasion, this is lifeone may so say, is man.

; this, if
In contemplating thyself never include the vessel
which surrounds thee, and these instruments which are
attached about it. For they are like to an ax, differing
only in this that they grow to the body. For indeed
there is no more use in these parts without the cause
which moves and checks them than in the weaver's
shuttle, and the writer's pen, and the driver's whip.*
* See " The
Philosophy of Antoninus," n. la
XL
These are the properties of the rational soul it sees :
itself, analyzes itself, and makes itself such as it

chooses the fruit which it bears itself enjoys for the
;
fruits of plants and that in animals which corresponds

to fruits others enjoy it obtains its own end, wherever
the limit of life may be fixed. Not as in a dance and
in a play and in such like things, where the whole
action is incomplete, if
anything cuts it short but in ;
every part and wherever it may be stopped, it makes

what has been set before it full and complete, so that
it can
say, I have what is my own. And further it
traverses the whole universe, and the surrounding
vacuum, and surveys its form, and it extends itself into
the infinity of time, and embraces and comprehends
the * periodical renovation of all things, and it com-
prehends that those who come after us will see nothing
new, nor have those before us seen anything more, but
in a manner he who is forty years old, if he has any
understanding at all, has seen by virtue of the uni-

formity that prevails all things which have been and
all that will be. This, too, is a property of the
rational soul, love of one's neighbor, and truth and
modesty, and to value nothing more than itself, which
is also the
property of Law4 Thus, then, right reason
differs not at all from the reason of justice.
* See v.
13, 32;
x. 7.
\ Law is the order by wliich all tilings are governed.

2. Thou wilt set little value on pleasing song and

dancing and the pancratium, if thou wilt distribute the
melody of the voice into its several sounds, and ask
thyself as to each, if thou art mastered by this; for
thou wilt be prevented by shame from
confessing it :
and in the matter of dancing, if at each movement

and attitude thou wilt do the same and the like also ;
in the matter of the pancratium. In all

things, then,
except virtue and the acts of virtue, remember to apply
thyself to their several parts, and by this division to
come to value them little and apply this rule also to
:
thy whole life.
3. What a soul that is which is if at

ready, any
moment it must be separated from the body, and
ready either to be extinguished or dispersed or con-
tinue to exist but so that this readiness comes from a
;
man's own judgment, not from mere obstinacy, as with

the Christians,* but considerately and with
dignity
and in a way to persuade another, without tragic
show.
4. Have I done
something for the general interest?
"Well then I have had my reward. Let this always
be present to thy mind, and never stop
[doing such
good].
5. What is
thy art ? To be good. And how is this
accomplished well except by general principles, some
about the nature of the universe, and others about the
proper constitution of man ?
6. At firsttragedies were brought on the stage as

means of reminding men of the things which
happen
* See the Life of Antoninus.
This is the only passage in which
the emperor speaks of the Christians. Epictetus (iv. 7, 6) names them
Galilaei.
to them, and that it is according to nature for things

to happen so, and that, if you are delighted with what
is shown on the stage, you should not be troubled with
that which takes place on the larger stage. For you

see that these things must be accomplished thus, and
that even they bear them who cry out,* " O Cithaeron."
And, indeed, some things are said well by the
dramatic writers, of which kind is the following
especially :
Me and my children if the gods neglect,

This has its reason too. J:
And again
We must not chafe and fret at that which happens.
And
Life's harvest reap like the wheat's fruitful ear.
And other things of the same kind.

After tragedy the old comedy was introduced, which
had a magisterial freedom of speech, and by its very
plainness of speaking was useful in reminding men to
beware of insolence and for this purpose too Diogenes
;
used to take from these writers.

But as to the middle comedy which came next,
observe what it was, and again, for what object the
new comedy was introduced, which gradually sunk
down into a mere mimic artifice. That some good
things are said even by these writers, everybody
knows: but the whole
plan of such poetry and
dramaturgy, to what end does it look !
7. How plain does it appear that there is not an-
*
Sophocles, (Edipus Rex.
\ See vii. 41, 38, 40.

276 THE MEDITATIONS OF \ ^
other condition of life so well suited for philosophiz-

ing as this in which thou now happenest to be.
8. A
branch cut off from the adjacent branch must
of necessity be cut off from the whole tree also. So
too a man when he is separated from another man has
fallen off from the whole social community. Now as
to a branch, another cuts it off, but a man by his own
act separates himself from his neighbor when he
hateshim and turns away from him, and he does not
know that he has at the same time cut himself off
from the whole social system. Yet he has this priv-
ilege certainly from Zeus who framed society, for it is
in our power to grow again to that which is near to
us,and again to become a part which helps to make

up the whole. However, if it often happens, this kind
of separation, it makes it difficult for that which
detaches itself to be brought to unity and to be re-
stored to its former condition. Finally, the branch,
which from the first grew together with the tree, and
has continued to have one life with it, is not like that
which after being cut off is then ingrafted, for this is
something like what the gardeners mean w hen they
T
say that it grows with the rest of the tree, butf that
it has not the same mind with it.
9. As those who try to stand in thy way when thou

art proceeding according to right reason, will not be
able to turn thee aside from thy proper action, so
neither let them drive thee from thy benevolent feel-
ings toward them, but be on thy guard equally in
both matters, not only in the matter of steady judg-
ment and action, but also in the matter of gentleness
toward those who try to hinder or otherwise trouble
thee. For this also is a weakness, to be vexed at
them, as well as to be diverted from thy course of

action and to give way through fear for both are ;
equally deserters from their post, the man who does it

through fear, and the man who is alienated from him
who is by nature a kinsman and a friend.
10. There is no nature which is inferior to art, for
the arts imitate the natures of things. But if this is
so, that nature which is the most perfect and the most
comprehensive of all natures, cannot fall short of the

skill of art. Now all arts do the inferior things for
the sake of the superior therefore the universal
;
nature does so too. And, indeed, hence is the origin

of justice, and in justice the other virtues have their
foundation : for justice will not be observed, if we
either care for middle things [things indifferent], or
are easily deceived and careless and changeable (v. 16,
30 ;
vii. 55).
the things do not come to thee, the pursuits

11. If
and avoidances of which disturb thee, still in a manner
thou goest to them. Let then thy judgment about
them be at rest, and they will remain quiet, and thou
wilt not be seen either pursuing or avoiding.
12. The spherical form of the soul maintains its
figure, when it is neither extended toward any object,

nor contracted inward, nor dispersed nor sinks down,
but is illuminated by light, by which it sees the truth,
the truth of all things and the truth that is in itself
(viii. 41, 45 xii. 3).
;
13. Suppose any man shall despise me. Let him

look to that himself. But I will look to this, that I be
not discovered doing or saying anything deserving of
contempt. Shall any man hate me? Let him look to
it. But I will be mild and benevolent toward every
man, and ready to show even him his mistake, not re-
proachfully, nor yet as making a display of my endur-
ance, but nobly and honestly, like the great Phocion,

unless indeed he only assumed it. For the interior
[parts] ought to be such, and a man ought
to be seen
by the gods neither dissatisfied with anything nor

complaining. For what evil is it to thee,
if thou art
now doing what is agreeable to thy own nature, and

art satisfied with that which at this moment is suitable
to the nature of the universe, since thou art a human
being placed at thy post in order that what is for the

common advantage may be done in some way %
14. Men despise one another and flatter one another ;
and men wish to raise themselves above one another,

and crouch before one another.
15. How unsound and insincere is he who says, I
have determined to deal with thee in a fair way.
What art thou doing, man ? There is no occasion to
give this notice. It will soon show itself by acts.
The voice ought to be plainly written on the forehead.
Such as a man's character is,f he immediately shows
itin his eyes, just as he who is beloved forthwith
reads everything in the eyes of lovers. The man who
is honest and good ought to be exactly like a man who
smells strong, so that the bystander as soon as he

comes near him must smell whether he choose or not.
But the affectation of simplicity is like a crooked stick.*
Nothing is more disgraceful than a wolfish friendship
[false friendship]. Avoid this most of all. The good
* There is a Greek proverb, "You cannot make a crooked stick

straight." The wolfish friendship is an illusion to the fable of the
sheep and the wolves.
and simple and benevolent show all these things in the

eyes, and there is no mistaking.
16. As to living in the best way, this power is in the
soul, if it be indifferent to things which are indifferent.
And it will be indifferent, if it looks on each of these
things separately and all together, and if it remembers
that not one of them produces in us an opinion about
itself, nor comes to us but these things remain im-
;
movable, and it is we ourselves who produce the judg-

ments about them, and, as we may say, write them in
ourselves, it being in our power not to write them, and
it being in our power, if perchance these judgments
have imperceptibly got admission to our minds, to

wipe them out and if we remember also that such
;
attention will only be for a short time, and then life

will be at an end. Besides, what trouble is there at
all in doing this ? For if these things are according to
nature, rejoice in them, and they will be easy to thee ;
but if contrary to nature, seek what is conformable to
thy own nature, and strive toward this, even if it bring
no reputation for every man is allowed to seek his
;
own good.
17. Consider whence each thing is come, and of
what it consists,f and into what it changes, and what
kind of a thing it will be when it has
changed, and
that it no harm.
will sustain
18. [If any have offended against thee, consider
first] What is my relation to men, and that we are

:
made for one another and in another respect, I was

;
made to be set over them, as a ram over the flock or a

bull over the herd. But examine the matter from first
principles, from this : If all things are not mere atoms,
it is nature which orders all things \ the
if this is so,
inferior things exist for the sake of the superior, and

these for the sake of one another (ii. 1 ; ix. 39 ; v. 16 ;
iii.
4).
Second, consider what kind of men they are at table,
in bed, and so forth ;
and particularly, under what
compulsions in respect of opinions they are and as to ;
their acts, consider with what pride they do what they

do (viii. 14 ix. 34).;
Third, that if men do rightly what they do, we

ought not to be displeased but if they do not right,
;
it isplain that they do so involuntarily and in igno-

rance. For as every soul is unwillingly deprived of the
truth, so also is it unwillingly deprived of the power of
behaving to each man according to his deserts. Ac-
cordingly men are pained when they are called unjust,
ungrateful, and greedy, and in a word wrong-doers to
their neighbors (vii. 62, 63 ii. 1 ; ;
vii. 26 ;
viii. 29).
Fourth, consider that thou also doest many things

wrong, and that thou art a man like others and even ;
if thou dost abstain from certain faults, still thou hast
the disposition to commit them, though either through

cowardice, or concern about reputation or some such
mean motive, thou dost abstain from such faults (i. IT).
Fifth, consider that thou dost not even understand
whether men are doing wrong or not, for many things
are done with a certain reference to circumstances.
And, in short, a man must learn a great deal to enable
him to pass a correct judgment on another man's acts
(ix. 38 ;
iv. 51).
Sixth, consider wdien thou art much vexed or

grieved, that man's life is only a moment, and, after a
short time, we are all laid out dead (vii. 58 ; iv. 48).
Seventh, that it is not men's acts which disturb us,
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. \ 281
have their foundation in men's ruling

for those acts
it is our own
principles, but opinions which disturb us.
Take away these opinions then, and resolve to dismiss
thy judgment about an act as if it were something
grievous, and thy anger
is gone. How, then, shall I
take away these opinions ? By reflecting that no
wrongful act of another brings shame on thee for :
uriless that which is shameful is alone bad, thou also

must of necessity do many things wrong, and become
a robber and everything else (v. 25 vii. 16). ;
Eighth, consider how much more pain is brought on

*js by the anger and vexation caused by such acts than
by the acts themselves, at which we are angry and

vexed (iv. 39, 49 vii. 24). ;
Ninth, consider that a good disposition is invincible,

if it be genuine, and not an affected smile and acting
a part. For what will the most violent man do to

thee, if thou continuest to be of a kind disposition
toward him, and if, as opportunity offers, thou gently
admonishest him and calmly correctest his errors at

the very time when he is trying to do thee harm,
saying, Not so, my child we are constituted by nature
:
for something else I shall certainly not be injured,

:
but thou art injuring thyself, my child. And show

him with gentle tact and by general principles that
this is so, and that even bees do not do as he does, nor
any animals which are formed by nature to be gregari-

ous. And thou must do this neither with any double
meaning nor in the way of reproach, but affectionately
and without any rancour in thy soul and not as if ;
thou wert lecturing him, nor yet that any bystander

may admire, but either when he is alone, and if others
are present . . .*
* It appears that there is a defect in the text here.
Remember these nine rules, as if thou hadst received

them as a from the Muses, and begin at last to be
gift
a man while thou livest. But thou must equally avoid
Mattering men and being vexed at them, for both are
unsocial and lead to harm. And let this truth be
present to thee in the excitement of anger, that to be
moved by passion is not manly, but that mildness and
gentleness, as they are more agreeable to human
nature, so also are they more manly; and he who
possesses these qualities possesses strength, nerves and
courage, and not the man who is subject to fits of
passion and discontent. For in the same degree in
which a man's mind is nearer to freedom from all
passion, in the same degree also is it nearer to strength :
and as the sense of pain is a characteristic of weak-

For he who yields to pain and
ness, so also is anger.
he who yields to anger, both are wounded and both
submit.
But if thou wilt, receive also a tenth present from the
leader of the [Muses Apollo], and it is this that to
expect bad men not to do wrong is madness, for he
who expects this desires an impossibility. But to
allow men to behave so to others, and to expect
them not to do thee any wrong, is irrational and
tyrannical.
19. There are four principal aberrations of the
superior faculty against which thou shouldst be con-

stantly on thy guard, and when thou hast detected them,
thou shouldst wipe them out and say on each occasion
thus :this thought is not necessary this tends to :
destroy social union this which thou art going to say

:
comes not from the real thoughts for thou shouldst ;
consider it among the most absurd of things for a man

not to speak from his real thoughts. But the fourth is

when thou shalt reproach thyself for anything, for this
is an evidence of the diviner part within thee being
overpowered and yielding to the less honourable and to

the perishable part, the body, and to its gross pleasures
(iv. 24 ii.
; 16).
20. Thy aerial part and all the fiery parts which are
mingled in thee, though by nature they have an upward

tendency, still in obedience to the disposition of the
universe they are overpowered here in the compound
mass [the body]. And also the whole of the earthly
part in thee and the watery, though their tendency is
downward, still are raised up and occupy a position
which is not their natural one. In this manner then
the elemental parts obey the universal, for when they
have been fixed in any place perforce they remain there
until again the universal shall sound the signal for
dissolution. Is it not then strange that thy intelligent
part only should be disobedient and discontented with

its own place ? And yet no force is imposed on it, but
only those things which are comformable to its nature :
still it does not submit, but is carried in the opposite
direction. For the movement towards injustice and

intemperance and to anger and grief and fear is nothing
else than the act of one who deviates from nature.
And also when the ruling faculty is discontented with
anything that happens, then too it deserts its post for :
it constituted for piety and reverence toward the

is
gods no less than for justice. For these qualities also

are comprehended under the generic term of content-
ment with the constitution of things, and indeed they
are prior* to acts of justice.
*The word which is here translated " prior,
"
may also mean
21. He who
has not one and always the same object
in cannot be one and the same all through his life.
life,
But what I have said is not enough, unless this also is
added, what this object ought to be. For as there is
not the same opinion about all the things which in some
way or other are considered by the majority to be good,
but only about some certain things, that is, things which
concern the common interest ;
so also ought we to
propose to ourselves an object which shall be of a

common kind [social] and political. For he who directs
all his own efforts to this object, will make all his acts
alike,and thus will always be the same.

22. Think of the country mouse and of the town
mouse, and of the alarm and trepidation of the town

mouse.*
23. Socrates used to call the opinions of the many
by the name of Lamiae, bugbears to frighten children.
"
superior :" but Antoninus seems to say that piety and reverence
of the gods precede all virtues, and that other virtues are derived from
them, even justice, which in another passage (xi. 10) he makes the
foundation of all virtues. The ancient notion of j ustice is that of giving
to every one his due. It is not a legal definition, as some have sup-
posed, but a moral rule which law cannot in all cases enforce.
Besides law has its own rules, which are sometimes moral and some-
times immoral but it enforces them all simply because they are
;
general rules, and if it did not or could not enforce them, so far Law
would not be Law. Justice, or the doing what is just, implies a
universal rule and obedience to and as we all live under universal
it ;
Law, which commands both our body and our intelligence, and is the
law of our nature, that is the law of the whole constitution of man,
we must endeavor to discover what this supreme Law is. It is the
will of the power that rules all. By acting in obedience to this will,
we do justice, and by consequence everything else that we ought to
do.
* The and by others
story is told by Horace in his Satires (ii. 6),
since, but not better.

24. The Lacedaemonians at their public spectacles

used to set seats in the shade for strangers, but them-
selves sat down anywhere.
25. Socrates excused himself to Perdiccas * for not
going to him, saying, It is because I would not perish
by the worst of all ends, that is, I would not receive a
favor and then be unable to return it.
In the writings of the [Ephesians] there was this

26.
precept, constantly to think of some one of the men of

former times who practiced virtue.
27. The Pythagoreans bid us in the
morning look
to the heavens that we may
be reminded of those
bodies which continually do the same things and in
the same manner perform their work, and also be re-
minded of their purity and nudity. For there is no
veil over a star.
28. Consider what a man Socrates was when he
dressed himself in a skin, after Xanthippe had taken
his cloak and gone out, and what Socrates said to his
who were ashamed of him and drew back from
friends
him when they saw him dressed thus.
29. Neither in writing nor in reading wilt thou be
able to lay down rules for others before thou shalt
have first learned to obey rules thyself. Much more
is this so in life.
30. A slave thou art free speech is not for thee.
;
31. And my heart laughed within (Od. ix. 413).

32. And virtue they will curse speaking harsh words
(Hesiod, Works and Days, 184).

33. To look for the fig in winter is a madman's act:
*
Perhaps the emperor made a mistake here, for other writers say
that it was Archelaus, the son of Perdiccas, who invited Socrates to
Macedonia.
such is he who looks for his child when it is no longer

allowed (Epictetus, iii. 24, 87).
34. When a man kisses his child, said Epictetus, he
should whisper to himself, "To-morrow perchance
thou wilt die." But those are words of bad omen.
"No word is a word of bad omen," said Epictetus,
" which
expresses any work of nature or if it is so, it
;
is also a of bad omen to speak of the ears of

word
"
corn being reaped (Epictetus, iii. 24, 88).
35. The unripe grape, the ripe bunch, the dried grape
all are changes, not into nothing, but into something
which exists not yet (Epictetus, iii.
24).
36. No man can rob us of our free will (Epictetus,
iii. 22, 105).
37. Epictetus also said, a man must discover an art
[or rules] with respect to giving his assent; and in
respect to his movements he must be careful that they
be made with regard to circumstances, that they be
consistent with social interests, that they have regard
to the value of the object and as to sensual desire,
;
he should altogether keep away from it; and as to

avoidance [aversion] he should not show it with
respect to any of the things which are not in our
power.
38. The dispute then, he said, is not about any com-
mon matter, but about being mad or not.
39. Socrates used to say, What do you want \
Souls of rational men or irrational? Souls of rational
men. Of what rational men %
Sound or unsound %
Sound. Why then do you not seek for them ? Be
cause we have them. Why then do you fight and
quarrel %
MARGU8 A UBELIUS ANTONINUS. 287
XII.
All those things at which thou wishest to arrive bv
a circuitous road, thou canst have now, if thou dost not
refuse them to thyself. And this means, if thou wilt
take no notice of the past, and trust the future to
all
providence, and direct the present only conformably to

piety and justice. Conformably to piety, that thou
mayest be content with the lot which is assigned to
thee, for nature designed it for thee and thee for it.
Conformably to justice, thou mayest always

that
speak the truth freely and without disguise, and do
the things which are agreeable to law and according
to the worth of each. And let neither another man's
wickedness hinder thee, nor opinion nor voice, nor yet
the sensations of the poor flesh which has grown about
thee for the passive part will look to this. If then,
;
whatever the time may be when thou shalt be near to

thy departure, neglecting everything else thou shalt
respect only thy ruling faculty and the divinity within
thee, and if thou shalt be afraid not because thou must
some time cease to live, but if thou shalt fear never to
have begun to live according to nature, then thou wilt
be a man worthy of the universe which has produced
thee, and thou wilt cease to be a stranger in thy native
land, and to wonder at things which happen daily as
if they were something unexpected, and to be depend-
ent on this or that.
2. God sees the minds (ruling principles) of all men
28g THE MEDITATIONS OF
bared of the material vesture and rind and impurities.

For with his intellectual part alone he touches the
intelligence only which has flowed and been derived
from himself into these bodies. And if thou also usest
thyself to do this, thou wilt rid thyself of thy much
trouble. For he who regards not the poor flesh which
envelops him, surely will not trouble himself by look-
ing after raiment and dwelling and fame and such
like externals and show.
3. The things are three of which thou art composed,
a little body, a little breath [life], intelligence. Of
these the first two are thine, so far as it is thy duty to
take care of them ;
but the third alone is properly
thine. Therefore, if thou shalt separate from thyself,
that from thy understanding, whatever others do or
is,
say, and whatever thou hast done

or said thyself, and
whatever future things trouble thee because they may
happen, and whatever in the body which envelops
thee, or in the breath [life], which is by nature associ-
ated with the body, is attached to thee independent of
thy will, and whatever the external circumfluent
vortex whirls round, so that the intellectual power
exempt from the things of fate can live pure and free
by itself, doing what is just and accepting what
happens and saying the truth if thou wilt separate, I
:
say, from this ruling faculty the things which are

attached to it by the impressions of sense, and the
things of time to come and of time that is past, and
wilt make thyself like Empedocles' sphere :
All round, and in its joyous rest reposing;*
and if thou shalt strive to live only what is really thy
* The verse of is corrupt in Antoninus.

Empedocles
life,that is, the present, then thou wilt be able to pass

that portion of life which remains for thee up to the
time of thy death, free from perturbations, nobly, and
obedient to thy own demon [to the god that is within
thee] 13, 17
(ii. iii. 5, 6;
xi. 12).;
4. have often wondered how it is that every man

I
loves himself more than all the rest of men, but yet
sets less value on his own opinion of himself than on
the opinion of others. If then a god or a wise teacher
should present himself to a man and bid him to think
of nothing and to design nothing which he would not
express as soon as he conceived it, he could not endure
it even for a single day. So much more respect have
we to what our neighbors shall think of us than to
what we shall think of ourselves.
5. How can it be that the gods, after having arranged
all things well and benevolently for mankind, have
overlooked this alone, that some men and very good
men, and men who, as we say, have had most
may
communion with the and through pious acts
divinity,
and religious observances have been most intimate
with the divinity, when they have once died should
never exist again, but snould be completely extin-
guished ?
But if this is so, be assured that if it ought to have
ocen otherwise, the gods would have done it. For if
itwere just, it would also be possible ; and if it were
according to nature, nature would have had it so.
Uut because it is not so, if in fact it is not so, be thou
convinced that it ought not to have been so for thou :
seest even of thyself that in this inquiry thou art dis-
puting with the deity and we should not thus dispute

;
with the gods, unless they were most excellent and

most just; but if this is so, they

would not have
allowed anything in the ordering of the universe to be
neglected unjustly and irrationally.
6. Practice thyself even in the things which thou
despairest of accomplishing. For even the left hand,

which is want of
ineffectual for all other things for
practice, holds the bridle

more vigorously than the
right hand for it has been practiced in this.
;
Consider in what condition, both in body and soul,

7.
a man should be when he is overtaken by death and ;
consider the shortness of life, the boundless abyss of

time, past and future, the feebleness of all matter.
8. Contemplate the formative principles [forms] of
of actions ;
things bare of their coverings ; the purposes
consider what pain is, what pleasure is, and death, and
fame; who is to himself the cause of his uneasiness;
how no man is hindered by another ; that everything
is opinion.
9. In the application of thy principles thou must be
like the pancratiast, not like the gladiator; for the
gladiator lets fall the sword which

he uses and is
killed ;
but the other always has his hand, and needs
to do nothing else than use it.
10. See what things are in themselves, dividing them
form and purpose.
into matter,
11. What a power man has to do nothing except
what God will approve, and to accept all that God
may give him.
With respect to that which happens conformably
12.
to nature,we ought to blame neither gods, for they do
nothing wrong either voluntarily or involuntarily, nor
men, for they do nothing wrong except involuntarily.
Consequently we should blame nobody (ii. 11, 12, 13 ;
vii.62; viii. 17).

How ridiculous and what a stranger lie is who

13.
issurprised at anything which happens in life.
14. Either there is a fatal necessity and invincible
order, or a kind providence, or a confusion without a

purpose and without a director (iv. 27). If then there
is an invincible necessity, why dost thou resist % But
if there is a providence which allows itself to be pro-
pitiated, make thyself worthy of

the help of the
divinity. But if there is a confusion without a
governor, be content that in such a tempest thou hast
in thyself a certain ruling intelligence. And even if
the tempest carry thee away, let it carry away the
poor flesh, the poor breath, everything else for the ;
intelligence at least will not carry away.

it
15. Does the light of the lamp shine without losing

its splendor until it is extinguished ; and shall the
truth which is in thee and justice and temperance be

extinguished [before thy death] ?
16. When a man has presented the appearance of
having done wrong, [say], How then do I know if this

isa wrongful act ? And even if he has done wrong,
how do I know that he has not condemned himself ?
and so this is like tearing his own face. Consider that
he, who would not have the bad man do wrong, is like
the man who would not have the fig-tree to bear juice
in the figs,and infants to cry, and the horse to neigh,
and whatever else must of necessity be. For what
must a man do who has such a character ? If then
thou art irritable, f cure this man's disposition.*
* The interpreters translate yopyoZ by the words "acer, valid-

" skillful." But in Epictetus (ii. 16, 20 ; iii. 12, 10) this
usque," and
word means "vehement," "prone to anger," " irritable.''
17. If it is not right,do not do it if it is not true, :
do not say it. thy efforts be

[For let ]*
18. In everything always observe what the thing is
which produces for thee an appearance, and resolve it
by dividing it into the formal, the material, the pur-
pose, and the time within which it must end.
19. Perceive at last that thou hast in thee something
better and more divine than the things which cause
the various effects, and, as it were, pull thee by the
strings. What is there now in my mind? is it fear,
or suspicion, or desire, or anything of the kind ? (v. ii.)
20. First, do nothing inconsiderately, nor without a
purpose. Second, make thy acts refer to nothing else

than to a social end.
21. Consider that before long thou wilt be nobody
and nowhere, nor will any of the things exist which
thou now seest, nor any of those who are now living.
For all things are formed by nature to change and be
turned and to perish in order that other things in con-
tinuous succession may exist (ix 28).
22. Consider that everything is opinion, and opinion
is in thy power. Take away then, when thou choos-
est, thy opinion, and like a mariner, who has doubled
the promontory, thou wilt find calm, everything stable,
and a waveless bay.
23. Any one activity, whatever it may be, when it
has ceased at its proper time, suffers no evil because it
has ceased nor he who has done this act, does he
;
suffer any evil for this reason that the act has ceased.
In like manner then the whole which consists of all
the acts, which is our life, if it cease at its proper time,
suffers no evil for this reason that it has ceased ; nor
* There is something wrong here, or incomplete.
he who has terminated this series at the proper time,

has he been ill dealt with. But the proper time and
the limit nature fixes, sometimes as in old
age the
peculiar nature of man, but always the universal
nature, by the change of whose parts the whole uni-
verse continues ever young and perfect. And every
thing which is useful to the universal is always good
and in season. Therefore the termination of life for
every man is no evil, because neither is it
shameful,
since both independent of the will and not opposed
it is
to the general interest, but it is good, since it is sea-

sonable and profitable to and congruent with the uni-
versal. For thus too he is moved by the deity who is
moved in the same manner with the
deity and moved
toward the same things in his mind.
24. These three principles thou must have in readi-
ness. In the things which thou doest do nothing either
inconsiderately or otherwise than as justice hersel/
would act but with respect to what may happen to
;
thee from without, consider that it happens either by

chance or according to providence, and thou must
neither blame chance nor accuse providence. Second,
consider what every being is from the seed to the time
of its receiving a soul, and from the reception of a
soul to the giving back of the same, and of what
things
every being is compounded and into what things it is
resolved. Third, if thou shouldst suddenly be raised
up above the earth, and shouldst look down on human
things, and observe the variety of them how great it
is, and at the same time also shouldst see at a glance
how great is the number of beings who dwell all

around in the air and the ether, consider that as often
as thou shouldst be raised up, thou wouldst see the
294 TEE MEDITATIONS OF ;
same things, sameness of form and shortness of dura-

tion. Are these things to be proud of?
25. Cast away opinion thou art saved. Who then
:
hinders thee from casting it away ?

26. When thou art troubled about anything, thou
hast forgotten this, that all things happen according to
the universal nature and forgotten this, that a man's
;
wrongful act nothing to thee and further thou hast

is ;
forgotten this, that everything which happens, always

happened so and will happen so, and now happens
so everywhere forgotten this, too, how close is the
;
kinship between a man and the whole human race, for

it is a
community, not of a little blood or seed, but of
intelligence. And thou hast forgotten this too, that
everv man's intelligence is a god, and is an efflux of the
deity ;* and forgotten this, that nothing is a man's
own, but that his child and his body and his very soul
came from the deity forgotten this, that everything
;
is opinion and lastly thou hast forgotten that every

;
man lives the present time only, and loses only this.
27. Constantly bring to thy recollection those who
have complained greatly about anything, those who
have been most conspicuous by the greatest fame or
misfortunes or enmities or fortunes of any kind then :
think w here are they all now ? Smoke and ash and a
r
tale, or not even a tale. And let there be present to

thy mind also everything of this sort, how Fabius
Catullinus lived in the country, and Lucius Lupus in his
gardens, and Stertinius at Baiae, and Tiberius at Capreas,
and Velius Kuf us [or Ruf us at Yelia] and in fine think
;
of the eager pursuit of anything cojoined with pride ;J

* See
Epictetus, ii. 8, 9, etc.
\ Epict. i. 8, 6.
and how worthless everything is after which men

violently strain and how much more philosophical it
;
is for a man in the opportunities presented to him to
show himself just, temperate, obedient to the gods, and

to do this with all simplicity for the pride which is :
proud of its want of pride is the most intolerable of ail.

To those who ask, Where hast thou seen the gods,
28.
or how dost thou comprehend that they exist and so
worshipest them, I answer, in the first place, they may
be seen even with the eyes ;* in the second place neither
have I seen even my own soul and yet I honor it.
Thus then with respect to the gods, from what I con-
stantly experience of their power, from this I compre-
hend that they exist and I venerate them.
29. The safety of life is this, to examine everything-
* "Seen even with the

eyes." It is supposed that this may be
explained by the Stoic doctrine, that the universe is a god or living
being (iv. 40), and that the celestial bodies are gods (viii. 19). But
the emperor may mean that we know
that the gods exist, as he after-
wards states it, because we what they do as we know that man
see ;
has intellectual powers, because we see what he does, and in no other

way do we know it. This passage then will agree with the passage
in the Epistle to the Romans (i. v. 20), and with the Epistle to the
Colossians (i. v. 15), in which Jesus Christ is named "the image of
the invisible god ;" and with the passage in the Gospel of St. John
(xiv. v. 9).
Gataker, whose notes are a wonderful collection of learning, and
all of it sound and good, quotes a passage of Calvin which is founded
on St. Paul's language (Rom. 1. v. 20): "God by creating the uni-
verse [or world, mundum], being himself has presented invisible,
himself to our eyes conspicuously in a certain visible form." He also
"
quotes Seneca (De Benef. iv. c. 8) Quocunque te flexeris, ibi ilium
:
videbie occurrentem tibi nihil ab illo vacat, opus suum ipse implet."
:
Compare also Cicero, De Senectute (c. 22), Xenophon's Cyropsedia

(viii. 7) and Mem. iv. 3 also Epictetus, i. 6, de Providentia.
;
I think
that my interpretation of Antoninus is right.

allthrough, what it is itself, what is its material, what

the formal part with all thy soul to do justice and to
;
say the truth. What remains except to enjoy life by

joining one good thing to another so as not to leave
even the smallest intervals between.
30. There is one light of the sun, though it is inter-
rupted by walls, mountains, and other things infinite.

There is one common substance,* though it is distributed
among countless bodies which have their several
qualities. There is one soul, though it is distributed
among and individual circumscriptions
infinite natures
[or individuals]. There is one intelligent soul,

though
it seems to be divided. Now in the things which have
been mentioned all the other parts, such as those which
are air and matter, are without sensation and have no
fellowship and yet even these parts the intelligent
:
principle holds together, and the gravitation toward

the same. But intellect in a peculiar manner tends
to that which is of the same kin, and combines
with it, and the feeling for communion is not
interrupted.
31. What dost thou wish? To continue to exist?
Well, dost thou wish to have sensation ? movement ?
growth ? and then again to cease to grow ? to use thy
speech? to think? What is there of all these things
which seem to thee worth desiring ? But if it is easy
to set little value on all these things, turn to that
which remains, which is to follow reason and god.
honoring reason and god to
But it is inconsistent with
be troubled because by death a man will be deprived
of the other things.
32. How small a part of the boundless and unfath-
*iv. 40.
omable time is assigned to every man ? For it is very

soon swallowed up in the eternal. And how small a
part of the whole substance ? And how small a part
of the universal soul ? And on what a small clod of
the whole earth thou creepest ? Reflecting on all this
consider nothing to be great, except to act as thy
nature leads thee, and to endure that which the
common nature brings.
33. How does the ruling faculty make use of itself?
For all lies in this. But everything else, whether it is
in the power of thy will or not, is only lifeless ashes

and smoke.
34. This reflection is most adapted to move us to
contempt of death, that even those who think pleasure

to be a good, and pain an evil, still have despised it.
35. The man to whom that only is good which comes
in due season, and to whom it is the same thing
whether he has done more or fewer acts conformable
to right reason, and to whom it makes no difference
whether he contemplates the world for a longer or a
shorter time for this man neither is death a terrible
thing (iii. 7 ;
vi. 23 ;
x. 20 ;
xii.
23).
36. Man, thou hast been a citizen in this great state
* what difference does it make to thee
[the world] :
whether for five years [or three] ? For that which is

conformable to the laws is just for all. Where is the
hardship then, if no tyrant nor yet an unjust judge
sends thee away from the state, but nature who
brought thee into it? The same as if a praetor who
has employed an actor dismisses him from the stage.*
" But I
have not finished the five acts, but only three
*ii. 16; iii. 11: iv. 29.
*iii. 8; xi. 1.
298 THE MEDITATIONS OF ANTONINUS.
of them." Thou sayest well, but in life the three acts

are the whole drama for what shall be a complete
;
drama is determined by him who was once the cause

of its composition, and now of its dissolution but thou :
art the cause of neither. Depart then satisfied, for he

also who releases thee is satisfied.
INDEX.
** The paragraphs (par.) and lines (1.) are those of the sections.
Active, man is by nature, is. 16.
Advice from the good to be taken, vi. 21; viii. 16.
Affectation, vii. 60; viii. 30; xi. 18 (par. 9), 19.

Anger discouraged, vi. 26, 27; xi. 18.
Anger, offenses of, ii. 10.

Anger, uselessness of, v. 28; viii. 4.
Appearances not to be regarded, v. 36; vi. 3, 13.
Astonishment should not be felt at anything that happens, viii. 15;
xii. 1, 13.
Attainment, what is within everyone's, vii. 67; viii, 8.

Attention to what is said or done, vi. 53; vii. 4, 30; viii. 22.
Bad, the, ii. 1.
Beautiful, the, ii. 1.
Causal. See Formal.

Change keeps the world ever new, vii. 25; viii. 50(1. 13); xii. 23 (1. 13).
Change, law of, iv. 3, 36; v. 13, 23; vi. 4, 15, 36; vii. 18; viii. 6; ix.
19, 28 (par. 2), 35; x. 7; xii. 21.
Change, no evil in, iv. 42.
Christians, the, xi. 3.

Circle, things come round in a, ii. 14.
Comedy, new, xi. 6.

Comedy, old, xi. 6.
Complaining, uselessness of, viii. 17, 50.
Connection. See Universe.
Conquerors are robbers, x. 10.
Contentment. See Resignation.
Co-operation. See Mankind and Universe.
300 INDEX.
Demon, the, ii. 13, 17; iii. 6 (1. 8). 7, 16 (1. 14); v. 10, 27; xii. 3.
Death, ii. 11, 12, 17; iii. 3, 7; iv. 5; v. 33; vi. 2, 24, 28; vii. 32; viiL
20, 58; ix. 3, 21; x. 36; xii. 23, 34, 35.

Death inevitable, iii. 3; iv. 3 (1. 19), 6, 32, 48, 50; v. 33; vi. 47; viii.
25, 31.
Desire, offenses of, ii. 10.
Destiny, iii. 11 (1. 23); iv. 26; v. 8 (1. 10, etc.), 24; vii. 57; x. 5.
Discontent. See Resignation.
Doubts discussed, vi. 10; vii. 75; ix. 28, 39; xii. 5, 14.
Duty, aii importance of, vi. 2, 22; x. 22.
Earth, insignificance of the, iii. 10; iv. 3 (par. 2); vi. 36; viii. 21; xii. 32.
Earthly things, transitory nature of, ii. 12, 17; iv. 32, 33, 35, 48; v.
23; vi. 15, 36; vii. 21, 34; viii. 21, 25; x. 18, 31; xii. 27.
Earthly things, worthlessness of, ii. 12; v. 10; 33; vi. 15; vii. 3; ix.
24, 36; xi. 2; xii. 27.
Equanimity, x. 8.
Example, we should not follow bad, vi. 6; vii. 65.
Existence, meanness of, viii. 24.

Existence, the object of, v. 1; viii. 19.
External things cannot really harm a man, or affect the soul, ii. 11
(1, 12); iv. 3, 8, 39, 49 (par. 2); v. 35; vii. 64; viii. 1, 32, 51 (par. 2);
ix. 31; x. 33.
Failure, x. 12.
Fame, worthlessness of, iii. 10; iv. 3 (1. 38), 19, 33 (1. 10); v. 33; vi.
16, 18; viii. 34; viii. 1, 44; ix. 30.
Fear, what we ought to, xii. 1 (1. 19).
Fellowship. See Mankind.

Few things necessary for a virtuous and happy life, ii. 5; iii. 10; vii.
67; x. 8 (1. 24).
Flattery, xi. 18 (par. 10).
Formal, the, and the material, iv. 21 (par. 2); v. 13; vii. 10, 29; viii.
11; ix. 25; xii. 8, 10, 18.

Future, we should not be anxious about the, vii. 8; viii. 36; xii. 1.
Gods, perfect justice of the, xii. 5 (par. 2).
Gods, the, vi. 44; xii. 28.
Gods, the, cannot be evil, ii. 11; vi. 44.

Good, the, ii. 1.
INDEX. 301
Habit of thought, v. 16.

Happiness, what is true, v. 9, 34; viii. 1; x. 33.
Help to be accepted from others, vii. 7.

Heroism, true, xi. 18 (par. 10).
Ignorance. See Wrong-doing.

Independence. See Self-reliance.
Indifferent things, ii. 11; iv. 39; vi. 32; ix. 1 (1. 29).
Individual, the. See Interests.
Infinity. See Time.
Ingratitude. See Mankind.
Injustice, ix. 1.
Intelligent soul, rational beings participate in the same, iv. 40; ix. 8,
9; x. 1 (1. 15); xii. 26, 30.
Interests of the whole and the individual identical, iv. 23; v. 8 (1. 80);
vi. 45, 54; x. 6, 20, 33; xii. 23 (1. 13).
Justice, v. 34; x. 11; xi. 10.

Justice and reason identical, xi. 1.
Justice prevails everywhere, iv. 10.
Leisure, we ought to have some, viii. 51.
Life, a good, everywhere possible, v. 16.

Life can only be lived once, ii. 14; x. 31 (1. 10).
Life, shortness of, ii. 4, 17; iii. 10, 14; iv. 17, 48, 60; vi. 15, 36, 56; x.
31,34.
Life to be made a proper use of, without delay, ii. 4; iii. 1, 14; iv. 17,
37; vii. 56; viii. 22; x. 31 (1. 15); xii. 1 (1. 15).
Life, whether long or short, matters not, vi. 49; ix. 33; xii. 36.
Magnanimity, x. 8.
Mankind, co-operation and fellowship of one with another, ,
ii. 1 (1. 12),
16; iii. 4, 11; iv. 4, 33; v. 16 (1. 13), 20; vi. 7, 14, 23, 39; vii. 5, 13,
22, 55; viii. 12, 26, 34, 43, 59; ix. 1, 9, 23, 31, 42; x. 36 (1. 13); xi.
8, 21; xii. 20.
Mankind, folly and baseness of, v. 10 (1. 10); ix. 2, 3 (1. 15), 29; x. 15,
19.
Mankind, ingratitude of, x. 36.
Material, the. See Formal.
Nature, after products of, iii. 2; vi. 36.

302 INDEX.
Nature, bounds fixed by, v. 1.
Nature, man formed by, to bear all that happens to him, v. 18;
viii. 46.
Nature, nothing evil, which is according to, ii. 17; vi. 33.
Nature of the universe. See Universe, nothing that happens is con-
trary to the nature of the.
Nature, perfect beauty of, 2; vi. 36. iii.
Nature, we should live according to, iv. 48, 51; v. 3, 25; vi. 16 (1. 14);
vii. 15, 55; viii. 1, 54; x. 33.
New, nothing under the sun, ii. 14 (1. 12); iv. 44; vi. 37, 46; vii. 1,
49; viii. 6; ix. 14; x. 27; xi. 1.
Object, we should always act with a view to some, ii. 7, 16 (1. 16); iii.
4; iv. 2; viii. 17; x. 37; xi. 21; xii, 20.

Obsolete, all things become, iv. 33.
Omission, sins of, ix. 5.

Opinion, iv. 3, 7, 12, 39; vi. 52, 57; vii. 2, 14, 16, 26, 68; viii. 14, 29,
40, 47, 49, ix. 13, 29 (1. 10), 32, 42 (1. 22); x. 3; xi. 16, 18; xii.
22, 25.
Others' conduct not to be inquired into, iii. 4; iv. 18; v. 25.
Others, opinion of, to be disregarded, viii. 1 (1. 10); x. 8 (1. 13), 11; xi.
13; xii. 4.
Others, we should be lenient toward, ii. 13; iii. 11; iv. 3(1. 19); v.
33 (1. 19); vi. 20, 27; vii. 26, 62, 63, 70; ix. 11, 27; x. 4; xi. 9, 13, 18;
xii. 16.
Others, we should examine the ruling principles of, iv. 38; ix. 18, 22,
27, 34.
Ourselves often to blame, for expecting men to act contrary to their
nature, ix. 42 (1. 26).
Ourselves, reformation should begin with, xi. 29.
Ourselves, we should judge, x. 30; xi. 18 (par. 4).
Pain, vii. 33, 64; viii. 28.

Perfection not to be expected in this world, ix. 29 (1. 8).
Perseverance, v. 9; x. 12.
Persuasion, to be used, vi. 50.
Perturbation, vi. 16; vii. 58; ix. 31.
Pessimism, ix. 35.
Philosophy, v. 9; vi. 12; ix. 41 (1. 13).

Pleasure, he who pursues, is guilty of impiety, ix. 1 (1. 21).
INDEX. 303
Pleasures are enjoyed by the bad, vi. 34; ix. 1 (L 25).
Power, things in our own, v. 5, 10; vi. 32, 41, 52, 58; vii. 2, 14, 54,
68; x. 32, 33.

Power, things not in our own, v. 33; vi. 41.
Practice is good, even in things which we despair of
accomplishing,
iii. 6.
Praise, worthlessness of, iii. 4; iv. 20; vi. 16, 59; vii. 62; viii. 52, 53;
ix. 34.
Prayer, the right sort of, v. 7; ix. 40.

Present time the only thing a man really possesses, ii. 14; iii. 10; viiL
44; xii. 3.
Procrastination. See Life to be made a proper use of, etc.
Puppet pulled by strings of desire, ii. 2; iii. 16; vi. 16, 28; vii. 3, 29;
xii. 19.
Rational soul. See Ruling part.

Rational soul, spherical form of the, viii. 41; xi. 12; xii. 3 (and see
Ruling part).
Reason, all-prevailing, v. 32; vi. 1, 40.
Reason and nature identical, vii. 11.
Reason, the, can adapt everything that happens to its own use, v. 20;
vi. 8; vii. 68 (1. 14); viii. 35; x. 31.
Reason, we should live according to. See Nature.

Repentance does not follow renouncement of pleasure, viii. 10.
designation and contentment, iii. 4 (1. 23, etc.), 16 (1. 11, etc.); iv. 23,
31, 33, 34; v. 8, 33 (1. 14); vi. 16, 44, 49; vii. 27, 57; ix. 37; x. 1, 11,
14, 25, 28, 35.
Revenge, best kind of, vi. 6.
Rising from bed, v. 1; viii. 12.
Ruling part, the, ii. 2; iv. 1; v. 11, 19, 21, 26; vi. 14, 35; vii. 16, 55
(par. 2); viii. 45, 48, 56, 57, 60, 61; ix. 15, 26; x. 24, 33 (1. 17), 38;
xi. 1, 19, 20; xii. 3, 14.
Self reliance and steadfastness of soul, iii. 5, 12; iv. 11, 29 (1. 3), 49
(par. 1); v. 3, 34 (1. 3); vi. 44 (1. 17); vii. 12, 15; ix. 28 (1. 8), 29; xii.
14.
Self-restraint, v. 33.
Self, we should retire into, iv. 3 (1. 6 and par. 2); vii. 28, 33, 59; viii.
48.
Senses, movements of the, to be disregarded, v. 31 (1. 10); vii. 55 (par.

2); viii. 26, 39; x. 8 (1. 17); xi. 19; xii. 1 (1. 12).
304 INDEX.
Sickness, behavior in, ix. 41.
Social. See Mankind.
Steadfastness of soul. See Self-reliance.
Substance, tbe universal, iv. 40; v. 24; vii. 19, 23; xii. 7, 80 .
Suicide, v. 29; viii. 47; x. 8 (1. 27).
Time compared to a river, iv. 43.

Time, infinity of, iv. 3 (1. 38), 50; v. 24; ix. 32; xii. 7, 32.
Tragedy, xi. 6.
Tranquillity of soul, iv. 3; vi. 11; vii. 68; viii. 28.
Ugly, tbe, ii. 1.
Unintelligible tbings, v. 10.

Universe, harmony of tbe, iv. 27, 45; v. 8 (1. 15).
Universe, intimate connection and co operation of all things in the,
one with another, ii. 3, 9; iv. 29; v. 8, 30; vi. 38, 42, 43; vii. 9, 19,
68; viii. 7; ix. 1; x. 1.
Cniverse, notbing that dies falls out of the, viii, 18, 50 (1. 11); x. 7 (1.
21).
Universe, nothing that happens is contrary to the nature of the, v.
8, 10; vi. 9, 58; viii. 5; xii. 26.
Unnecessary tbings, v. 15.

Unnecessary thoughts, words and actions, iii. 4; iv. 24.
Vain professions, x. 16; xi. 15.
Virtue, vi. 17.

Virtue its own reward, v. 6; vii. 73; ix. 42 (1. 40); xi. 4.
Virtue, omnipotence of, iv. 16.
Virtue, pleasure in contemplating, vi. 48.
Whole, integrity of tbe, to be preserved, v. 8.

Wbole, tbe. See Interests.
Wickedness has always existed, vii. 1.
Wickedness must exist in the world, viii. 15, 50; ix. 42; xi. 18 (par.
11); xii. 16.
Worst evil, the, ix. 2 (1. 8).
Worth and importance, things of real, iv. 33; v. 10 (1. 17); vi. 16, 30
(1. 3). 47; vii. 20, 44, 46, 58, 66; viii. 2, 3, 5; ix. 6, 12; x. 8 (1. 24),
11; xii. 1, 27, 81, 33.
INDEX. 305
Wrong-doing cannot really harm any one, vii. 22; viii. 55; ix. 42(1. 20);
x. 13 (par. 1); xi. 18 (par. 7).
Wrong-doing injures the wrong-doer, iv. 26; ix. 4, 38; xi. 18 (par. 3).
Wrong-doii:g owing to ignorance, ii. 1, 13; vi. 27; vii. 22, 26, 62, 63;
xi. 18; xii. 12.
Wrong-doing to be left where it is, vii. 29; ix. 20.
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Marcus Aurelius Antoninus

The Chesterfield Society

The Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus , , .. . ... 31

Marcus Aurelius, from " Seekers After God." 73

The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 131

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.

Marcus Antoninus was born at Eome a. d. 121, on

Aelius belonged to Hadrian's family, and Aurelius

He had the happy fortune to witness the example of

great affection of the pupil for the master, and the

he has expressed himself; but if anyone draws this

conclusion, he will be mistaken. Antoninus means to

do not know any example of a young prince having

not had one like him since.

He received from his adoptive father the title of Caesar

ninus was a dutiful son, and the emperor Pius loved

administration of the empire, but he associated with

league the respect due to his character. A virtuous

the rest of the life of Antoninus, with some intervals,

During the German wars Antoninus resided for three

years on the Danube at Carnuntum. The Marcomanni

emperor gained a great victory over the Quadi.

death, in a letter to Fronto, that he would rather have

opinions. A prudent governor Avill not roughly oppose

The letter is from the Christians of Vienna and

perhaps nearly entire. It contains a very particular

were exposed to the wild beasts in the amphitheater.

The letter is one piece of evidence. The writer, who-

other. We often receive small evidence as a proof of

probability or possibility, and we reject exactly the

not reject it, they dishonestly suppress it. A

admission as the most probable way of accounting for

pose, the writer has stated some things falsely, he can-

deities.He was in a manner made a saint. Corn-

not credible. The most curious is the story about the

and others, who maintain the Christian report of the

Thundering before the reign of Antoninus. We learn

Reimarus) who enumerates all the legions of Augustus'

probably he purposely omitted it, because he knew

strous addition, made by a man

army was saved by the prayers of the Christians ;

During the time of Antoninus Pius and Marcus

The second Apology of Justinus is entitled "to the

directly addresses the emperor, saying of a certain

(c. 8), Justinus, or the writer, whoever he may be, says

the effect of the work of demons.

place under Marcus Antoninus and L. Verus, when

Accordingly the holy men (Justinus, Chariton, a woman Charito,

The persecution in which Poly carp suffered at

pears in the oldest Latin version of the letter, which

"after which I Pionius again wrote it out from the

In order to form a proper notion of the condition of

might be stopped, if the people were allowed the op-

manuscript, however, says Middleton, lie afterward declares to be so

He approved of the governor's judgment in the mat-

Christians if a man was charged with the new religion