CT 4170 Construction Technology of

Civil Engineering Projects

Lecture notes

These lecture notes have been developed with due care. Comments are
however appreciated.
Please reply to [email protected]

CT 4170 Construction Technology of Civil Engineering Projects Version 6.0- November 2018
Prof. Ir. A.Q.C. van der Horst
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0 CONTENTS
0 Contents .............................................................................................................. 1
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 5
2 Interaction in Design ........................................................................................ 11
2.1 Interaction between design and functional requirements/ boundary
conditions ............................................................................................................. 12
2.1.1 Subsoil ................................................................................................ 13
2.1.2 Earthquake.......................................................................................... 13
2.1.3 Hurricane ............................................................................................ 13
2.1.4 Temporary nature of structures .......................................................... 14
2.1.5 Extrapolation beyond the state of the art ........................................... 14
2.2 Interaction between design and execution/maintenance ............................. 15
2.2.1 Economical aspects ............................................................................ 16
2.2.2 Boundary conditions for design imposed by execution aspects ........ 17
2.3 Interaction between the different engineering disciplines ........................... 27
2.4 Interaction between Design and QHSE ....................................................... 28
3 Cost Estimation ................................................................................................ 30
3.1 Cost components.......................................................................................... 30
3.2 Development of cost for labour, materials and equipment ......................... 31
3.3 Cost drivers for concrete works in civil engineering .................................. 32
3.4 Interaction between design and cost of concrete ......................................... 37
4 Design/ Construct optimization........................................................................ 45
4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 45
4.2 Integration within the project environment ................................................. 47
4.2.1 The increasing specification phenomenon ......................................... 48
4.2.2 Cyclic and Linear approach ............................................................... 49
4.2.3 Serial versus Concurrent engineering ................................................ 52
4.2.4 Process management aspects (engineering oriented)......................... 53
4.3 Tender phase ................................................................................................ 58
4.3.1 Tender strategy ................................................................................... 58
4.3.2 Risk management ............................................................................... 61
4.3.3 Level of Specification ........................................................................ 62
4.3.4 The solution versus a solution ............................................................ 63
4.4 Construction Phase/ Realization Phase ....................................................... 63
4.4.1 Integrated planning schedule ............................................................. 63
4.4.2 Value engineering .............................................................................. 64
4.4.3 Risk Management............................................................................... 64
4.4.4 As built documents ............................................................................. 65

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4.5 Practical feedback: the traps ........................................................................ 65

4.5.1 Tender phase ...................................................................................... 65
4.6 Lessons learnt .............................................................................................. 66
5 Design Considerations...................................................................................... 68
5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 68
5.2 Methodology ................................................................................................ 69
5.3 Structural performance aspects.................................................................... 70
5.4 Execution aspects to be considered ............................................................. 75
5.4.1 Construction Method and Method Statement .................................... 75
5.4.2 Influence of execution on member sizes ............................................ 76
5.4.3 Construction tolerances ...................................................................... 77
5.4.4 Special execution operations .............................................................. 78
5.5 Variants ........................................................................................................ 79
5.5.1 Shape .................................................................................................. 80
5.5.2 Repetition ........................................................................................... 81
5.5.3 Planning aspects ................................................................................. 85
5.5.4 Details................................................................................................. 87
5.5.5 Tolerances. ......................................................................................... 89
5.5.6 Finishing ............................................................................................. 90
5.5.7 Striking of formwork.......................................................................... 90
6 Construction for Service Life ........................................................................... 91
6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 91
6.2 Life Cycle Management .............................................................................. 91
6.3 Starting principles and input data for Construction for Service Life .......... 94
6.4 Construction for Service Life/ execution .................................................... 95
6.5 Construction for Service Life/ upon completion ....................................... 104
7 Execution of Civil ENGINEERING STRUCTURES in Concrete ................ 105
7.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 105
7.2 Formwork and Falsework .......................................................................... 108
7.2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 108
7.2.2 General requirements ....................................................................... 111
7.2.3 Formwork/ falsework for walls ........................................................ 112
7.2.4 Formwork/falsework for columns .................................................... 116
7.2.5 Formwork/ falsework for floor slabs ............................................... 117
7.2.6 Falsework ......................................................................................... 118
7.2.7 Special formwork/ falsework ........................................................... 122
7.3 Concrete ..................................................................................................... 128
8 Underwater Concrete...................................................................................... 140
8.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 140

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8.2 Placement methods .................................................................................... 145

8.3 Execution of underwater concrete concepts .............................................. 149
8.3.1 Construction of the building pit ....................................................... 149
8.3.2 Excavation of the building pit .......................................................... 153
8.3.3 Pile driving ....................................................................................... 153
8.3.4 Installation of reinforcement ............................................................ 159
8.4 Quality assurance and quality control ....................................................... 161

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Appendix A: Phases of design in relation to budget accuracy targets

Appendix B: Construction method of a bridge at Reunion
Appendix C: Tolerances as given in Eurocode 2 (N234prEN 13670:2006)
Appendix D: Formwork and Falsework for heavy civil engineering
Appendix E: Caissons and Blockwalls
Appendix F: Influence of curing on the pore structure of concrete
Appendix G: Model Project Quality Plan

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1 INTRODUCTION

In the design of Civil Engineering Structures it is the principle of interaction that is

of importance.
On one hand it is the interaction of design with the functional requirements/
boundary conditions, on the other hand the interaction between design and
execution/ maintenance (fig 1.1).

Fig 1.1 Interaction in design

Properly performed interaction is a decisive success factor to develop and realize

civil engineering structures, from relatively easy schemes to the multi-disciplinary
and complicated schemes (fig. 1.2): the same basic principles apply.

Fig 1.2 Interaction as success factor Courtesy: Interbeton bv

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Although the execution of civil engineering structures is an important factor to

consider in the design, it is not the execution technology itself that gets most of the
focus, but the interaction between the various aspects of the design whereby the
execution has a decisive impact on cost of the scheme.
As such construction technology can be split in two components as illustrated in
fig. 1.3:

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

EXECUTION STRUCTURAL
TECHNOLOGY DESIGN

CONSTRUCTION
DESIGN ENGINEERS
PEOPLE AT SITE

Fig 1.3 Components of construction technology

Construction people at site actually execute the scheme. Design engineers will, as
part of the design, optimize the cost drivers of the scheme: manpower required,
equipment needed, material demand and, if applicable, cost related to maintenance
and repair.
The optimization in this respect is the effort to reach a structurally and
economically justified scheme that complies with the functional requirements in a
most effective way.
During the development of the design, alternatives will be generated and
considered. The alternatives may be fundamentally different in the way they cope
with the structural and execution aspects of the scheme. The choice between
alternatives is, apart from cost, also influenced by following considerations:
Reliability and risk management
Constructability
Redundancy aspects
Maintenance cost
Durability aspects
Sustainability aspects
Future extension capability
Design aspects: shape, repetition, planning etc.

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And again, interaction between all aspects involved is the decisive success factor
and may lead to unconventional solutions.
An example in the Netherlands is the Euromax quay wall (fig. 1.4), where a whole
life cycle approach resulted in a diaphragm wall (a concrete slurry wall).
Traditional solutions would result in a steel sheet pile wall.

Fig 1.4 Euromax quay wall

Courtesy: BAM Civiel bv

To support the interaction between design and execution aspects, the lecture will
also address:
• Special execution methods/ techniques which may lead to cost effective
solutions such as movable formwork and to highlight the importance of
repetition.
• Planning aspects and how planning aspects may have an impact on the
development/ choice of alternatives.
• Cost estimation, to create awareness of the economical impact of design
choices and to support the selection of alternatives.
• It should be realized that all prices are indicative and for teaching purposes
only. Actual prices will vary pending market conditions and geographical
spread.

To allow optimization a systematic approach will be presented how to develop a

scheme from functional requirements to the selection of alternatives at the end.
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To support a further understanding of the importance and the effect of interaction

specific concepts will be discussed: block walls and caissons. What they all have in
common is a strong interaction between design, functional requirements, boundary
conditions and execution considerations.
To complete the lecture, an exercise is included in the program. To optimize the
interaction skills, the exercise will be performed by groups and allows participants
to practice interaction to the full extent. The exercise includes conceptual design,
cost estimation, planning aspects and selection of alternatives and will be
completed by a presentation.

Bibliography:

Handboek Uitvoering Betonwerken, (in Dutch), issued by Stubeco/

Betonvereniging , Gouda, The Netherlands, ISBN 90-75094-13-2

Uitvoering van Betonconstructies, (in Dutch), issued by Stichting ENCI Media, ‘s-
Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands, ISBN 90-71806-26-X

Handboek Ondergronds Bouwen, Bouwen vanaf het Maaiveld, part 2 (in Dutch),
issued by Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, ISBN 90 5809 313 1

Civil Engineer’s reference Book, (in English), issued by Butterworth- Heinemann,

Oxford, United Kingdom, ISBN 0 7506 1964 3

Installation of steel sheet piles, (in English), issued by the technical European Sheet
Piling Association (TESPA)

AFNOR Association Française de Normalisation, NF-P93-322 Poutrelles

industrialisées pour l’étaiement et le coffrage, December 1994. (“Joists
industrialized for shoring and formwork”, in French.)

AFNOR. Association Française de Normalisation, NF-P93-550 Tours d’étaiement

métalliques à éléments préfabriqués, December 1997. (“Towers for shoring
prefabricated elements”, in French.)

American Concrete Institute, ACI 347/78. Recommended Practice for Concrete

Formwork, 1978.

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British Standard, BS-5973. Code of practice for access and working scaffolds and
special scaffold structures in steel, 1993.

British Standard, BS-5975. Code of practice for Falsework, 1996.

British Standard, BS-12811-1. Temporary work equipment, 2003.

Deutsches Intitut für Normung e.V. DIN 18218., Rahmenschalungstafeln für

vertikale buteile, (“Pressure of fresh concrete on vertical formwork”, in German.)

European Committee for standardization EN 12811-1. Temporary works

equipment. Part 1. Scaffolds. Performance requirements and general design, 2003.

European Committee for standardization EN 12811-2. Temporary works

equipment – Part 2: Information on materials, 2004.

European Committee for standardization EN 12811-3. Temporary works equipment

- Part 3: Load testing, 2002.

European Committee for standardization EN 12812. Falsework - Performance

requirements and general design, 2004.

European Committee for standardization EN 12813. Temporary works equipment –

Load bearing towers of prefabricated components – Particular methods of
structural design, 2004.

European Committee for standardization EN 1065. Adjustable telescopic steel

props. Product specifications, design and assessment by calculation and tests,
1999.

European Committee for standardization EN 1065. Adjustable telescopic steel

props. Product specifications, design and assessment by calculation and tests,
1999.

European Committee for standardization EN 74-1988. Couplers, spigot pins and

baseplates for use in falsework and scaffolds. Couplers for tubes. Requirements
and test procedures.

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European Committee for standardization ENV 1993-1-1-1996. Design of steel

structures. Part 1-1: General rules. Brussels.

European Prestandard. Pr EN 1991-1-6. Eurocode 1. Actions on Structures, 2003.

Falsework Manual Holders. Department of Transportation. Engineering Service
Center. Division of Structure Construction, 2001.

HSE. Investigation into aspect of falsework. Contract Research Report 394/2001.

José Calavera (Intemac). Cálculo, construcción y patología de forjados de
edificación, 1988. (“Calculation, construction and pathology of building slabs”, in
Spanish.)

J. Martín Palanca. Presiones del hormigón fresco. Instituto Eduardo Torroja c.c.
1982. (“Pressures of fresh concrete”, in Spanish.)

José Blanco Perrín, Departamento de Métodos de FCC. Cimbras tubulares.

Análisis y patología. (“Tubular bracings. Analysis and pathology”, in Spanish.)

Ministerio de Fomento EA-95. Estructuras de acero en la edificación, 1995 (“Steel

structures for buildings”, in Spanish.)

Self-Compacting Concrete European Project Group. The European Guidelines

for Self-Compacting Concrete, Specification, Production and Use,2005

Piling Handbook issued by Arcelor Sheet Piling. Can be downloaded from

www.pilinghandbook.com

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2 INTERACTION IN DESIGN

The primary interaction is between design and the functional requirements/

boundary conditions on one hand and design and execution/ maintenance aspects
on the other hand. But also the interaction between different engineering disciplines
should be considered, as well as the interaction between design and QHSE
(Quality, Health, Safety and Environmental Care). This chapter will address the
interactions along the lines of the following scheme:

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2.1 Interaction between design and functional requirements/

boundary conditions

The functional requirements and in particular the primary function will lead to a
basic concept of the scheme: for a building the basic concept is a box with
columns/ walls in between the floor slab and the roof slab, for a viaduct it is a box
type superstructure on piers, for a jetty it is a deck structure on piles (fig. 2.1).

Fig 2.1 Relation between primary function and basic concept

The basic concept will generally be able to accommodate changes in functional

requirements but changes may lead to a need to consider alternatives: it is primarily
the responsibility of the design engineer to check whether changed requirements or
conditions do require reconsidering the basic concept. Examples are special
requirements which may trigger the change from a low rise building to a high rise
building: such change will introduce a change in structural concept by the
introduction of a stabilizing core.

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Boundary conditions will in general influence the choice of basic concept (or parts
thereof) right from the start:

2.1.1 Subsoil
The subsoil conditions will generally indicate the type of foundation: a piled
foundation or a spread foundation. Pending the concept this will have a major or
minor impact: for a viaduct the superstructure is not significantly influenced by the
choice of foundation (except for integral viaducts). But for a quay wall it has a
major impact: a sheet pile wall or a deck on piles versus a gravity structure. And
even within the group of gravity structures the subsoil may lead to different basic
concepts: soils with less strength may allow caissons, but not block walls as block
walls will lead to higher foundation stresses compared to caissons. From this
interaction it can easily be concluded that there is a direct correlation between the
reliability of the soils data and the reliability of the concluded concept.

2.1.2 Earthquake
Earthquake conditions will generally lead to an adjustment of the normally applied
static schemes: multi span structures often have one strongpoint to stabilize in the
longitudinal direction. Under earthquake conditions this would lead to a significant
load on the strongpoint as the earthquake is generally applied as an equivalent
horizontal load with a magnitude equal to a certain percentage of the vertical
weight. As the strongpoint stabilizes the entire length, it would receive a fixed
percentage of the overall weight as horizontal load. To avoid such condition the
multi span system is often separated into a number of single span units, each taking
the earth quake load independently.

2.1.3 Hurricane
Hurricanes result in high water levels and big waves. This will specifically
influence the deck levels of platforms and elevations of quay walls. The levels
concluded from the hurricane circumstances may however conflict with the levels
concluded from operational conditions. To solve such conflict unconventional lay-
outs or special provisions such as relieve systems are applied. Typical relieve
systems for piled deck concepts for quay walls, consist of deck slab units which
will be lifted at a specific overpressure. Chains are used to secure the global
position of the slabs relative to the deck.

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2.1.4 Temporary nature of structures

If a structure is a temporary structure only, special attention is given to choice of
materials and the concept of the connections. Standard solutions may not always be
appropriate. For good order it is mentioned that the temporary nature of structures
will lead to amended values of the partial safety factors only. The analysis itself
should be identical, in aspects to be addressed, as permanent structures.

2.1.5 Extrapolation beyond the state of the art

Boundary conditions and the choice of basic concept may lead to a choice of
materials, details or construction techniques which are beyond the state of the art
(in capacity, in application or in interaction). If so, the designer must check the
validity and justification of the concept and applied modifications. A typical
example is the storm surge barrier Ramspol in the Netherlands (fig 2.2). The
inflatable barrier consists of nylon reinforced rubber and is filled with both air and
water. Both the concept as well as the level of forces where unique. Extensive
scientific research and sophisticated software has been applied during the design
phase to justify the concept, choice of materials, specifications and installation/
operational procedures (fig 2.3).

Fig 2.2 Ramspol barrier, side elevation. Courtesy: Bam Civiel bv

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Fig 2.3 Ramspol, ICT tools to support design (FEM calculation) and work
preparation (3D CAD modeling). Courtesy: BAM Infraconsult bv

2.2 Interaction between design and execution/maintenance

Apart from the above mentioned interaction between design and functional
requirements / boundary conditions it is the interaction between design and
execution/ maintenance which also has a significant, and occasionally decisive,
impact.
Execution and maintenance aspects generally consist of:
• Materials demand, both for the permanent and temporary structures.
• Use of equipment, both major construction equipment and small tools
• Manpower, both direct and indirect
• Construction time and planning of activities

The interaction between design, execution and maintenance is required to reach an

optimum in integral cost: Life Cycle Cost, total cost of ownership, or cost corrected
for specific value aspects.. In a traditional approach each of the disciplines involved
is handled in separate phases, following each other. This often results in a one way
transfer of information. And as a consequence sub-optimizations in each phase
have frequently been observed, not resulting in optimized Life Cycle Cost.
Interaction is also required to obtain cost effective, constructible and reliable
concepts. Reliable in this respect is focused on time management and budget
control. Active interaction requires integration of knowledge, understanding and
experience of all the disciplines involved in each of the phases of the project.

The interaction has following aspects to be addressed:

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2.2.1 Economical aspects

To support the selection of alternatives and to make a final choice, generally
economical aspects, ultimately expressed as cost, are the decisive factors. But right
from the start it should be clear what the reference frame for the cost comparison is:

Initial cost: materials, equipment, manpower, time-related cost: the

traditional direct and indirect cost, general overhead and risk.

Initial cost corrected for the value of changes in construction time: from the
client’s perspective, an acceleration of completion could have a value
because of overall project optimization or an earlier start of revenues
generated by the project. The value per unit of time may have a significant
impact on alternatives and/ or construction methods as a balance must be
found between initial cost and the value of time.

Initial cost corrected for the cost of quality: quality in this respect is meant
as aesthetics, appearance, reputation, maintenance demand etc. Basic
requirements related to safety, reliability and serviceability shall always be
met.

Initial cost plus capitalized cost for maintenance, repair and demolition:
The integral approach to consider the net present value of all cost over the
entire service life of the project.

Most Economical Attractive Tender (EMVI in Dutch): Cost corrected for

the value of specific high priority aspects

Interaction should lead to an integral approach. An important aspect of integral

approach is the objective is to reach an optimum: or in cost or in value. This means
that, even for the relatively simple case of initial cost only, the summarized total
cost for materials, man-hours, equipment and time-related cost should be optimized
through a mutual exchange. An example of this exchange is the consideration of
high repetition of standard, not minimized units, versus low repetition and
minimum material demand: through a high repetition factor, the learning cycle will
result in a lower man-hour demand for the scheme as a whole. Such saving might
have a bigger value compared to the value of material demand savings.

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2.2.2 Boundary conditions for design imposed by execution aspects

The project boundary conditions, spatial requirements, environmental and local
conditions may have a decisive impact on the execution method or may impose a
deviation from usual techniques. The execution method or techniques may, on their
turn, lead to specific choices in design:

2.2.2.1 Choice of equipment

On-shore site conditions may limit the crane capacity which can be used at site.
The hoisting capacity, always to be considered in combination with the reach,
should be considered in design. For waterfront/ off-shore projects, environmental
conditions like waves and swell will generally dictate the choice between floating
spread (pontoons and barges), and self elevating platforms (jack-up barges). The
characteristics of both are rather different in lifting capacity and reach as well as in
cost. To optimize cost, such choice should have an impact on the design/concept:
generally, design/concepts will make an optimal use of the cranes available. A
typical example of the interaction at structural element level is a block wall (fig
2.4): outside the Netherlands a block wall is often used as quay wall (if subsoil
conditions allow). To provide adequate stability, the wall requires a certain weight.
The weight comes from the blocks. But to provide internal stability, each individual
block needs a certain weight as well. And as such there is a direct link between the
design of the wall, the design of the individual block and the lifting
capacity/equipment required.

Fig 2.4 Balance between lifting capacity and design

Courtesy Interbeton bv

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Related to the choice of equipment, but sometimes triggered by local

circumstances, is the choice of prefabrication or even preassembly of larger units of
the structure. If independency from site conditions is opted for, prefabrication is a
logical step. For multi- disciplinary projects even preassembly of complete units is
worthwhile to consider (fig 2.5). That can be the case for remote sites with a lack of
back-up facilities. In such case there is a direct link between concept and
equipment.

Fig 2.5 heavy lifting capacity and preassembly of major components applied
at a remote site. Courtesy Interbeton BV

2.2.2.2. Special formwork/ falsework and construction methods (see also

chapter 7 for a more detailed presentation)

Boundary conditions may impose the use of special formwork and supporting
structures (falsework):

Climbing formwork and Slipforming : typically used for stabilization cores

of multi- storey buildings, large storage tanks and silos, and large bridge
piers. The formwork reach is only a few meters. As such there is a high
degree of repetition. The climbing formwork is lifted with intervals, the
slipform moves continuously.

Cantilevered construction, movable formwork, launching methods:

typically applied for the superstructure of bridges (fig 2.6- 2.11).

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They all have in common that the span is built from a limited number of
positions, mainly independent from the area to be crossed.

Figure 2.6 Traveler for span by span construction

with prefab elements. Courtesy Spanish Concrete
Society

Figure 2.7 Traveler for span by span construction

Courtesy Spanish Concrete Society

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Fig 2.8 Traveler for span by span construction

Courtesy Spanish Concrete Society

Fig 2.9 Moving the traveler to the next span

Courtesy Spanish Concrete Society

If at a river crossing the navigational clearance is substantial or if a deep valley

must be crossed without intermediate supports, the cantilevered method is quite
appropriate. These circumstances force however to deviate from the basic shape of

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a prismatic beam as basic concept: the dead weight would simply be too big to
carry. Nevertheless economic concepts can be developed by a curved bottom chord
of the beam: the weight is reduced and through a smart design of the formwork,
repetition can be incorporated. This method can be used for both in-situ
construction (fig. 2.10) as well as for prefabrication (fig 2.11).

Fig 2.10 Cantilever method, in-situ concrete

Courtesy Spanish Concrete Society

Fig 2.11 Cantilever method with prefab elements

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If boundary conditions do impose special type of formwork/ falsework, there will

be a significant interaction between the temporary structure and the permanent
structure.

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2.2.2.3 Special techniques: Submerged and bored tunnels

These tunnels both require substantial temporary structures. Submerged tunnels

need a prefabrication site and a wet tow to their final location. There is a delicate
optimum between design requirements, operational requirements and the
construction method. This interaction is further explained in section 5.4.4. Bored
tunnels consist of in-situ boring and subsequently the installation of prefabricated
elements. The process requires a start shaft and a receiving shaft at the beginning
and end of the process. There is a decisive interaction between the design of the
shafts and execution aspects: space requirements to install and remove the tunnel
boring machine (TBM), bearing capacity to counterbalance the horizontal reaction
forces from the TBM, design of the transition zone between shaft and soil, hoisting
facilities in the shafts and temporary provisions. The bored tunnel itself is also a
specialism in itself but falls outside the scope of the lecture. Reference is made to
the Dutch Centre for Underground Construction, COB.

2.2.2.4 Constructability.

Concepts must be checked on constructability aspects. These aspects comprise:

• Development of Method Statements
• Design checks: All phases of construction should be checked regarding
stability, strength, stiffness and design choices should be checked on their
impact on the time schedule (including changes in the static scheme) and
assumed static schemes should be checked versus in-situ reality
• Tolerances required by construction
• Reliability

2.2.2.4.1 Method Statements

A method statement is a document which clearly presents how the scheme can or
should be built: all phases of the execution must be addressed: required equipment,
impact of phasing on formwork , falsework and reinforcement details, prestressing
procedures, interference with the surrounding environment, adverse environmental
conditions, logistics, permits, approvals etc. Special attention s required for design
choices that influence the time schedule for the execution of the scheme: time is a
cost factor on its own, but changes in the completion data might have a significant
commercial value to the client. Method statements may have various levels of
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detail: from global (for the scheme as a whole) to detail (parts of the scheme,
components and details). Method statements should be (globally) developed during
the conceptual development of the scheme to demonstrate feasibility of the scheme
and should be further detailed during the subsequent phases. Method statements
also serve as an interface document between design and construction to secure the
transfer of critical information but also to facilitate interaction between design and
construction (fig 2.12). Finally, during construction, method statements are an
important tool to assure quality.

Fig. 2.12 Interaction between design of temporary structures and the

working environment. Courtesy: HSL 7

2.2.2.4.2. Design checks of all the phases of construction

Stability, strength, stiffness must be checked for all phases and special attention is
required for the change in static schemes that can occur as execution proceeds. An
example of this aspect is given in fig. 2.13 for a concrete block wall: to optimize
the material demand, blocks are placed eccentrically to each other to keep the
resultant load within the middle third of the bottom block- foundation interface.
The overturning stability during construction must be checked at all levels of the
block- block interfaces: the wall leans backwards, is subjected to wave loads and
not yet backfilled. Such case could be governing and additional measures (partly
backfilling during construction) might be required. Pending consequences on time
schedule, logistics and equipment required, a redesign might be required.

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Fig. 2.13 Typical Block Wall

Courtesy: BAM Infraconsult bv

2.2.2.4.3. Tolerances and eccentricities

The execution process will generate deviations from theoretical positions and
dimensions. Tolerances, as such accepted deviations, are given in codes (both Euro
codes and National codes). Design codes have allowed for these tolerances also.
However, civil engineering structures do not always fall within the validity area of
the specific building codes. Project specific tolerances must be addressed and
agreed in such case, and subsequently be incorporated in design (if beyond the
values incorporated in design codes). Specific examples are driving tolerances of
piles in open waters (typical position tolerance 50 mm.) and prepared foundation
bed tolerances in open water (typically 25 mm.). Smart design will anticipate on
tolerances and develop a phasing schedule, a choice of materials (prefab/ in-situ
concrete or a mix of both) and details, to eliminate the effect of individual
contributions and as such avoiding an accumulation of deviations. A typical
example is the connection between steel piles, concrete pile caps and concrete deck
elements as frequently applied in port construction for jetties (fig. 2.14) : the
driving of the piles will result in a deviation from the nominal position (but should
be within specified tolerances). The cutting of the piles will result in levels around
the nominal level as well (and should also be within the specified levels). A
prefabricated pile- cap, made as a hollow, U-shaped, box is lowered over the piles.
The box has oversized holes in the bottom slab to pass the piles and to allow for
tolerances (horizontal control). Vertical control is assured by the application of
shim plates (filling plates) between the piles and the supporting beams inside the

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Fig 2.14 Prefab pile cap. Courtesy: Interbeton bv

box. By these, simple, measures, tolerances have been decoupled and positional
control of the box is assured. The deck structure can now easily be constructed by
prefabricated deck slabs (with a thickness of approximately half the depth of the
deck) and an in-situ concrete topping. By the application of an in-situ topping,
vertical control of the finished deck is relatively easy.
Eccentricities can be the consequence of tolerances but may originate from a
different mechanism also: the, literally, gap between the theoretical scheme and
reality. Not due to construction, but from the consequence that structural members
have dimensions or from optimizations. An example is a pile- system of raker piles,
schematically taken as single lines with a discrete point of intersection. From an
optimization consideration it may make sense to space both legs of the rake system
(out of plane), but an eccentricity (and as such secondary moments) will be the
consequence.

2.2.2.5. Reliability

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The design and the design choices should allow a strict control (management) of
the construction phase (and if applicable the service life): the prediction of material
demand, concluded man-hours, required equipment, time demand and, if
applicable, maintenance and repair efforts, should be reliable throughout the
subsequent phases. Reliability in this respect is heavily influenced by the
correctness of input data, properly selected tools for analysis (level of
sophistication) and significance of the criteria. It requires thorough experience and
engineering judgment to realize and quantify the uncertainty in output due to a
limitation of available input data, the limited quality of input data and the limited
level of sophistication of analysis tools in early stages of concept development.
Nevertheless, reliability of the process as a whole requires engineers to quantify the
effects and to incorporate them in results as calculated.
An effective tool to meet this objective is to structure the design process through a
number of phases (cycles), with target budget accuracy criteria for each phase. A
suggested approach is given in Appendix A.

2.3 Interaction between the different engineering disciplines

If a project has a multi- disciplinary character, due attention should be given to the
interaction between the disciplines concerned as such interaction can have an
impact on design, even conceptual design. In civil engineering the interaction
between road, rail, structural, geotechnical and coastal engineering is quite
common. But also between civil engineering (in the broadest context) and
electrical, mechanical, process engineering and HVAC (heat, ventilation and air-
conditioning) there is important interaction. Aspects to be addressed can be space
requirements, load bearing capacity, deformation requirements, phasing of the
project, choice and details of static schemes, material preferences, physical
interfaces, etc. Examples are: tunnels (structural design- net profile- light and
ventilation- traffic guidance systems- safety and rescue provisions- drainage and
pumps etc.) and jetties ( static scheme of piping systems-static scheme of civil,
hoisting requirements, operational handling requirements, navigational aspects of
vessels, fire fighting, waste treatment etc).

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2.4 Interaction between Design and QHSE

More than in the past, there is an interaction between Design and QHSE (quality,
health, safety and environmental care). The interaction can have an impact on the
choice of materials, method statements for construction, reinforcement details,
construction details, equipment to be used, monitoring during construction and
temporary provisions.
Examples of this interaction are:

Secured, dedicated, walkways for site personnel: not only for elevated sites
(high rise buildings, off-shore platforms, bridges and silo’s ), but also for rail
tunnel projects: starter bars from the bottom slab for the rail supporting
blocks will stand upright over a significant length and for a significant time.
Site logistic requires personnel to cross these areas regularly. The provision
of an elevated pass-over at dedicated positions is an effective way to avoid
people falling over starter bars (which could lead to fatal consequences).

Prefabrication and pre- assembly: in case of adverse site conditions (from a

quality and/ or safety point of view), the production and/ or working
environment may be shifted to a facility off-site. The decision to do so must
be balanced with the impact/ consequences on design and execution.

Safety in civil engineering has 3 main aspects to be addressed: structural safety,

safe working methods and personal safety.
Safety in general starts with the Design Phase: contrary to the Engineering
Phase where in general detailed design is performed , the Design Phase can
be characterized as a process where, through quite some choices, the
Functional Requirements, Boundary Conditions, Contract Requirements and
the Client’s Brief are materialized in Specifications: Shape, Materials,
Method Statement, Planning etc. How safety will work out in practice is
heavily influenced by the choices made in the Design Phase.
Structural safety is a performance, created in the Design Phase: not identical
to the result of a (single) calculation. The required level of structural safety is
in general terms specified in building codes. But, how safety will work out in
practice is influenced by quite some choices to be made. To optimize safety,
a clear focus is required as how to approach the Design. This is generally
provided in the Basis of Design which should be available prior to the

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Design activities. A Basis of Design will generally consist of Starting points,

Methods, and Criteria. Special points of attention in the Design Phase are:
project specific loadings and load combinations, development of the static
scheme during the various construction stages (stability, strength and
stiffness), constructability and maintainability.
To achieve the required safety, following steps can be distinguished:
Awareness, Knowledge, Commitment, Action and Assurance.
To address safety in a practical way, a Safety and Health plan is developed.
The core of the plan is the Risk Inventory and Evaluation: a systematic
listing of issues in relation to safety and health, with the chosen mitigation
measures.
Sustainability
Sustainability has 3 components: People, Prosperity and Planet.
Pending the value perception of the owner and the CSR (Corporate Social
Responsibility) strategy of the Consultant/ Contractor, these three aspects of
sustainability will be addressed in the development of the project, from
concept to realization. To give guidance to the various choices to be made,
commonly clients will indicate their value proposition regarding the aspects
of sustainability, which can be processed with the Most Economical
Attractive Tender Approach: Cost are optimized against Value.
Typical examples of concretization of the three aspects of sustainability are:
People:
Lost hours: Cars, vessels, trains, persons
Adverse conditions: Noise, obstruction, hindrance
Planet :
Sustainable Construction : Procurement, Construction, Maintenance
Life Cycle Approach :Re-use at various levels:
System/ Sub system/ Element/ Component

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3 COST ESTIMATION

3.1 Cost components

During actual construction, the majority of cost will start to occur: cost of
materials, man-hours, equipment and construction time. During the service life of
the project, cost of maintenance, repair and cost of capital will be added. This
chapter will focus on cost for actual construction only.
Construction cost for a civil engineering project can be itemized as follows:
Direct cost:
Civil works: concrete, reinforcement/ prestressing, formwork, steel profiles.
Earth works: excavations, dredging, reclamations and fills,
dewatering, preloading/ (accelerated) consolidation.
Foundations: piles, sheet piles, anchorages including soil and grout anchors.
Bearings, joint profiles, crash barriers and hand rails.
Transportation, both horizontal and vertical: cranes, pontoons and lifts.
Installation: driving rigs, self elevating platforms, pontoons.
Man- hours related to the items above.

Indirect Cost:
Site office, including man-hours for management and supporting staff.
Site facilities for storage, repair and maintenance
Site preparation: leveling, roads and fences
Auxiliaries: oil, gas, water and electrical supply.
Small tools: positioning/ survey tools (total stations), compressor, compactors
etc.
Design and site- engineering

General overhead
Risk, profit, general cost

Note: Indirect cost can amount some percent of total cost for construction, also for
the bigger project. General overhead is normally a percentage of the sum of direct
and indirect cost. General cost for civil engineering projects is around 12% of the
direct cost. Although driven by geographical area, market situation and commercial
considerations, 20% can be used as percentage of direct plus indirect cost for
general overhead for budget estimate purposes, (for Design/ Construct type
projects)

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3.2 Development of cost for labour, materials and equipment

The cost estimation is obviously an important activity for the feasibility check of
projects and in the commercial process of preparing a tender submission. But
estimates, even the initial estimates, also give important information for the
development of alternatives. Not just the cost as such, but the ratio between labour
cost on one hand and the cost for materials and equipment on the other hand, is an
important indicator how to achieve savings and a trigger for developments in
future. In countries with high labour cost (relative to cost of materials) it makes
sense to optimize man-hour demand. In countries with high material cost (relative
to the cost of labour) focus should be given to minimize material demand.
The development of the cost for labour and materials/ equipment over some
decades in the Netherlands shows a substantial difference: since 1950, cost for
labour has increased with a factor 40-50, cost for materials/ equipment with a factor
4-5 only. The actual cost for labour started in the early fifties with an equivalent of
€ 0,80 to € 38 in 2014.
Apart as a driver for the development of alternatives as a whole, the development
of cost had a significant influence on the ratio between the cost for labour and cost
for materials/ equipment for construction components also: Formwork and
falsework is traditionally labour-cost intensive. In the early fifties, the contribution
of labour cost was already around 70%. The remaining 30% was cost of material/
equipment. With the given development of cost, presently nearly 96% would be
cost of labour. This is not the case: an improvement has been achieved by the
development of more labour effective construction methods and techniques for
formwork and falsework. This improvement is especially noticeable in the building
industry (houses and office blocks), where uniformity and rationalization/
mechanization took place. In civil engineering the improvement is mainly
contributable to rationalization and mechanization.

Due to the development of cost components, there has been a significant change in
the ratio between the components formwork/ falsework, reinforcement and
concrete: for concrete structures in the building industry (offices etc.) the
contribution of formwork/ falsework has significantly increased and is now a
dominant factor. To influence construction cost, quite a focus is required on
formwork/ falsework.

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3.3 Cost drivers for concrete works in civil engineering

The cost components for concrete works in civil engineering projects, and their
practical units are:

Concrete per m3
Reinforcement per kg, ton
Formwork/ falsework per m2

An integrated, fixed, price for 1 cubic meter of concrete for universal applications
doesn’t exist. As will be explained in this chapter, the cost components as
mentioned above are significantly influenced by project specific (local) conditions
and conceptual choices made by engineers.
Nevertheless integrated, overall prices for 1 cubic meter of concrete are sometimes
used as a working tool to judge alternatives: overall project cost is divided by the
total volume of concrete of the scheme. In that case also cost for equipment
(pontoons, lifting equipment) and special provisions (dry dock) are included.
Within such context the overall price per cubic meter can be a useful indicator to
identify trends and to support the selection of alternatives.

To further investigate and clarify cost drivers for reinforced, cast in place, concrete,
focus will be given to each of the 3 main components given above. As formwork
could result in a substantial variation in cost per cubic meter of concrete, first
material cost of concrete and the effect of reinforcement will be discussed. After
that, formwork will be discussed separately.
Basic components of cost for concrete (material), reinforcement and some
formwork principles are as follows:
Concrete:
• Materials: cement, sand, gravel and water; quantities based on the
mix design.
• Batching plant: depreciation, maintenance and interest.
• Transport: dependent of distance
• Man-hour demand: dependent of dimensions, shape and complexity.
• Cost for concrete only may vary a factor 2-3.

Reinforcement:
• Procurement of steel: market effect and dependent of distance.
• Cutting/ bending and placement, fixing: dependent of diameter and
shape.

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• Cost for reinforcement only may vary a factor of 2-3

Formwork (to be discussed in detail later)

• The type of formwork may vary from wooden formwork for one- off
applications to highly sophisticated formwork systems for high
repetitions.
• Each type has got its own justified application
• Decisions on choice are supported by the cost formula for formwork:
Iinvestment
Cost / m2   manhours / m2
Nrepetition
To illustrate the variations, 3 examples will be presented:
• Example 1: influence of transportation distance on cost of cast in place
concrete
• Example 2: influence of rebar diameter on cost of reinforcement , fixed in
situ
• Example 3: influence of shape and type of structure on cost of cast in situ
concrete
All cost given reflect the 2008 cost level in the Netherlands

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Example1, influence of cost for transport

Nominal case, cost per m3

• Material cost: (typical 1:2:4 mix)
Cement: 320 kg/m3 @ € 80 / ton € 25,60
Sand: 605 kg/m3 @ € 15 / ton € 9,10
Gravel 1350 kg/m3 @ € 17 / ton € 23,00
Water 125 kg/m3 @ € 0,55/ ton € 0,10
Total cost of 1 m3 of material € 57,80
• Batching plant
Depreciation, maintenance, interest,
transportation from plant to site/ m3 € 48,00
• Casting at site 1mh @ € 38,00 € 38,00
• 1 m3 of concrete in place € 143,80

Nominal case, continued

Reinforcement, 100 kg/m3
Procurement € 820/ ton € 82,00
Transport, cutting , bending
placing, 1,5 mh @ €38,00 € 57,00
Reinforcement per m3 € 139,00

1 m3 reinforced concrete in place € 282,80

In the Netherlands large volumes of gravel and sand are available at relatively short
distances: the large rivers have transported these materials in the past from the
mountains to the Low Lands.
Therefore, variations in cost for transportation will be small. Abroad, the situation
can be significantly different. Transportation cost may vary considerably, pending
location of quarries for rock, dredging areas for gravel and/ or sand and the
available infrastructure for transportation.
The effect is illustrated by multiplying the cost for transportation (sand and gravel)
as listed in the nominal case above by a factor of 10.

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The breakdown of cost would look as follows:

Increased cost for transportation of sand and gravel: 10 times nominal cost
Material cost: (typical 1:2:4 mix)
Cement: 320 kg/m3 @ € 80 / ton € 25,60
Sand: 605 kg/m3 @ € 150/ ton € 91,00
Gravel 1350 kg/m3 @ € 170/ ton € 230,00
Water 125 kg/m3 @ € 0,55 / ton € 0,10
Total cost of 1 m3 of material € 346,70
Batching plant
Depreciation, maintenance, interest,
transportation from plant to site/ m3 € 48,00
Casting at site 1mh @ € 38,00 € 38,00
1 m3 of concrete in place € 432,70

Increased cost for transportation of sand and gravel, continued

Reinforcement, 100 kg/m3
Procurement € 820/ ton € 82,00
Transport, cutting, bending
placing, 1,5 mh @ €38,00 € 57,00
Reinforcement per m3 € 139,00
1 m3 reinforced concrete in place € 571,70

The example above illustrates the influence of variations in transportation: a factor

of 2 in total cost of reinforced, cast in place, concrete.

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Example 2, influence of bar diameter on cost for reinforcement

The choice of bar diameter is influenced by quite some considerations: crack width
control, spacing between bars, cover and diameter dependant cost per ton.
The effect of diameter on cost is illustrated as follows:
Diameter in mm Material in Transport, Bending Cost in €/ kg
€ / ton Cutting, placing Mh/ ton
Mh/ ton
10 840 29 5 2,13
12 810 20 3 1,65
≥ 16 790 13 2 1,36

Table 3.1 Diameter influence on cost for reinforcement

(Basis: 1 man-hour= € 38, material cost as per April 2008)

The structural engineer should make a balanced choice taking into account the
considerations mentioned above.

Example 3, influence of shape.

The main purpose of the example is to trigger awareness: structural engineers make
choices: static schemes, materials and shape/ dimensions. Dimensions in the end
are a logical consequence of all choices made before. Shape however is an aspect to
be addressed in the conceptual stage. Generally dominated by the optimal use of
materials (minimum material demand) , structural engineers must be aware that the
same volume of concrete but with different shapes shows a wide variation in cost
of such unit volume of material. Understanding the cost implication of choices
regarding shapes, support engineers to make choices between alternatives.
In the third example cost variations will be demonstrated, triggered by the
application of concrete in slabs, walls, beams and columns.
In each of the applications 1 m3 is applied. To demonstrate the influence of shapes,
unit rates for materials (both concrete and reinforcement) and formwork have been
applied.

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Figure 3.5 shows the applied configuration and dimensions

Fig 3.5 Configurations and dimensions applied for demonstration of the

shape dependency of cost

The consequences of shape are as follows:

Concrete Reinforcement Formwork Cost per

in in kg/m3 in m2 m3
m3
Wall 1 80 2 € 426
Floorslab 1 80 8 € 846
Beam 1 100 10 € 1020
Column 1 200 16 € 1610
Applied Unit € 150/ m3 € 1700/ ton € 70/ m2
Rates

Table 3.2 Shape dependency of concrete structures

3.4 Interaction between design and cost of concrete
The design engineer has many degrees of freedom to develop a structural scheme:
choice of static scheme, choice of materials, choice of the cross section and the
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consequences for formwork and false work, dimensions of the section and the
consequence on reinforcement, choice to apply prestressing, reinforcement or a
combination, in-situ construction and/ or prefabrication etc.
All variables have an impact on cost. Apart from the cost of concrete, cost of the
overall scheme are also influenced by cost of foundations, earth works, dewatering,
temporary sheet piles etc.
As an example: a massive plate structure is a simple structure to construct and
could be cheaper compared to the cost of a box girder. But the box girder
alternative will result in less dead weight which will lead to less foundation piles.
Furthermore (and as will be discussed later in chapter 5, design considerations) it is
not just the cost that will (completely) govern the choice between alternatives:
Complexity of a concept will be an important consideration as well as it has an
impact on the (financial) risk exposure.
From an owner’s perspective, additional considerations may be applicable:
sustainability and redundancy.
Sustainability is closely linked to environmental care: What is the ‘burden’
of materials, their maintenance over the life cycle, construction methods and
dismantling on the environment? Awareness, vision and view points,
supported by legislation, are tools to make a judgment.

Redundancy or robustness is the ability of a structure to absorb unforeseen

circumstances without disproportional consequences. And, similar to
sustainability, awareness, visions and view points are required to develop a
strategy which, through specifications, can be implemented in design.

In these lecture notes, costs of the concrete structure itself are subject of discussion,
not the issues additionally mentioned above.
Through a number of examples the interaction between design and cost will be
clarified. It should be mentioned that cost as given are indicative and for
clarification only!
To support the development of alternatives it is advised to visualize the relation
between (relative) cost and a scheme parameter such as height of a section, profile
etc. This will result in a graph as given in fig. 3.6

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Fig 3.6 Relation between cost and design parameter

The design engineer is not bound to select the parameter value leading to the lowest
cost: there is a validity area around the minimum where selection of the parameter
may also be influenced by other considerations as discussed above.

In the next examples the interaction between design and cost will be addressed,
specifically the relation between construction height and cost.

Example 1, Roof structure of a culvert (typical only: unit rates somewhat

outdated)
ht

concrete +

reinforcement
concrete 8000 8000

Total load 50 kN/m2

ht = 360 mm  ωomax = 1,4%: Φ 25 – 95

ht = 1000 mm  ωomin = 0,15%: Φ 20 - 200
reinforcement
CONCRETE: €110,- / m3
REINFORCEMENT: € 1,- / kg
FORMWORK: € 85,- / m2

Fig 3.7 Roof structure of culvert

Notes:
In the graph the influence of formwork is excluded

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For slabs with a thickness less than 550 mm, the compression zone is not able
to take the shear force. Costs for these consequences (stirrups, corbels) have
not been allowed for.
For the given rates, cost for concrete appear to be dominant; based on the
strategy to have the reinforcement in yielding for the ULS, the minimum
acceptable construction height is 360 mm. a further reduction would require
compression reinforcement, which would lead to a significant increase in cost.

Example 2, Floor beam

Fig. 3.8 Floor beam/ structural details

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Notes:
As was the case for the culvert of example 1, also for the floor beam it appears
that for the rates as assumed, the most economical height equals the minimum
height according the strength calculations for the floor slab. The cost of
concrete are less dominant compared to the culvert. The cost for form/ false
work strongly reduces for smaller construction heights of the floor beam.
For smaller construction heights, the floor beam concept will gradually change
into a massive slab system. Such system will generally be more economical
because of the simplicity of formwork, despite the higher material demand of
concrete. The floor slab system on the other hand will lead to less dead weight
of the building, resulting into a cheaper foundation. Total height of the
building however will increase if floor beams are applied.
Massive slabs would require special attention in terms of punching shear
capacity and stability issues.
Highly reinforced beams may cause problems at intersections with other
beams and columns. If not properly addressed in design, these intersections
will be difficult/ impossible to execute and may lead to improvisations at site.
This may result in non conformities. It is therefore recommended to select,
within the validity area OV, the beam height with the lowest reinforcement
ratio. Typical main reinforcement ratios for beams are 0.8-1.0%, for slabs with
loads of 3-4 kN/m2 , 0.4-0.7% in each direction. For these small loads,
deformation will normally be governing, and the height follows from the
deformation criteria.

Example 3, Edge beam of viaducts.

A typical detail at bridges and viaducts is the finishing at the edge beam. To align
the edge of the bridge and also to hide transverse prestressing anchorages, an edge
beam is frequently applied, see fig 3.10. The finishing can vary from a cast-in-situ
beam to a prefabricated beam in architectural concrete. In a study to investigate the
influence from formwork on design and execution, 3 solutions for the edge beam
have been considered (see below).

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A fourth solution is given in fig. 3.10. as typical.

Edge
beam
with tie
bars

Fig. 3.10 Typical finishing at the edge of viaducts

Solution 1, Cast-in-situ finishing (see fig 3.11)

Fig. 3.11 Cast-in-situ finishing

Formwork for this solution can be supported in different ways:

Tower supports: if the area under the structure is available (no traffic, no
buildings, no water etc), towers can be applied to support the formwork. These
towers are standard pieces of equipment, designed for multiple use and should
be provided with load bearing capacity certificates and safety certificates.
Mobile cantilevered steel structure: if the area under the structure is not available or
in case of substantial repetition, a mobile steel structure is worthwhile to be
considered. The structure consists of a substantial steel frame which travels on

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the deck structure. Given the investment required, significant repetition is

required to justify this approach.
Support structure connected to the prefab beams: in fig. 3.11 a solution is presented
whereby the formwork is supported by a structure, directly connected to the prefab
beams of the deck. This option requires more man hours compared to the mobile
system but is relatively cheap from an equipment point of view. As such an
interesting option, if repetition is not substantial. The internal panel and beams will
not be recovered and are as such lost formwork.

Solution 2, prefab panel and cast-in-situ connections (see fig 3.12)

Fig. 3.12 prefab panel with in-situ connections

A second option to construct the finishing is to use prefabricated panels and apply
cast-in-situ connections. The connection is only cast after final positioning of the
panel. This option is normally considered if hand railing anchors have to be
provided near the edge of the structure. A specific point of attention is the fact that
the panel is installed and positioned at the cantilevered part of the deck structure.
The vertical part of the formwork for the connection is anchored to the deck by
cast-in anchor bolts or driven nails.

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Solution 3, prefab finishing (see fig 3.13)

Fig 3.13 prefab finishing

A third solution to create the finishing is to apply a completely prefabricated

element. Cast-in anchor bolts in the deck structure allow positioning and anchoring
of the element. Dimensions of box-outs and holes in the follower plates of the
anchors should allow proper positioning. After final positioning, voids under the
horizontal part of the element and the deck, as well as the anchor bolt openings
have to be filled with mortar. Alternatively, the horizontal gap between element
and deck could be grouted.

Comparison between the solutions:

The sum of material cost, cost of man hours and cost of temporary provisions has
been calculated for the three solutions presented above. The relative comparison
leads to the graph as given in fig 3.14

Fig. 3.14 comparison of finishing concepts

A: cast-in-situ
B: prefab with cast-in-situ connections
C: prefab

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4 DESIGN/ CONSTRUCT OPTIMIZATION

4.1 Introduction

Interaction between design and construction is a must to assure:

• Effectivity : compliance with the functional requirements.
• Economy : management of cost and time schedule.

If the interaction is addressed properly and if disciplines involved perform in a

professional way, optimized effectivity and economy will be achieved.
Interaction between design and construction is not a well-established basic attitude
of individuals involved. To interact one should have a clear understanding of not
just the knowledge domains involved, but also of the driving mechanisms as a
process.

Fig 4.1 Interaction scheme

In traditional Construct contracts, construction will follow design. Interaction in

such case is difficult within the project environment and should be assured by
trained and experienced engineers involved in design to anticipate construction
aspects. Much more opportunities are given by the Design/ Construct type contract

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(further referred to as D/C): the development of the concept and actual execution of
the scheme are both with one party. D/C gives the opportunity to achieve a most
economical solution by full integration, through interaction, of the design and
construction disciplines. A further expansion of D/C is the Design/ Build/ Operate
and Transfer type contract (DBOT) where also maintenance and operations are part
of the scope of contract. In such case, maintenance aspects should also be
considered to achieve the optimum. In case of D/C or DBOT, the focus should be
on exploring the opportunities arising from interaction between disciplines
involved. As such it is about an integral, multidisciplinary, process to be performed
and managed. And the integration, even for D/C, is more than just adding the
disciplines together:
D/C ≠ D+C

This section will present some basic principles of the optimization through
interaction, with focus on the role of engineers, from a process perspective. To link
the principles to practice, the Design/ Construct case will be used as a reference.

Although the objective in general is the optimization of cost, it should be realized

that interaction also appears to be a critical success factor for innovative projects
where elements, or the scheme as a whole, are/ is beyond the state-of-the-art.

Fig 4.2 Performance through interaction.

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4.2 Integration within the project environment

Within the project environment, integration and interaction is structured on a

project basis, based on the specific project phase.
As such, phases should be distinguished, more than a split in the disciplines design
and construction. In all phases, all disciplines should be represented in a strength
related to the specific phase: during the development phase the design discipline
will be in the majority, but the other disciplines will be present as well, during the
realization phase a gradual shift will be noticed from design to actual execution
activities (see fig 4.3)

Fig 4.3 Phases in D/C

Interaction is not an objective in itself: interaction should lead to an optimum

scheme. This will only be achieved if the interaction is effective and efficient. This
however requires an understanding of the process, management of knowledge and
experience and, proven to be a complicated factor, working attitude. The required
working attitude can briefly be summarized as the will to succeed. This is briefly
presented in fig. 4.4

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Fig 4.4 factual/ non factual aspects of interaction

Attitude can be trained. The contents part can be learned. To be successful, it is

required to understand common issues between the disciplines involved, but above
all, to understand the differences. In this respect following aspects will be
addressed in the next sections:
• The increasing specification phenomenon
• Cyclic versus linear approach
• Serial versus concurrent engineering
• Process control versus product control

4.2.1 The increasing specification phenomenon

To structure the design process during the tender phase (development phase)
engineers should realize the level of specification of the scheme. To submit a bid, a
scheme must be specified to such a level as required to calculate cost to a set
accuracy. The gap between the level of specification of the Invitation to Bid and the
required level of specification to submit a tender is a clear indicator of the extent
and intensity of the process to be performed during the tender phase of the project.
The level of specification can be very low: a typical example would be a traffic
capacity between A and B, full stop. This position is indicated as Type 1 in fig. 4.5.
The specification could be very high as well: the concept is given with main
dimensions, typical details and main quantities can be concluded from the
documents or calculated with relative minor efforts. This is indicated as Type 3 in
fig. 4.5

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It is vital to realize where the development of the scheme is in terms of level of

specification. Misperception generally leads to a gross underestimation of cost
required to realize the project.

Fig 4.5 Level of Specification principle

4.2.2 Cyclic and Linear approach

There is a significant difference in approach between engineering and execution of

civil engineering works:
• Engineering tends to be strongly cyclic: through a number of cycles, a
demand is developed into a solution. Each cycle consists of stages: the
starting point (demand, context) is developed, judged, appraised/
concluded and, if applicable, adapted. During this process there is
generally a certain tension between the tentative solution and the
collection of requirements, boundary conditions, criteria, preferences etc.
But through a number of cycles, an acceptable solution can generally be
developed. The principle is schematically presented in fig 4.6 (after De
Ridder)

• The execution of works should be a linear process: through a number of

optimizations, the solution is brought to implementation. This is presented
in fig 4.7.

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Fig 4.6 Cyclic nature of Engineering (after de Ridder)

Fig 4.7 Linear nature of the execution of works

As both disciplines are actively involved in the development phase, both

approaches will be present as well. This will generally result in a certain tension
between the disciplines involved, which should be realized and managed.
Understanding of the differences is a first step in managing the process. But this is
not enough: apart from interaction between both disciplines/ approaches, each of
them should be managed internally also:
• The cyclic engineering process should basically result in an increase of the
level of specification to allow interaction and to result in deliverables. The
sooner the result is achieved, the better. This is indicated in green in fig. 4.8.
Endless, large cycles will result in separation of disciplines, costly processes
and low reliability/ quality of the integral product. This is indicated in red in
fig 4.8. It appears in practice that adherence to this principle does require
discipline and training on the job.

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Fig 4.8 Management of the cyclic process (after de Ridder)

• The linear process will contain optimizations. The challenge is to reduce the
degrees of freedom and to create a higher level of specification as soon as
justified. In practical terms this means that choices should be made as soon
as justified. This is represented by the green line in fig 4.9. A dangerous trap
in practice is the strong drive to realize optimizations in combination with an
overoptimistic perception of the feasibility/ reliability of optimizations: if the
governing time schedule forces to make a choice, the choice should be made
and activities to be continued as planned. Such a moment in time is often
referred to as a freeze. Consequences of not respecting the freeze (indicated
in red in fig. 4.9) may have a substantial impact on management of time and
budget. It requires a strong discipline to adhere to the principles above, but at
the same time, adherence is generally concluded as a critical success factor.

Fig 4.9 Management of the linear process

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4.2.3 Serial versus Concurrent engineering

In a traditional approach most disciplines are, due to phasing and contractual

arrangements, linked to each other by finish- start relations: upon completion of a
certain activity the next one will start. In this way the level of specification is
steadily and gradually built-up. The approach has a serial characteristic.
In D/C, interaction requires a concurrent approach: various activities are executed
at the same time to keep the process and interaction running. This approach
imposes a different way of working for all involved. The main difference is the
methodology of working: from a traditional task/ activity planning toward a
planning with focus on information. The key question in this approach is: Who
needs which information, when, from whom and for which purpose.
By a structured development of information, with due focus on the purpose, it is
possible to start and run various processes simultaneously, to effectively allow
interaction and to reduce the overall time schedule. The focus on information, more
than on traditional tasks, generally results in a working procedure from general
information to detailed information. This may include various cycles for the same
component of the scheme, each time more detailed for different purposes/
subsequent activities. The information planning is a strategic tool to structure the
process of increasing specification. Once established it is common practice to
transform the information schedule in a more traditional task schedule to instruct
team members and to monitor progress. A simplified example of this approach is
the design of a house: to allow the design and procurement of foundation piles, a
weight calculation is made with globally designed components of the house (floors
and roof). Later more detailed calculations of these members are made to
demonstrate compliance with the codes. This approach allows concurrent activities:
detailed design of slabs and procurement of piles at the same time. But also on a
more detailed level, concurrent engineering principles can be applied and may have
a significant contribution to the optimization of integral cost. A typical example is
the process from a global pile plan to the actual pile driving operation: the different
routes and consequences in terms of time and cost are given in fig. 4.10.

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Fig 4.10 Typical example of concurrent engineering principles

4.2.4 Process management aspects (engineering oriented)

Process management of multidisciplinary projects is complicated. Steering and

control can seriously be hindered by a burden of interactions between individuals
involved.
An effective approach to keep a project manageable is to apply the cluster
methodology: the team as a whole is split in clusters (see fig. 4.12).

The boundary of a cluster (and as such the interface) is taken at the positions where
minimum interaction will occur: the clusters are reasonable self supporting and will
generally be multidisciplinary. A typical example of cluster approach is the team
organization for the storm surge barrier Ramspol in the Netherlands: (See fig 4.11)
The organization contained 4 clusters: The (nylon reinforced) rubber sheet, the
piled foundation and sill, the control room (as a whole) and the river training
works. Each of the clusters definitely has relations with the others, but the
interaction at these interfaces was relatively low. Each cluster was multidisci-
plinary, both from an engineering point of view (interaction between the various
engineering disciplines) as well as within the civil discipline as a whole (where
design, cost estimation, work preparation and execution were all present in each of
the relevant clusters).

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Fig 4.11 Ramspol storm surge barrier

Courtesy:BAM Civiel bv/ BAM Infraconsult bv

Fig 4.12 Cluster interfaces (after De Ridder)

To manage the interfaces and to make the clusters perform, it is strongly

recommended to apply the principles of System Engineering. In System
Engineering, breakdown structures are applied. A typical example is the Work
Breakdown Structure, and the cluster approach perfectly fits in the breakdown
methodology: a complicated project is decomposed in smaller units. According
System Engineering principles, each cluster will get boundary conditions to stick
to. It allows each cluster to, more or less, independently perform, and as such to
allow concurrent engineering. Upon completion, all clusters can be joined to bring
the plan together. If the original boundary conditions have been assessed properly,
all clusters will fit and the overall scheme will comply with all requirements. The
assessment of boundary conditions for the clusters requires thorough knowledge of
the System Engineering principles, domain knowledge of the scheme concerned

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and understanding of the interactions between the disciplines involved. The

boundary conditions are set at an early stage and therefore can not be based on in-
depth engineering results. Moreover, boundary conditions should not be focused to
obtain a minimum material demand, but should have their focus on optimum
overall cost, influenced by material demand, equipment, man-hours and time as an
entity in itself. Sub-optimizations would require serial oriented engineering and
would obstruct concurrent engineering. As such, System Engineering does require
experience and judgment as choices must be made at an early stage.
A typical example of the application of System Engineering principles is the
integral design of loading platforms in the oil and gas industry: the platform ( see
fig 4.13) consists of a deck on piles (or a jacket) and equipped with topsides:
loading arms, firefighting monitors, cranes, pipes, valves, metering equipment etc.

Fig 4.13 loading platform during construction phase.

Courtesy:Interbeton bv.

The loading arms and other topsides are decisive input aspects for the deck design,
but are long lead projects in themselves. To delay the start of the deck design till
engineered data of the loading arms would be available, is generally not acceptable
in terms of overall running time of design, procurement, construction and
commissioning. The application of the System Engineering principles consists of
the assessment of space requirements and envelopes of the loadings (H, V, and M)
at an early stage. Not the exact values, but minimum/ maximum ranges. The space
requirements and envelopes are used for the design of the deck (and foundation).
Upon completion of topsides design and deck design, both clusters are brought
together and, if properly fixed in the beginning, will match. Upon availability of the
detailed design results of the topsides, generally, no redesign of the deck will be

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performed as the overall schedule will commonly not allow redesign. As such sub-
optimizations with focus on minimum material demand are given up in favor of the
overall optimization (commonly minimization of time). On a growing number of
(large scale) civil engineering projects, System Engineering principles are applied
as a tool to demonstrate compliance with requirements through a structured and
standardized approach with a strong focus on validation and verification.
A key-aspect of Systems Engineering, within the context of validation and
verification, is the explicit way of recording information. This will result in a
transparent process, which is a critical success factor to manage large scale
(infrastructural) projects: Due to their scale, a great number of interfaces, both
internal and external, will occur. A high level information management approach is
of the essence to avoid non-conformities and consequential cost. Systems
Engineering provides the necessary integrated and structured methodologies. Core
elements of the approach (according ISO/IEC 15288:2002: Systems engineering-
System life cycle processes) can be summarized as follows :
• Stakeholders Requirement Definition Process
• Requirement Analysis Process
• Design Process
• Implementation Process
• Operation and Maintenance Process
• Verification and Validation Process
• System Management over the Service Life
As such, Systems Engineering provides tools to apply Life Cycle Management in
each of the phases of the Service Life.
Important aspects of System engineering are:
• The distinction between the specification process and design process
to optimize transparency: starting point of the processes is the project
problem definition. A typical example could be: a road transport capacity
between A and B must be C. The solution of the problem is the project
objective. System Engineering describes two processes right from the start:
the specification process and the design process which should be
requirements driven. Both start at the problem definition and run parallel in
cycles of increasing level of detail to such an extent that the execution phase
may follow. At such level both processes merge.

• Verification and validation: Systems Engineering has a strong focus

on verification and validation. It is a continuous process to verify whether the
design (at each level of development) complies with requirements (at each

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level of development) and to validate whether the design, again at each level
of development, satisfies the requirements of the stakeholder (Client). During
the execution of the project, components are realized and built together to
form the scheme. Also during this stage there is a continuous process of
verification (compliance with design) and validation (satisfaction of stake
holder’s requirements).

• Through-life approach: Systems Engineering will be applied in all the

phases of the service life. But in each phase the decision making process will
have the service life of the structure as reference.

The aspects described above are briefly summarized in fig. 4.14

Fig. 4.14 Key aspects of Systems Engineering (image courtesy of Prorail and
Dutch Ministry of Transport and Public Works)

To structure and manage the processes of Systems Engineering, breakdown

structures have been developed. Typical for the engineering process are the
following structures (according Department of Defence: Military Handbook 338-B,
Electronic Reliability Design Handbook, Rome (NY) 1998) :
• Functional Breakdown Structure: the FBS describes the functionality
of the systems from global through an analysis to detail. The FBS is strictly
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limited to functions and shall not be mixed with concluded engineering

solutions. Such discipline appears to be quite a challenge in practice.

• Requirements Breakdown Structure: the RBS gives a coherent overview of

the requirements at different levels of detail. All requirements are traceable,
both top-down and bottom-up. At the top, requirements are linked to
functions or operation processes. The breakdown is done to such a level that
stake holder’s (client’s) requirements are safeguarded and can be verified.

• System Breakdown Structure: the SBS presents a decomposition of the

system and a structure in which all elements to be designed, realized,
maintained, and decommissioned are presented.

In addition, System Engineering also comprises the Work Breakdown Structure and
can be expanded with additional Breakdown Structures as appropriate, although
limitation of Breakdown Structures is strongly recommended to limit interactions.
Also a balance should be found between the level of decomposition and the number
of interfaces as all the breakdown structures are based on the top-down
decomposition of systems. Data bases are generally applied to identify and manage
relations between the various Break Down Structures.

4.3 Tender phase

Apart from the general principles as described in section 4.2, there are two specific
aspects to be addressed in the tender phase:
• Tender strategy (from an engineering point of view)
• Risk Management
• Level of Specification
• The solution versus A solution
4.3.1 Tender strategy
A tender strategy is required to structure the process of increasing specification:
within a limited time and with limited resources, the gap in specification between
Invitation to Bid and the Tender Submission should be bridged. A structured
approach of engineering is a must.
The strategy consists of a choice between two basic approaches: the Base Case
approach and the Variants approach. It is vital to stick to the principles of the
selected approach.

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Which approach is selected depends on a first judgment of the Invitation to Bid: if,
from a first judgment, a most likely solution can be concluded, the Base Case
approach is adopted. If there is no likely solution, a number of alternatives must be
considered and the Variants approach is selected.

4.3.1.1. Base Case approach (see fig. 4.15)

In the Base Case the most likely concept is selected as the Base Case. The Base
Case is further developed to the appropriate level of specification required to
submit a bid. It may happen that during the development of the Base Case
promising alternatives are concluded. Alternatives will be further developed as long
as following requirements are met:
• Manpower should be available to develop the alternatives. Such manpower
shall not be taken from the Base Case Team: the Base Case shall continue.

• Time should be available to develop the alternatives to the required level of

specification.

If any of both requirements is not met (capacity or development time), development

of an alternatives could damage the Base Case or impose significant risks on the
Bid. Although circumstances may occur which justify a further development of
such alternative, it is generally not advised.

Fig 4.15 Base Case approach

In fig 4.14 acceptable alternatives are those initiated in the green area (variants 1
and 2). The red dots indicate alternatives which would result in a too short period
for development to the required level of specification, or would result in a lack of
manpower.
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4.3.1.2. Variant approach (see fig 4.16)

The Variant approach is selected in case it is not clear which concept would be the
most likely. As such a number of alternatives will be considered. Although the
same principles as described for the Base Case apply with relation to Time and
Manpower constraints, the variant approach contains a third vital principle: the
design freeze: generally it is not possible to develop all alternatives because of
constraints. In such case a choice shall be made. And the choice shall be made
within the green zone of fig 4.16.: there should be enough time available to further
develop the selected alternative(s). The principle of design freeze appears to be a
difficult, although vital, aspect to be applied. If not properly applied, it will
endanger the reliability of alternatives because of a lack of specification. Under
such circumstances it often appears that the perception of engineers with regard to
the actual level of specification is too optimistic.

Fig 4.16 Variant approach

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4.3.2 Risk management

Risks of civil engineering projects can be substantial: exposures up to and above
the anticipated profit margin are not an exception. Management of risks is therefore
a key point of attention. Not for project-leaders only, but also for design engineers,
planners, cost estimators, work preparation, procurement etc.
Management of risks starts with awareness, both strategic and operational:
From a strategic point of view it should be clear/ clarified who the owner of the risk
actually is. In many cases both parties (project owner and contractor) jointly own
risks. Especially for significant risk exposures it should be avoided that risks are
simply conveyed to one party only. Neither the owner nor a contractor can
generally handle substantial risks. In such case it is strongly suggested to reduce
risks through additional investigations/ engineering until exposures match common
values between 3 and 5%.
Operational awareness of risks starts with focus of all involved: it should be an
explicit attitude to scout risks. But apart from the attitude, operational awareness
does require insight in/ understanding of risks by members of the team. Risks of
integrated projects can be linked to perception and the overall process, often
dominated by project specific circumstances. Perception risks are frequently
coupled to the level of specification phenomenon: the gap between anticipated level
of specification and the actual level of specification (during the tender phase) may
result in risk exposure regarding material demand, equipment demand, man-hour
demand and construction time demand. Process risks are generally related to
permits, approvals etc.
With properly developed awareness, assessment of the risk exposure is feasible
through an analysis. Risk analysis can be performed at different levels of detail:

• Standard percentage of construction cost. This analysis will only be applied

if there is an extensive track record with the concept/ process concerned and
if it has appeared from practice that actual exposure levels demonstrate a
reasonable stability.

• Risk Inventory Lists: the use of Risk Inventory Lists makes the analysis more
project-specific. All disciplines concerned will develop the RIL. The
development of a RIL appears to be a powerful tool to focus on risks, to
improve awareness and to get an overview of exposures. Such overview is a
pre-requisite to allow management of risks.

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• Risk Inventory List together with Monte Carlo simulations. This approach is
selected for schemes which are considered to be exposed to substantial risks.
Both size and characteristics of the project should be considered to conclude
if this type of analysis is required. Large Design/ Construct projects or
smaller projects but with multi disciplines are generally subjected to this type
of analysis.

The reliability of the analysis is governed by the reliability of the input parameters.
The reliability of input parameters will be improved if statistical data are used. This
however requires a data bank which is gradually filled with data from practice. To
make risk management happen, such data bank is a pre-requisite. The development
of a data bank does require an effective feed back loop from actual construction to
the engineering disciplines. In (temporary) lack of a data bank expert opinions can
be asked to select mean and standard deviation values for the input parameters. It is
advised to base the input parameters on the advice of more than one expert only.

Once the exposure of risks is assessed, actual management can start. Basically there
are three options: eliminate, insure or accept. Which option is selected depends on
the actual risk and the consequences if the risk actually would occur, acceptance
thereof, whether insurance cover can be arranged etc.

4.3.3 Level of Specification

An important aspect of the tender phase is to assure an adequate level of
specification of the concept to be submitted (see section 4.2.1. for general
principles). The Systems Engineering methodology as described in section 4.2.4.
can support the process of incrementing the level of specification by a systematic
decomposition of both the requirements and the conceptual design. Decomposition
is represented in the descending leg of fig. 4.14. To obtain an targeted level of
specification, adequate decomposition is required. That is where the uncertainty
starts: what level is required, for both the requirements and the design?
A practical approach for conceptual developments is to first handle the
requirements to such an extent that they are SMART and to focus on governing
requirements only. The latter does require experience as viewpoints are developed
based on limited information only. Concepts should be specified to such an extent
that a reliable assessment of cost and time schedule is feasible. A strict cooperation
between design-engineers and cost-estimators, in terms of level of detailing, is
required. And again, experience comes in the picture.

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4.3.4 The solution versus a solution

Apart from reliability of the concept considered, the efforts during the tender
should result in the optimum solution for the case considered. This is frequently
referred to as MEAT (Most Economically Attractive Tender). The assessment is
based on a wide variety of value-issues: integral cost, time schedule, environmental
impact in the broadest context, sustainability, flexibility, etc.). The tender process
should develop into the MEAT. As the design process is the transformation from
freedom into specification, very many decisions will be required. This means that
many switches will have to be set, resulting into the right solution. Decomposition
as such is not a guarantee that the right decisions will be made. To support the
decision-making process, trade-off matrixes are frequently used. All relevant
aspects are listed and rated for the alternatives concerned. And again, this does
require substantial experience as statements have to be generated with limited
information and level of detail only. This is where the process does require due
attention: the margin of the supporting system should be in balance with the real
differences and margins of the option to be judged. If not, the best solution could be
shaded- away by the inaccuracy of the supporting tools.

4.4 Construction Phase/ Realization Phase

Apart from the general principle as described in section 4.2 following aspects
should get specific attention during the phase after contract award of an integrated
D/C type contract:
• Integrated planning schedule
• Value engineering
• Risk management
• As-built documentation

4.4.1 Integrated planning schedule

To allow management of D/C type projects it is required to have an integrated
planning schedule available. Such integrated planning schedule should present all
tasks (based on information availability requirements), relations and time slots in a
balanced way. Balanced in this respect means that reasonable and feasible slots and
relations for all disciplines involved should be basis of the schedule. The set-up of
such (detailed) schedule is a task in itself and should get a high priority at an early
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stage. An initial version of the schedule must be made during the tender phase of
the project, prior to making commitments/ submitting a tender. A violation of this
principle may lead to unbalanced time consumption or constraints which, in turn,
will obstruct proper management, both in terms of financial, quality and time
management. The integrated planning should incorporate the principles of
concurrent engineering as earlier described.

4.4.2 Value engineering

During the realization phase, opportunities may occur to optimize the project or
elements thereof. If the value of the saving exceeds the investment in design, it is
worthwhile to explore the opportunity. To avoid an unjustified disturbance of the
critical path, following principles should be applied:

• Opportunities should be investigated within the free float of a planning or by a

separate team. The critical path should not be disturbed.

• Alternatives should be implemented only if approval is given before the

original starting date of the component for which the alternative is a replacement.

• Value engineering should incorporate total, integral cost. In practice this often
appears to be complicated. As an example: uniform reinforcement diameters
and reinforcement patterns (not necessarily lowest material consumption)
versus savings due to efficiency.

4.4.3 Risk Management

Also during the phase of detailed design and actual construction, risk management
should get proper attention. A practical approach to focus on the risk exposure for
large or complicated projects consists of following components:

• Top XX list: from the analysis a shortlist of risks is compiled. The list will
consist of those risks which represent a dominant part of the overall
exposure. The advantage of the shortlist is the fact that attention can be
specially focused.
• Update of the Risk Dossier: during detailed design and actual execution of
the works the insight in risks may change or events are completed without
actual occurrence of the risk. Updating the file keeps attention focused.

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• Quality Control and Quality Assurance: generally AQ/QC is materialized

through a Project Quality Plan. For the PQP reference is made to appendix A
for a general description and appendix G for a model PQP.

• Site Engineer: although information contained in contracts, specifications,

drawings, instructions, procedures and work plans should be adequate to
allow proper execution of the works, it should be realized that civil
engineering projects have a high degree of complexity and a relative low
degree of repetition as a whole. Although verification should (through
supervision or checking procedures) avoid non-conformities to be
implemented it makes sense to have the engineering discipline present at site
to give discipline support to construction and to intercept non-conformities at
an early stage.

4.4.4 As built documents

As built documents are vital for life cycle management of projects. The
documentation should be reliable and complete. ‘As built’ is not just an
administrative update of the ‘release for construction’ revision, but a process in
itself: from gathering information to the formal update of the contents of the
drawings. To allow this process to happen it should be organized right from the
start of the construction phase: both tracking of the as built situation and processing
of the information on the drawings. It should be realized that capacity is required to
update the drawings: with all information available an update could typically cost
2-4 hours of drafting per drawing on average.

4.5 Practical feedback: the traps

From practice, following traps can be reported:
4.5.1 Tender phase
• Jumping to conclusions and solutions: competitive alternatives not addressed
• Forgotten to permanently check compliance of the scheme with functional
• requirements and boundary conditions :the further in the development phase,
the bigger the risk of deviation from the starting points
• No attention/ understanding of the real cost drivers of the scheme: irrelevant
sub optimizations

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• Bad interface management

• Risk management: making assumptions and interpretations without
validation or check of contractual implications/ contractual backing
• Lack of discipline: deviation from the tender strategy. Generally an
inadequate level of specification and reliability will be the result
• Absence of an integrated planning: may result in an unstructured process

4.5. Realization phase

• Absence of an integrated planning: may result in an unstructured process,
losses due to unbalanced time allocation and imposed milestones in conflict
with sound management of the process
• Value engineering disturbing the critical path and pushed by unjustified
optimism
• Sub optimizations
• Critical self-checks

4.6 Lessons learnt

In the following recommendations (drafted by major contractors after an evaluation
of D/C projects), lessons learnt with D/C projects can be summarized:

• Kick-off meetings should be organized for all the phases of the project and
all disciplines involved should participate.
• Reviews should be organized with regards to engineering, cost estimation
and contractual/ commercial aspects with due attention to boundary
conditions.
• The contractual review and negotiations should be assisted/ supported by the
design discipline(s).
• An integrated planning is a must: all disciplines should be considered as
equal.
• Choices should be made according to the planning schedule. Apply design
freezes to allow proper phasing of the process.
• There should be a limited authorization to apply changes to the design. A
clear structure of authorizations is required.
• Approval procedures should be clear and should not be open ended.
• Interaction/ communication between all disciplines involved is a critical
success factor.

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• Cost for design/ engineering are of minor importance if compared to quality

and time compliance of design/ engineering.

These recommendations should form part of company procedures and project

plans.

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5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

5.1 Introduction
Civil engineering structures must have a high degree of effectivity with regard to
functional requirements and boundary conditions.
At the same time, it can be decisive that concepts are efficient, that actual execution
(and maintenance if applicable) doesn’t become too expensive. To develop a
concept that meets all functional requirements/ boundary conditions and at the
same time is an economical solution, a methodology should be followed during the
conceptual phase. This methodology should also prevent that in a later stage
surprises would occur in relation to structural performance and in economy of the
scheme (cost/ construction time/ maintenance requirements). This chapter of the
lecture notes presents such methodology.
In the western world, savings on manpower cost are more effective compared to
savings on materials, due to the development of cost (over the years) for materials
and manpower. Formwork and false work are important elements to consider as
they present a substantial part of the cost of the concrete structure. Through
rationalization and mechanization it has been possible to cope with the challenge to
be more man-hour efficient.
The methodology presented is based on the use of five design considerations to be
used:
• Shape of the structure and sections.
• Repetition: with focus on investments for formwork/ false work.
• Repetition: with focus on man-hour efficiency through learning effects.
• Planning: number of critical paths and intensity of interactions between
activities.
• Detailing: tolerances, finishing, striking of formwork.

A systematic application of these considerations will allow a qualitative

comparison between alternatives through:
• A global estimation of cost for concrete, reinforcement and form/
false work for the various alternatives (cost consideration).
• An assessment of the complexity of the alternatives, judged against
the five design considerations (risk assessment).
The comparison will allow and support selection of alternatives to be further
developed.

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5.2 Methodology
Chapter 2, interaction in design, extensively discussed the vital impact of
interaction in conceptual design. Also for the further development of alternatives,
interaction is vital again. The interaction is on one hand between sketches of the
structure/ dimensions and structural performance, on the other hand between these
sketches/ dimensions and execution.

Functional requirements
Boundary conditions compliance

Structural Global concept/sketches

execution
performance Main dimensions

Reliability/ Economy
Compliance Reliability
Constructability

Structural performance Execution

Aspects Aspects
See section 5.3 See section 5.4

Minimum/ maximum
Preferred dimensions
dimensions

Variants
See section 5.5

Fig. 5.1 Methodology overview

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The minimum/ maximum dimensions from the structural performance analysis

have to be judged and balanced against/ with the preferred dimensions concluded
from constructability considerations. These practical considerations often appear to
be decisive to obtain the most economical concept. Examples are presented in
section 5.4

5.3 Structural performance aspects

Limit state design approaches are effective tools to examine/ analyze structural
performance. The most common approach is ULSD, Ultimate Limit State Design.
In this approach the ULS is used as basis for design, followed by a check of the
SLS, Serviceability Limit State. It should be realized that both limit states must be
addressed separately: the SLS is not simply the ULS divided by a factor, as is the
ULS not just the SLS multiplied by a factor. Although the approach for the
ULS/SLS analysis is the same, differences become visible when uncertainties are
highlighted in the flow schemes of the analysis:

Fig 5.2 Flow scheme SLS

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Fig 5.3 Flow scheme ULS

Fig 5.4 Uncertainties in the SLS analysis

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Fig 5.5 Uncertainties in the ULS analysis

Uncertainties do occur in the field of loads, static schemes and SLS aspects to be
addressed:
• Loads: loads are more frequently measured and documented than before. As
such an increasing knowledge is being build up to allow a statistical approach of
loads. Especially in the field of rail and road infrastructures, loads are rather
reliable. Also water pressures can reliably be calculated as water levels of rivers,
lakes and seas have been monitored over decades. The same applies for wind
loads as also wind data have been recorded over long periods of time. But
general loads, frequently applied as uniform distributed loads, have an
uncertainty. But can be governing at the same time. Care should be given to
these loads and validity for the case considered should be checked carefully.
• Static schemes: static schemes are reliable most of the time. But especially at
structural interfaces and at the soil- structure interface a careful consideration is
required. A typical example is the simplification, frequently applied, of the soil-
structure interface where the horizontal resistance/ deformation of the soil is
modeled by a set of independent, non- linear springs. From an interaction
between loads, structural stiffness and the spring characteristics, an equilibrium
results. But the springs have no interaction directly between themselves:
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generally there is no shear mechanism between the individual springs. As such

the shear performance of the soil between horizontal layers is not considered in
the model. If such performance would be critical, more sophisticated schemes,
with direct interaction between the springs, would be required. Or, alternatively,
Finite Element Models could be applied.
• Special attention must be given to the SLS aspects: from functional
requirements, boundary conditions and general principles of structural
engineering, SLS aspects can and must be concluded. SLS aspects may only be
copied if validity for the project considered has been proved. The reason is that
existing, general, SLS criteria are often implicit: they do not address the actual
SLS aspect specifically. A typical example is deformation: what is tried to be
safeguarded through deformation: water accumulation, user comfort, structural
damage to other components, dynamic response? Clarity is required as the
criterion will be different for each aspect. Also the gradual change and
development of structural concepts may require a critical review of criteria
applied: implicit aspects and criteria may not be valid anymore. A typical
example is the limit on horizontal deformation of vertical steel piles in ports,
which are used to connect the mooring lines of ships: to avoid that people would
be launched in case of release of the lines, horizontal deformation criteria apply.
But it is actually the acceleration which is indirectly controlled through the
deformation. However, typical deformation values are common. But the values
from the past were copied even when multi-pile systems changed to single, large
diameter, piles. It is clear that the acceleration, implicitly approached through
deformation, of both systems is different if the same, unchanged, deformation
value is applied.

For all stages (including construction stages) following aspects, either SLS or ULS,
must be checked:
• Strength/ Safety
Static schemes may change during construction: All steps of construction must
be followed on their consequences for the static scheme. If the method of
execution is not yet final, at least one, most likely, method should be taken and
checked. Such assumption must be documented for following design stages.
A typical example of a changing static scheme, is the use of prefab slabs in
deck structures: to optimize the use of man hours at site and to optimize cost for
formwork/ false work, it is quite common to apply prefabricated slabs at each
span and to provide an in-situ top layer afterwards. The static scheme changes
from a simply supported slab into a multiple span, continuous slab.

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Also the shape of cross sections may change during construction. A typical
example is the use of prefabricated U shaped beams which will, in a later stage,
be filled and connected to other components. Also fatigue aspects may be
decisive during construction: steel foundation piles in open waters may have
fatigue problems due the small wind waves during the construction stage where
the piles are standing as cantilevered beams. This condition may typically occur
from water depths above around 10 meters. The problem can easily be solved
by the application of a temporary brace between the piles.
Strength consequences should be checked for all stages.
• Stiffness
Changes in cross-sections and static schemes during construction may have a
significant impact due to stiffness related consequences and must be checked,
apart from the usual checks of the completed structure with regard to water
accumulation, vibrations, dynamic response and second order effects.
Also the soil-structure interaction must be checked: the subsoil response may
lead to an accumulation of deformations during construction with an impact on
the completed scheme, or measures to be taken during construction. A typical
example in this category is the concept of block walls as discussed in chapter 2.
If substantial deformations are likely to occur, predictions should be made on
beforehand and carefully compared to data collected from the structure during
construction. If non-conformities are noted, an analysis must be performed to
clarify the differences and conclude whether additional measures are required.
• Stability
Stability of members and the structure as a whole must be checked for stability
during all stages of realization. Stability aspects include horizontal/ vertical/
rotational stability, (local) buckling stability, overturning stability, sliding
stability, slip circle stability, up-lift stability and the bearing capacity of the
subsoil.
• Durability
A vital performance aspect is durability. The durability performance of a
structure is governed by two key influence factors: design and execution. The
influence of the actual execution of the project has a significant impact on the
ultimate durability performance of the structure and will be discussed in chapter
6, dealing with Construction for Service life. Design however creates the
circumstances under which execution will take place.
Typical design issues are: mix design (both choice of materials and quantities
of materials), including water/cement ratio and density, and the concrete cover.
But also the design of reinforcement has an impact: if compaction of the fresh
concrete (or even worse: the flow of fresh concrete) is hindered by abnormal
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dense reinforcement, the quality of the cover will be adversely influenced and
as such durability will not meet the required standard. Alternatives must be
considered: change of design, mix design or compaction techniques.
• Geotechnical and foundation aspects
Structural performance will be influenced by geotechnical and foundation
aspects such as strength/ deformation of the subsoil/ foundation, ground water
table (and management/ feasibility of artificial tables during construction) and
the reliability of the soils information.
Special attention should be given to the ratio of horizontal versus vertical loads
during construction as that ratio has a major impact on the capacity of spread
foundations. The reliability of the soils information depends on the density of
the investigations, scope of the investigation program, quality of the
investigations and interpretation thereof and interface management between
geotechnical and structural engineers with emphasis on how parameters should
be applied in models. Also the need of additional investigations shall be
addressed: it is quite common that at early stages of scheme development only
limited information is available. But during development stages the reliability
of the soils information should increase in a balanced way with the anticipated
accuracy target of the budget forecast.

5.4 Execution aspects to be considered

Construction aspects to be considered within the context of this chapter are:

• Construction method and Method Statement

• Influence of execution on member sizes
• Execution tolerances
• Special execution operations

5.4.1 Construction Method and Method Statement

To support an effective and efficient development of the scheme, a construction
method must be developed. The construction method should be the result of a close
interaction between the disciplines design, cost estimation, planning, work
preparation and construction/ maintenance. As such teamwork is of the essence and
will bring a substantial added value at the same time. All disciplines should have
their input. The input is not just knowledge and experience: consequences of
choices must be considered in view of compliance with requirements and on their
impact on cost, risk exposure and planning. It is obvious that for design, the

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construction method has a decisive impact. Once the construction method is agreed
and frozen, the Method Statement can be drafted, covering all stages of
construction to complete the scheme.
In Appendix B an example is given which presents the construction plan of a
bridge at Reunion. From the example the interaction between design and
construction method can easily be concluded. (Courtesy to Jean Muller
International- France)

5.4.2 Influence of execution on member sizes

Dimensions of structural members will normally be concluded from a structural
analysis and often minimized to optimize material demand versus (direct) cost. The
concluded dimensions must be checked against practical dimensions from a
construction point of view. The practical point of view will have focus on ease and
simplicity of the actual execution of the scheme or components of the scheme.
Practical dimensions can be decisive and governing to reach an acceptable cost
level of the project. This principle is illustrated in following, simplified, examples
(see figures 5.6 and 5.7).

Tremy pipe

Fig 5.6 Minimum dimensions, concluded from construction aspects

To cast concrete in a retaining wall, a minimum wall thickness of approximately

250 mm. is required (see fig 5.6). A more slender wall, which could follow from
the structural analysis, will most probably be amended to the value of 250 mm. as
the man-hours required to cast and compact concrete afterwards in the slender wall
will be substantially more due to more complex maneuvering of the tremy pipe and
the compactor.

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Fig 5.7 Amendment of wall thickness

As a second example it is illustrated in fig 5.7 how dimensions of secondary

members such as handrail footings may require an adjustment of the wall thickness
selected before.

5.4.3 Construction tolerances

Tolerances must be regarded in design, even in conceptual design. Tolerances will
always occur both in (pre)fabrication and construction at site. Normal tolerances
can be found in building codes and are allowed for in code regulations concerning
design. A typical example is attached as appendix C and is taken from a draft for
the Eurocode. If special tolerances would be required, consequences for design
must be investigated.
Tolerances must be considered in the choice of structural member sizes. A typical
example is given in fig 5.8 how pile driving tolerances must be considered in the
selection of the width of the foundation beam. The width will have to accommodate
the tolerances and fulfill requirements of cover and constructability at the same
time.

Fig 5.8 In anticipation of driving tolerances

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In conceptual design tolerances must be considered also: during the conceptual

design process, gradually the high degree of freedom will change into a high degree
of specification through a chain of choices. At each step, each major decision, due
attention should be given to the consequences on tolerances and as such on
practical construction: do tolerances work out in the next phase and does it result in
an accumulation or, preferably, are tolerances eliminated through a smart choice of
the concept and related steps of construction? A typical example is the choice
between prefabrication of full height members and the split of such members in
partly prefabrication in combination with in-situ concrete.

5.4.4 Special execution operations

Special techniques during construction require an intense interaction between the
disciplines design and execution.
A typical example is the concept of immersed tunnels.
Immersed tunnels are generally prefabricated in a (special purpose) dock, towed to
site, immersed and ballasted. During the tow, the structure should float. After
ballasting, the structure should have adequate vertical stability. And the remaining
space in the tunnel should comply with the functional/ special requirements. This
all together requires interaction between disciplines involved as conflicting criteria
may arise: (see fig 5.9)

Fig 5.9 Dimensions/ components of immersed tunnels

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The structural concrete space (S) will be the result of interaction between the
functional/ special requirements (H), ballast requirements (B), design and execution
considerations, and serviceability aspects. Once the initial selection is done, these
practical dimensions must be checked for the ULS/ SLS limit states, including the
construction stages, and reinforcement details. Reinforcement details follow from
ULS/ SLS considerations, execution considerations (minimum spacing between
reinforcement for casting, minimum spacing between prestressing anchors,
practical diameter- spacing requirements to allow workers to climb the
reinforcement cage (typically 16mm bars-spaced 150 mm.)), and the optimum in
cost. The selection of initial values and the checks thereafter is a cyclic process:
once consequences of choices become clear it should be considered whether
adjustments are required. For water depths exceeding 25 m, the usual dimensions
of S will, most likely, not be able to take the loads. An increase in S and B may
have an adverse effect on functional requirements (alignment) and will have effects
on cost because of an increased length of approaches and increased volumes of
dredging. The application of transversal prestressing has proven to be an adequate
solution in such case.
For shallow tunnels on the other hand, and specifically small span tunnels as in use
for underground public transport, the application of vertical tension piles or anchors
will optimize the H-B-S relation.

5.5 Variants
From the interaction between design aspects and execution considerations as
discussed in sections 5.3 and 5.4, variants/ alternatives can be developed. This
section will present a methodology to support the selection between the variants/
alternatives. The scheme of the methodology is as follows:

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Fig 5.10 selection criteria for variants

The main purpose of the presented approach is to get an impression of both the
project cost and the level of complexity.
Based on cost and complexity a choice between variants can be made.

5.5.1 Shape
Starting with the conceptual plan and shape, it should be considered:
• To apply simple, straight and plane shapes
• To avoid locally required modification to formwork
• To use standard sizes of plate material for formwork through smart
selection of structural dimensions
• To apply formwork units as big as can be handled, as this will reduce the
required man hours per m2
Through these measures cost for formwork, a significant factor in overall cost, will
be reduced.
An example of some of these principles is illustrated in fig 5.11:

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For small retaining walls, simple and straight surfaces as given in variant a,
will lead to more economic concepts compared to variant b, where the
application of dents will have an adverse effect on cost for formwork.

Fig 5.11 shape aspects

5.5.2 Repetition
Repetition can have an effect through two mechanisms:
• Depreciation value of formwork and falsework
• Learning cycle of workforce

As formwork and falsework have a substantial impact on cost for construction of

concrete structures, repetition is an effective tool to reduce cost. The effect is given
by following equation:

Formwork cost/m2= ( I/N ) + cost for manhours/m2

I = investment per m2
N = repetition

Different type of formwork (wood, steel, formwork systems), have different cost-
repetition graphs. As such the repetition factor may help to select the appropriate
formwork, or, alternatively, the graphs help to demonstrate the savings through
repetition.
It should be noted that repairs will create discontinuities in the cost-repetition
graph. As such this may influence the choice of formwork.
If construction time would require the use of more formwork units, this will
influence the repetition per unit and as such the cost per m2. This requires an
integral consideration of cost.

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Fig 5.12 illustrates the mechanisms explained above:

Fig 5.12 Influence of repetition and repairs

The cost- repetition graph is not a single line graph: it is an area around an average
line. Where actual cost will be relative to the average cost, is influenced by
complexity of shapes, size of the areas etc. A typical graph is given in fig 5.13

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Fig 5.13 Influence of complexity and systems

From the graph in fig 5.13, following conclusions can be drawn:

• Half systems are already at a repletion factor of 2-3 quite economic

solutions
• Given the wide range of cost for the traditional and half system types of
formwork if the repetition factor is low (up to approximately 16), it is justified
to apply simplified shapes under such conditions to get economical solutions
• The range between the upper and lower cost are such that complicated
shapes, to save on material demand, will only be justified if the repletion factor
is substantially high.
• Smart systems with mechanical devices like swivels, adjustable couplers
etc, require high investments and will only be justified if the repetition factor is
32- 64.
Apart from the influence on depreciation, repetition may also lead to savings
through the learning-cycle effect. The savings come from improvements in the
approach of the activity, in coordination and communication at site. They are
however dependent of following aspects:

• The activity should contain an aspect which allows learning or

improvement: poorly organized work preparation, inexperienced team,

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activity with high complexity, focus on an attitude of improvement-

willingness.
• The learning cycle should be short: learnt items should be applicable on a
short time scale to allow effects also for relatively small series.

In fig 5.14 a graph is presented which illustrates the relation between the man-hour
demand per element ( unit) and the repetition factor n in case of a one-off
production of n elements ( En) and the development of the average in case of
multiple series of n elements ( Dn) .
The average learning cycle effect can be described with following formula:
D 2n = ф D n
in which:
D 2n = man-hour demand per element (unit) at a production of 2n units
D n = man-hour demand per element (unit) at a production of n units
Ф = factor which indicates the learning effect.

Fig. 5.14 Learning Cycle effect

From Swiss investigations by E. Braem, it is concluded that in the building

industry, the factor Ф will be in the range of 0.65- 0.95, pending complexity,
quality of work preparation, skill level of personnel, etc.
As can be concluded from the principle of repetition, any disturbance of the
repetition will have an adverse effect on cost as the number of identical cycles will
reduce. This should be carefully analyzed when improvements or optimizations are

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considered: the disturbance of the repetition has cost effects which should be lower
than the actual savings from the changes considered. As such it is a proven
principle that in-depth work preparation with focus on the final scheme to be built
pays more than an attitude of early start and modifications during construction.

It can be concluded from both repetition influences (depreciation and learning cycle
effects), that repetition is a major factor to consider to obtain a rational (practical,
economical) design.

5.5.3 Planning aspects

The planning schedule is an important consideration in the selection of alternatives.
In an integrated network planning of a project, all activities and their relations/
interactions are presented. In such a planning, circles represent the activities;
arrows indicate the relations and interactions. A straight forward planning,
consisting of limited construction phases and simple relations (limited number of
relations and interactions), will lead to simple (economical) execution of the
scheme and will be less sensitive to disturbances.

Fig. 5.15 straight forward planning

The network planning will allow an analysis of the execution process. Such a
process analysis is a tool to develop a most economical execution method, with
strong emphasis on formwork and falsework. From the network planning the
completion date of the project can be concluded. The completion data is an
essential milestone: it is a contract requirement with often a high commercial value
(toll infrastructures, production platforms in the oil and gas industry, sports
stadiums). Also time-dependent cost can be concluded from the planning.
For concrete structures, a straight forward planning can be achieved by:

• Reduction of the construction phases:

Reductions of casting joints to allow maximum production volumes
(placement of reinforcement, erection of formwork, casting, prestressing
of concrete and striking of formwork) in one go.
For a small wall, the typical week cycle for concreting consists of:

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• Erection of front wall of formwork

• Placement of reinforcement
• Erection of back wall of formwork
• Casting concrete
• Hardening of concrete (typically in the weekend)
• Striking formwork (stripping)

If tension occurs between time required and the week cycle, technological
measures such as optimization of the mix design and heat treatment (with
influence on strength development) can be taken to save time.

• Focus on parallel flows of execution with regard to formwork,

reinforcement and/ or prestressing, casting and striking:
The relation between various activities should be kept as simple as
possible. Each alternative will have its own construction process and
planning. To evaluate the alternatives from a planning point of view,
criteria as jobs per m3 of concrete and free float (in the planning) per m3 of
concrete, are practical. Some tools in design are available to create a
simple planning:
• Prefabrication of large formwork units and prefabrication of
reinforcement mats: both can be prefabricated independent of
concrete casting activities.
• Preassembly of complete units: this results in almost full
separation of flows. In Fig 1.2 an example is given of a marine
platform which was almost completely preassembled to meet the
tight schedule and because of the remote nature of the construction
site.
• Avoidance of a potentially strong dependency between the sequence of
prestressing and striking of formwork and false work:
If flexible false work is applied, prestressing should be applied in phases
to avoid high tensile stresses and cracks: the uplift deformation due to
prestressing is less than the initial deformation due to the wet concrete. As
such, the formwork pressure on the concrete will not disappear during
prestressing. This may lead to overloading of the member concerned.

• Reduction of casting joints: for box-girders it is possible to avoid longitudinal

casting joints by a single casting cycle of the section as a whole:

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The position of transversal (casting) joints is governed by optimization of

repetition influences, structural aspects and cost of joints.

Fig. 5.16 Reduction of casting joints

5.5.4 Details
During the design process of civil engineering structures, there will be a
development from a global focus to a more detailed focus. It is a natural process to
channel attention from an integral view to details. To support the evaluation of
alternatives, details must be considered along with aspects of shape, repetition and
planning. Formwork and false work are major aspects to consider when detailing a
concept. Of all cost components, formwork and false work take a major part.
Through a rational design/ construction method, substantial savings can be
obtained. With respect to the repetition factor, location of casting joints and
working joints (with due respect to design considerations and planning aspects)
needs full attention as this is considered as a major detailing issue of design.
Formwork and false work should not be economical only: the system must be of
adequate quality. The quality could be judged upon the compliance of the
permanent structure with requirements related to appearance, finishing, dimensions
and durability.
Within the context of this lecture following detailing aspects will be addressed:
Tolerances
Finishing

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Striking of formwork
Some typical examples of detailing aspects are as follows:
In Fig 5.17 two options are given for a retaining wall: a sloped top surface versus a
horizontal surface. To cast a sloped slab (slopes up to 20 degrees) will require more
man hours compared to a horizontal surface. Also post-casting treatment will
require more hours. The additional man hours should be judged against the saving
in material demand.

Fig. 5.17 Sloped surface versus horizontal surface

In fig. 5.18 a detailing aspect of reinforcement is given; the choice of diameter,

spacing and bar shape has consequences, both structural and economical. From a
structural point of view, small diameters are preferred to manage crack width.
Small diameters do requires small spaces between the bars, which could have an
adverse effect on the density quality of the cover, and as such have an effect on
durability, appearance and finishing. From an economic point of view, small
diameters are more expensive compared to larger diameters and the consequential
small spacing will result in a higher man-hour demand for casting the concrete.

Fig. 5.18 Reinforcement details

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5.5.5 Tolerances.
Strict tolerances for concrete structures and/ or formwork will lead to an increase in
cost. It is easier and more cost- effective to anticipate on tolerances. A typical
example is the capping beam of a pile foundation: it is easier and more cost-
effective to widen the beam to allow for normal, practical driving tolerances, than
to impose tolerances which are smaller than can normally be achieved. This
principle is illustrated in fig. 5.8
As dimensional control of a concrete structure is influenced by temperature, rain,
wind, creep and shrinkage, design should allow for the variations in dimensions
and positions. Especially for bearings, handrails and at connections between
members, attention should be given to dimensional control aspects.
A typical example is given in fig. 5.19 : due to creep and shrinkage of a prestressed
viaduct, there could be a mismatch in positions of the cast-in anchors and the poles
of the steel handrails. Slotted holes in the base plate and joints in the concrete
structure will eliminate the effects.

Fig 5.19 Dimensional control measures

It is strongly recommended to communicate tolerances: during development of

concept all involved should agree on tolerances: amendments might be required
given project- specific circumstances. More strict tolerances, compared to codes,
will have an impact on time demand and cost; less strict tolerances must be
considered in design. During construction tolerances must be communicated also:
drawings should clearly specify the applicable tolerances (specific or code
reference). There should always a check on constructability: targeting for
unrealistic tolerances will disturb the construction process as a whole.

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5.5.6 Finishing
Formwork material will have an impact on the appearance of a concrete structure.
A specific texture may be specified from a esthetical or functional perspective.
Apart from the formwork material itself, special units can be placed against the
inside the formwork to realize special texture effects. Finishing requirements
should be specific before actual execution: if written specifications would have
limited significance (especially for appearance), a visual catalog could be an
appropriate tool. A typical example of such catalog is the ‘schoon beton’ brochure
as issued by ENCI (The Netherlands).
5.5.7 Striking of formwork
In case of high repetition factors, special attention should be given to the shape of
the section to allow efficient removal of the formwork. This includes rounded
edges, bevels, inclined (tapered) surfaces etc. Also the use of debonding agents is
quite effective. Fig 5.20 illustrates how the shape of a cross-section has an impact
on the number of required activities to remove the formwork and on the risk to
damage the structure at early age.

Fig. 5.20 interaction between shape and striking of formwork

Prominently tapered surfaces at the connection between floor-slab and wall (see
fig. 5.21) will give concern with regard to positional control of the reinforcement
relative to the surface of the formwork.

Fig. 5.21 interaction between shape and reinforcement

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6 CONSTRUCTION FOR SERVICE LIFE

6.1 Introduction

Construction for Service Life is an aspect of the broader theme Life Cycle
Management ( LCM).
Life Cycle Management is an approach to achieve:
Optimized integral cost over the full service life of a structure and optimized
performance in compliance with (functional) requirements.

The service life of a structure covers all stages from design, execution, maintenance
and repair up to and included demolition.
The optimization of integral cost implicates a balance between cost and added
value. As such there must be an unambiguous understanding between all involved
in the process, which added value must be generated. Most commonly this is
specified in functional requirements, project/ location specific additional
requirements and criteria. The optimization also implicates that all disciplines
involved (design, execution and maintenance/repair) should have an input in the
process to reach the optimum, avoiding sub-optimizations in any one of the
disciplines. It requires a re-thinking of the construction process compared to the
traditional approach where there is a more sequential order of participation of the
disciplines. Under Life Cycle Management there should be an integral approach. In
the integral approach, consequences of choices by anyone disciple on the scheme as
a whole should be carefully examined and must be balanced. A typical example
could be the choice of concrete cover: in anticipation on practical achievable
tolerances, it could make sense to apply an increase in cover to reduce future
maintenance and repair, especially for those sections where the relative decrease in
internal lever arm can (practically) be neglected.

6.2 Life Cycle Management

Life Cycle Management is considered to gain more importance in future as there is
a trend noticeable to a more integral approach of projects, both from an owner’s
perspective as well as from market initiatives. The privatization in many countries
is also a boost towards a more integral approach of infrastructures. The anticipated
trend is accelerated by the fact that more and more tools become available to
handle the integral approach: tools to help engineers to quantify the consequences
of their choices and to support them to find the optimum, but also tools to structure
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and support the design and construction process: System Engineering approaches,
Risk Based Quality Management, databases and data communication, and
CADCAM techniques. And, maybe less pronounced and accessible, the stronger
focus on sustainability.

As Life Cycle Management should cover all disciplines involved, it is considered to

start from project identification and continue to demolition. It is realized that
presently the maintenance and repair stage is practically the horizon of LCM.
However, it is anticipated that in the end the process should also comprise the
demolition (or replacement) stage.
The coverage of the full service life is illustrated in figure 6.1

Fig 6.1 The integral approach of Life Cycle Management

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The nature of Life Cycle Management is quite different for the various types of
structures:
• The Service Life of buildings is dominated by aspects related to economic
life, refurbishment, and trends in society. The service life is relatively short.
The environment the structures are exposed to is generally mild
• The Service Life of Civil Engineering structures is dominated by aspects
related to compliance with quite specific and often unique/ complicated
functional requirements. The integral costs are generally optimized over a
relatively long service life. And the structures are generally exposed to a
severe environment. As such deterioration is a factor to be carefully
considered.

These lecture notes will focus on the construction phase of Civil Engineering
structures only.

Within the group of Civil Engineering structures a distinction should be made

between new structures and modifications to existing structures:
• For new structures, the Life Cycle Management process can and must be
integrally approached (both the contents of each phase and the interface
management between the phases).
• For modifications to existing structures the elapsed part of the service life
creates specific points of attention: data availability and actual performance
characteristics.

The integral approach of LCM is, as explained before, not just an extrapolation of
the present development stages of a project. As it will require a rethinking of
approach, focus should be given to following factors (which have appeared to be
critical success factors):
• Identification of drivers with regard to direct and integral cost and critical
factors to performance
• Identification of the impact of these drivers and factors on cost and
performance: understanding the mechanism
• Development of tools to quantify effects
It is especially the understanding of causality, but with a reach over the full service
life and in an integral context, that will require full attention and appears to be a
difficult point in practice: what is the consequence in future of a certain choice and
does such choice contribute to optimal cost and optimum performance at the same
time? Where is the balance? Etc.

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It was Prof. de Sitter from the Netherlands who created awareness with regard to
causality in the building industry by development of what is called ‘de Sitter’s
Law’: (units are left out as they are immaterial)

• 1 spent in design and construction equals:

• 5 required for preventative maintenance
• Equals 25 to repair local deterioration
• Equals 125 to repair general deterioration

Construction for Service Life is a shackle in the Life Cycle Management chain. As
such it is part of an overall process:
The proceeding phase is the design phase: starting principles and input data
are required: see section 6.3
The following phase is the maintenance and repair phase: output data should
be documented and handed over to the next phase: see section 6.5

6.3 Starting principles and input data for Construction for Service
Life
Construction for Service Life is an approach to contribute through the construction
phase to a proper Service Life Performance within the agreed framework of the
Contract and the Specifications
To reach the objectives of Construction for Service Life it is vital that:

All phases contribute in a balanced way to LCM and comply with the agreed terms
• As optimization of integral cost is an important aspect, each phase should
be focussed on optimizing integral cost more than striving for sub
optimization of the own phase concerned. This requires knowledge and
awareness of consequences of choices.
• Once the balanced contribution is specified, each phase must comply with
the terms. This requires knowledge and awareness of the consequences of
non conformities and application of control tools
All interfaces between the phases are effectively managed.
• At the start of each phase a set of documents from the previous phase must
be available to clearly specify starting points and terms to adhere to.

To allow Construction for Service Life, Design for Service Life should:

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• Deliver the Life Cycle Management File, a file with all relevant
Engineering Documents, Engineering Instructions and Specifications, as
clear starting points for the actual Construction Phase and as a basis to
further develop the document into the Birth Certificate which will form the
basis for the operational phase of the service life
• Itself be based on clear definitions of the strategy to be followed: are LCM
principles applicable or not and what is the maintenance strategy? (regular,
scheduled maintenance versus maintenance free)

6.4 Construction for Service Life/ execution

Construction for Service Life is a broad theme: it covers all aspects of execution.
To support the industry, FIP (nowadays FIB) developed the “Guide to Good
Practice” for Construction in April 1978, giving recommendations to the
“Constructors” to reach a level of good construction quality. This document was
dedicated to prestressed concrete structures and will get an update, considering the
more modern/ recently developed processes and techniques. But as a reference it is
still a valuable document.

The New Guide to Good Practice, under preparation in Commission 10 of FIB, will
address some critical aspects and specific points of attention for construction such
as:
• Formwork and falsework
• Concrete
• Materials supply, mixing, placing and compaction
• Curing
• Finishing
• Cover
• Prestressing
• Precast concrete
• Foundations
• Reinforcement
• Piles, diaphragm walls, barrettes and slurry walls
• Tolerances
• Quality control
• Health and Safety
• Workmanship/ staff and labour
• Management of the Construction Process

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• Method Statements and Work Plans

• Design documents and detailed construction documents
• In addressing these items attention will also be given , where
applicable, to the future trend of Performance Based Building

Notwithstanding the broader theme, 4 critical factors (the four C’s) for construction
can be distinguished in general:
• Concrete mix
• Cover to reinforcement
• Compaction
• Curing of concrete

The 4 C’s are related to the following deterioration processes:

• Reinforcement corrosion:

• Carbonatation (See fig. 6.2)

Fig. 6.2 Typical carbonatation damage

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• Chloride attack (see fig. 6.3)

Fig 6.3 Typical chloride attack

• Typical reinforcement corrosion (see fig. 6.4)

Fig. 6.4 Typical reinforcement corrosion

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• Concrete mix
• Alkali aggregate reaction (fig. 6.5)

Fig. 6.5 Typical Alkali aggregate reaction

• Sulfate attack
• Freeze-thaw (see fig 6.6)

Fig. 6.6 Typical Freeze-thaw damage

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• Micro biological (see fig. 6.7)

Fig. 6.7 Typical Micro biological attack

• Initial cracking and it’s consequences

Each of the four C’s should be given proper attention/care:

• Concrete Mix:
• The integral approach of LCM allows an optimum in tuning the disciplines
involved: from design through execution to maintenance/ repair. To reach the
optimum a balance should be found between efforts and results, involving all
disciplines. This is especially true for the concrete mix. With the present state
of the art in concrete technology, a wide variety of properties (of the fresh and
hardened concrete) can be ordered upon demand. These properties may range
from workability to strength and strength development characteristics,
durability, aesthetics, etc. As such it allows a great degree of freedom and
results in a wide range of concrete mixes: from simple, but robust, mixes to
sophisticated, high technology mixes, but more critical in application. Any
choice in mix design should be checked on consequences for each of the
disciplines involved: Site circumstances may require the application of robust
mixes. But also integral cost of a project as a whole (and considering all cost,
also re-do/ repair cost) may force to opt for robust mixes. A deliberate choice
is required.

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• It should be realized that often specific concrete properties are selected to

assure durability requirements. And although these properties are commonly
required in the cover zone only, the whole cross section gets these properties.
This might impose an unbalanced cost consequence on the scheme. As such it
should be realized that the durability strategy should not just focus on concrete
only, but should also involve reinforcement (choice of material: galvanized,
stainless steel) and consider the application of protection systems (cathodic
protection).
• The choice of materials to make the mix has a significant impact on the
resistance of the hardened against deterioration, especially the alkali-aggregate
reaction. National recommendations shall be followed.
• After delivery from the batching plant, but before placement, fresh concrete
must be checked and approved before acceptance and placement. Pending
properties required, representative tests must be defined and specified.
Commonly used tests are: slump test, yield test, compaction test, funnel test.

• Cover to reinforcement:
Depth of the cover has, together with the quality of the cover, a decisive
impact on the durability of the structure.
National and Regional codes give guidelines for the cover depth in relation to
the class of exposure. It is vital that prior to the placing of concrete the cover
to reinforcement is secured by inspection and, if required, correction.
Although self-control is an accepted approach under ISO 9000, it is strongly
recommended to have random, second line inspections. It should be realized
by designers that the likelihood of conformity also depends on design and
reinforcement details: tolerances shall be regarded and dense reinforcement
details, especially in combination with large diameter reinforcement bars with
curved shapes, may lead to difficulties.
It should be realized that tolerances in cover will occur despite efforts. Fig 6.8
shows the results of 18000 measurements on a major scheme, executed under
ISO 9000 procedures. The spread in results is obvious as is the non-
conformity area (shaded area in fig 6.8). Anticipation is required: under LCM
approach, engineers should specify such value that the overall cost (initial and
for repair) is minimized. That requires an understanding of tolerances as
should be anticipated but also an understanding of the consequences of non-
conformities in terms of deterioration. Deterioration models are available and
will be discussed later. Under the traditional construct-only contracts,
contractor should just comply with the specifications.

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Figs 6.8 Cover measurements, 18000 values

• Compaction
Proper compaction is a critical success factor to obtain a reliable and durable
structure: Compaction will bring energy into the freshly poured concrete which
will lead to reduction of voids, increase in density and a good embedment of
reinforcement. Compaction is labour-intensive (it is an important component of
the cost to place concrete) and does require skills and good workmanship. It
requires training of people and a sense of responsibility. If performed poorly, it
may have quite significant effects: poor durability, segregation, loss of cover
etc. General guidelines are given in national codes and in section 7 on practical
construction of these lecture notes.

• Curing
The freshly placed concrete should be given circumstances to develop into good
quality concrete. A major factor is the undisturbed reaction between cement and
water. This process could be disturbed by a lack of water. That might occur by
evaporation. Preventing evaporation of water from the fresh concrete is called
curing. Curing can be done in various ways: a water film on top of the concrete
surface, water spay (which leads to a high relative humidity of the air
surrounding the concrete), membranes to cover the concrete and the application
of curing compounds. Curing compounds are sprayed on the concrete, form a
layer which will prevent evaporation and will often disappear after some time.

It should be realized that curing compounds may influence the applicability of

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finishers in a later stage. Properties should be checked with the supplier of the
curing compound.

For a more detailed discussion regarding curing, reference is made to Appendix

F: Influence of curing on the pore structure of concrete

Although Construction for Service Life and LCM are still under development,
some tools have been developed/ are still under development:

• Deterioration
The objective of LCM is to comply with requirements, all over the service
life. This is schematically presented in fig 6.9.

Fig 6.9 Performance development

Courtesy: FIB Commission5

Tools to quantify the deterioration process and also to quantify the effect of
parameter variation on deterioration and needs for maintenance and repair, are
still scarce. Duracrete is such a model, developed with funding from the
European Union by an international task force. The principle of the model is
given in fig 6.10.

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Fig 6.10 Duracrete approach Fig. 6.11 Reinforcement corrosion

The Duracrete model is based on a probabilistic approach: the same principles

(reliability and performances) are followed as in structural design codes. Both the
resistance R and the load S are considered to be time dependent. The relationship
equation R(t)−S(t)>0 shows a time dependent limit state function. The service life
concept can be expressed in a design formula, similar to the structural design:

Pf,T=P{R−S<0}T<Ptarget=Φ(−β), in which:

Pf,T, is the probability of failure of the structure within T; and T, the intended
service period.

The mathematical model for describing the event ‘failure’, i.e. passing a limit state,
comprises a load variable S and a resistance variable R. Failure occurs if the
resistance is smaller than the load. The probability of failure within the period of
time [0;T], Pf(T) is defined as the probability of the load not exceeding the
resistance within the given period:

The client or the owner of the structure should define the requirements for quality
in terms of performance requirements and target service life, apart from further
requirements which are generally given in building codes. It should be realized that
reinforcement corrosion is related to multiple limit states (see fig. 6.11). In general,
depassivation and cracking represent serviceability limit states related to durability;
spalling and collapse represent ultimate limit states. Spalling relates to both
durability and safety.

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6.5 Construction for Service Life/ upon completion

Upon completion of the Construction Phase, the Birth Certificate must be
completed to structure and support the Maintenance Phase. Also clear starting
points for that phase will have to be provided. The Birth certificate will contain all
relevant engineering and construction documents to allow effective and efficient
LCM.
A typical contents list of the Birth certificate could be:
• Design file with as-built drawings
• Certificates of materials
• Supervision reports
• Descriptions, conditions, maintenance needs
• On site testing results
• Defect mapping
• Measurements of crack development
• Reinforcement location and cover
• Carbonatation survey
• Chloride content and chloride profile
• Nondestructive testing
• Samples
• Properties
• Dynamic response measurements

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7 EXECUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

STRUCTURES IN CONCRETE

7.1 Introduction
The execution process of civil engineering structures has quite an impact on the
overall construction cost, the quality of concrete as building material and the
durability-performance of the structure as a whole. Contrary to steel and wood,
execution (casting, compaction, hardening, curing and quality control) together
with the selected mix-design are decisive for the properties of concrete (density,
strength and stiffness) and assurance to conformity to specifications (cover).
The execution process has been influenced over the years by developments in the
construction industry:
•Large scale projects with a strong focus on repetition
• Strong increase in cost for labour relative to cost of materials
• Less skilled labour at site
• Fast construction schedules
• Focus on Quality Management and Process Control

Due to these developments there is a strong focus to keep execution as simple as

possible and to focus on efficiency. The consequential rationalization in the
execution of concrete structures can be clearly distinguished for the three main
cost-components:

• Concrete: centralized batching plants (ready mix suppliers), strongly

developed equipment for the transport, casting and compaction of concrete,
sophisticated management of the concrete hardening process.

• Reinforcement: prefabrication of mats, normalization of diameters and

shapes, computer aided manufacturing.

• Formwork/ falsework: development from traditional formwork to industrial

systems which can be applied universally or, with appropriate repetition, at a
single project. Application of large scale type formwork and standardization
of formwork dimensions.

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As cost for formwork/ falsework is a substantial part of the overall cost for a
concrete civil engineering structure in concrete, rational use and further
development of formwork/ falsework should get a strong focus.

The required construction schedule of a project with repetition is heavily influenced

by the cycle period of formwork and the number of formwork units. Activities
which together form the cycle of cast in situ concrete are:
• Erection of formwork
• Placement of reinforcement: in case of prefabricated reinforcement,
complete units will be installed by crane and placed to specification. The
activities of cutting, bending and fixing are completed prior to
installation. For wall structures, erection of formwork and installation of
reinforcement are integrated activities as reinforcement is placed after
erection of the outer formwork but prior to the inner formwork.
• Casting and compaction of concrete
• Curing and hardening of concrete
• Striking of formwork

The typical one week cycle will have the casting operation on Friday to allow
hardening during the weekend and striking of formwork on Monday. It should be
realized that disturbance of the week cycle could have quite some consequences on
the planning as a whole. Disturbances should be avoided by proper work
preparation and the consequences of a disturbance should be minimized by counter
measures (overtime, weekend etc).

Pending the available construction time and anticipated cycle, the number of
formwork units can be concluded. The cycle required can be reduced by:

• Reduction of calendar days for erection of formwork, placing of

reinforcement, casting, curing and hardening. This will require larger
teams to run the activities.

• Reduction of the hardening period by the application of measures such as

the use of steam, heat treatment of the formwork or increased temperature
of the fresh concrete. This will result in additional cost for the measures.

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It is obvious that the lowest integral cost can only be achieved by a careful
examination of all cost components in their interaction with each other.

If decent transportation (by road, rail or water) to site is available, prefabrication

should be considered to influence the overall schedule not only in terms of duration
but also to reduce dependencies between activities at site. Additionally,
prefabrication may lead to better concrete qualities as the product is generally
fabricated under more controlled circumstances compared to site. The use of
prefabrication will also have a positive impact on the need for temporary structures
which can be an important factor in built-up areas.

If functional requirements, boundary conditions and/ or economic considerations

do not allow usual execution methods (in-situ concrete with fixed formwork and
standard prefabricated elements), special construction methods, of which the
formwork/ falsework is normally the core item, should be considered. Examples
are:

• Climbing formwork and slip forming for stability shafts in high rise
buildings, bridge piers, storage tanks and off-shore platforms.

• Travelers (moving formwork/ falsework) in bridge building for elements

or complete spans, push methods in bridge building (production of units
at the land side of the abutment and subsequently pushed longitudinally)

• Travelers for tunnels, retaining walls etc.

• Inflatable formwork for roofs and domes

Essential for the economic use of special types of formwork is the principle
of repetition. Repetition should be an important design consideration in the
choice of shapes, position and number of joints and in the planning of
construction phases. Long or high structures do allow repetition.

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7.2 Formwork and Falsework

7.2.1 Introduction
The development of cost for labour and materials has led to a strong drive to make
formwork and falsework as manhour-effective as possible. In practice a wide
variation in sophistication can be distinguished: from the traditional in-situ built
wooden formwork for a foundation slab (fig 7.1) to an optimized piece of
equipment to produce prestressed girders under factory conditions (fig 7.2) and
purpose made, mobile temporary structures to make complete units of a structure
(fig 7.3).

Fig 7.1 Simple, traditional formwork for a foundation slab

Fig 7.2 Optimized formwork/ falsework for prestressed girders

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Fig. 7.3 Purpose made, mobile formwork/ falsework

Less extreme, but illustrative to highlight the differences between traditional

formwork/ falsework and formwork/ falsework systems, is the construction method
of a beam/ floor slab. Fig. 7.4 illustrates the traditional approach which is labour
intensive and also requires skilled workers.

Fig 7.4 traditional beam/ floorslab formwork/falsework

If a system as presented in fig. 7.5 is applied, less man-hours are required to build-
up the system and given the simplicity of the system, less skilled personnel is able

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to do the job. The system has a high degree of flexibility as height and width can
easily be amended.

Fig. 7.5 Formwork/ falsework system for beam/ floorslab construction

Rationalization is highly developed in housing construction, followed by building

construction and less developed in civil engineering: man-hour demand per m2
reduced (in the timeframe from 1960 to 2007) from 1.0 to 0.XX in building
construction, in civil engineering only from 2.0 to approximately 1.5 These
differences are caused by the fact that in building construction a higher degree of
standardization could be reached, where civil engineering projects are characterized
by variations in shape and dimensions due to functional requirements, boundary
conditions, loadings etc. In fact many projects are one-off type projects which
require construction methods (and as such formwork/ falsework strategies) to be
developed with limited possibilities to simply copy experience from (a limited
number of) previous projects. For civil engineering projects which do allow
repetition, often tailor made formwork/ falsework is developed. To optimize cost,
design engineers should be focused to incorporate repetition in design (often right
from the conceptual stage).
Traditionally, formwork and falsework was actually built by carpenters after the
design of the scheme was completed. After the integration of design and execution,
contractors got the lead in the development of optimized formwork/ falsework
systems. Due to further specialization, specialist suppliers appeared in the market
place, who developed systems beyond the project specific interaction between
design and execution: universal systems were developed which allowed standard
approaches for foundations, beams, columns, slabs, walls etc. Applications in
housing and building are more frequent compared to civil engineering for reasons
given above, but also in civil engineering both approaches (universal units and
tailor made formwork/ falsework) should be considered and can be found.
Formwork and falsework can be prefabricated as alternative to erection at the
position of casting. Prefabrication of the formwork/ falsework can be done

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elsewhere at site or in a formwork factory off-site. The advantages of centralized

formwork production are: industrialized production approach, experienced
workforce through high degree of repetition, integration of formwork/ falsework
design and production and sophistication due to the availability of state-of-the-art
machinery.
Disadvantage could be the cost for transportation and the limitations imposed by
transportation (size of units).
Materials which could be applied are:
• Wood: high degree of freedom in shapes and dimensions, but labour-
intensive and limited durability. Wood will react on changes in humidity which
may affect dimensional control.
• Steel: the high strength capacity and ability to create stiffness are an
important advantage in case of big spans. Steel allows a high degree of repetition
but is, compared to wood, more limited in shapes which can be realized.
• Composites: often applied as glass fiber reinforced polyesters. A high degree
of freedom in shapes, high durability, allows very smooth concrete surfaces, but is
costly. Given the thermal expansion coefficient, problems will occur if steaming of
concrete would be applied (to accelerate the hardening process).

7.2.2 General requirements

Compared to the past where requirements related to strength, stiffness and stability
were commonly recognized and applied, additional requirements related to Health
and Safety as well as requirements related to Environmental Care are nowadays
introduced more frequently for design and application of formwork and falsework.
This trend can be distinguished world wide. Project specific requirements will
generally consist of specifications for the concrete surface in appearance and
texture and for dimensional control.
Requirements related to strength, stiffness and stability can generally be found in
national or international building regulations.
Health and Safety aspects do require a careful analysis of the fabrication/ erection
process, use and striking process of the formwork/ falsework: each phase should be
analyzed with focus on partial and integral stability, safe access to working
positions, safety of individuals, exposure of workers (lifting weights, chemicals,
temperature, rain, ice, fog etc). Generally H&S is assured/ controlled by
regulations, procedures, instructions, supervision and inspection.
Environmental Care issues are related to the use of materials for treatment of the
formwork surfaces, materials used for heat treatment or cooling of the fresh
concrete and systems required to move formwork/ falsework.

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7.2.3 Formwork/ falsework for walls

Formwork/ falsework for walls, generally consists of four components (see fig 7.6
for a typical, example):

Fig. 7.6 Typical formwork/ falsework for walls

• The actual formwork, in direct contact with the fresh concrete: this part of
the temporary structure has a decisive impact on the appearance and
finishing of the concrete. Requirements will generally be specified in the
contract documents.
• A supporting structure, part of the falsework, that takes the loads from the
fresh concrete and transfers the resultant loads to the next component:
• A mechanism to take or balance the resultant loads arising from the fresh
concrete and to stabilize the temporary structure as a whole: often internal
spacers (for geometrical control) are combined with ties (see fig. 7.7) which
balance the loads on both sides of the formwork. In addition, braces are
provided to assure stability against wind loads and horizontal impacts during
casting.
• Often a working platform is provided at the top of the falsework unit to
provide access for casting operations

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Fig 7.7 typical examples of ties (courtesy Dywidag Systems)

The traditional type of formwork/ falsework (fig 7.8) consists of a wooden

formwork (planks) supported by a system of vertical wooden spreaders and
horizontal wooden supporting beams

Fig. 7.8 traditional formwork Fig 7.9 Typical half system

During the development from a traditional formwork into a more industrialized/
optimized concept, unit sizes increased and the use of planks was replaced by
panels and sheets (fig 7.9). Frequently multiplex is used which can be provided

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with coatings. The system of wooden beams was replaced by trusses, both in wood
and steel, provided with adjusters for geometrical control. Due to the development
of trusses with an increased bearing capacity, the number of ties could be limited.
This reduction is significant in cost as the installation and removal of ties and
finishing repair of the concrete surface is a major cost component for formwork. A
further development was the introduction of an all steel formwork/ falsework
concept (fig 7.10).
The next step in optimization, closely linked to specialist suppliers, was the
development of universal, modular systems: standardized panels (fig 7.11) with
different dimensions which can be combined to project specific demands, provided
with stability provisions and access facilities (fig 7.12 and fig 7.13). As such
complete systems.

Fig 7.10 All steel form/falsework fig 7.11 Panel forms

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Fig 7.12 Panel system/ Access Fig 7.13 Panel system/ Stability

Further optimization has led to impressive, large sized elements (fig 7.14)

Fig 7.14 Large sized elements for walls.

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7.2.4 Formwork/falsework for columns

Columns can be considered as special cases of walls. Developments similar as
discussed in section 7.2.3. can also be found for columns, including the use of
panels (see fig. 7.16). Pressures from the fresh concrete are balanced by an external
frame (fig 7.15).

Fig 7.15 traditional wooden formwork (L) and steel formwork (R) with frame to
balance pressures from fresh concrete

Fig 7.16 panel system for columns Fig 7.17 ‘Spiralo’ system

An effective optimization for circular columns was reached by the introduction of

the ‘Spiralo’ system (fig 7.17): a ready for use steel formwork for single use which
can be removed by de-wrapping after initial hardening.

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7.2.5 Formwork/ falsework for floor slabs

For floor slabs due attention should be given to the interaction between design of
the permanent structure, design of formwork/ falsework and cost for construction.
From a structural point of view, a beam is more effective compared to a flat slab,
but cost per m3 of a beam are higher (see table 3.2 in section 3). A flat slab can be
made with a relatively simple formwork/ falsework concept compared to the more
complicated concept required for a combination of beams and a slab. The optimum
should be investigated. Both the traditional and optimized concepts of formwork/
falsework for flat slabs will be discussed in this section.
The formwork/ falsework concepts for slabs show similarities with those for walls
(see fig 7.18): the system consists of horizontal elements in direct contact with the
concrete, supported by supporting beams (horizontal) and founded by vertical
members. Braces should be applied to provide stability. The development from
traditional to a more optimized concept follows the same line as discussed for
walls: planks for formwork were replaces by plywood slabs or panels, wooden
supporting beams (typically placed one by one in situ) were replaced by
prefabricated beam units/ trusses made in steel or wood. Supporting struts
developed into high capacity units with simplified bearings and provisions for
adjustment/ alignment.

Fig 7.18 Tradition formwork/ falsework for flat slabs

A special application of flat slab formwork/ falsework is the application of

prefabricated, self-supporting floor slabs with dual function: formwork/ falsework
as well as an integrated part of the permanent structure. Pending the free span, the
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use of temporary supports or not and the overall depth of the slab, the thickness of
the prefabricated slab will vary. The prefabricated slab contains all the bottom
reinforcement required and is provided with dowel reinforcement to provide proper
bond with the in-situ concrete layer.

7.2.6 Falsework
This section will specifically address falsework for civil engineering projects as
loads are generally higher compared to applications in the building industry.
Formwork of horizontal members is generally supported by a first layer of beams
which, in turn, are supported by a second layer of beams. Supporting struts will
transfer the loads to the subsoil through a proper foundation of spreader beams or
plates. In case of weak subsoil a piled foundation should be provided or a soil
improvement should be applied instead. The principle is illustrated in fig 7.19 as
typical example of a viaduct.

Fig 7.19 Falsework for a viaduct

The development of falsework started from the traditional approach of wooden

members where the struts were leveled with hardwood wedges to adjustable, steel
supports. These steel supports have typical capacities ranging from 100kN to
400kN.
In case of heavily loaded supports, leveling of the support and later on removal of
the supports is done by using jacks as an integrated part of the support. Jacks can be
applied as mechanical or hydraulic jack (fig 7.20)

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Fig 7.20 mechanical (L) and hydraulic(R) jack

Apart from the steel supports, which introduce the loads in a concentrated way,
towers have been developed. The towers consist of standardized units which can be
coupled together (fig 7.21). The tower will introduce the loads in a more uniform
way. Typical capacities of the towers range from 200kN to 2000kN, although
project specific towers can be designed tailor made. The advantage of towers is that
the beams supporting the formwork are less heavily loaded compared to the case
where concentrated supports are used.
.

Fig 7.21 Tower concept Fig 7.22 supporting beams

Supporting beams (in combination with steel supports or towers) are available in a
wide variety (fig 7.22): traditional beams, trusses, combinations of trusses, beams

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and ties etc. The interaction between design and execution should lead to the
optimized approach. Given the large variation in dimensions, shapes and project
specific conditions which is typical for civil engineering projects, rationalization of
falsework is less developed if compared to the building industry and project/ site
specific conditions will generally lead to alternatives to be considered. This can be
illustrated by a typical example of falsework alternatives for a viaduct with a span
of 20 meters. For the case it is assumed that the space under the viaduct does not
impose a restriction for the development of falsework alternatives. The formwork
consists of plywood, 18 mm. thickness, supported by wooden profiles 63x160 mm.,
spaced 350 mm. The second layer of beams consists of steel profiles HEB 300. In
alternative 1 and 2 (fig 7.22), these steel profiles have 4 supports. In alternative 1,
of which a cross-section is given in fig 7.23, universal steel struts have been
applied. These struts directly support the secondary layer of HEB 300 profiles. To
provide stability in transversal direction, braces are provided. The struts are
supported by a pile foundation. Between piles and struts a capping beam is applied.
In the second alternative (fig 7.24), the foundation piles are extended to a higher
elevation. They directly support the secondary layer of HEB 300 profiles. Double
U-shaped steel profiles connect the piles and provide transversal stability.

Fig 7.22 Falsework for viaduct, alternatives 1 and 2

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Fig 7.23 Alternative 1 Fig 7.24 Alternative 2

Alternative 3 (see fig 7.25) consists of another concept for falsework: the
application of towers. The towers are applied as space frames, equally spread over
the area to be supported. The number of beams required as second layer (the HEB
300 beams) is strongly reduced. The second layer is supported by a third layer of
steel beams, running in the transversal direction and which is directly supported by
the towers. The vertical members of the towers have specially been designed to
directly receive the third layer of beams. Due to the reduced weight per unit to be
transferred to the subsoil, often a spread foundation with (prefabricated) concrete
slabs is adequate. A further optimization (to reduce weight) could be the
application of beams instead of a massive slab. But consequences on cost for
formwork should be considered before making the choice.

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Fig. 7.25 alternative 3

7.2.7 Special formwork/ falsework

In the previous sections, basic principles of formwork and falsework have been
discussed, all based on fixed formwork: erection, geometrical adjustments, striking
and transport is required for each and any concreting operation and is, due to many
components, intensive in terms of man-hour consumption. To optimize
effectiveness and cost, the previously discussed principles can be applied: increase

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the size of the units applied and/ or the use of prefabricated structural components.
In addition, special formwork and falsework could be considered.
Special formwork and falsework should be considered if functional requirements
and/ or boundary conditions do prevent the use of common practices or that
common practices would lead to a strong increase of construction cost. Examples
are the crossing of rivers and valleys, and the construction of structures with
considerable height: towers, silos, tanks etc.
In the application of special formwork and falsework, it is again the principle of
maximization of repetition that is of prime importance to optimize construction
cost. But also the interaction between structural design, formwork/ falsework
design and construction should get proper attention: often limitations (which may
come from any discipline involved) do apply and may dictate the direction of
development. But also opportunities will be given by the close interaction. As such,
special formwork and falsework is generally applied on a project basis (purpose
made approach) .
To maximize repetition, relative small formwork units are applied for special
formwork/ falsework applications. But a balance must be found (and as such
investigated) between the repetition ratio, planning schedule and the cost of
working joints and equipment utilization. The high repetition ratio is applied in
combination with one of the following construction technologies:
• A central production unit where, with a more or less fixed setup of formwork
units, elements are produced: a typical example is the incremental launching
technique where bridge-units are made near the abutment and horizontally
pushed (launched) in the longitudinal direction of the bridge. But also
prefabrication of components (which will be assembled with special
techniques afterwards) at site.
• Mobile production units which travel as production proceeds. Typical
examples of this technique are climbing formwork and slipforming for
concepts with significant height, travelers for bridges (to construct complete
spans in situ or to allow incremental, cantilevered, in situ construction).
Given the specific aspects of mobile production units, following sections will
address these units. A distinction s made between vertical and horizontal travelling.

7.2.6.1 Vertical travelers

Climbing formwork and slipforms (see fig. 7.27- 7.29) both travel in vertical
direction along wall-type structures. Given the substantial cost for the system and
supporting equipment, a high repetition factor is required to make the technique
feasible from an economic perspective. As such, application is mainly seen for
concepts with adequate height. Typical examples of application are bridge-piers,
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storage tanks, caissons and gravity based offshore structures (GBS). The
background/ trigger of the application is the fact that (for the examples given)
functional requirements do not allow the use/ application of intermediate horizontal
floors at regular intervals. These floors are commonly used (in traditional
construction) to support traditional formwork for walls. For climbing and
slipforming, the section just cast must provide the required support. Modern
systems of climbing and slipforming can even handle non-prismatic elements
(changing section over the height of the structure). Traditionally, box-outs and
connections with horizontal structural components are not a problem: box-outs are
made with an anchorbox or a wooden insert at the position required as follows (fig
7.26):

Fig 7.26 Slipforming: connections with horizontal components

In fig 7.26 left, a rigid structural connection is shown, realized by the application of
a widely available anchor box: a metallic box, properly anchored in the vertical
wall, provided with a (vertical) cover. In the box reinforcement is provided. This
reinforcement will be bent after casting the concrete and removal of the cover.
In fig 7.26 right, a simple free support is made by using traditional wooden box-
outs.
The slipform system (see fig. 7.27) consists of a relative small wall section:
typically 1.20 meter high. The section moves continually during casting. Movement
is realized by hydraulic jacks, which are supported by climbing rods of 25 mm.

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diameter. The climbing rods are extended by units of 3 meters. The rods are
supported by the concrete previously cast and placed in a circular box-out with a
diameter of 60mm. The inner and outer formwork are connected to each other by
external frames. These frames, at regular intervals, balance the concrete pressure on
the formwork and also provide the support of the system at the hydraulic jacks.
Generally two decks are applied: the main deck and the lower deck.
At the main deck all preparation works and casting operations take place: box-outs,
inserts, reinforcement , casting etc. At the lower deck the main activities are
checking, repair and bending of reinforcement at future connections. Common
travel performance is 4-6 meters per 24 hours at steps of 2.5- 5 cm. The steps have
a relation with the strength of the concrete leaving the formwork as this concrete is
loaded in compression by the self-weight, but in tension by the friction effects of
the formwork.

Fig 7.27 Slipform system

In fig 7.27 following components can be distinguished:

1. Actual formwork
2. Frames to position both faces of the formwork, to balance concrete pressure
and to support the system at the jacks
3. Jacks
4. Climbing rods
5. Main deck (interior)

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6. Main deck (exterior)

7. Lower deck (interior)
8. Lower deck (exterior)
9. Box-outs for future connections
10.box-out for doorway
11to 14. auxiliaries

As the slipform operation is a continuous process, well organized and proper work
preparation / execution is a must as supply of concrete, placement/ fixing of
reinforcement, placement of inserts and box-outs and finally placement of concrete
should be a continuous, uninterrupted process. This also requires labour to work in
shifts around the clock, including weekends. Especially in built-up areas this might
be problematic given inconvenience to the public as well as potential problems
with logistics. This aspect was one of the triggers why climbing formwork gained
popularity over the last decades.
In its simplest form, a climbing formwork/ falsework system (see fig. 7.28 a)
consists of two units, of which one is placed on top of the other by a (tower) crane.
Modern systems however, have climbing brackets and as such avoid the inefficient
use of the double panel (see fig 7.28 b). The unit is temporarily anchored to
previously cast concrete. This is commonly done at the ties. A even more
sophisticated system is the self climbing formwork unit (see fig 7.29): the unit is
self-supporting, cranage is not required and also the full height of the unit is
utilized for the casting operation. The traveling speed depends on the applied cycle:
the commonly applied height of 3- 3.5 meters and a cycle of one week would result
in a traveling speed (on average) of 0.5 meters a day.
The choice between both systems is commonly made by cost. But, as explained
before, other consideration may influence that choice: inconvenience to others,
logistics etc. In addition, design considerations may have a decisive influence as
well: climbing formwork will always need ties through the section and will always
have casting joints. Slipforming is a continuous process without casting joints. If
casting joints and ties are not preferred (nuclear power plants, liquid tight structures
etc), slipforming will be the preferred alternative. From practice it can be
concluded that (from an economical point of view) slipforming is preferred above
20 meters height.

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Fig 7.28 a Simple climbing formwork Fig. 28 b Climbing Brackets

Fig 7. 29 Self climbing unit

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7.2.6.2 Horizontal travelers

Reference is made to sections 7.6, 7.7 and 7.9 of Appendix D.

The appendix presents the full draft for a new Guide to Good Practice of FIB,
dealing with formwork and falsework for heavy civil engineering. The document
has been prepared by commission 10 ‘Construction’ of FIB. Publication of the
guide will be in the fourth quarter of 2008.

7.3 Concrete

Formwork/ falsework is an important cost component and as such will have a

significant impact on the execution of civil engineering structures. In interaction
with design, formwork/ falsework will generally have a much bigger impact
compared to concrete and reinforcement. The placement method of concrete and
reinforcement is normally amended to the design and selected formwork.
Rationalization of aspects related to concrete and reinforcement is strongly linked
to the design of the project or components thereof, and to formwork/ falsework
design.
The placement procedure of concrete has five stages.
• Placement of formwork
• Placement of reinforcement
• Acceptance of concrete
• Placement of concrete
• Curing of concrete.
Each stage contains aspects and activities which do require special attention in
order to ensure that the finished structure has properties according specifications
and will perform in compliance with specifications and codes.
Schematically, the stages can be illustrated as follows (some aspects are further
discussed in the text, following the pictures):

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Phase 1, Erection of formwork/ falsework

Check whether formwork meets specifications, has the required quality and has no
defects:

1.Formwork oil should be applied, uniformly

distributed in a thin layer.
2.Joints should be tightly closed.
3.Connections should be tightly closed.

4.Tie-wires and debris to be removed.

5.Formwork/ falsework should be properly
braced to provide stability and to assure
geometrical control.
6.Centring pins to be stressed.

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Phase 2, Placement of reinforcement

Reinforcement to be placed and fixed, according

specifications. Special care must be given to assure
that adequate cover is provided:
7.Reinforcement bars must be tightly fixed together.
8.Adequate spacers must be provided to assure that
the cover meets requirements.

Phase 3, Acceptance of concrete.

9. Check documents upon arrival at site (against

specifications). Experienced engineers must
judge consistency at the earliest stage possible
(visual inspection upon first delivery from the
truck mixer)

10. Consistency to be checked with slump tests.

(Applicable to more usual grades of concrete
only: high performance concrete and self-
compacting concrete do require special tests)

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Phase 4, Placement of concrete:

Placement of concrete and compaction does
require proper attention. Water should not be
added during the placement operation.

11. Limit the volume of concrete released from

the corbel. It should be just enough.

12. Limit the falling height.

13. The layer should be limited to 0.4 m.

14. The casting front should be in permanent
contact with the concrete just placed (fresh to
fresh concrete).

Concrete will get its strength and density by

proper compaction.

15. The internal vibrator must be lowered

rapidly and retracted slowly
16. Influence zones of adjacent spots should
overlap. At each spot enough time should be
given to compact.
17. The internal vibrator should be kept clear
from formwork and reinforcement.

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18. The internal vibrator should penetrate at

least 100 mm. into the underlying layer to
assure proper connection and a monolithic
performance after hardening.

Casting joints are weak spots in any

structure. They require special attention. The
designer should specify the location,
preferably in consultation with construction.
19. Casting joints to be prepared: roughening
and sometimes application of special
adhesives.
20. All cast-in items, joint profiles and steel
plates to be checked.
21. Special attention should be given to the
fixation of joint profiles: the entire profiles
should be geometrically stable during
placement of the fresh concrete.

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Phase 5, Curing
Curing is essential to assure optimum hardening conditions. Optimum hardening
will result in optimum strength development and durability (see also section 6.4).

22. Application of cover-sheets

23. Sheets should be properly fixed
and secured

24. Mats can also be applied

25. Mats should be sprayed to
minimize evaporation.

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26. Surfaces may be treated

with curing compound also.

27. The hardening process can be

optimized by the application of a
water film on horizontal surfaces
also. A small water film is an
almost perfect curing provision.

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The casting procedure of concrete will influence the quality of the hardened
concrete. Apart from the quality of concrete also the cost of execution will be
influenced the casting procedure. Important factors to consider are casting
frequency and casting volume. To obtain a good quality concrete it is essential to
have the right mix design. The mix design will generally consist of following
components:
• Cement
• Sand
• Gravel/ coarse aggregates
• Water
• Additives: to retard, to plasticize, to form air bubbles, etc.
The composition (mix design) depends on the casting conditions and procedures,
environmental conditions and the concrete dimensions.
Apart from the mix design in terms of weight-relations, it is also the type of
cement that is an important factor. Under adverse conditions like the marine
environment or when larger volumes must be cast, blast furnace cement has a
preference above Portland cement (because of resistance and low heat
development).
After the components have been selected and the weighting procedure has been
completed, the mixing procedure may start.

Fig 7.30 Batching plant

Components will be mixed in a batching plant (fig 7.30). The supply of water
should be done carefully and must be monitored. In many countries concrete is
delivered through commercially operated, centralized batching plants. The
advantage of these centralized batching plants is that storage at site is avoided and
that quality control/ assurance is easier to implement and to manage. Site specific
batching plants are to be considered for remote sites and/ or very large volumes of
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concrete (some ten thousands of cubic meters). Total volume of concrete,

frequency of the casting operations and commercial aspects will normally be key
indicators to make a choice between batching at site or procurement from
suppliers.
If concrete is delivered at site by truck mixers, the total time between batching and
delivery at site should be limited to two hours. Delivery can be done from the
truck directly into a corbel or in temporary storage. For transport at site and actual
casting, a number of options are available. The choice will depend on the volume
of concrete to be handled and the accessibility of casting locations.
The available options and their capacities can be summarized as follows:
Wheelbarrow low (hardly practiced)
Crane plus corbel, predominantly vertical 5-10 m3/ hour
Crane plus corbel, predominantly horizontal 15-20 m3/ hour
Truck mixer plus gutter 20-100 m3/ hour
Concrete pumps (see fig 7.31 and 7.32) 15-120 m3/ hour
Conveyor belt 100 m3/ hour
Cable way up to 200 m3/ hour

Fig 7.31 Concrete pump/ basic principle of piston type

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Fig 7.32 Concrete pump/ basic principle of hose type

Apart from wheelbarrows, which will be applied for small volumes only, each
mode of transportation has its field of application. Some of the transportation
modes do require a specific consistency of the fresh concrete: conveyor belts need
a more stiff consistency; concrete pumps a more plastic consistency. Truck mixer
plus gutter are frequently applied if the actual casting level is below the level of
delivery: basements and foundations.
Concrete pumps can handle big volumes of concrete if the supply of fresh concrete
is secured. The capacity of the pumps is governed by the number of bends in the

Fig 7.33 Typical envelope of motor pump unit and typical picture of the unit

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line and the pumping height. Modern mobile motor pump units are sophisticated
pieces of equipment. Provided with swivels, the sections can rapidly cover quite an
envelope (fig. 7.33), and labour intensive laying of the pipe sections is avoided.
The flexible hose at the end of the line also allows casting of walls and columns
without the risk of segregation. If the free falling height would be more than 1.5-2
meters, tremie pipes should be used to avoid segregation. Formwork could also be
provided with openings at different heights to allow a significant reduction in the
free falling height. In case of walls, special care should be given if a high casting
capacity is practiced: The rise of the fresh concrete level could easily exceed the
design assumption and consequential pressures could lead to collapse of formwork/
falsework.
Conveyor belts could be interesting for stretched units (locks and quay walls).
Cable ways are typically used for large volume schemes such as dams.
Durability of structural concrete not only depends on the correct mix design and
thickness of the cover, but also on the density of the cover. During the casting of
concrete, air will be trapped in the fresh concrete. This will lead to voids in the
concrete and also between concrete and formwork. The consistency as commonly
applied will not allow a release of the air by gravitation only: the internal friction
prevents self-compaction (with the exception of Self Compacting Concrete). The
internal friction can temporarily be reduced by the introduction of vibrations. This
can be done with the traditional internal vibrators (commonly used for compaction
at site) but also with formwork-vibrators, vibrator-beams (for horizontal surfaces
with limited depth only) and vibrator-tables (mainly applied in the prefab industry).
As the fresh concrete consists of components with different volumetric mass, a
lowering of the internal friction may lead to segregation: the heavy components
(gravel) will sink rapidly, the light particles tend to follow later. Compaction
should allow air to escape but shall avoid segregation: it is a delicate balance which
requires skill and experience.
The traditional internal vibrators are available in different diameters and as such
different capacities in terms of energy. The influence zone of a vibrator depends on
the consistency of the fresh concrete, vibration time and capacity. The stitch of the
vibration pattern depends on the influence zone. It is far better to apply shorter
vibration time and a smaller stitch than larger distances and longer vibration time.
To allow air to escape, fresh concrete layers should be limited to 300-400 mm. To
get a homogeneous structure, the vibrator should penetrate 100 mm. into the
previous (already compacted) layer (see fig 7.34). The vibrator should be lowered
into the fresh concrete by gravity only. As soon as the area around the vibrator gets
a glossy appearance, the vibrator should be lifted (to avoid segregation) in such a
way that the gap automatically fills. If a sloping casting front is applied, compac-

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tion should start at the lowest position (see fig 7.35). Compaction is labour-
intensive and as such a substantial cost component. One worker can compact
between 3 and 12 m3 per hour, pending capacity of the vibrator.

Fig 7.34 Casting in layers Fig 7.35 Sloping casting front

Direct contact between vibrator and formwork must be avoided: the vibrator might
be damaged and if wooded formwork as applied, contact might damage the
formwork which will give a print in the finished surface.
Also direct contact with reinforcement must be avoided: if the reinforcement is
also embedded in concrete which is in the initial stage of hardening, contact
between the vibrator and reinforcement may destroy the bond. Also fixing wires
could fail under the acceleration with loss of geometrical control as a consequence.
After casting the concrete, optimal condition should be provided for the hardening
process. Reference is made to section 6, curing.

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8 UNDERWATER CONCRETE
8.1 Introduction
Underwater concrete has a wide variety of applications of which following two will
not be discussed within the context of this lecture:

• Diaphragm (slurry) walls: cast in-situ, during construction completely

embedded in the soil, (reinforced) concrete walls. These walls have been applied
as foundation element (isolated units) or as a retaining wall (continuous wall).
First a trench is excavated. During excavation, a stabilizing fluid, typically
bentonite, is added to counterbalance the earth pressure. Once at depth, concrete
is cast by means of a tremy pipe. As the casting operation proceeds, the
stabilizing fluid is continuously pumped away. These walls can be provided
with a prefabricated reinforcement cage. If applied, the cage is lowered in the
trench prior to the casting operation. A typical example is given in fig. 1.4.
• Special equipment to simulate dry conditions: around 1890, a steel diving bell
with dimensions 14m. by 40 m., was already applied in Kiel and Wilhelmshaven
(Germany) to construct a reinforced underwater floor slab for a dry dock. A
more recent example is the IJ- tunnel in Amsterdam: the tunnel is pile founded
(see fig 8.1) . The foundation consists of bored piles, connected with a
reinforced concrete capping beam. These capping beams were constructed in-
situ in a diver bell. The bell was lowered from a floating pontoon. The
permanent support of the tunnel was also made under water: grout-injected
rubber bearings, to provide a flexible connection between tunnel and pile
foundation.

Figure 8.1 Diver Bell application

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Underwater concrete in civil engineering is often used in building pits to create,

after emptying, a dry environment to construct the permanent structure. The
advantage is that it allows the construction of a building pit without influencing the
ground water table of the surrounding soil. This can be of significance in respect of
control of damage due to settlements and time management (permits, allowances).
Also the required strength of the retaining walls will be less as the under water slab
will provide a support at a higher level compared to the support provided by
passive soil resistance.

Apart from grouting, underwater concreting can be distinguished in two groups,

based on the casting method:

• Monolithic method: a more or less standard concrete mix, with minor

modifications only, is monolithically casted under water with special equipment.

• Injection method: first a gravel/ coarse material bed is placed under water
and levelled. Afterwards the bed is injected with a mortar.

Both methods may lead to concern with regard the quality of the completed
product:

• Concrete quality: the quality (strength and density) requirements are in

tension with the requirement that the mix should have outstanding flow
properties as compaction under water is not possible. Pending equipment,
segregation, and mud inclusions may occur.

• Level control of both the prepared bed and the top surface of the underwater
concrete is a point of attention:
The level and surface roughness of the prepared bed doesn’t depend on the
accuracy performance of equipment only, but also on water currents and mud
settlement.
The level of the top surface depends on the flow properties of the mix,
casting equipment and the operational circumstances.

The gradually increased requirements for quality and level control (the trigger of
this development will be discussed later), have led to quite a development/
improvement of casting equipment. Also concrete technology has contributed to a
better control of both quality and levels. The development of colloidal concrete has

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led to mixes with outstanding flow properties and cohesion at the same time. Such
concrete has ideal properties for underwater applications as it will freely flow
around piles and reinforcement, will allow level control, and has no risk of
segregation. The cost of the required additives however is such that colloidal
concrete applications are limited to special cases and not for mass production. But
also the traditional, slightly modified, mixes have acceptable properties nowadays.
The gradually increased requirements for quality and level control do not just come
from economic considerations, but also from structural aspects arising from
functional requirements and applied dimensions of the underwater concrete slabs:
In the early stages of underwater concrete applications, mass concrete was applied:
thick layers which were not critical for the transfer of loads to the subsoil and the
underwater concrete counterbalanced the water pressure by dead-weight only.
Quality and geometry were of less importance. Presently, underwater concrete is
applied (generally as un-reinforced concrete) to form a foundation floor slab: the
floor is commonly cast between sheet piles to create, after emptying the water, a
dry environment to further construct a structure. Apart from the load transfer during
the service life, the underwater concrete floor slab also serves as a water barrier
during construction (advantage: no ground water lowering in the direct
environment of the site) and as a support (strut) for the sheet piles. The sheet piles
also serve as formwork for the underwater concrete slab. Vertical stability of the
system could be arranged through a massive slab by dead weight only, but is often
arranged through the application of tension piles together with a underwater
concrete slab with limited dimensions only.

Figure 8.2 Underwater concrete: massive (L) and anchored (R)

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The anchored system has proven to be an economic and reliable option. But the
anchored concept has consequences as well as it leads to a set of requirements:
water tightness because of the barrier functionality and strength to transfer the
upwards water pressures to the piles.
Also flow properties are important as the fresh concrete should be able to
completely surround the anchor piles as quite some shear force has to be transferred
from the slab to the piles.

Figure 8.3 Concrete tension piles Courtesy: Betonvereniging

It would be a logical step to move from un-reinforced underwater concrete slabs to

(fibre) reinforced underwater concrete slabs:
• The excavation depth would be less: this will result in less earthwork, most
likely lower loads in the struts, less required strength for the sheet piles, less
concrete (in total) and less piles as during construction more concrete is
available to counterbalance the water pressure.
• A complete construction cycle is taken out of the schedule: not first the
underwater concrete slab and subsequently the permanent slab, but the
permanent structure in one go.
It is obvious that additional aspects should be addressed in case of the application
of reinforced underwater concrete:
• The flow properties of the mix should assure proper bond between
reinforcement and underwater concrete.
• Level control should be adequate to avoid remedial works to the surface of the
slab and also to assure that the cover will be approximately 100 mm.
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• Apart from cover, also density of the placed concrete should be adequate to
provide the required durability: the consistency of the bedding layer (bed
surface) is of vital importance: soft deposits are dangerous as they can easily
lead to inclusions which will adversely affect the structural and durability
properties of the permanent structure.

If properly addressed, reinforced underwater applications can provide an economic

alternative. A pilot project has been successfully completed at Schiphol Amsterdam
airport and also recent applications at the Botlek railway tunnel in the Netherlands
have demonstrated the potential of reinforced underwater concrete applications.

As discussed before in this section, with the development from massive structures
to the structures with moderate dimensions, both level control and quality aspects
need further attention:
• Level control
• Tolerances: tolerances depend on equipment used and subsoil conditions:
• Top surface tolerances: 75 mm. for the Hopdobber and 150 mm. for
the Hydrovalve method (both methods will be discussed later)
• Bed tolerances (bottom tolerances): 150 mm. for sand and 250 mm.
for clay.
• Survey methods: methods to survey the excavation level, position of
reinforcement (if any), and top of cast concrete. Methods will be
discussed later.

• Quality of concrete
• Flow properties and avoidance of segregation: as the underwater
concrete can’t be compacted under water, good flow properties are required
to fill the space required, to flow around reinforcement (if any) and piles, to
fill the cavities of the sheet pile wall and to give a finished surface within
specifications. At the same time, segregation should be avoided. This mix of
requirements has led to typical mix designs with a big slump, high cement/
fines content and special placement techniques.
• The slump should be at least in the order of 140- 180 mm. For
Hopdobber and Hydrovalve applications, the minimum slump should
be 160 mm. In practice a slump of 200- 250 mm. is frequently used.
• To avoid segregation, fines and fillers (typically < 250 mm-3) are
required with a volume of 150- 155 litres/ m3 . Filler are also
required in case of high cement contents ( >325 kg/m3) : 60 liters/m3

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• As underwater concrete slabs have a typical thickness of 1 meter or more,

attention should be given to the heat development and consequential risk of
cracks. As such the design strength is typically B 35, to limit the required
cement contents. Also the use of low heat cement is often applied for this
reason. (Blast furnace cement).

8.2 Placement methods

The placement procedure should, among others, assure that segregation will not
occur and that soft soil inclusions (from the bed) will be avoided. It is therefore
required that after excavation a settlement period will be planned and actually
applied to let the suspended load settle. After settlement, the soft bed layer shall be
removed. Special attention should be given to the area around the piles and to the
cavities in the sheet pile wall. Removal of the soft material in these areas is vital for
the anchorage and water tightness. Especially the connection to the sheet piles is a
place where in practice quite some remedial works are required if not properly
executed. Pending the nature of the subsoil, improvements must be considered:
• If the subsoil consists of peat, a soil improvement is required. A layer peat is
replaced by preferably coarse sand (as gravel will not adequately cover the
peat). It should be realized (with regard to level control) that the peat will tend
to heave due to the excavation and settle due to the sand fill. Stability of the peat
layer must be checked to assure that the sand-covered peat layer can receive the
fresh concrete. Stability in this respect means the bearing capacity which can be
checked with the failure mode model of the logarithmic spiral (wedge of
Prandl).
• If the subsoil is clay, the excavation will normally done in two stages; first
roughly to the level required, than refined to meet requirements and
specifications. Often a filling layer is applied to meet the specification of the
levelled excavation. In such case both sand and gravel can be applied as filling
material. The advantage of gravel is that it can be placed in relatively thin layers
by a corbel and that the voids in the gravel can absorb the remaining of the
settlement, if any.
• If the subsoil is sand, no improvement is required.

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Over the years various methods have been developed to cast underwater concrete:
In the early years a corbel was used (see fig 8.4). The corbel was lowered into the
water and the concrete was released once the corbel reached its level. The casting
front is built-up in the vertical direction. The corbel should penetrate in the
previous layer to avoid segregation. Nevertheless, the risk of non-compliance with
regard to quality is significant.

Figure 8.4 Corbel

Courtesy: COB

Already in 1911 a Swedish construction company developed the Contractor method

(fig.8.5). The method consists of a tremy pipe, lowered to level. To avoid
segregation, the pipe should penetrate at least 0,5 m. into the previous layer. During
the casting operation the pipe is gradually lifted. Alternatives have been developed
where the pipe is telescopic or built up in sections. The pipe diameter is approx.
0,25- 0,30 m. The cone of fresh concrete is 4-6 m. The method is still interesting
for small volumes of concrete and in case there are no obstructions in the building
pit from struts.

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Figure 8.5 Contractor method

Courtesy: COB
In 1980 the Hopdobber was developed (fig 8.6 and 8.7). Up to now it is a well
known method, frequently applied. The system consists of a steel pipe, 0,35 m. in
diameter, connected to a bottom plate with a typical diameter of 1,6 m. The system
is provided with floaters. As a whole, it is in equilibrium and penetrates a few
centimetres in the fresh concrete. The advantage of the system is that it allows easy
level control, has hardly any segregation, the narrow tolerances which can be
achieved, and the ease of actual execution. With reinforcement, an opening of 2*2
meters should be allowed for and in design, pile concentrations should be voided. A
regular pile lay-out is not a problem

Fig 8.6 Hopdobber

Courtesy: COB

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Fig 8.7 Hopdobber system

In 1969 another method was applied for the first time: the hydro-valve method (fig
8.8). The system consists of a flexible sleeve which is located in a steel, perforated,
steel pipe. The flexible sleeve will be compressed if the supply of fresh concrete is
reduced. As such there will be no inclusions of water in the fresh concrete mass.
The increasing water pressure prevents the fresh concrete from falling too fast. The
steel pipe has a typical diameter of 0,70 m. A shield at the bottom of the steel pipe
allows levelling of the fresh concrete. The method is able to cast UWC where
obstructions occur.

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underwater concrete
Receiver

Steel,perforated
pipe

Hydro valve
method
Flexible sleeve

Shield

Fig 8.8 Hydro-valve method

8.3 Execution of underwater concrete concepts

Before the actual underwater concrete casting operation can begin, following
construction activities must be completed:
• Construction of the building pit, including anchoring/ braces (see 8.3.1)
• Excavation of the building pit (see 8.3.2)
• Installation of the tension piles, if any (see 8.3.3)
• Installation of reinforcement, if any (see 8.3.4)
8.3.1 Construction of the building pit
Following aspects should be addressed
• Access to site
• Driving of the sheet piles
• Anchorage / bracing

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Access to site should be specifically addressed: subsoil condition may require

special provisions to allow heavy construction equipment to safely reach site and to
safely operate at site. The provisions may range from simple hardwood spreader
plates to temporary, pile founded, bridges. These temporary bridges might have to
be constructed over the top: from a stable position as the starting position, the
bridge is constructed by driving the piles of the next span from the just constructed
deck of the previous span (or the initial starting position). After pile driving, the
deck is constructed, equipment is moved forward, and the cycle starts again. At
site, the bridge is used as a solid foundation for construction equipment to drive the
sheet pile walls of the building pit (fig 8.9).

Fig. 8.9 Construction of a temporary bridge for access and driving sheet piles

Anchorage of the walls may be done by external anchoring (see fig 8.10) or by
internal braces/ struts (see fig. 8.11). To make a choice between the two options,
following aspects should be considered:
• The width of the building pit: the width is an important factor as there is a
direct impact on material demand of the anchorage system if opted for
braces/ struts.
• Shape of the building pit: an irregular shape will have consequences on
corner-connections and standardization of units and is as such an important

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aspect in relation to cost and efficiency of the actual construction phase. But
irregular shapes may also lead to unbalances between the walls, if braced:
differences in effective areas to be braced will lead to unbalanced driving
forces. The consequences of such unbalance will be a redistribution of forces
and will also have consequences on deformations of the walls. Alternatively,
amended strut patterns may overcome the unbalance but will have an impact
on the cost of the construction process. Anchors would avoid the problem of
unbalanced forces.
• Retaining height of the walls of the building pit: differences in the retaining
height of walls will also lead to an unbalance if braced. Same consequences
as mentioned above will apply.
• Obstructions in the surrounding soil mass: if obstructions (piled foundations,
utilities, underground structures etc) do occur in the surrounding soil mass,
internal anchorage would avoid the problems connected to the external
obstructions.
• Future utilization of the surrounding soil mass: grouted anchors are
commonly used if external anchoring is applied. The grout body near the toe
of the anchor will transfer the load to the surrounding soil. The typical length
of the grout body ranges from 5 to 10 meters. As the grout body can’t be
removed afterwards (contrary to the tie rods), it can seriously obstruct future
utilization of the surrounding soil mass. Internal braces/struts will avoid such
problem.
• Execution plan: all steps of the method statement for actually executing the
scheme should be carefully examined: excavation and hoisting of formwork
units have a strong interaction with the size and spacing of the braces/ struts:
floating equipment for excavation might be preferred and for formwork,
large units are generally more cost effective compared to small units, but
should be able to pass the internal anchorage.

Fig. 8.10 External anchorage of a building pit

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Fig 8.11 Internal anchorage of a building pit

Courtesy: BAM-Civil

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8.3.2 Excavation of the building pit

Before excavation methods are decided, attention should be given to the interaction
between excavation and the driving of the tension piles: in case of a dense pile plan
of displacement piles (typically centre to centre distance of the piles less than four
times the pile size in cross-section), excavation prior to pile driving should be
considered (to avoid progressive driving resistance due to densification of the soil,
refusal of the driving hammer, damage to the piles and, in the end, an uncontrolled
execution process).
Excavation can be done from the edge of the building pit, from a traveller
(traverse), crossing the building pit, from a pontoon, or using a cutter dredger (fig
8.12). Which method is preferred depends upon the characteristics of the scheme:
the width of the building pit and the overall volume to be excavated. Also from an
optimization in equipment demand it is recommended to consider the interaction
between excavation and pile driving: a traverse could be used in both phases.

Fig. 8.12 Excavation by a small cutter dredger

8.3.3 Pile driving

If piles are driven before excavation, standard land-based pile driving equipment
can be used. If piles must be driven after excavation, methods similar to excavation
are available: from the edge, from a traverse (fig 8.13) or floating from a pontoon.

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Fig 8.13 Pile driving from a traverse

So called ‘hydro hammers’ are able to drive under water: the pile can be driven to
the level required. Diesel hammers do require a follower: from approximately 1
meter above water level, the pile is provided with a follower (in between the pile
head and the hammer). If driven from a traverse, extended leaders (for guidance)
must be applied given the elevation of the driving rig. If pontoons are applied,
floating stability must be checked: stability may be improved by water ballast tanks
or the application of winches.
A wide range of pile types is available: ranging from prefabricated, prestressed,
concrete piles to steel piles (I-profile and tubular) to GEWI piles (grouted, high
tensile steel anchors). And even a combination is frequently applied: Vibrocom
piles (see hereafter).
Prefabricated, prestressed concrete piles (see fig. 8.14, left and middle) are widely
applied and have a long track record. As these are displacement piles, a dense
pattern may lead to consequences as described in section 8.3.2. to overcome driving
stresses, steel piles could be considered as they can handle high driving stresses.
But steel piles are expensive. A combination has been developed, known as the
Vibrocom pile: a steel casing, provided with a separate end plate (not welded to the
casing) is driven into the soil. At the required depth, a prefabricated and prestressed
pile is lowered into the casing, and the annulus between this pile and the casing is
filled with mortar. Then the casing is lifted but in a pull/ push mode which
compacts the mortar and results in excellent bond properties both between pile and
mortar as well as between mortar and soil.
Permanent steel piles are nowadays seldom applied because of cost.
Displacement piles may cause adverse effects to the surroundings due to driving
operations (noise, shock waves, and displacements). Piles made in-situ without
driving are good alternatives in such circumstance. However, most of the in-situ
piles are less effective in taking axial loads compared to driven displacement piles.

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An interesting development to take the advantage of an in-situ pile and to get good
tensile capacity at the same time is the drilled ‘GEWI’ pile: a high tensile steel
anchor provided with a grout body over the full length of the anchor, placed
vertically.
The GEWI system allows for single and double corrosion protection (see fig 8.15).
Recent projects in the Netherlands (Botlek railway tunnel and Zevenaar railway
tunnel) have demonstrated the effectiveness of this GEWI system. It must be
realized that the GEWI system, with the highly loaded steel anchor, is less rigid
compared to the displacement piles: this must be emphasized in the design of the
underwater concrete floor (stiffness ratio of the springs of tensile piles and the sheet
pile walls of the building pit and the consequences thereof for bending moments in
the floor slab).
As the piles must anchor the underwater concrete slab against uplift forces from
water pressure, a proper anchorage must be provided at the pile/ slab interface. In
case of concrete piles, the top part of the piles is provided with dents (see fig. 8.14).
These dents have traditionally been provided at the outside of the nominal section
(at 3 sides). Efficiency considerations have led to the application of dents within
the nominal section. Initially, this application has led to substantial damage to the
piles due to (reflected) driving stresses and a reduced cross-section (fig. 8.14 right).
Amended reinforcement details have solved this problem.
In case of GEWI anchors, steel anchor plates are provided (see fig 8.16).

Fig 8.14 Concrete tension piles (with dents) as anchorage/ driving damage

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GEWI ® Pile with single corrosion protection and GEWI ® Pile with double
corrosion protection

additional nut with plate

1 -
reinforcement and lock nut
1 - for
compression additional
pile reinforcement
2 -
for tension
end- pile
2 - anchorage
with lock nut corrugated
3 -
sheathing
pile neck
3 - 4 - spacer
reinforcment
4 - spacer 5 - cement grout

5 - coupler
®
6 - GEWI bar

Fig 8.15 GEWI piles as anchorage

Courtesy: DSI Europe

In case of unreinforced underwater concrete, a second, reinforced, floor slab will be

cast after the building pit has been dewatered. Often, pending the vertical
equilibrium, this second floor shall be anchored to the piles as leakage may occur
and will in such case lead to the development of water pressure between the
underwater concrete slab and the second floor slab. In case of GEWI piles, the
anchors will extend into the second slab and anchorage is done by anchor plates
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(nut with plate), see fig. 8.16. In case of concrete piles, the top part of the piles will
often be peeled-off after dewatering of the building pit (fig 8.17). Reinforcement

Fig 8.16 Anchorage of ‘GEWI’ piles Fig 8.17 Peeled-off piles

and prestressing strands will extend into the second layer and will provide the
anchorage. Recent trends also show successful examples where piles are not peeled
and the full section penetrates into the second layer for anchorage (fig. 8.18).
Specific reinforcement may be required for proper anchorage.

Cursus Bouwkuipen en kelders R.S. Beurze, oktober 2007

Fig. 8.18 Full section anchorage of tension piles
In case of the two layer system a choice must be made how the connection between
the two layer will be made: cast together or separated by a filling layer in between

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(fig 8.19). Typical values for the filling layer are 0.15 m. for sand and 0.25 m. for
gravel.

Fig 8.19 Two layer system with filling layer in between

Both options are feasible and have been applied successfully. No consensus has
been reached which option is preferred. Following considerations may help to
make the choice:
Without a filling layer both layers will be connected. The second slab will develop
tensile stresses due to restricted deformations after casting. These stresses may (and
will normally) lead to cracks. Cracks may be in conflict with the functional
requirement of water tightness of the second floor slab. By proper measures
(reinforcement details / cooling of concrete) cracks can be kept to acceptable
values. Without the filling layer care should be given to vertical geometrical control
of the reinforcement (cover) as the underwater concrete slab will not have a
straight, horizontal top surface. As the two slabs are connected, concrete piles may
extend with their full cross-section into the second floor slab to transmit vertical
loads and bending moments.
With a filling layer both slabs could deform independently (in plane). This is
specifically feasible if piles are not required for equilibrium. Tensile stresses due to
restricted deformations will be strongly reduced. With piles, the situation is
different: piles connected to the second layer will perform as a dowel and will
result in restriction of the deformation and will result in the development of tensile
stresses. Proper measures are required for crack width control (reinforcement
details/ cooling). Connection details have been developed to reduce the
effectiveness of the dowels: peeling of the piles to the level of the bottom of the
second floor slab, results in a relative weak shear transfer mechanism and will
reduce the tensile stresses. Quantification of the resulting stresses is difficult and
uncertain. Upper limit (conservative) approaches are often applied to design the
required reinforcement.

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In case of a reinforced underwater concrete floor slab (see also section 8.3.4), the
pile head of a driven pile will be at 250 mm. below the anticipated top of
underwater concrete to allow for proper support of the reinforcement cage.

8.3.4 Installation of reinforcement

In case of reinforced underwater concrete, reinforcement will be placed after
excavation and driving of the piles (if any). Specific execution aspects should be
considered in design:
As tolerances of +/- 250 mm. to +/- 100 mm. may occur in the levels of the
excavated bed and the top of concrete (see section 8.1), it is recommended to allow
for a nominal slab thickness of 1-1.5 meters. For concrete cover a value of 100 mm.
should be allowed for (effective cover). In fig 8.20 it is illustrated how the internal
lever arm should be calculated to take positive bending moments.

Fig 8.20 Design values and tolerances of bed level and concrete

Typical diameters for reinforcement are 25mm. and above. To allow a proper flow
of the concrete, bars should be spaced at least 250 mm. Given the specific
underwater circumstances, reinforcement will be prefabricated as fixing in-situ
must be avoided. For lifting, transportation, and placing, the reinforcement cage
should be provided with internal braces and supports which connect top and bottom
reinforcement (fig 8.21).

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Fig 8.21 Reinforcement details

Continuity of the reinforcement is made by the application of traditional laps. To

avoid obstructions during installation of the cages, the top mat is horizontally
shifted over a length of the lap length relative to the bottom mat (fig 8.22)

Fig 8.22 Shift of top and bottom net to avoid obstructions

At the piles, the bottom net should have an opening of the pile size plus 300 mm.
(so: a free zone of 150mm. around the piles). To obtain maximum standardization
of the reinforcement, piles should be spaces as uniform as possible. Also casting
equipment has an impact on the design of the reinforcement: currently, the
application of the Hop-dobber requires an open square in the top net with 2m.
edges.
Positioning of the reinforcement can be done in different ways:
In case of piles, profiles can be provided on the piles to receive the top net, see fig.
8.21. Without piles, the cage can be lowered by wires running from the top of the
sheet pile wall. The wires will allow geometrical control. For wide building pits

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this would be unpractical. Therefore, concrete tiles will generally be installed at the
bottom to receive the net and to serve as spacer. The net is more or less equally
supported by the excavated bed or soil improvement layer.
8.4 Quality assurance and quality control
The concept of underwater concrete construction has quite specific execution issues
as described in the sections above. Quality assurance and quality control should get
proper attention.
A summary of execution aspects and potential measures to be considered in view of
AQ/ QC are as follows:
• Suspended load and bed load (mud): survey of bed level and inspections by
divers especially (but not limited to) the areas near connections with piles or
sheet piles.
• Cracks:
• Cement replacement by fly ash etc.
• Cement with low hydratation heat development
• Reduction of slab thickness
• Pre-cooling of the concrete
• Joints (see fig 8.23)

Fig. 8.23 Joint detail

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• Strength
• Cement (type, quantity)
Additives (silica, fly ash)
Mixing temperature
Insulation
Thermo Koppel measurements (in combination with reference
samples)
• Surface
• Placement method
• Casting plan

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Appendix A: Project Quality Plan and Phases of the Design

process in relation to accuracy targets.

The Project Quality Plan is an essential aspect of Quality Management, also

for the design process of projects.
The design process can be structured in different ways. To apply phases has
proven to be quite effective and efficient to balance the design input against
incremental accuracy targets. The text hereafter is a draft for the New model
Code of FIB.

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1. Design for Quality

1.1 Quality Management
Communication between parties involved in the development of the In order to ensure that the structure will comply with the requirements as
project is vital. For most of the individual phases of the project agreed, adequate quality measures shall be taken and effectively managed. To
communication is generally well formalized through procedures. But at give structure to the measures, to assure coherence between the various
interfaces communication should get special attention. This is especially the disciples and stages of development and to allow quantitative management of
case at the start of the design phase where realistic, feasible and clear quality, a Project Quality Plan (PQP) is widely used and often required.
requirements and criteria shall be agreed between client and the designer. To make Quality Management effective, there must be a clear and
This is often a cyclic process where the designer should support client in unambiguous understanding between the owner and the designer about
providing feed-back on how starting points may affect economical and performance requirements and criteria, including the maintenance strategy of
technical feasibility of the scheme and to advise alternatives. the project.
Closely linked, partly integrated in Quality Management, is the
development of the Birth Certificate Document (BCD) as a living document
throughout the entire Life Cycle of the project. The BCD should contain all
relevant data to allow effective and efficient Life Cycle Management of the
project.

1.2 Project Quality Plan

The Project Quality Plan will comprise both Quality Assurance and .The Project Quality Plan should address or refer to: objectives and criteria
Quality Control issues. applicable to the project, organisational structure, technical and
The extent of a Project Quality Plan should depend on the nature and size organisational working methods and procedures, lines of communication,
of the project, type of contract and parties involved. For standard schemes tasks and responsibilities, quality management measures in case of
and handled by a single source company with a certified Company Quality outsourcing/ subcontracting of activities, key personnel involved and
Plan, a simple reference can be made to such Plan for most of the items to be handling of non-conformities. Pending the nature of the project and the type
addressed in the PQP. For more complicated schemes and/ or handled by a of contract, each development phase has a plan or the plan may cover a
combination of partners the PQP will generally be project specific. In such number of phases. Coherence and transfer of information and/ or instructions
case the ISO 9000 series of codes may be of useful support. between phases is of the essence. For non standard and/ or complicated
projects a project specific risk analysis should be conducted to define issues
A typical contents list of a PQP is as follows: to be addressed specifically in the PQP
-general: description of the project, description of the assignment, quality

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objectives in general, distribution and revisions of the PQP, abbreviations

-financial: contract data, change procedure, cost control, invoicing, project
evaluation.
-risk management: risk inventory, risk mitigation and management, safety
and health plan
-organisational: project organisation, sub-consultants/ contractors,
interface management, communication procedures (reporting, meetings)
-time schedule: planning schedule, milestones, document planning, review
and audit planning schedule
-information management: document control, acceptance procedures,
change management, filing, as-built documentation, secrecy agreements
-process quality: overview of applicable procedures, progress reporting,
non conformities, audits, customer satisfaction, project evaluation
-product quality: functional requirements, boundary conditions, basic data
and criteria, codes and practices, verification plan, design validation plan,
design and drafting tools.
Checklists may also be a useful for implementation in a Project Quality
Plan. Examples are given in CEB Bulletin 194.

During the design phase reviews are an important aspect of Quality

Management. Reviews should be planned in advance and their planning
should be based on decisive milestones of the overall schedule. It is advised
to plan the first review shortly after start up of the design after completion of
the design basis, to have the basis reviewed and as such secured.

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Quality can not be assured by procedures and an organisational structure .

only. There is a decisive interaction with the skills of the individuals
involved. Although subjective, skill requirements and concluded
qualifications should be addressed. For standard schemes, widely used
qualifications may be applied such as training and education. For more
complicated schemes and/or based on a risk analysis, required skills may be
very specific.

1.3 Birth Certificate Document (BCD)

In the BCD any information to manage the project throughout the service To allow effective and efficient Life Cycle Management, a file is required
life should be available. During the design stage the document will be with all relevant engineering documents, engineering instructions,
initiated and filled with functional requirements, basic data and boundary specifications, test results and certificates, as built documentation,
conditions, selected engineering approach and applied models, engineering maintenance strategy, factual maintenance data and the decommissioning
results and applicable criteria, specific instructions for construction strategy of the scheme. Such file is called the Birth certificate Document
(specifications for workmanship and materials, assumed or mandatory (BCD) and is a living document. During the design phase, the document
construction sequence ) , risk file, results of tests, certificates etc. As such the should be initiated and filled with relevant documents. Upon completion of
document also serves as an interface document to get information secured design, the BCD should normally be handed over to owner for further
into the next phase of development. Next phases must further complete the development in the next phase of the project.
document. At the end of construction the document will allow owners to
optimize the anticipated maintenance strategy and to develop modifications
in future as factual and as built information from construction and tests is
included in the BCD. During the service life actual maintenance and findings
must also be included in the BCD.

,,

2. Design process

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2.1 Design stages

The design process bridges the gap between the initial need of an owner to To allow an effective and efficient design process, a split of the process in
get a performance realized and the detailed information required by the a number of phases must generally be applied. The phases must be structured
contractor to actually build the project. From a careful development of initial in such a way that they fit into the decision process of the owner.
starting points to detailed specifications and drawings is a process with a
strong cyclic nature. Through a series of cycles the plan gets shape and
contents. The cycles are grouped to form different stages to allow specific
output supporting the client in his decision process. As such, the phasing of
the design process must fit into the decision process of the client. Given the
cyclic nature of the design process a linear approach without different design
stages is highly unusual as substantial redo work is likely to occur.
Although there are various models available to structure the design stages, Generally following design stages can de distinguished:
clients decision models are generally based on go/no-go milestones at Scouting phase. See 3.6.2.
gradually increasing levels of accuracy of the budget required. Generally the
engineering input in gradually increased the same way. The more confidence,
the more efforts are justified. It gives an effective model to phase the design
process. Typical accuracy levels, (plus and minus) and as such phases, are
30%, 20%, 10% , final design and detailed design.
Basis of Design phase. See 1.6.3
Project Specification phase. See 1.6.4.
Final Design phase. See 1.6.5
Detailed design phase. See 1.6.6.

2.2 Scouting Phase

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The Scouting Phase is the first phase of the design process. From an The Scouting Phase is an initial feasibility scan of the scheme. Generally
abstract level of perception, global functional requirements are specified. To based on global functional/ performance requirements. A typical accuracy
support the owner in his decision process, an indicative budget must be made. target is +/- 30%
To allow the global cost estimate, with a typical accuracy level of +/- 30%, an
outline concept should be available. It is common practice to limit the design
efforts at this stage as the feasibility of the project is generally uncertain. To .
match the objectives of target accuracy and limited input, often experience is
used to copy former schemes and make them project specific with limited
efforts only. To do so, the designer should be well experienced to understand
general cost drivers and to identify project specific, decisive points of
attention/ cost drivers.

2.3 Basis of Design Phase

During this phase the functional requirements, basic data and design
criteria will be developed and the service criteria agreed. A conceptual design
will also be developed to support a more accurate budget estimate. Quite
some effort is required at this stage as the Basis of Design should be agreed,
fixed and frozen upon completion of this stage. A typical accuracy target is
+/- 20%. An essential part of this phase is the Service Criteria Agreement, see
1.6.3.1. Also the Birth Certificate Document should be initiated at this stage.

2.3.1 Service criteria agreement

The service criteria shall be clearly specified in the service criteria
agreement.
The service criteria agreement shall comprise:
Basic data may comprise: general aims for the use of the construction works,
-geotechnical data basic data applicable, including third party interactions
-metocean data operational and maintenance requirements,

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-topographical and bathymetrical data special requirements of the stakeholders,

-climatological data
-environmental data (earthquake, hurricanes)
-material properties
Operational/ maintenance requirements may comprise
- the use of de-icing salts
- replacement strategy of components subjected to wear
- flexibility in terms of space requirements, future extension or load
bearing capacity
The objectives and the degree of protection shall be determined on the objectives of protection and special risks,
basis of a risk evaluation. loadings and loading combinations
codes and regulatory requirements.
In particular, the specification in the service criteria shall adress:
Fixing the performance criteria for serviceability and safety shall follow performance criteria for serviceability and safety, see chapter 1.3.1.,
considering:
the hazards,
the type and consequences of deterioration and failure,
the resistance mechanisms.
Fixing the specified (design) service life for structures to be designed and service life constraints, see chapter 1.3.2.,
the residual service life for existing structures shall follow considering:
the required service life of a structure, as given by the stakeholders,
a need for differentiation of service life for individual parts of the structure
(e.g. depending on their replaceability),
the implications of other service criteria e.g. with regard to structural
analysis, maintenance and quality management.
Fixing the target reliability level shall follow considering: reliability constraints, see chapter 13.3.

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the type and consequences of failure;

the amount of acceptable damage;
the importance of the structure in dealing with a catastrophe after an
accidental event;
the expenditure to reduce the risk;
the possibilities of monitoring, maintenance and repair as well as the
corresponding expenditure,
a need for differentiation of target reliability level depending on the limit
state and reference period, either for the whole structure or its
structural components.
possible hazard scenarios shall be considered and evaluated, and suitable
measures shall be specified in order to keep the hazards under control
or to limit them to an acceptable extend
In order to mitigate the hazards the following principles may be applied
elimination, prevention or hazard reduction,
controls or alarm systems,
choice of structural systems which are less susceptible to the hazards
under consideration,
choice of structural systems which can tolerate local damage as well as the
loss of a structural member or a whole part of the structure without
failing totally,
choice of structural systems which do not fail without prior warning,
limitation of the spread of fire to fire compartments,
choice of suitable structural materials that, if well maintained, will not
substantially degenerate during the required service life,
accepting a shorter service life for structural components, which may be
replaced one or more times during the specified service life,

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appropriate structural analysis and dimensioning,

careful detailing and giving the structure such dimensions that
deterioration during the specified service life is compensated,
choice of an appropriate execution method,
execution carried out as planned and with the necessary care,
planning and applying suitable protective and mitigating systems,
appropriate monitoring and conservation, including inspections at fixed or
condition-dependent intervals, and necessary remedial actions
.
Fixing the performance criteria for sustainability shall follow considering: performance requirements for sustainability, see chapter 1.4.
the required sustainability, as given by the stakeholders,
the type and consequences of insufficient sustainability,
the importance of the structure for global, regional and limited
environment,
the flexibility to allow future extensions and/ or modifications of the
functional requirements
the expenditure to reduce the risk of insufficient sustainability,
a need for differentiation of sustainability requirements for individual
parts of the structure (e.g. depending on their replaceability).
The progress toward the performance requirements should be traceable.
Well-defined performance requirements shall allow evaluating the
accomplishment of the performance goals throughout the design, during
execution, operation and dismantlement of the structure.

2.4 Project Specification Phase

With the design basis as starting point the design will be developed into a
preliminary design. Specifications for workmanship, materials and detailed

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design will be developed. Significant effort is generally required at this stage.

The output of this stage can serve as technical part of the invitation to bid for
a Design/ Construct contract. A typical accuracy target is +/- 10%
At this stage alternative structural concepts will generally be developed
and judged against each other. Following aspects should be included in this
judgement:

Robustness of the concept

Constructability of the concept,
Planning schedule of the concept
Economy of the project/ overall Life Cycle Cost
Feasibility of future extensions
Reliability of the concept as a whole and critical components especially
Maintenance and repair considerations
Dismantling of the structure/ demolition aspects

In order to develop the structural concept the following issues shall be

taken into account
Constructability / Economic feasibility issues may comprise: The service criteria agreement
Accessibility of the site, Constructability / Economic feasibility of the scheme
Bearing capacity of the subsoil at site in respect to anticipated
construction equipment
Lifting capacity at site
Minimum/ maximum size of structural components
Clearances to battery limits
Quality, availability and reusability of construction materials;

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Restrictions regarding the design and construction times, and the budget
limitations;
Legal aspects (laws, ordinances, directives);
Construction methods, transport and assembly techniques;
Equipment and facilities for monitoring and maintenance measures;
Maintaining the use of traffic structures and lifelines (pipelines, etc.);
Demolition approach at the end of service life
Life Cycle Cost considerations
.
The following deviations should be considered: The decisive actions and action effects as well as the sensitivity of the
deviation from the assumed values of the actions, concept for deviations from the anticipated values,

deviations from the planned values of the ultimate resistances of the

structure or the soil,
eccentricities due to construction tolerances, imperfections in the
dimensions of structural members,

the foreseeable service situations shall be considered and evaluated, and

appropriate measures to ensure serviceability shall be specified,
A structure can be designed for flexibility, anticipating on possible future aspects of sustainability should be regarded in agreement with the
changes of its function. requirements of the stakeholders or governing authorities.

2.4.1 Project Specification Document

The Project Specification Document shall include following information:

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the specified (design) service life,

the service conditions considered,
the hazard scenarios considered,
the requirements of structural safety, serviceability, robustness and
sustainability together with the measures needed to guarantee them,
including attribution of responsibilities, processes, controls and
corrective mechanisms,
A clear statement shall be given which data are fixed and frozen, which data a reliability qualification statement of data used for design,
need further development ,which data have been assumed and which
assumptions have been made advised/ required addition investigations

In the context of the partial safety factor verification, ensuring the required the chosen structural system,
reliability level requires adequate consideration of the uncertainties regarding the important assumptions in the structural and analytical models,
actions, structural modelling and the determination of action effects. The
differentiation of the partial safety factors depending on the uncertainties in the accepted risks,
actions, material properties and applied models is addressed in chapter 4. other conditions relevant to the design.
the most important dimensions, construction material properties and
construction details,
comments on the envisaged methods of construction.
Specifications for detailed design, materials and workmanship
The extent and content of the project specification document shall be
adapted to the importance of the structure and the associated hazards and
environmental risks.

2.5 Final design phase

At this stage all primary structural members will be specified. Also typical
details will be designed. Concluded material demand and efforts required to
build the scheme should allow a cost estimate within 5% accuracy.
The final design report shall contain all data used for design, all phases,
including construction phases, considered, applied static schemes, structural

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analysis, applied criteria and material properties, construction method

considered and a traceable demonstration of compliance with the Project
Specification. The report shall also contain a risk file. The risk file must
present risks identified, how they have been managed and, if any, instructions
for the next phases of design and construction. Drawings shall present overall
layout of the project, geometry, shape and dimensions of primary structural
members and typical details.

2.6 Detailed design phase

The output of this stage shall allow construction of the
scheme. All calculations required to demonstrate compliance
with codes and requirements/ specifications of the project
will be prepared during this stage. The level of detail of
drawings and specifications/ site instructions shall allow
unambiguous understanding by the contractor of what and
how the scheme must be constructed, how compliance with
the documents must be demonstrated. Also the risk file must
be included to inform contractor which risks are involved,
how these risks have been handled in the previous stages of
design and how remaining risks must be handled. Issues
which require special attention in this respect must be clearly
noted on the construction drawings.
Upon completion of the detailed design phase, all relevant
documents from design must be included in the Birth
Certificate Document.

2.7 Structural analysis

2.7.1 Objectives
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The structural analysis should consider the behaviour of structures in

relation to the dimensioning situations, taking into account the relevant
factors.
The methods of structural analysis shall be based on established, if
necessary experimentally confirmed, theories and engineering practice.
The results of the structural analysis shall be checked for credibility e.g.
should be followed by a general engineering judgement.
2.7.2 Static calculations and technical report
The basis and the results of the structural analysis shall be documented in
the calculations report.

2.8 Dimensioning
2.8.1 Objectives
Detailing, limit measures and special provisions supplement the use of Dimensioning concerns the determination of the dimensions, the structural
models for various purposes, such as: materials and the detailing of a structure on the basis of structural and
to avoid superfluous calculations, execution-related considerations or numerical verifications.

to satisfy the insensitivity requirement with regard to unidentified or

hardly quantified hazards such as e.g. minimum resistance to lateral
forces, multiple load paths and ties between structural components (see
sections 2.1 and 3.2.3 of CEB Bulletin 191),
to ensure the validity of calculation models e.g. by minimum ratios of
reinforcement;
to ensure good execution and/or durability e.g. by rules for bar distances
and concrete cover.
The dimensioning may be assisted by testing, e.g. if:
actions, structural materials or soil properties are insufficiently known
no appropriate analytical models are available
the structure contains components of which limited experience exists and

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which are of essential influence on the reliability of the structure

2.8.2 Technical report
The dimensions, the structural materials and the detailing of a structure
shall be documented in the technical report and design drawings.

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Appendix B, Construction method of a bridge at Reunion.

(courtesy: Jean Muller International- France)

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Appendix C, Tolerances as given in Eurocode 2

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