i

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA FOR 2.4 GHz

APPLICATIONS

MAGARE AONDO DOUGLAS (B.Ed. (Sci))

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award of the
Degree of Masters of Science (Electronics and Instrumentation) in the School of Pure
and Applied Sciences of Kenyatta University

August, 2019
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DECLARATION

This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for the award of a degree or any
other award in any other University

Signature.............................. Date...................................
Magare Aondo Douglas
REG.NO. I56/27970/2014
Department of Physics
Kenyatta University

This thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval as University supervisors.

SUPERVISORS

Signature.............................. Date...................................
Dr. A. S. Merenga

Department of Physics

Kenyatta University

Signature.............................. Date...................................
Dr. Mathew K. Munji

Department of Physics

Kenyatta University
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis to my parents, my family and siblings, for the support throughout my

research.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My utmost appreciation goes to my advisors Dr. S. A. Meranga and Dr. M.K. Munji for their

guidance, encouragement and support that enabled me achieve this goal. I would also like to

thank my research colleagues Kirui, Sarah Aseda and Kariuki, for giving their valuable

research suggestions and views. I am also thankful to the Kenyatta University, Technical

University of Kenya and University of Nairobi technical staff for providing the bench space

and assistance during the course of my study. The support extended by my dear wife Miriam,

family members and friends deserve special recognition for the love and support they gave

me. Their prayers, motivation and encouragement helped me remain competitive at all times

and to successfully complete this program.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................... ii

DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................ v

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................viii

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS ................................................................ xi

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ xii

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study .............................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................................. 3

1.3 Objectives ..................................................................................................................................... 3

1.3.1 General Objective ............................................................................................................. 3

1.3.2 Specific objectives ..................................................................................................................... 3

1.4 Rationale ....................................................................................................................................... 4

2.1 Theory of Microstrip Antenna ...................................................................................................... 5

2.2 Antenna Fundamentals.................................................................................................................. 5

2.2.1 Radiation Pattern .................................................................................................................... 5

2.2.2 Directivity .............................................................................................................................. 7

2.2.3 Input Impedance..................................................................................................................... 8

2.2.4 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio ................................................................................................ 9

2.2.5 Return Loss .......................................................................................................................... 10

2.2.6 Antenna Efficiency .............................................................................................................. 10

2.2.7 Antenna Gain ....................................................................................................................... 11

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2.2.8 Polarization .......................................................................................................................... 11

2.2.9 Bandwidth ............................................................................................................................ 13

2.3 Studies on Microstrip Antenna ................................................................................................... 13

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Cad Tools and Analysis .............................................................................................................. 16

3.1.1 Transmission Line Model .................................................................................................... 16

3.1.2 Cavity Model for Circular Patch .......................................................................................... 17

3.1.3 Cavity Model for Rectangular Patch .................................................................................... 18

3.2 Design Specification ................................................................................................................... 20

3.2.1 Determination of Rectangular Shaped MSA Dimensions.................................................... 20

3.2.2 Calculating the Ground Plane Dimension Lg and Wg .......................................................... 22

3.2.3 Determination of Circular Shaped MSA Dimensions .......................................................... 23

3.2.4 Determination of Square Shaped MSA Dimensions ............................................................ 24

3.2.5 Selection of Resonant Frequency ......................................................................................... 25

3.2.6 Selection of the Substrate ..................................................................................................... 25

3.2.7 Selection of Feeding Technique ........................................................................................... 26

3.2.8 Selection of the Feed Point Location ................................................................................... 26

3.3 Simulation Process ...................................................................................................................... 27

3.4 Fabrication and Measurement ..................................................................................................... 30

3.5 Testing of Microstrip Antenna .................................................................................................... 32

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results ......................................................................................................................................... 34

4.1 Set 1: Using RT Duroid 5880 in the Simulation ......................................................................... 34

4.1.1 Return Loss VS Frequency .................................................................................................. 34

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4.1.2 Smith Chart .......................................................................................................................... 37

4.1.3 Radiation Pattern .................................................................................................................. 39

4.1.4 3d Polar ................................................................................................................................ 41

4.2 Set 2: Simulation Using FR4 ...................................................................................................... 45

4.2.1 Return Loss VS Frequency .................................................................................................. 45

4.2.2 Smith Chart .......................................................................................................................... 48

4.2.3 Radiation Pattern .................................................................................................................. 50

4.2.4 3d Polar ................................................................................................................................ 52

4.3 Experimental Results .................................................................................................................. 55

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 58

5.2 Recommendations ....................................................................................................................... 59

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 60
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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Rectangular Microstrip Antennas Parameters ........................................................... 27

Table 2: Circular Microstrip Antennas Parameters ................................................................. 30

Table 3 : Squared Microstrip Antennas Parameters ................................................................ 31

Table 4.1: Table of Return Loss and Frequency ...................................................................... 38

Table 4.2: Table of Frequency and Bandwidth........................................................................ 39

Table 4.3: Antenna Parameters for Set 1 at 2.4 GHZ .............................................................. 47

Table 4.4: Table of Frequency and Return Loss ...................................................................... 50

Table 4.5: Table of Frequency And Bandwidth ...................................................................... 51

Table 4.6: Antenna Parameters for Set 2 At 2.4 Ghz .............................................................. 59

Table 4.7: Comparison of Simulatd and Measured Results..................................................... 61

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Radiation of an Antenna ..................................................................................... 1

Figure 2.1: Directional Antenna Radiation Pattern ............................................................... 6

Figure 2.2: Transmitting Antenna Circuit ............................................................................. 9

Figure 2.3: Linearly Polarized Wave .................................................................................. 12

Figure 2.4: Polarization Schemes ........................................................................................ 12

Figure 3.1: Electric Field Lines ........................................................................................... 16

Figure 3.2: Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna............................................................. 20

Figure 3.3: Effective Length Diagram ................................................................................ 21

Figure 3.4: Side View of the Patch ..................................................................................... 22

Figure 3.5: Circular Patch Microstrip Antenna ................................................................... 23

Figure 3.6: Squared Microstrip Patch Antenna ................................................................... 24

Figure 3.7: Coaxial Probe Feed Diagram ............................................................................ 26

Figure 3.8: Rectangular Shape Microstrip Antenna Simulation ......................................... 27

Figure 3.9: Circular Shape Microstrip Antenna Simulation ............................................... 28

Figure 3.10: Square Shape Microstrip Antenna Simulation ............................................... 29

Figure 3.11: PCB Exposed to UV Light in Double Phase Bromography Machine ............ 30

Figure 3.12: PCB Etched in Etching Machine .................................................................... 31

Figure 3.13: Fabricated Microstrip Antenna ....................................................................... 32

Figure 3.14: Scalar Network Analyzer................................................................................ 32

Figure 3.15: Experimental Set up Diagram for Testing MSA ............................................ 33

Figure 4.1: S-Parameter for Circular MSA ......................................................................... 35

Figure 4.2: S-Parameter for Rectangular MSA ................................................................... 35

Figure 4.3: S-Parameter for Squared MSA ......................................................................... 36

Figure 4.4: Smith Chart of Circular MSA ........................................................................... 38

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Figure 4.5: Smith Chart of Rectangular MSA .................................................................... 38

Figure 4.6: Smith Chart of Squared MSA ........................................................................... 39

Figure 4.7: Radiation Pattern of Circular MSA. ................................................................. 40

Figure 4.8: Radiation Pattern of Rectangular MSA. ........................................................... 40

Figure 4.9: Radiation Pattern of Squared MSA. ................................................................. 41

Figure 4.10: 3D Radiation Pattern of Circular Patch Microstrip Antenna. ......................... 42

Figure 4.11: 3D Radiation Pattern of Rectangular Patch Microstrip Antenna. .................. 42

Figure 4.12: 3D Radiation Pattern of Squared Patch Microstrip Antenna. ......................... 43

Figure 4.13: Graph of Return Loss against Frequency of a Circular Patch Microstrip

Antenna .......................................................................................................... 45

Figure 4.14: Graph of Return Loss against Frequency of a Rectangular Patch Microstrip

Antenna .......................................................................................................... 46

Figure 4.15: Graph of Return Loss against Frequency of a Squared Patch Microstrip

Antenna .......................................................................................................... 47

Figure 4.16: Smith Chart of Circular Patch MSA ............................................................... 48

Figure 4.17: Smith Chart of Rectangular Patch MSA......................................................... 49

Figure 4.18: Smith Chart of Squared Patch MSA ............................................................... 50

Figure 4.19: Radiation Pattern of Circular Patch Microstrip Antenna................................ 50

Figure 4.20: Radiation Pattern of Rectangular Patch Microstrip Antenna ......................... 51

Figure 4.21: Radiation Pattern of Squared Patch Microstrip Antenna................................ 52

Figure 4.22: 3D Polar of Circular Patch Microstrip Antenna ............................................. 52

Figure 4.23: 3D Polar of Rectangular Patch Microstrip Antenna ....................................... 53

Figure 4.24: 3D Polar of Squared Patch Microstrip Antenna ............................................. 54

Figure 4.25: Graph of Fabricate Circular MSA and Simulated Circular MSA .................. 56
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LIST OF ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS

BW Bandwidth

CAD Computer Aided Design

FEM Finite Element Method

FR4 Flame Retardant

GPS Global Positioning of Satellite

GSM Global System of Mobile Communication

HFSS High Frequency Structure Simulator

MSA Microstrip Antenna

MSC Mobile Satellite Communication

MPA Microstrip Patch Antenna

PCB Printed Circuit Board

TEM Transvers Electric Mode

VSWR Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

WLAN Wireless Local Area Network

WiFi Wireless Fidelity

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ABSTRACT

Communication systems require development of low cost, low profile and minimal weight.
Microstrip antennas (MSA) are capable of maintaining high performance over a wide
spectrum. Technological trends have focused much effort on the design of the microstrip
patch antennas. In this study, square, circular and rectangular patches were designed and
analyzed using two different substrates. High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS)
software was used to simulate, model and analyze the MSAs. Simulation was done using FR4
substrate on square, rectangular and circular patches at a frequency of 2.4 GHz. At the same
frequency, RT Duroid 5880 was used in the simulation of the square, circular and rectangular
patches. The thickness of the substrate was kept constant at 1.6 mm. Simulation results that
include bandwidth, efficiency, return loss curves and radiation patterns of all the MSAs from
the software were compared. The resonant frequency for all simulated microstrip antenna was
2.4 GHz. A circular microstrip antenna on RT Duroid 5880 had the highest efficiency of
97.012% and front to back ratio of 77.74. The same MSA also had the highest realized gain
hence it was considered for fabrication. Fabrication was done through a process of
photolithography and wet etching on a printed circuit board using parameters of the results
that were optimized. Testing of the fabricated MSA was done using scalar network analyzer.
The resonant frequency of the fabricated microstrip antenna was 2.3966 GHz and the return
loss was -24.965 dB. The measured data was validated with the simulated data. The measured
data from the fabricated MSA deviated slightly from the simulated data. It was ascertained
that the MSA can work efficiently at 2.4 GHz. Other than the shapes used in the research
different shapes can be tried for example elliptical quarter circle can be studied. Substrates
with lower directivity can be used which can give higher gain. To reduce the size of
microstrip antenna a substrate with high dielectric constant like silicon can be tried. Array of
antenna patches of these shapes should also be studied because they produce the higher
overall gain.
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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Stutzman and Thiele (1998) defined antenna as part of transmitting and receiving system. The

same system can also be designed to either receive or radiate electromagnetic waves. An antenna

is a transducer that converts signals on a transmission line into electromagnetic field space

consisting of magnetic and electric field patterns moving at right angles to each other (Sandeep

and Kashyap, 2013). Radiation happens due to the time varying current when there is increase or

decrease of the velocity of charge. There will be no radiation from an antenna if there is no

movement of charges. Radiation occurs when charges in motion are moving in a non- uniform

speed along a linear conductor. However, there will be radiations if the conducting wire is bent

or curved and the charges are moving at a uniform speed. Radiation occurs when the charge is

oscillating with time along a straight conductor as stated by Balanis (1997).

For an antenna to work, a voltage source should be connected to two conducting wires to the

transmission line as show in figure 1.1

Figure 1.1: Radiation of an Antenna

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An electric field that is sinusoidal is created when a voltage that is sinusoidal is applied in a

transmission line. Magnetic field strength is indicated by the line of force. This electric line of

force displaces free electrons in the conductor. The flow of charge causes current that ends up

creating a magnetic field. Electromagnetic waves are produced by the time varying magnetic and

electric field that travel through the conductor. When waves approach open space they form free

waves hence there is a connection between the open ends of the field line. The source also

creates electric disturbance and electromagnetic waves. Propagation starts with the transmission

line, antenna before free space radiation. The electromagnetic waves are sustained due to the

charges inside the transmission line and the antenna as they enter the free space. Before the

waves get into free space, they create closed loops (Balanis, 1997).

The efficiency of communication relies mostly on the characteristics of the receiving and

transmitting antenna. Microstrip patch antennas have advantages over other antennas because

they have these advantages which include small size, light weight and ease of integration with

other communication gadgets which makes it suitable for wireless communication systems

(Chakraborty et al., 2011). Other advantages discussed by Kumar and Ray (2003) include:

• Conformable to planar and non-planar surfaces.

• Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces.

• The cost of fabrication is low.

• They support linear and circular polarization.

• Can operate on dual and triple frequency.

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However, the microstrip patch antenna have a disadvantage of narrow bandwidth that can be

solved by increasing the thickness of the substrate. Substrates with minimum dielectric constant

are prioritized owing to their maximum radiation of the microstrip patch (Balanis and sons,

1982). Circular, square and rectangular are the most common shapes used because they are

simple to analyze and beam scanning can be obtained from the patch antenna easily (Garg et al.,

2001).

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Due to rapid development of communication systems especially wireless local area network

(WLAN) and mobile satellite communication (MSC) require microstrip antenna (MSA) with

better performance and higher efficiency. The reduction in size of various electrical devices, has

necessitated the use of microstrip antennas which are small in size and have better efficiency.

Dielectric constant and tangent loss are the main characteristics that were used to choose the two

types of substrates to be used. Most substrates used in the manufacture of MSAs have higher

dielectric constant that makes them have lower efficiency and lower radiation power. For this

reason, there is need to design and analyze MSA using different substrates on different shapes at

2.4GHz to establish an antenna with highest gain and highest efficiency for the applications.

1.3 OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 General Objective

To design and analyze a microstrip antenna (MSA) for 2.4 GHz applications.

1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

i. To model and simulate square, circular and rectangular microstrip antenna (MSA) on

FR4 and RT Duroid 5880 substrates using Ansys HFSS software.

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ii. To optimize the frequency and fabricate microstrip antenna (MSA) with the best

simulation results.

iii. To perform measurements on the fabricated microstrip antenna (MSA) and validate

simulation results.

1.4 RATIONALE

The purpose of the study was to determine better shape for designing a microstrip antenna

among square, rectangular and circular using two different substrates which have lower dielectric

constants at 2.4 GHz through simulation. Hence a microstrip antenna for 2.4 GHz applications

with better efficiency will be fabricated.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 THEORY OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA

A patch antenna is a narrowband antenna fabricated by etching an element pattern in metal trace

bonded to an insulating dielectric substrate, like printed circuit board, with a continuous metal

layer bounded on opposite side of the substrate that forms a ground plane. Elliptical, rectangular,

square and circular are the common microstrip antenna shapes. The dielectric constant, loss

tangent and thickness of the substrate are the main factors that affect the performance of the

microstrip antenna. Characteristic like flexibility, permeability, sheet resistivity and reflectance

may affect the antenna but not to a large extent. Thick substrates are mechanically strong, will

increase radiation power, improve impedance bandwidth, reduce cross polarization and reduce

conduction loss. A high tangent loss increases dielectric loss hence reduces antenna efficiency.

Increase in the dielectric constant of a substrate decreases bandwidth and gain value.

2.2 ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS

2.2.1 Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of the far-field radiation properties of an antenna as a

function of the spatial co-ordinates which are specified by the elevation angle and the azimuth

angle. This pattern plot is a function of the spatial co-ordinates. Radiation intensity is the ratio of

power radiated to the unit solid angle Balanis (1997). An antenna that radiates equally in all

directions is called isotropic antenna. Power density S in any direction is given as in equation

2.1;
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(2.1)

where P is total power radiated by the isotropic antenna and r is radius of the sphere.

Radiation intensity for isotropic antenna Ui is given by equation 2.2;

(2.2)

It is not possible to achieve an isotropic antenna but it is used for comparison purposes. Practical

antennas are directional whereby they radiate more power in certain directions while radiating

less power in given directions. Omnidirectional antenna has a radiation pattern with constant on

H-plane which is E-plane and changes in orthogonal plane. The figure 2.1 shows radiation

pattern plot of directional antenna

Minor Lobes Main Lobe

HPBW

Back Lobe

Side Lobe

Figure 2.1: Directional Antenna Radiation Pattern

The figure 2.1 indicates:

• The half power beam width is the angle subtended by the half power of the lobe

where we have maximum radiation.

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• Main Lobe is the lobe that contains the direction of highest radiation.

• Minor Lobe this are other lobes apart from main lobe and they represent radiation in

unwanted directions.

• Back Lobe is the minor lobe that is exactly opposite the main lobe.

• Side Lobes are the minor lobes next to the main lobe and are the largest among the

minor lobes.

Minor lobes are unwanted in most wireless systems; hence an efficient antenna design should

reduce the number of the minor lobes.

2.2.2 DIRECTIVITY

According to Balanis 1997, directivity is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction

from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. Directivity of

omnidirectional source is the same as the ratio of the radiation intensity towards certain direction

or position to that of the source that is isotropic. Directivity is given by equation 2.3;

(2.3)

where D represents directivity of a given antenna, P represents the power radiated, Ui is the

radiation intensity of the isotropic source and U is the radiation intensity of an antenna. If the

direction of the maximum intensity is stated, then the maximum intensity can be calculated by

the equation 2.4

(2.4)
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where Dmax is the maximum directivity of an antenna and Umax is the maximum radiation

intensity of an antenna. Directivity of an antenna does not depend on the direction because it is

the ratio between two intensities of a given radiations. Directivity is given in decibel (dB). Form

the radiation pattern you can be able to estimate the directivity of an antenna. An antenna that

has a narrow main lobe would have better directivity, then the one which has a broad main lobe,

hence it is more directive.

2.2.3 INPUT IMPEDANCE

As defined by Balanis 1997, input impedance is the impedance of an antenna at its terminals or

the ratio of the voltage to the current at the pair of terminals. Input impedance can be also be

defined as the ratio of the appropriate components of the electric to magnetic fields at a point.

Input impedance is given by the equation 2.5;

(2.5)

where Zin is the antenna input impedance, Rin is the antenna resistance and X in is the antenna

reactance X in is the imaginary part of the impedance that represents power stored in antenna in

the near field. Rin represents resistive part of the input resistance which is composed of loss

resistance and radiation resistance. The power associated with the radiation resistance is the

power that is radiated by the antenna, while the power dissipated in the loss resistance is lost as

heat in the antenna itself due to dielectric or conducting losses.

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2.2.4 VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO

Figure 2.2: Transmitting Antenna Circuit

For an antenna to be efficient, there should be a maximum transfer of power between the antenna

and the transmitter. There will be higher power transmitted if there is a good match between the

impedance of the antenna and that of the transmitter. When the impedance of the transmitter is

the complex conjugate of the antenna impedance maximum power is transferred. The condition

is given by equation 2.6

Zin =ZS * (2.6)

where Zin = Rin + jX in and ZS * = RS + jX S

Standing waves are created when power is reflected due to the mismatch. The standing waves are

characterized by voltage standing voltage wave ratio (VSWR). VSWR is given by Makorow

2002 in equation 2.7;

(2.7)
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where Γ is the reflection coefficient, Vr is the amplitude of the reflected wave and Vi is the

amplitude of the incident wave. VSWR is a measure of the mismatch in the impedance between

the antenna and the transmitter. When the VSWR is high, this means that there is high mismatch

and there is a perfect match when the VSWR is unity. For a working antenna the VSWR should

be less than 2 for the antenna to radiate and transmit efficiently.

2.2.5 RETURN LOSS

This is a measure of amount of power lost to the load because it is not returned as reflection. The

reflected wave leads to the formation of standing wave when there is a mismatch between the

antenna and transmitter. The return loss shows how the matching of antenna and transmitter has

taken place. The RL is expressed by equation 2.8;

(2.8)

When the reflection coefficient is 0, then the RL= ∞ which indicates no power that is returned or

reflected. For an antenna to operate properly the VSWR of 2 is allowed because it gives a return

loss of -9.54 dB as states by Nakar (2004)

2.2.6 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY

Antenna efficiency is a quantity that considers the losses that take place at the terminals and the

structure of the antenna. This is explained by Balanis (1997). The efficiency includes the

reflection of waves due to mismatch, the losses that are dielectric and conduction losses.

Total efficiency of an antenna is given by equation 2.9

(2.9)
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where is the conduction efficiency, is the reflection efficiency and is the dialectic

efficiency. The conduction efficiency and reflection efficiency are put together to form antenna

radiation efficiency which is defined as to radiation resistance to power delivered to

and and it can be expressed by the equation 2.10

(2.10)

2.2.7 ANTENNA GAIN

Antenna gain is related to the antenna directivity. Directivity is the ability of an antenna to

radiate energy strongly to one preferred direction relative to other directions. For isotropic

radiator the efficiency is 100% because the gain is equal to the directivity of an antenna. All

antennas radiate more in certain directions than in other directions, hence more power that is

achieved in certain direction at the expense of other direction according to Ulaby (1999).

Equation 2.11 gives the gain of an antenna.

(2.11)

2.2.8 POLARIZATION

According to Balanis (1997), polarization is the characteristic of an electromagnetic wave that

describes the time varying direction and it is relative to the magnitude of electric field vector.

Also, polarization of the field vector is also known as antenna polarization. The direction and the

position of a field with reference to the earth „s ground also determines the polarization of a

wave. There are two types of polarization which include linear and circular polarization. Figure

2.3 shows linear polarization

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Figure 2.3: Linearly Polarized Wave

When the path followed by electric field vector is forward and back along the line then it is

linearly polarized. On the other hand, when a wave is circularly polarized, the electric field

vector rotates in a circular path but the length remains constant. A wave is right hand circular

polarized if the motion is clockwise and it is left hand circular polarized when the motion is

anticlockwise as shown in the figure 2.4.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 2.4: Polarization Schemes

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2.2.9 BANDWIDTH

This is a range of electromagnetic frequencies that an antenna can be able to properly receive and

transmit electromagnetic waves efficiently. Also bandwidth is range of frequencies on either side

of the resonant frequency where the radiation pattern, input impedance, polarization, beam

width, and gain values are close to those of resonant frequency. To find out how efficient an

antenna is, the voltage standing wave ratio is measured. For VSWR of 2 or less an antenna is

able to perform well because the return loss is approximately -9.54 dB.

2.3 STUDIES ON MICROSTRIP ANTENNA

Prasad et al. (2011) compared a rectangular patch antenna and circular patch antenna using

MATLAB software. Simulation results which indicated that the directivity of circular patch

antenna was better than that of rectangular patch antenna for given frequencies. Rop and Konditi

(2012) did a study on the performance analysis of rectangular microstrip patch on different

substrates using MATLAB software and antenna magus software to analyze different substrates.

They found that the lower the value of dielectric constant, the higher the gain and bandwidth. For

FR4, Alumina and Duroid 5880 substrates that were used the study, least gain was found for

Alumina on the other hand a maximum gain was found for Duroid 5880 .

Thus, in MSA design, for better performance, a substrate with lower dielectric constant should

be used. The results indicated the dielectric constant of material determines the performance of

MSA.

Hassan and Suman (2012) did a study on substrate height and dielectric constant dependent

performance of circular microstrip patch arrays which indicated with the decrease in the

dielectric constant and the increase in the height, the bandwidth increased. Madhav et al. (2011)

also observed a drop-in gain of 1.3 dB per decade when changing from dielectric constant of 1 to
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4.4 for given substrates. Thakur and Kushwaha (2011) in the research titled “Design and

simulation of microstrip antenna of 2.4 GHz using CST software”, RT Duroid 5870 of dielectric

constant of 2.3 was used to make the antenna that had relatively higher efficiency. This was due

to low dielectric constant that is in the range of 1 to 4.4 and the thickness of the substrate was

taken to be 3.18 mm.

Rachmansya et al. (2011) also did a research on designing and manufacturing of microstrip

antenna for wireless communication at 2.4 GHz. In the Study stroform was used as substrate

thickness taken to be 1.2 mm at a resonant frequency of 2.4 GHz. Suganthi et al. (2014) did a

research titled “design and analysis of rectangular microstrip antenna for GSM application”, the

resonant frequency was taken to be 1.8 GHz. FR4 was used as the substrate having the height of

1.6mm. Patil and Kawitkar (2014) did a research on the design and analysis of reduced size

conical shape microstrip patch antenna where FR4 was used as a substrate. The resonant

frequency that was set was 2.4 GHz.

Singh et al. (2016) did a research on Design and Fabrication of Microstrip Patch Antenna at 2.4

GHz for WLAN Application using HFSS. In their study they used FR4 substrate of thickness

1.5mm to design a rectangular microstrip antenna. The microstrip antenna had a return loss of -

12.0505 dB at 2.4GHz.

Saidulu et al. (2013) designed and analyses circular microstrip antenna using super dielectric

substrates at 2.4 GHz. The substrates included Arlon Diclad 880, Arlon Ad 320, FR4 and Arlon

Ad 1000. Arlon Diclad 880 gave the highest gain of 4.8 and Arlon Ad 1000 gave the lowest gain

of 1.5. It was observed that there was a variation of the antenna gain of different dielectric

superstrate thickness as dielectric superstrate thickness increases, the gain decreases. The
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bandwidth of the microstrip antennas increased with increasing thickness of the dielectric

superstrate for low dielectric constant materials, and decreased for high dielectric constant of the

substrate material.

Muhammad (2015) designed a rectangular microstrip antenna that gave a gain of 8.27. in the

study he used the height of the substrate to be 3.0 mm. This antenna also gave a voltage standing

wave ratio of 1.18. at a frequency of 2.4 GHz.

Jhala et al. (2015) also did a research titled “Microstrip Antenna for ISM Band (2.4GHz)

Applications”, FR4 substrate was used. They used a substrate of thickness 3.0 mm. The gain was

3.019 and the VSWR was 1.3. They designed and simulated CST Microwave Studio software.

The microstrip antenna was feed using microstrip line feed technique. Singh et al. (2015)

designed a rectangular microstrip antenna using Rogers TMM 4 (tm) with a relative permittivity

of 4.5 and achieve a gain of 3.06. The antenna had a VSWR of 0.7421. The height of the

substrate was 1.59 mm.

Ahmed et al. (2017) used RO4350B hydrocarbon ceramic laminates substrate to design a

Microstrip antenna. The substrate had a dielectric constant of 3.66. The microstrip antenna had a

gain of 3.08 dB. They used microstrip line feed technique to feed the rectangular microstrip

antenna.
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CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 CAD TOOLS AND ANALYSIS

To understand the MSA‟s performance and to simplify design process, several numerical

analysis techniques have been developed and converted to Computer Aided Design (CAD) tools

(Balanis, 2008). The techniques are used to make the design process of the antenna easier,

quicker and less expensive. Characteristics of microstrip antenna like radiation patterns and

resonant frequency can be achieved using this numerical technique. Transition line and cavity

models gives more accurate and physical insights of the microstrip antennas.

3.1.1 TRANSMISSION LINE MODEL

In this model, a microstrip antenna is represented using two slots of height h and width W that is

separated by a line of transmission of a certain length. From the figure 3.1 some of the field lines

are in air while the majority pass through the dielectric substrate.
W

Figure 3.1 Electric Field Lines

Transmission line does not support only transverse electric magnetic mode of transmission

because the phase velocities are different in the dielectric substrate and in air. For this case the

mode of transmission is quasi transverse electric mode. To account for the fringing effects and

the propagation of the wave, the effective dielectric constant is calculated. Usually the εr is
 17

slightly higher than the effective dielectric constant εreff because not all the field lines pass

through the substrate as shown in figure 3.1. Equation 3.1 gives the effective dielectric constant;

(3.1)

where εreff is the effective dielectric constant, h is the height of the substrate, εr is the dielectric

constant of the substrate and W is the width of the patch.

The length should be less than λ/2 for it to operate in the fundamental TM10 mode. is given by

equation 3.2;

. (3.2)

3.1.2 CAVITY MODEL FOR CIRCULAR PATCH

The cavity model provides a mathematical solution for electric and magnetic fields of a designed

microstrip antenna. The region between the ground plane and the patch is treated as cavity. This

model was proposed by Lo et al. (1979). A circular patch is analyzed using cavity model that is

accomplished using cylindrical coordinates (Balanis, 1989). Vector potential approach is used to

determine the electric and magnetic fields within the cavity of circular patch antenna. For TMz,

which is a major mode supported by circular patch antenna where z is perpendicular to the patch,

the magnetic vector potential Az is used and it should satisfy the cylindrical circumference.

Equation 3.3 is a homogenous equation that takes into consideration radial and boundary

dimensions of the patch antenna.

(3.3)

where k is the wave number with respect to directions.

 18

Which is solved using cylindrical coordinates

(3.4)

Using the method of separation of variables equation 3.4 becomes

(3.5)

It can be shown in TMz modes whose electric and magnetic fields are related to potential Az

(Balanis, 1997).

(3.6)

(3.7)

(3.8)

when the fringing field is considered the resonant frequency is given by equation 3.9;

(3.9)

where f is the resonant frequency, is the permeability of free space and c is the speed of light

in free space.

3.1.3 CAVITY MODEL FOR RECTANGULAR PATCH

In homogenous source free medium, Ax satisfies wave equation 3.10;

(3.10)

For rectangular cavity, it is advantageous to use separation of variables, that is now solved using
 19

Cartesian coordinates;

(3.11)

Using the method of separation of variables, the Eigen equation becomes;

(3.12)

Electric walls at x = 0 and x = h, the tangential E- field components must vanish that is Ey = Ez;

, , (3.13)

At all the sides and at the top and the bottom set a vanishing normal derivative for Ax;

(3.14)

In the vanishing of Hy and Hx at z = 0 and z = L as well as vanishing Hz and Hx at y = 0 and y =

w that is magnetic walls as follows from the relation between H- field and Ax;

(3.15)

The dominant mode is a mode with lowest frequency. Since the lowest frequency mode

is given by equation 3.16;

(3.16)
 20

3.2 DESIGN SPECIFICATION

Depending on the simulated results from the HFSS software the shape of the MSA with best

characteristics was determined through comparison.

3.2.1 DETERMINATION OF RECTANGULAR SHAPED MSA DIMENSIONS

W
Dielectric
Substrate

h
Ground
Plane

Figure 3.2: Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna

The width (w) of the patch is calculated using equation 3.17 below;

(3.17)

Figure 3.3 below is the top view that shows the effective length of the patch which

electromagnetic waves extend beyond the actual length of the patch.

 21

Radiation Slots

Ground
plane

ΔL

Figure 3.3: Effective Length Diagram

Effective length of the patch is given by the sum of the actual length of the patch and length

due to the fields radiating from the radiating patch is found using equation 3.18;

(3.18)

Effective dielectric constant is determined by equation 3.19;

For (3.19)

Actual length of the patch is determined by the equation 3.20;

(3.20)

Lref f is the effective length that is given by the equation 3.21 below;

(3.21)
 22

is the resonant frequency that can be calculate by the equation 3.22;

(3.22)

Figure 3.4 below shows the side view and the movement of electromagnetic waves where h is

the thickness of the patch.

Patch

Ground
Plane

Figure 3.4: Side View of the Patch

3.2.2 CALCULATING THE GROUND PLANE DIMENSION LG AND WG

In practical consideration, it is essential to have a finite ground plane. Same results for finite and

infinite ground plane can be achieved if the size of the ground plane is greater than the patch

dimensions approximately six times the substrate thickness all-round the periphery (Kumar and

Ray, 2003). Equation 3.23 gives the length of the ground plane and Equation 3.24 gives the

width of the ground plane.

(3.23)

(3.24)
 23

3.2.3 DETERMINATION OF CIRCULAR SHAPED MSA DIMENSIONS

Circular Patch

Dielectric Substrate

Ground Plane

Figure 3.5: Circular Patch Microstrip Antenna

The actual radius of the patch is determined by Equation 3.25;

(3.25)

where the dielectric constant of the substrate, h is the thickness of the patch and F is the

fringing effect that is determined by equation 3.26;

(3.26)

To find effective radius is the sum of actual radius α and the radius due to fringing which

is given by the equation 3.27 and equation 3.28;

(3.27)

(3.28)
 24

3.2.4 DETERMINATION OF SQUARE SHAPED MSA DIMENSIONS

Patch

Dielectric
Substrate
L

Ground Plane

Figure 3.6: Squared Microstrip Patch Antenna

The length of each side of a square can be calculated using transition line model (TLM)

equation 3.29;

(3.29)

where L is the length of a square shaped patch, is resonant frequency and is the relative

permittivity of the substrate. Effects of dielectric constant and fringe field at the edge of the

square are given by following:

 The extended field length is given by equation 3.18

 The effective dielectric constant is given by equation 3.19

 The effective length Lref f of the patch is given by equation (3.21)

(3.30)
 25

For practical consideration it is essential to have finite ground plane, for similar results for

greater than the patch dimensions approximately six times the thickness (h) of the substrate

around the periphery. The ground plane dimensions are given by equation 3.31;

3.31

where and are the length and width of the ground plane.

3.2.5 SELECTION OF RESONANT FREQUENCY

In this study, the frequency of operation was 2.4 GHz, this frequency is commonly used in the

wireless fidelity (WiFi), sensor networks and wireless local area networks (WLAN).

3.2.6 SELECTION OF THE SUBSTRATE

FR4 glass epoxy is commonly used because it can work well on both high and low pressure due

to their good strength to weight ratios. It has a tangent loss of 0.02 and a dielectric constant of

4.4. With the low water absorption, it is commonly used as an electrical insulator. RT duroid

5880 glass microfiber reinforced PTFE composites are used for microstrip applications. It has a

low dissipation factor of 2.2 and tangent loss of 0.009 that that make it to be efficient in the

making of the microstrip antenna. RT duroid 5880 laminates are easy to cut and can be machined

to different shape. They are resistant to reagents and solvents. They can also withstand different

types of temperatures so they can be used in etching printed circuits. Other than having a lower

dielectric constant, the substrates are cheaper and easily available. The substrate thickness will

be of a constant value. Factors considered in the choice of the substrate are its thickness (h)

which is supposed to be in the range of 0.003λ≤ h ≤ 0.05λ and the dielectric constant which

should be in the range of ( ).

 26

3.2.7 SELECTION OF FEEDING TECHNIQUE

Coaxial probe feed was used because it is easy to fabricate. In coaxial probe feed, the inner

conductor of the coaxial conductor extends through the dielectric to the conductor while the

outer conductor is connected to the ground plane as shown in figure 3.7. It is preferred because

the position of the feed can be placed at any point to match the input impedance making it easy

to fabricate and has lower spurious radiation.

Radiating patch
Substrate

Ground plane
Coaxial probe
feed

Figure 3.7: Coaxial Probe Feed Diagram

3.2.8 SELECTION OF THE FEED POINT LOCATION

The feed position of the microstrip antenna should be located at a point where the input

impedance is 50 ohms at the resonating frequency. Trial and error was used to determine the

position of the feed position. The position with the lowest return loss is chosen. Along the length

the coaxial probe feed is varied and denoted Xf but along the width Yf is kept at zero.
 27

3.3 SIMULATION PROCESS

Parameters of square, rectangular and circular shapes MSA were determined by ansoft (HFSS)

software depending on the substrate to be used. In this case there were two substrates which are

FR4 and RT Duroid 5880. Simulation using HFSS was done to investigate characteristic of

rectangular shape microstrip patch antenna first using FR4 as a substrate keeping a frequency of

2.4 GHz constant. On the same shape and same frequency simulation was carried out using a

different substrate which was RT Duroid 5880 to investigate its characteristics.

Table 3.1: Rectangular Microstrip Antennas Parameters

Parameter Rectangular RT Duroid Rectangular FR4 MSA

5880 MSA dimensions dimensions
2.2 4.4

h 1.6 mm 1.6 mm

W 4.12 cm 2.86 cm

L 4.00 cm 4.7 cm

fc 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz

c 3.0 x 10 8 m/s 3.0 x 10 8 m/s

Figure 3.8: Rectangular Shape Microstrip Antenna Simulation

 28

Also simulation was carried out on the circular patch microstrip antenna using two different

substrates which are FR4 and RT Duroid 5880 at a fixed frequency of 2.4 GHz and different

characteristics were established.

Table 2: Circular Microstrip Antennas Parameters

Parameter Circular RT Duroid 5880 Circular FR4 MSA

MSA dimensions dimensions
2.2 4.4

H 1.6 mm 1.6 mm

A 4.75 cm 3.41 cm

fc 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz

C 3.0 x 10 8 m/s 3.0 x 10 8 m/s

Figure 3.9: Circular Shape Microstrip Antenna Simulation

 29

Simulation was lastly done on square shape using FR4 and RT Duroid 5880 at the same

frequency of 2.4 GHz. For all simulations the thickness of the substrate was kept constant at

1.6mm.

Table 3: Square Microstrip Antennas Parameters

Parameter Squared RT Duroid 5880 Squared FR4 MSA

MSA dimensions dimensions
2.2 4.4

H 1.6 mm 1.6 mm

W 3.99 cm 2.87 cm

L 3.99 cm 2.87 cm

fc 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz

C 3.0 x 10 8 m/s 3.0 x 10 8 m/s

Figure 3.10 Square Shape Microstrip Antenna Simulation

 30

HFSS gives an intuitive interface to simplify design entry, a field solving engine with accuracy

driven adaptive solutions and a powerful post-processor for unprecedented solutions into

electrical performance. Output of results will be automatically generated and computed by the

HFSS software. The software also incorporates importation of models that are used in analysis

which are return loss, gain and directivity. Comparing the results of different shapes on the two

substrates a shape with the best results was optimized.

3.4 FABRICATION AND MEASUREMENT

The optimized results from Ansoft HFSS software was used in the fabrication process of the

microstrip patch antenna. The shape was printed on transparent polythene paper. The design was

traced by photolithography that is illuminating of UV light on the unwanted parts of the metal for

2 minutes. In the double phase bromography machine shown in figure 3.11.

Figure 3.11: PCB Exposed to UV Light in Double Phase Bromography Machine

 31

The design was then transferred from paper to printed circuit board (PCB) which is made of RT

Duroid 5880. Wet etching using ferric chloride to remove unwanted parts is done for 15 minutes

in an etching machine. As shown in the figure 3.12;

Figure 3.12: PCB Etched in Etching Machine

The prototype was cleaned and the coaxial cable was connected to it as it was the method of

feeding microstrip antenna by soldering. Oiling was done on the patch and the ground plane to

prevent oxidation. Figure 3.13 shows the fabricated microstrip antenna.

 32

Figure 3.13: Fabricated Microstrip Antenna

3.5 TESTING OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA

The scalar network analyzer shown in figure 3.14 was used to measure the return loss curve.

Figure 3.14: Scalar Network Analyzer

The scalar network analyzer was used to give the return loss curve in the set up in the figure 3.15

.
 33

Figure 3.15: Experimental Set up Diagram for Testing MSA

The microstrip antenna was connected to the scalar network analyzer. The analyzer was able to

display the S-parameter curve. From the graph the resonant frequency and the respective

frequency was obtained. Bandwidth, voltage standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient was

then calculated.
 34

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSS ION

4.1 RESULTS

This chapter covers simulation results, experimental and discussion of the work done. The

simulation results were obtained from the high frequency simulation software that was used.

The experimental results were obtained from a scalar network analyzer. The microstrip antenna

was fabricated and different parameters measured. The frequency the fabricated microstrip

antenna was close to the simulated antenna. The return loss of the fabricated and simulated

antenna were found to be close to each other.

4.1 SET 1: USING RT DUROID 5880 IN THE SIMULATION

4.1.1 Return Loss VS Frequency

Figure 4.1 shows the graph of return loss against frequency of a circular microstrip antenna. The

resonant frequency for the antenna is 2.4060 GHz and the return loss at that frequency is -

27.8003dB. This antenna can transmit or receive a signal efficiently at a frequency between

2.3837 GHz to 2.4289 GHz. Circular microstrip antenna gives the lowest return loss among the

three microstrip antennas.

 35

Figure 4.1: S-Parameter for Circular MSA

Figure 4.2 shows rectangular MSA has the second-best return loss after the circular microstrip

antenna. The antenna resonates at 2.4060 GHz. This antenna can transmit or receive a signal

efficiently at a frequency between 2.3842 GHz to 2.4202 GHz since the return loss of these

frequencies is below the commercially accepted return loss of -9.54dB. Rectangular microstrip

antenna reflects more power compared to circular microstrip antenna.

Figure 4.2: S-Parameter for Rectangular MSA

 36

Figure 4.3 shows the return loss against frequency for squared microstrip antenna. This antenna

is resonating at 2.4060 GHz. The return loss at this frequency the return loss is -19.1171 dB. This

antenna can transmit or receive a signal efficiently at a frequency between 2.3872 GHz to 2.4290

GHz since the return loss of these frequencies is below the commercially accepted return loss of

-9.54 dB hence the antenna is able to transmit and receive a signal efficiently.

Figure 4.3: S-Parameter for Squared MSA

Table 4.1: Table of Return Loss and Frequency

Shape Frequency (GHz) Return loss (dB)

Circular MSA 2.4060 -27.8003
Rectangular MSA 2.4060 -15.2317
Squared MSA 2.4060 -19.1171

The circular microstrip antenna has the lowest returning power of the entire microstrip antenna

followed by squared microstrip antenna; lastly the rectangular microstrip antenna has the highest
 37

returning power. The three microstrip antenna can be used for commercial use because the

recommended return loss for an antenna that can work properly is -9.54 dB hence the antenna is

able to transmit and receive a signal efficiently.

Table 4.2: Table of Frequency and Bandwidth

Shape Frequency (GHz) Bandwidth (MHz)

Circular MSA 2.4 45.2

Rectangular MSA 2.4 36.0

Squared MSA 2.4 41.8

Table 4.2 shows circular microstrip antenna has the widest bandwidth followed by squared

microstrip antenna. Rectangular microstrip antenna had the narrowest bandwidth considering the

three shapes because it has higher mismatch amongst the shapes.

4.1.2 SMITH CHART

Figure 4.4 shows the input impedance of a circular patch MSA. At 2.4060 GHz, the input

impedance is 0.9142+00138i. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit most of the incident

power because the imaginary part is close to Zero. This means most of the incident power will

not be reflected back.

 38

Figure 4.4: Smith Chart of Circular MSA

Figure 4.5 shows the input impedance of a rectangular patch MSA. For rectangular MSA, at

2.4060 GHz, the input impedance is 0.7514 + 1860i. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit

most of the incident power because the imaginary part is close to Zero. This means most of the

incident power will not be reflected back.

Figure 4.5: Smith Chart of Rectangular MSA

 39

Figure 4.6 shows the input impedance of a squared patch MSA. The squared MSA has an input

impedance of 0.7936 - 0.0163i at 2.4060 GHz. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit most of

the incident power because the imaginary part is close to Zero. This means that most of the

incident power will not be reflected back. In some frequencies the antenna depicts inductive and

capacitive resistance and both capacitive and inductive frequencies in others that is why we have

the circular shape. At 2.4 GHz the antenna exhibits inductive and capacitive reactance.

Figure 4.6: Smith Chart of Squared MSA

4.1.3 RADIATION PATTERN

Figure 4.7 shows the 2D radiation pattern of circular microstrip antenna. From figure 4.7, much

of its energy is radiated more in one direction this enables it to pick small signal at this direction.

Also, it indicates that the antenna is able to direct input power into radiations in a given direction

more than other directions. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit or receive a signal

efficiently in the direction of highest gain. Figure 4.8 show the 2D radiation pattern of

rectangular microstrip antenna.

 40

Figure 4.7: Radiation Pattern of Circular MSA.

Figure 4.8 shows that the microstrip antenna radiates transmit and receive signal mostly in one

direction. Also, it indicates that the antenna is able to direct input power into radiations in a

given direction more than other directions. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit or receive a

signal efficiently in the direction of highest gain. Figure 4.9 shows the 2D radiation pattern of

squared microstrip antenna simulated using RT duroid 5880.

Figure 4.8: Radiation Pattern of Rectangular MSA.

 41

Figure 4.9 shows that the antenna directs power in one direction at 0°. This means that the

microstrip antenna can radiate well in one direction. Also, it indicates that the antenna is able to

direct input power into radiations in a given direction more than other directions. The microstrip

antenna is able to transmit or receive a signal efficiently in the direction of highest gain. The

circular radiation pattern, rectangular radiation pattern and square radiation patterns radiate well

at angle of Ѳ = 0° which is perpendicular to the microstrip antenna.

Figure 4.9: Radiation Pattern of Squared MSA.

4.1.4 3D POLAR

Figure 4.10 shows the 3D radiation pattern for a circular patch microstrip antenna using RT

Duroid 5880.
 42

Figure 4.10: 3D Radiation Pattern of Circular Patch Microstrip Antenna.

At the frequency of 2.4060 GHz the peak gain of the microstrip antenna is 6.8393 dB. This

indicates that the antenna is able to direct input power into radiations in a given direction more

than other directions. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit or receive a signal efficiently in

the direction of highest gain. Figure 4.11 shows the 3D radiation pattern for rectangular patch

microstrip antenna.

Figure 4.11: 3D Radiation Pattern of Rectangular Patch Microstrip Antenna.

 43

At the frequency of 2.4060 GHz the peak gain of the microstrip antenna was 6.8848 dB. This

indicates that the antenna is able to direct input power into radiations in a given direction more

than other directions. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit or receive a signal efficiently in

the direction of highest gain. Figure 4.12 shows the 3D radiation pattern for squared patch

microstrip antenna.

Figure 4.12: 3D Radiation Pattern of Squared Patch Microstrip Antenna.

At the frequency of 2.4060 GHz the peak gain of the microstrip antenna is 6.6901 dB. This

indicates that the antenna is able to direct input power into radiations in a given direction more

than other directions. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit or receive a signal efficiently in

the direction of highest gain.

 44

Table 4.3: Antenna Parameters for Set 1 at 2.4 GHZ

Quantity Circular MSA Rectangular MSA Squared MSA

RT duroid 5880 RT duroid 5880 RT duroid 5880

Max U 0.0034761 0.0037391 0.0035677

Peak Directivity 4.9785 5.0849 4.8456

Peak Gain 4.8297 4.8807 4.6667

Realized peak gain 4.7772 4.7429 4.5264

Radiated power 0.0094936 W 0.0092407 W 0.0092527 W

Accepted power 0.009786 W 0.0096273 W 0.0096072 W

Incident power 0.0099043 W 0.009907 W 0.0099051 W

Radiation efficiency 0.97012 0.95984 0.9631

Front to back ratio 77.74 19.948 34.863

The realized gain takes into consideration of all the losses an antenna experiences. From table

4.3 Circular patch microstrip antenna has the highest realized gain followed by rectangular patch

microstrip antenna. Squared patch microstrip antenna has the lowest realized gain of the three

shapes. The variation of the values of the realized gain is that circular patch microstrip antenna

experiences lower amount of losses compared to the other shapes.

 45

4.2 SET 2: SIMULATION USING FR4

4.2.1 RETURN LOSS VS FREQUENCY

Figure 4.13 shows a graph of return loss against frequency of circular patch microstrip antenna.

Figure 4.13 shows that the microstrip antenna resonates at a frequency of 2.4GHz. At this

frequency, the power that is returned is -22.9104 dB. This antenna can transmit or receive a

signal efficiently at a frequency between 2.3687 GHz to 2.4411 GHz since the return loss of

these frequencies is below the commercially accepted return loss of -9.54dB.

Figure 4.13: Graph of Return Loss against Frequency of a Circular Patch

Microstrip Antenna

Figure 4.14 shows a graph of return loss against frequency of rectangular patch microstrip

antenna. In figure 4.14, the microstrip antenna is able to radiate or receive energy at 2.4GHz

more efficiently. The return loss at this frequency is -21.0692 dB. This antenna can transmit or

receive a signal efficiently at a frequency between 2.3678 GHz to 2.4387 GHz since the return

loss of these frequencies is below the commercially accepted return loss of -9.54dB.
 46

Figure 4.14: Graph of Return Loss against Frequency of a Rectangular Patch

Microstrip Antenna
Figure 4.15 shows a graph of return loss against frequency of squared patch microstrip antenna.

Figure 4.15 shows the s- parameter for squared patch microstrip antenna resonating at 2.4GHz

with a return loss of -18.5550 dB. This antenna can transmit or receive a signal efficiently at a

frequency between 2.3717 GHz to 2.4412 GHz since the return loss of these frequencies is below

the commercially accepted return loss of -9.54dB.

 47

Figure 4.15: Graph of Return Loss against Frequency of a Squared Patch Microstrip
Antenna

Table 4.4: Table of Frequency and Return Loss

Shape Frequency (GHz) Return loss (dB)

Circular MSA 2.4060 -22.9104
Rectangular MSA 2.4060 -21.0692
Squared MSA 2.4060 -18.5550

Table 4.4 shows all the microstrip antenna resonate at 2.4 GHz. Circular patch microstrip

antenna has the lowest return loss meaning that of all the antennas, it reflects the lowest power.

The rectangular patch microstrip antenna has the second best return loss. Squared patch

microstrip antenna has the highest return loss. Square patch microstrip antenna returns highest

power. The three microstrip antennas can be used for commercial use because all the return

losses are lower than the recommended value of -9.54 dB.

 48

Table 4.5: Table of Frequency and Bandwidth

Shape Frequency (GHz) Bandwidth (MHz)

Circular MSA 2.4 77.3
Rectangular MSA 2.4 70.9
Squared MSA 2.4 69.5

Table 4.5 shows circular patch microstrip antenna has the widest bandwidth then rectangular

patch microstrip antenna, lastly the square microstrip antenna. Circular patch MSA can work

properly at wide range of frequencies compared to the other two.

4.2.2 SMITH CHART

Figure 4.16 shows the input impedance of a circular patch MSA. At 2.4060 GHz, the input

impedance is 0.8712+ 0.0586i. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit most of the incident

power because the imaginary part is close to Zero. This means most of the incident power will

not be reflected back.

Figure 4.16: Smith Chart of Circular Patch MSA

 49

Figure 4.17 shows the input impedance of a rectangular patch MSA. At 2.4060 GHz, the input

impedance is 0.8685+0.1102i. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit most of the incident

power because the imaginary part is close to Zero. This means most of the incident power will

not be reflected back.

Figure 4.17: Smith Chart of Rectangular Patch MSA

Figure 4.18 shows the input impedance of a squared patch MSA. At 2.4060 GHz, the input

impedance is 0.7874+0.0529i. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit most of the incident

power because the imaginary part is close to Zero. This means most of the incident power will

not be reflected back. In some frequencies the antenna depicts inductive and capacitive resistance

and both capacitive and inductive frequencies in others that is why we have the circular shape.

At 2.4 GHz the antenna exhibits inductive and capacitive reactance.

 50

Figure 4.18: Smith Chart of Squared Patch MSA

4.2.3 RADIATION PATTERN

Figure 4.19 indicates that the antenna is able to direct input power into radiations in a given

direction more than other directions. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit or receive a

signal efficiently in the direction of highest gain.

Figure 4.19: Radiation Pattern of Circular Patch Microstrip Antenna

 51

Figure 4.20 indicates that the antenna is able to direct input power into radiations in a given

direction more than other directions. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit or receive a

signal efficiently in the direction of highest gain.

Figure 4.20: Radiation Pattern of Rectangular Patch Microstrip Antenna

Figure 4.21 indicates that the antenna is able to direct input power into radiations in a given

direction more than other directions. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit or receive a

signal efficiently in the direction of highest gain. All the microstrip antennas radiate highest

towards one direction at angle of Ѳ = 0° which is perpendicular to the microstrip antenna.

 52

Figure 4.21: Radiation Pattern of Squared Patch Microstrip Antenna

4.2.4 3D POLAR

At the frequency of 2.4060 GHz, the peak gain of the microstrip antenna is 3.0995 dB. This

indicates that the antenna is able to direct input power into radiations in a given direction more

than other directions. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit or receive a signal efficiently in

the direction of highest gain.

Figure 4.22: 3D Polar of Circular Patch Microstrip Antenna

 53

At the frequency of 2.4060 GHz the peak gain of the microstrip antenna is 2.7842 dB. This

indicates that the antenna is able to direct input power into radiations in a given direction more

than other directions. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit or receive a signal efficiently in

the direction of highest gain.

Figure 4.23: 3D Polar of Rectangular Patch Microstrip Antenna

At the frequency of 2.4060 GHz the peak gain of the microstrip antenna is 2.4184 dB. This

indicates that the antenna is able to direct input power into radiations in a given direction more

than other directions. The microstrip antenna is able to transmit or receive a signal efficiently in

the direction of highest gain. Circular, rectangular and square shaped microstrip antennas radiate

power highest in one direction at angle of Ѳ = 0°. The three microstrip antennas are radiators.
 54

Figure 4.24: 3d Polar of Squared Patch Microstrip Antenna

Table 4.6: Antenna Parameters for Set 2 at 2.4 GHz

Quantity Circular MSA Rectangular MSA Squared MSA

FR4 FR4 FR4

Max U 0.0015981 0.0014844 0.0013509

Peak Directivity 3.7951 3.8258 3.5884

Peak Gain 2.0415 1.8986 1.7452

Realized peak gain 2.0273 1.8836 1.7138

Radiated power 0.0052918W 0.004876W 0.0047308W

Accepted power 0.0098373W 0.009876W 0.0097273W

Incident power 0.0099063W 0.0099038W 0.0099056W

Radiation efficiency 0.53793 0.49625 0.48634

Front to back ratio 7.9386 5.6112 5.3638

 55

The realized gain takes into consideration all the losses an antenna experiences. From the table

4.6 Circular patch microstrip antenna has the highest realized gain followed by rectangular patch

microstrip antenna. Squared patch microstrip antenna has the lowest realized gain of the three

shapes. The variation of the values of the realized gain is that circular patch microstrip antenna

experiences lower amount of losses as compared to the other shapes.

4.3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The circular patch microstrip antenna was connected to scalar network analyzer. The fabricated

microstrip antenna was able to detect the signal and the return loss curve that was displayed on

the screen. The curve showed the microstrip antenna was resonating at 2.3966GHz and the

variation the frequency can be attributed to the changes in the measurement of the fabricated

microstrip antenna. The figure 4.25 shows s-parameter for both fabricated and simulated

microstrip antenna.
 56

S- PARAMETER FOR SIMULATED MSA AND

FABRICATED MSA
0.000
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500 4.000

-5.000
Return loss

-10.000

-15.000

-20.000

-25.000

-30.000

Frequency

Figure 4.25: Graph of Fabricate Circular MSA and Simulated Circular MSA

The fabricated circular patch microstrip antenna was resonating at 2.3966 GHz while the

simulated circular patch microstrip antenna was resonating at 2.4060GHz. The results are

comparable since there was a small deviation.

 57

Table 4.7: Comparison of Simulated and Measured Results

Quantity Simulated circular patch fabricated circular patch

microstrip antenna microstrip antenna

Return loss -27.8003 -24.965

VSWR 1.0952 1.2197

Bandwidth 43.2MHz 42.1MHz

Reflective coefficient 0.0454 0.0565

Table 4.7 shows parameter from the simulated and fabricated Microstrip antenna. The values

measured from the fabricated microstrip antenna deviated from the simulated this may be dust to

deviation of the measurement of the dimensions of the microstrip antenna during fabrication.

Also, it can be due to the change in the position of the coaxial probe feed during soldering. The

margin the measurements have deviated still the microstrip antenna is able receive and transmit

an signal effectively at 2.4 GHz.

 58

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSIONS

In this research circular, rectangular and squared patch microstrip antennas were resonating

at the same frequency despite having different areas. Circular patch microstrip antenna gave

the best realized gain of 4.7772 and the highest efficiency of 97.012

The rectangular patch microstrip antenna in the research gave the highest directivity followed

circular patch antenna. Squared microstrip antenna gave the lowest directivity. This variation

is caused by dimensions of the antennas because of the large surface area of the copper patch

the lower the directivity.

For the optimum frequency of 2.4 GHz the square patch microstrip antenna was the smallest

followed by rectangular patch microstrip antenna. Circular microstrip antenna was the

biggest.

Circular patch microstrip antenna has the largest bandwidth followed by rectangular

microstrip antenna, squared microstrip antenna gave the smallest band width. For the

antennas the bandwidth was in the range of 2 % to7% which is close to the one provided by

open literature which is 2% to 5% for the coaxial probe feed.

Circular microstrip antenna gave the highest realized gain followed by rectangular patch

microstrip antenna, squared microstrip antenna had the lowest realized gain. Circular shape

experiences the low amount of losses while the squared patch microstrip antenna has the

highest losses.
 59

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

Different feeding methods can be used to feed the microstrip antennas which include microstrip

line feed, proximity coupling or aperture coupling either these can be to study whether the

realized gain can be improved further. Other than the shapes used in the research different shapes

can be tried for example elliptical quarter circle can be studied. Substrates with lower directivity

can be used which can give higher gain. To reduce the size of microstrip antenna a substrate with

high dielectric constant like silicon can be tried. Array of antenna patches of these shapes should

also be studied because they produce the higher overall gain.

 60

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