--,Power Plant Engineering Course Manual...

SAC Motors
*Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motors
8.0 AC MOTORS produce altemating current:-Therefoi-e. a majority
of motors used in commerciil industry are de
Learning Objectives signed to operate on alternating current (AC).
However, besides the -wide availability of AC
After studying this chapter, you should be able power,-AC m6tors offer other advantages.- In
to: general, AC motors are less expensive. Because
1. Describe the'factors that affect the syn they do not-employ commutators, AC motors
chronous speed of a motor. eliminate the problem of darigerous sparking and
frequent brush replacement associated with DC
2. Define "slip" and explain the factors that systems. AC motors are manufa6tured in many
cause slip to change. different sizes, shapes, and ratirigs for use on a
great many different jobs>-They are desiigned for
3. Explain the operation of a three-phase in use with either three-phase or single-phase power
duction motor including its reaction to an systems. This chapter will deal with the operating
"increasein load. principles of three of thý more -omrnmon types of
AC motors'-' the induction m6tor. the single
4. Describe the operation of the following phase motor, arid the sn6hr6nous motor.
types of single-phase AC motors:
8.2 AC Motor Theory
a. Shaded - pole
b. In~tuction - start 8.2.1 Development of a Rotating Field
c. Cap'acitor - start
Both induction ahd synchronous motors uti
5. Describe the operation of a synchronous lize a rotating magnetic field. Thi field is' pro
motor. 'duced i inthe motor stator windings. -These wind
ings are symmetrically placed on the stator and
6. Explain why starting current is greater may be either wye or delta connected. Figure 8-1
than running current in an AC induction illustrates a rotating field produced by curients in
motor. the stator's stationary coils. or windings, supplied
by a three-phaseobwk;ef source., Field rotation can
7. Describe the relationship between rotor be observed in the figure by "stopping" it at six
current, slip, and torque in an AC induc selecied positions. ofinstants. T"hese instants are
tion motor. marked off _it 60' iniervials on the sine waves that
represent currents in 'the three phases (A; B, and
8. Des•ribe'why some motors have starting
limits or restart limits.
At t-1, the current in $phase B is'maximum
9. Describe the operation and purpose of pcisitive'iind current in phases A and C is at half
motor controllers using full-voltage, pri ",negativevalue: The resulting field at t-i is estab
mary-resistor, or autotransformer starters. lished downvfard afnd to the left (7. o'clock). The
major portion of this field is produced by the B
10. State the relative advantage 'of synchro phase (maximum current) and'is aided by the
nous and induction motors. adjacent phases A and C (half strength). The
direction of the magnetic field resulting from
8.1 Introduction current flow through a coil of wire may be deter
mined by wrapping the fingers of your right hand
Most of today's power generating systems in the direction that current flows around the coil.

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 AC Motors
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ManualACMot

Your thumb will then point in-the direction of the where

resulting magnetic field.,
N = the number of revolutions that the field
makes per minute,
Because the fields effectively combine to form
one field of a given direction and strength, this is
f = the frequency of the applied voltage in
a two-pole field (one north and one south pole).
cycles per second (Hz), and
This two-pole field extends across the space that
would normally contain the rotor.
P = the number of poles.
At t-2, current in phase B is reduced to half
positive value. Current in phase C has reversed The speed at which an AC motor field rotates
direction and is positive, and current in phase A is referred to as its synchronous W&.e., because it
has increased to a maximum negative-value. The is synchronized to the power supply frequency. A
two-pole motor connected to a 60-Hz source has a
resulting field at t-2 is now established downward
and to the right (5 o'clock). The major portion of synchronous speed (magnetic rotating field speed)
the field is produced by phase A (full strength) and of 3600 rpm; a four-pole motor, 1800 i-pm, and a
six-pole motor, 12(X) rpm.
the weaker portions by phases B, and C (half
strength). Thus the magnetic field has rotated
The speed of the rotating field is always inde
counterclockwise. This process continues at a
speed determined by the applied frequency (60 Hz pendent of motor load changes. Because the
for grid loads). number of poles in a motor is fixed (some special
application motors have variable poles), the only
variable that can affect synchronous speed of an
The direction of rotation of the magnetic re
volving field of a three-phase motor may be re operating motor is the applied frequency.
versed by interchanging any two line leads to the
three motor terminals. 8.2.3 AC Motor Losses and Efficiency

Motor Synchronous Speed The efficiency of any motor is equal to the

8.2.2
ratio of the output power to input power. The
difference between output and input power is
In Figure 8-1, current sine waves traversed
attributed to motor losses.
3000 for the six positions shown. Accordingly, the
field rotated 300'. If the frequency of current were
Losses in an AC motor can be attributed to I-R
60 Hz, the field would rotate at 60 revolutions per
losses as a result of rotor and stator currents, rotor
second or 3600 revolutions per minute (60 x 60 =
windage, and bearing friction losses, (which to
3600). However, if the number of stator coils were
gether are termed mechanical losses), and finally
doubled, producing a four-pole field, the field
magnetic field or core losses.
would rotate only half as fast. Thus, it can be seen
that speed of the rotating field varies, directly with
Because the current flow in an AC motor is
the frequency- of applied, voltage and inversely
constantly clhanging in 'iMagnitude and direction
with the number of stator poles; therefore:
and there are mariny coils wrapped around the
stator, AC motors deyelop a large amount of
N= 120f inductive reactance (XL), which decreases motor
P current but is not considered a motor loss.

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 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motor•€
PAC Motors
Running at full load conditions, the efficiency squirrel cage rotor motors and require much more
of most AC motors can be expected to be 92% to frequent maintenance.
96%.
8.3.2 Induction Motor Operation
8.3 '.Three-Phase Induction Motors
As its name implies, induction motor opera
Three-phase induction motors are the most tion is based on the principle of electromagnetic
common type of three-phase motor. They have the "induction. ThreE-phase AC line voltage is applied
advantage of simple, rugged construction, which to the stator of the induction motor,'resulting in
m kes them relatively inexpensive. Induction stator current and a rotating magnetic field. Recall
motors also have high starting' torque'ahd desir that the stator field rotates at'synchronous speed as
-'able torque/speed characteristics under normal determined by the niuinb-er of stator poles and'the
load. They are used in applications such a's fans, 'frequeficy of ihe applied voltage.
blowers, pumps, and compressors where high start
ing torque and limited speed control ii required. Relative motion between the rotating mag
iineic field and the bars or conductors on the rotor
8.3.1 Induction Motor Construction cause a voltage'to be induced iii the 60nductors of
the rotor. Because the condu'coris Of the rotor-are
The statorof an induction motor is very similar shorted at their ends-. there is a compleie pkit for
to the stator of a three-phase AC generator and is rotor current to flow. This rotor cuir-eni flowing
also similar to the stator of a synchronous motor. around the conductors in the rotor crieate~s a ro"tor
Line Voltage is applied to the three phases of the magnetic field. The rotor iriagnetic field and sititor
stator to produce a rotating magnetic field as magnetic field interact to produce torque to turn
described in section 8.2.1. the rotor.

The two types of induction motors are differ Relative motion must exist between the stator
entiated by the rotor designs. 'A squirrel cage magnetic field (tirning at synclir6nousspee'd) and
induction motor uses a caged rotor as shown in the'rot6r in order foir voltage ito be' induced,' rotor
Figure 8-2A. 'Copper bars are connected at ihe curre'nt to flow, a rotor magnetic field to be"pro
ends by a copperiing called a shorting ring. The duced, and torque to be generated. "The relative
squirrel cage induction ihotor is 'inexpensive, motion is a resultof the difference'between syn
simple, and very rugged. A typical squirrel cage chzron6u.s speed and rotor (6peraiuihg) speed and is
motor is illiustiated in-Figure 8-2B. called 'sliHd seed or simply, sUn (s). is most
-Slip

fri-qtiin'tly expressed is a- fraction orp'er/sent of

The second type of induction -motor is the synchronous speed; that is:
"wound rotor iriduction'motor. This rotor'design
has the advantage'of improved speed contiol be
N-N,
"causeresistors can be placed in series %withthe
..rotor windirgs. The' rbtor is wound Ns
;,ith' three
phases each with l6ids c6nne2cted to slip'nings.
Brushes pick up the rtotri current iind carry' it to a where
bank of external resistors. Rd6r'circuit resistance
is then adjusted fori the desired speed. A scheimaitic S = slip- * .
view of this arrangement is shown in Figure 8-3A, N%1 = speed ofstator field (synchronous speed)
and a cutaway view of an actual motor is shown in in rpm. and
Figure 8-3B. Wound rotor induction motors are Nr = speed of the rotor in rm.
more complex, expensive, afid'less rugged than

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motors
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Mozurs
8.3.3 Induction Motor Response- to an 1. Shaded - pole
Increase in Load 2. Induction - start
3. Capacitor - start
As the load on an induction is increased, an
immediate mismatch occurs between the torque of 8.4.1 Shaded Pole Single-Phase Motors
the load and the torque provided by the motor. As
a result, the rotor slows down. This causes slip to Some fractional horsepower single-phase
increase (more relative motion between the stator motors are started by using shading coils to create
field and the rotor). This in turn results in more shaded poles as shown in Figure 8-4. The stator
voltage induced in the rotor, more rotor current, winding of these motors is distributed around the
and a stronger rotor field. Thus, the motor torque frame on projecting pole pieces. In addition to the
increases until the torque of the motor matches the main stator winding, a short-circuited heavy-wire
torque of the load in steady state at a new, slower coil, or shading coil, is placed around a portion of
speed. each pole piece. This shading coil makes the flux
in that portion of the pole piece lag behind the flux
The speed of an induction motor changes with produced by the main portion of the pole. The out
load overits operating range. However, the change of-phase flux fields interact to produce a distorted
is relatively small and does not prevent the motor overall field that rotates, developing sufficient
from having many applications. Typical values of torque to start small motors under very light load
slip for an induction motor range from 0.03 to 0.05 conditions. These motors produce fractional horse
at full load for a low slip motor and 0.07 to 0.11 for power and are frequently used for equipment such
a medium slip motor. as hair dryers, clocks, and small fans employed to
cool electronic equipment.
8.4 Single-Phase AC Motors
8.4.2 Induction-Start Single-Phase Motors
For economical purposes, the electrical dis
tribution systems that provide power to the many The induction-start single-phase motor is pro
small AC motors used in nuclear plants typically vided with an auxiliary stator winding in addition
provide only single-phase AC power at low, volt to the main stator winding. This winding is located
ages and current flows. The induction motors in the stator slots so that it is displaced 90 electrical
described in section 8.3 wili not work with single degrees from the main stator winding as shown in
phase AC because a rotating field cannot be gen Figure 8-5., If two currents sufficiently out of
erated in the stator by single-phase power unless phase with eachother are passed through the main
the stator windings and/or the stator power supply and auxiliary windings, interacting field condi
circuit are appropriately modified. tions similar,to those existing in a three-phase
induction motor will be produced. The two neces
Because a rotating field is not generated in a sary currents, which are from 30 to 45 degrees out
single-phase motor, an unmodified mhotor would of phase with each other, are obtained from the
produce no starting torque on a stationary rotor. single-phase AC power input by constructing par
After the rotor starts rotating, however, a continu allel winding circuits, with one of the circuits
ous turning torque is generated by the interaction having a realtively high inductance and the other
of the stator and rotor magnetic fields. Therefore, having a relatively high resistance. The main or
single-phase AC motors must be provided with an running winding always has the high inductance.
auxiliary means for initiating the rotor rotation. The auxiliary winding is wound with a finer wire,
Single-phase AC motors are frequently classified giving it higher resistance than the main winding.
in the following groups, based on the method used The running ormain winding remains in the circuit
for starting the rotor rotation: whenever the motor is running, while the auxiliary

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 Powier Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motors
PAC Motors
or stator winding remains in the circuit only until of the rotor and stator will lock together. The rotor
the motor has reached 50 to 80 percent of synchro will then turn at the speed of the revolving field;
nous speed. When the rotor reaches this speed, an therefore, it is "synchronized." The simplest syn
automatic centrifugal switch operates to open the chronous motor is a permanent bar magnet that
starting circuit. This type of single-phase induc rotates at the speed of the stator's rotating field. In
tion motor starts as a "two-phase" motor until the actuality this would be called a reluctance motor.
starting winding is isolated, when it continues to
operate, by virute of the running winding only, as A synchronous motor also -requires special
a single-phase motor. Induction-start motors are starting components. Because the field of the
constafit speed machines, and cannot be adapted stator is revolving very rapidly and the rotor field
for speed control. They are made in sizes up to a is established by an external source, the rotor will
third horsep6wer., attempt to instantly lock in with the stator field.
Because of inertia, the rotor cannot instantly come
8.4.3 Capacitor-Start Single-Phase Motors up to synchronous speed. Therefore, the rotor will
not pull into synchronization and will vibrate back
Capacitor-start motors are single-phase in and forth. To aid in the starting process, a small
duction mot6rs that have two stator windings squirrel cage winding (also called the amortisseur
displaced 90 electrical degrees from each other winding) is included in the rotor. When the motor
similiar to the 'irduction-start motor. Again, the is first started, the DC field is not energized. Slip
starting torque is developed by a two-phase action. induces current in the rotor and the rotor starts to
In the capacitor-start motor, the necessary phase speed up. If the motor is allowed to run at less than
-displacement between -the currents, of the two synchronous speed for an extended period, the
stator windings is produced by placing a capacitor small squirrel cage winding will overheat. When
in series With the auxiliary winding as shown in ,the motor approaches synchronous speed, the DC
Figure 8-6. -By using a capacitor, the phase dis rotor field is energized. This causes the rotor to
placement can bý made to approach 90 degrees, pull into synchronization. Because no slip exists,
which results in a better starting torque with lower no current is induced in the small squirrel cage
starting current than can be obtained with the winding, protecting it from overheating.
induction-start motor: Capacitor-start motors have
the advantages of quiet operation, high power 8.5.2, Synchronous Motor Speed
factor, and a redu'ction in radio interference. These
motors are made in various sizes up to 10 horse Synchronous motors run at a fixed (synchro
power. nous) speed determined by line frequency and the
number of poles in the machine. ,Therefore, speed
8.5 Synclironous Motors of asynchronousmotor is independentof loadand
follows the previously described equation for motor
8.5.1 Synchronous Motor Operation synchronous speed as

The stator or armature windings of induction 120f

and synchronous motors are essentially the same.
P
However, their rotors differ in several ways.*The where
rotor of a typical synchronous motor is essentially
the same as that of a' generator. It requires-a N = number of rpm/min of the field and the
separate source of DC voltage to the rotor (rotor rotor.
current is not induced) to create the rotor field. f = frequency of applied voltage in cycles/
Because' 'o relative riotion between rotor and per second, and
rotating stator field is required, the opposite lroles P = nurrber of field poles of rotor.
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 AC Motors
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improvethe power factor at the input lines to an
However, if load on the rotor shaft becomes
industrial establishment that makes heavy, use of
too great for the magnetic lock, between the rotor
induction motors and other equipment drawing
and stator, the rotor will pull out of synchroniza
power at a lagging power factor. Many electric
tion and stall. This can be prevented by increasing
power companies charge increased power rates
DC rotor current to increase the magnetic lock when power is bought at a very lagging power
before increasing the load.
factor. Over the years such increased power rates
can result in an appreciable expenditure of money.
8.5.3 Overexcited Synchronous Motors
In such instances the installation of a synchronous
motor operated overexcited can more than pay for
For a fixed mechanical power developed (load),
itself by improving the overall input power factor
it is possible to adjust the reactive component of to the point where the increased rates no longer
the current drawn by the synchronous motor from apply.
the line by varying the DC field current (excita
tion); This provides the ability to control the 8.5.4 Synchronous Motor Applications
electrical angle between the voltage applied to the
terminals of the motor and the motor stator current Synchronous motors below 50 hp are rarely
and thus control the reactive power associated used in the medium-speed (500 rpm) range be
with the synchronous motor. cause of their much higher initial cost compared to
induction motors. In addition, these motors re
This is possible because the magnetic field of quire a DC excitation source. and the starting-and
the rotor induces a second voltage, in the stator
control devices are usually more expensive---es
windings in addition to the applied voltage from pecially where automatic_ operation is required.
the line. The net current flowing in the stator then
However, synchronous motors do offer some very
is the result of the combination of these two definite advantages. These include constant-speed
voltages. Remember that the stator current is the operation, power-factor control, and high operat
source of the stator magnetic field which pulls the ing efficiency. Furthermore. there is a horsepower
rotor magnetic field in synch. and speed range where the disadvantage of higher
initial cost vanishes, even to the point of putting
As excitation is increased, the strength of the
the synchronous motor to advantage. This is
rotor magnetic field increases and the torque pro demonstrated in Figure 8-7. When low speeds and
vided by the motor tends to increase (the force high horsepower are involved, the induction mo
-between the rotor field and stator field tends to tor is no longer cheaper because it must use large
increase). This does not occur, however, because amounts of iron in order not to exceed flux density
the load is fixed and-the-motor cannot speed up limits. However, high flux densities are permis
above synchronous speed. The voltage induced in sible in the synchronous machine because of the
the stator by the rotor field in this situation com separate excitation.
bines with the applied (line) voltage to produce a
leading reactive current that acts to reduce the total Some of the more important characteristics of
magnetic flux of the machine until the torque of the synchronous motor along with some typical
the motor matches the torque of the load. applications are shown in Table 8-1.

When the excitation of a synchronous motor is 8.6 Motor Starting Current

increased so that is operates with a leading power
factor, it is said to be overexcited. Recall from the Chapter 6 discussion of trans
formers that counter emf refers to the voltage
The ability of the synchronous motor to draw induced in a winding that opposes or is counter"to
leading current when overexcited can be used to

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AC Motors
the change in current that produces it. In the case Some AC motors are started unloaded to limit
of an AC motor, the counter emf results from starting current The unloaded rotor increases to
-.relative motion between the net (combined stator
rated speed with no-load running amperage in a
and rotor) magnetic field and the conductors in the short time period. Then the motor load can be
stator. AC motor counter emf opposes the current slowly increased to normal. No-load starting
applied to the stator. minimizes the initial current drag on the electrical
supply system.
When an AC motor is first started, there is NO
counter emf to oppose stator current flow. There Repeated motoistartý in a sh6rt period of time
fore, the starting current of an AC motor started at do not allow time for the heat generated from high
full voltage is 7 to 10 times the normal running-, starting currents io dissipate.
For this reason,
current. The equation for current flowing through restart limits are sometimes imposed to limit how
an AC motor stator is shown as Equation 8-1: soon after shutdowrn a motor can beý restarted.

E s - -E . 8.7 Starting Circuits

Z3 (8-1)
8.7.1 General

where Induction motors may be stafted with'-full

supply voltage by connecting the motor directly to
I, the current flowing through the stator, the supply circuit or with reduced voltage by
E= the applied voltage across the stator, temporarily insertingvoltage reducers during the
Ec= the counter emf, and starting period. Motor controllers can be used for
=Zs the total impedance of the stator. starting motors by either method and can be oper
ated either maniually or magnetically*.
A typical AC motor starting current curve is
shown in Figure 8-8. As rotor speed increases, AC induction motors can be'connec'ted di
counter emf increases, lowering stator current rectly acrossthe line without damage to the motor.
between points A and B. The starting current However, because'of the heavy current drag and
continues to decrease until the rotor reaches its voltage disturbance created on the' suppl; system
normal running speed for the shaft load. The by the starting current, large AC motors are otten
current drawn at normal speed is called the run started with reduced voltage. .
ning current (point C).
A greater starting torque is exerted by a motor
- If the rot6r start in Figure 8-8 were observed started on full voltage rather than reduced voltage.
on an ammeter, the current would initially spike to The available torque of an induction motor is
7 to 10 times normal running current. As motor -ýproportional to the square of the applied voltage.
speed increases, the indicated current would drop Therefore, if the voltage is reduced to 80% of rated
to the normal running current. value during starting, the siarting torque is re
duced to 64% of maximum torque. The reduced
8.6.1 No-Load Starting voltage applied-to the motor.during the-starting
-period lowers -the initial starting current but also
When an AC motor is unloaded by reducing increases the period of acceleration tirne because
the shaft load, the ,required torque is minimum of the reduced value of the starting torque. 'The
Ojust enugl.to overcome friction and rotor wind type of load being started also has a bearing on the
"agelosses). Therefore, the required stator current method of starting to be used. -If,for example, a
is much less than if the m otor were running loaded. particular load might be damaged by sudden start-
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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motors
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ing and should be accelerated slowly,-then re connecting the motor to the line through the start
duced-voltage starting mnust be used. ing resistors. This causes the time delay coil (TD)
to energize. After the time delay has elapsed,
AC motor controllers may use full-voltage/ during which the motor has accelerated, the TD
across-'the-line starters or reduced-voltage start contact closes. This energizes the accelerating
ers, which may be primary-resistor starters or coil (A), which short circuits the starting resistors
autotransformer starters. and applies full voltage to the motor.

8.7.2 Full-Voltage Starters In the starter just described, the starting resis
tance is cut out in one step. To obtain smoother
Motors started on full-line voltage use across acceleration with less supply system disturbance,
the-line starters, which may be either a circuit starters are available in which the starting resis
breaker or a remote motor controller. A magneti tance is reduced in multiple steps.
cally operated motor controller with an across
the-line starter is shown in Figure 8-9. The motor 8.7.4 Autotransformer Starters
controller circuit is similar in purpose and opera
tion to a circuit breaker control circuit, except that Autotransformer starters, sometimes called
a line contactor is used in place of a circuit breaker. starting compensators, may also be used to reduce
When the operating coil is energized by complet the voltage applied to the motor during the starting
ing the circuit at the "start" pushbutton, the oper period. Autotransformer starters may be either
ating coil closes the line contacts for all three manually or magrietically operated; a typical
phases. Full line voltage is applied immediately to manual type'is! shown in Figure 8-11.
the motor. A "maintaining contact" is also closed
by the operating coil, which allows the "start" The manual aiitotransformer starter is essen
pushbutton to be released while current is main tially a multipole, double-throw switch. In Figure
tained through the operating coil to keep the line 8-11, three rows of contacts are shown - the
contacts closed. The operating coil will be starting, running, and movable contacts. The
deenergized by actuating the "stop" pushbutton or starting and running contacts are stationary,' and
by actuation of an overload relay under excessive the movable'contacts are attached to the op'er'rating
current conditions. When the - operating coil handle. Wherithe operating handle is moved to the
deenergizes, the line contacts and maintaining start positi6n, the movable contacts are moved
contact open, deenergizing the motor. against the startinig contacts. This connects the
wye-connected autotransformers to the line and
8.7.3 Primary-Resistor Starters the motor to the secondary side of the transform
ers. The mapnitude of the'secondary voltage of the
In the primary-resistor starter, reduced volt transformers is'dermniined by the tap setting of the
age is obtained by adding resistances that are transformeribut is usually either 80% or 65% of the
connected in series with each stator lead during the line voltage.
starting period. The voltage drop in the resistors
produces a reduced voltage at the motor terminals. After the motor accelerates at reduced voltage,
At some time after the motor is connected to the the operating handle is moved to the "ruin" posi
line through the resistors, accelerating contacts tion; this operation connects the motor directly to
close and short circuit the startingresistors, apply the line through tie runining contacts. The operat
ing full voltage to the motor (see Figure 8-10). ing handle is held in'the "run" position by the
tndervoliage device. If ihe supply voltage fails'or
When the start button is closed, the main coil drops to' a low value, the handle releases and
(M) is- closed, closing all the M contacts and returns to the "off' position.
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Chapter 8 Definitions

SLIP - The ratio of the difference between the rotating

magnetic field speed and the actual rotor speed to the
rotating magnetic field speed. The speed of the
rotating magnetic field is equivalent to the
synchronous speed of the motor (determined by the
frequency of the current and the number of poles of
the motor). Slip is most frequently expressed as a
percent of synchronous speed.

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Table 8-1. Synchronous Motor Characteristics and Applications

Type Synchronous, high speed Synchronous. low speed,
designation above 500 rpm below 500 rpm
HP range 25 to several thousand Usually above 25 to several
thousand
Starting torque Up to 120 Low 40
(% of normal)
Pull-out torque (%) Up to 200 Up to 180
Starting current (%) 500 to 700 200 to 350
Slip Zero Zero
Power factor High. but varies with load High, but vanes with
and with excitation excitation
Efficiency (%) Highest of all motors. Highest of all motors. 92% to
92% to 96% 96%
Typical applications Fans. blowers. DC gener- DC generators and pumps.
ators, line shafts. Useful for power-factor
centrifugal pumps and control and constant speed.
compressors, reciprocating Flywheel used for pulsating
pumps and compressors. loads.
Useful for power-factor
correction, constant speed.
and frequency changes.

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 Vmax 0

+
T1
V-)
0
I,i 9
ct
C)
0
-I

VmIn
O'-

C C C C C C

00

ACB AOB ACB

t-1 t-2 t-3 t-5
t -4 t -6

ýcC
Reference direction of ( = Current flow away from observer
current flow when current
on graph is positive E = Current flow toward observer
cýAO B1

C-)
Figure 8 - 1. Development of a Rotating Field -A
C
,Jl 0
1
 rIs

-I,,

;>

to

(1) (I

A. Simplified Squirrel Cage Rotor B. Cutaway View of an Induction Motor with

Squirrel Cage Rotor

C3

•0 Figure 8 - 2. Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motors
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motors

MOTOR MOUNT
INPUT UNE

A. Wound Rotor Motor Schematic Diagram

B. Cutaway view of Three-Phase Induction Motor with a Wound

Rotor and Slip Rings Connected to the Three-Phase Rotor Winding

Figure 8-3. Wound Rotor Induction Motor

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motors

-.J

00

0 0
0 0
Ul -"
0000

t\o 0ol
0"
0 - 0o0
0 0

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 0~
2. 93

5.
5.,1 POLE PIECE
0m
93

,o MAIN
4=, WINDING STARTING
WINDING

CENTRIFUGAL SWITCH

Figure 8-5. Induction-Start Single-Phase Motor

e C,
'a j;v
'-a 0
0
Ct,
CAPACITOR
POLE PIECE

MAIN
WINDING
WINDING

CENTRIFUGAL SWITCH

1,J

Figure 8.6. Capacitor-Start Single-Phase Motor

Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motors
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motors

1500
1250
1000 Synchronous
motors
900
u~J Boo
3Z:

0 700
IL
600
C,,
00r 500 Synchronous or
induction motors
400
300
200
I I
induction motor + 1 1
100 -

I I I
3600 1800 1200 900 720 600 514 450 400 360 and lower
RPM

Figure 8-7. Indicating the General Areas of Application of

Synchronous and Induction Motors

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 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motors

900

800 A

700

"n 600

Z 500

o 400
0
I.
300

200

100

0
TIME - -W

Figure 8-8. AC Motor Starting Current Curve

USNRC Technical Training Center 8-25 Rev. 0197

 12 L3

SLINE iM
CONTACT M MAN ANN
•------
- - - -- - -ANANN
-START- ---
-- - -{ '• CONTACT

-- OPRTN COI ML)O STOP

,LO~q OVERLOAD
J RELAY AND CONTACT

n
0
TII2 )T3
.. U I LT

. Figure 8-9. Magnetic Acrss-The-ine Starter

Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motors
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motors

MAIN COIL (M)

TD

*TIME
DELAY
COIL (TD)

Figure 8-10. Primary Resistor Starter Diagram

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 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual AC Motors
PwPaEgaAC Motor

STARTING I
CONTACTS
AUTO- I
TRANSFORMER S.
I I -- - - - - - -- -
I
------------------------

Figure 8-11. Autotransformer Starting Diagram

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 Electrical Distribution Equipment
'Power Plant Engineering Course Manual
'Power
9.0 Plant Engineering Course
ELECTRICAL Manual
DISTRIBUTION Electrical Distribution Equipment
9.0 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION 9.1 General Discussion
EQUIPMENT
The purpose of the electricaldistribution equip
Learning Objectives -mentis to provide redundant, diverse, and depend
able power to the many power plant loads, and to
After studying this chapter, you should be able transport power.from the main generator to the
to: power transmission network. Power produced by
the main generator or supplied from the transmis
1. Define and/or explain selective tripping sion network is distributed to the various loads in
and class 1E electrical components. the plant via conductors called buses. *lThe term
bus started out as a slang term for a conductor that
2. Briefly explain the terms redundancy and could supply power to several loads. The term has
train separation. gradually evolved to take'on' additiorial meanings.
Most of the nuclear industry also uses the term bus
3. Explain the difference between a shunt trip to identify an electrical entity (such as a switchgear
coil and an undervoltage trip coil in rela or circuit breaker enclosure) that is at a'specific
tion to tripping a circuit breaker. voltage and supplies power to several loads. The
Sactual physical conductor's within an electrical bus
.4.- Explain the need for extinguishing the arc or switchgear' enclosure .are often called the
during breaker operation. busworks. 'Power supplied through the buses is
controlled by switching or interrupting devices to
5. Describe the attributes and applications of protect, regulate, and route the electrical flow
the following types of breakers: throughout the system. Switching and interrupt
-a. Air circuit breaker ing devices include the relays,; ftises, and circuit
b. Oil circuit breaker breakers that provide 'the sensing and control
c., Air-blast circuit breaker mechanisms to manage the electrical distribution
d. Vacuum cict breaker system.

6. Describe the attributes and applications of The equipment andi arrangem nts described in
the following devices: this chapter are simplified to show the general
a. Disconnect philosophy and practices in comm6n use. Actual
b. Breaker control circuit power planf'use will depend on many, variables
c.. Protective relay outside the scope of this text.
A, Fuse
e. Automatic bus transfer device Table 9-1 contains several terms, such as re
f. Uninterruptible power supply dundancy, that have specific meanings in relation
to electrical distribution systems. The electrical
7. Explain the operation of a lead-acid stor- distribution definitions of these terms are also
age battery. provided in Table 9-1.

8. Explain why "load shedding" is necessary 9.2 Gen6rjc Distribution System

and how it is accomplished.
The design of electrical power distribution
9. Explain why "load sequencing" is neces systems varies considerably between commercial
sary and how it is accomplished. power plants and carn be significanitly different in
the nomenclature used to designate components in
the system, voltages used within the system, and

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system layout. All plants are generic in the fact (2) Selectivity of response time is provided:
that they all contain: and

"* High voltage offsite distribution, (3) Response time is permitted to vary with
"* High and medium voltage onsite distribu the severity of the electrical problem.
tion, and
". Low voltage control and instrumentation With these factors built into a protective scheme,
distribution. outage areas are minimized and rapid reestablish
ment of power is possible. It is easier to locate a
The-systems described in this chapter are not fault if the closest bus or line is known.
specific to any one plant.
Figure 9-2 shows a simplified distribution
9.2.1 Power Distribution Grid system or grid that supplies power to a residential
home. The cord running from the TV set to the
The Zd is a term used to describe the large wall outlet has been broken and shorted to ground.
area high voltage transmission ne work or physi If no protective devices existed on the line, the
cal system used to generate and distribute electri resulting largd current could cause a fire in the
cal power to utility customers (see Figure 9-1). house and possibly damage the individual pole
The utility has an obligation to maintain a reliable transformer for the house or the 18-kVf6900-volt
source of power at proper voltage and frequency. pole transformier thltsupplies the restof the neigh
The load dispatcher fulfills this obligation by borhood. This sequence of events is prevented by
determining the grid power requireents and en a selective trippingprotective scheme. For theTV
suring that the generating capacity matches that cord the individual branch breaker in the house
requirement. If a fault occurs on the grid, the load should trip first and isolate the fault. If current
dispatcher and ground crews locate and minimize should rise too quickly (orif the individual breaker
the power loss to that leg of the grid. should fail to open the circuit), the household's
main feeder breaker should trip. If the main feeder
Distribution grids must provide continuous breaker cannot open-in time to protect the up
reliable service. Distribution grids have protec stream (toward the generator) buses, the fuse on
tive schemes that are planned and designed to the individual household'spole transformer should
ensure this service exists. A protective scheme is blow. The next line of defense should be the fuse
an ariangement of bus feeds, circuit breakers, on the neighborhood pole transformer. For a fault
circuit switchers, disconnects, fuses, and other to affect this much of the distribution system it
protective and switching devices. Most protective would have to draw a very high current in a very
schemes are designed to isolate a faulted line or short amount of time. The protective devices,
section as close to the fault as possible, permitting shown in Figure 9-2, are progressively harder to
the rest of the distribution grid to operate nor trip (take more fault current) as the p-ower source
mally. A protective scheme that isolates a fault as is approached. This arrangement corresponds to
close to the fault source as possible while still the three selective trippingprotective scheme rules.
protecting the distribution system from damage is
called lj. r, tripping (see Table 9-1). A selec If, instead of the grounded TV set cord, the 18
tive tripping protective scheme is designed ac kV grid line fell and became grounded, the first
cording to three rules: line of defense would be the 138/18-kV substation
transformer breaker. There are many devices and
(1) The closest protective device to the fault schemes to protect the 345- kV transmission sys
shall operate first; tem and the lower voltage distribution systems,
but their specifics are beyond the scope of this
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 Electrical Distribution Equipment
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual

course. The philosophy used for the design of Ssometimes called a"breaker-and-a-half' arrange
breakers for the two
these devices still follows the selective tripping ment because there are three
rules discussed. loads that come off each bus-tie between the north
and south bus. This arrangement allows isolating
to all remain
The same philosophy used in protective any one load while retaining power
ing loads.
schemes for the grid -applies to in-plant power
distribution (see Figure 9-3). If a fault occurs in
'the A cooling lake pump motor, breaker G should 9.2.2.1 Parallel Bus"
trip first to protect the rest of the distribution
- system. This action would allow the B cooling In some installations, redundant load power is
"-lakepump to substitute for the faulted A pump and "providedby a
set of parallel'buses with intercon
"-:,no required services would be lost. If the G necting circuit breakers. The parallel
bus arrange
"breaker does not open in time to protect the up merit provides a"complete spare" capable of han
sets of equipment
stream buses, the F breaker or B breaker must trip dling full load capacity. Both
kept in service at all times so that
to protect the rest of the distribution system. The are usually
occurs to the
plant can probably operate for a while without Bus should either one fail, no interruption
A parallel bus system is
20 (or either cooling lake pump) until the fault can cbnnected facilities.'
The major disadvantage of
be found and corrected. If neither the F nor B shown in Figure 9-5.
for loads that
breaker opens in time for adequate protection, the this design is expense. However,
power, the pairallel bus
A breaker must open to protect the distribution require highly reliable
that Figure 9-5 shows
system. The trip of breaker A and the consequent arrangement is ideal. (Note
a
loss of Bus 24 may cause the plant to trip, but the a switchyard for a twb-generator facility.with
main transformer will have been isolated from the breaker-and-a-half bus-tie breaker arrangement.)
fault, and the maximum amount of the 345 kV grid
will have been protected. 9.2.2.2 Ring Bus,

S9.=2 Switchyard Bus Arrangements To approach the reliability of a parallel bus

arrangement yet keep -the- cost t6oa minimum,
Buses are a necessary part of generating sta switchyard buses are sometimes arranged in a ring
tions or factories with large electric power distri "bus(see Figure 9-6). Instead of circuit breakers to
bution systems. Common switchyard bus volt disconnect-each line (as in a parallel bus arrange
ages are 22 kV, 161 kW, 235 kV, 345 kV, and 500 ment),Jlines are placedon the ring bus directly.
kV. Many internal plant bus circuits operate at The ring bus is divided into'secti6ns by ring bus
lowervoltages (usually4160 or6900 volts). Trans circuit breakers. Each separate section can be
formers located throughout the plant further re disconnected without interruption to the other
sections.
duce the voltage to supply electrical power to
-_lower voltage motors and electrical equipment.
The arrangement of a bus system is determined by 9.2.3 Electrical System Design Requirements
- plant needs.- A few bus arrangements are dis
cussed below. The basic requirement for the design of nuclear
power plant electrical distribution systems is pro
To reduce the loss of equipment during bus videdin General Design Criterion 17 from 10 CFR
maintenance, the main bus may consist of several 50 Appendix A. Criterion 17 is quoted below, in
bus sections. These separate sections are usually part:
provided with bus-tie circuit breakers to tie or split
the bus (see Figure 9-4). A bus-tie breaker ar "t`Theonsite electric power supplies, including
rangement like the one shown in Figure 9-4 is the batteries, and the onsite electric distribu-

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 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual
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_ _ o
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
tion system, shall have sufficient indepen should suffer a loss of power or severe
dence, redundancy, and testability to perform fault, such as a bad ground or short circuit.
their safety functions assuming a single fail
ure. The onsite distribution system shall be
provided with two independentpower sup
Electric power from the transmission network plies from the offsite transmission net
to the onsite electric distribution system shall work that are promptly available after a
be supplied by two physically independent loss of all --.site AC power supplies (one
circuits aesigned and located so as to inimi offsite supply shall be available within a
to the c .::nt practical the likelihood of their few seconds). Many nuclear plants oper
simulta:.ous failure under operating and pos ate with the offsite power supply continu
tulated accident and environmental conditions. ously in use for safety-related loads, while
A switchyard common to both circuits is ac other plants have a fast-transfer capability
ceptable. Each of these circuits shca be de to satisfy this requirement.
signed tc :e available in sufficient =ne fol
lowing a loss of all onsite AC power supplies Both of the two separate onsite parts shall
and the other offsite electric power circuit, to have a backup power source available
assure 'hat specified acceptable fujel design within a few seconds following a loss of
limits i design conditions of the reactor coolant accident or loss ofoffsite and onsite
coola. aressure boundary are not exceeded. power supplies.
One of these circuits shall be designed to be
available within a few seconds following a 9.2.4 Offsite (Preferred) Power Connections
loss-.f-coolant accident to assure that core
co( :, containment integrity, and other vital The offsite (preferred) power system includes
safe., functions are maintained. two or more identified power sources capable of
operating independently of the onsite or standby
Provisions shall be included to minimize the power sources and encompasses the grid, trans
probability of losing electric power from any mission lines (overhead or underground), trans
of the remaining supplies as a result of, or mission line control systems, switchyard battery
coincident with, the loss of power generated systems, and disconnect switches, provided to
by the nuclear power unit, the loss of power supply electric power to onsite safety-related and
from the transmission network, or the loss of other equipnient.
power from the onsite electric power sup
plies." The offsite power connection is called -the
preferred source of power for onsite sifety-related
Four e.,sential requirements are derived from loads. The main generator may be used to supply
Criterion 17. power to'some or all onsite safety-related loads
during normal operations, but the switchyard'iys
" The onsite electrical distribution system tern must include the capability for a fast transfer
must have at least two separate parts, ei of these loads from the generator to an offsite
therofwb;ch is apable of providing power power connection in the event the main generator
to all components required for safe func supply is lost.
tioning of the reactor.
9.2.5 Onsite Power System Terms
" The two parts of the onsite distribution
system must be sufficiently separated to CIE is the safety classification term given
preclude the loss of both parts if one part to safety-related electrical equipment and systems
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Power Plant Engineering Courste. Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
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.that are essential to emergency reactor shutdown, Total functional independence' betweenr the
containment isolation, reactor core cooling, and two offsite power sources is not maintained in the
containment and reactor heat removal, or are oth switchyard itself because all the bus' sections are
erwise essential in preventing significant release normally electrically connected. However, in' the
of radioactive material to the environment. Essen evnt of an electrical fault, electrical separation of
tially, all electrical equipment associated with "bussections can be established in a few cycles by
safety-related systems must be designated Class circuit breaker operation.- Thefault isolation and
1E. bus iransfer scheme is designed to permit auto
matic fault isolation while still maintaining two
During shutdown and accident conditions, connections rm th plIt to the grid. Therefore,
which is when the majority of the Class 1E loads botý indepenident circuits- connecting to offsite
are operating, the main generator is not available. (preferred) power will remain energized unless
Therefore, it is not considered part of the offsite the fault is on one 6f them in which case the other
(pieferied) power system. The offsite (preferred) independent circuit will remain energized-and
power source is the two ormore connections made unaffected.
to the system grid for supplying power to the plant
Class 1E loads." The components comprising the Understanding the concept of electrical reduni
offsite (preferred) libwer sources at nuclear facili danicy requires a familiarity with the term "train,"
-ties are arranged to provide sufficient indepen which is another slang term used in electrical
dence (both physical and functional) to minimize disiribution parlince. A tiain is a combination of
the likelihood of simultaneous outages of both "buses, swiichgear, and components which ulti
circuits. mately receive power'fromn the -saiemajor plant
service (high voltage) transformer. All nuclear
Figure 9-7 shows one arrangement for supply plants have either-two or three separate power
ing power to the Class 1E loads. Normally the trains, each of which is powered'frbm its own
safety-related 416OVbuses (34C and 34D) are major transformse, and is, therefore, separate and
powered from the non-safety 4160V buses (34A distinct from the other power train(s). Se'parate
and 34B) through the bus-tie breakers. If the trains may be designated by numbers, letters, or
supply-through the normal station service trans colors, and each train will encompass some buses
former (4 NSST) is lost, the bus-tie breakers will at all voltages used within the plant. The pr
trip open'and the breakers from the reserve station "characteristic of any train is thatit is kept separate
service transformer (4RSST) to the safety buses 'and distinct from the other train(s).'
will automatically close to effect a fast transfer of
the power source.- Some plants with similar ar "Figure 9-7 illustrates the concept of redun
rangements keep' the safety buses continuously dancy (see Table 94). In this plant there are tWO
powered from the offsite (grid) source and use the separate elecirical trains:, the left side "A" train
main generator source only for limited time peri including bus 34C, andl the right side "B" train
ods when necessary maintenance must be per including bus 34D.' Each' train has two offsite
"formedon the RSSTs. In either anraugement, the power connections anidits own diesel generator
emergency diesel generators (EDGes) provide the "backiip"power supply. "Recall from the, Plant
have at
backup power sourc-e'fir the safety buses micase "Cycleschapter' that all safety systems must
such as
the fast transfer does not work properly or offsite leasi two of each important component,
(grid) power is lost., Note that the two separate off "pumps,valves, piping loops, etc. Redundancy is
site power sources'(two tie-ins io the 345kV grid) "achieved by having 'the like components electri
"and the two EDGs satisfy two'of -the essential cally separated so that in each safety system one
requirements of General Design Criterion 17. "component is on'one electrical train and the-redun
dýnt component is on the other train. The compo-

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nents on each safety train must be capable of system is used to ensure that the component is
performing all functions required for the safety of fully disconnected from one train before it is
the reactor, with the oithertraindeenergized. Elec connected to the other train. (Please note: Many
t redundancy in a nuclear plant means that facilities may refer to their safety electrical tirains
either train of the electric distribtionh system can by colors or numbers rather than A and B, but the
be lost or faulted, and the safety-related' ompo concepts are the same. The two trains carry
nents on the other train can perform all functions redundant safety loads and are electrically sepa
required for reactor safety. This objective is rated, each with two connections to the offsite
achieved in the example plant show"n in Figure 9 power grid, and each with a diesel generator backup
7 by having half the safety system components power source.)
powered from the A train and the other half of the
safety system components powered from the B 9.2.6 Vital and Nonvital Subsystems
train. Redundancy satisfies one of the essential
requirements of General Design Criterion 17-. The onsite power system shown in Figure 9-8
illustrates an electrical power system that is sepa
(Please note: The terms bus and train are rated into vital (safe ty-related) and nonvital distri
vernacular or slang. Some facilities use the gen bution subsysters. The loads supplied by the
eral term bus interchangably with train, but most nonvital subsystem are loads that are not required
of the nuclear industry uses the terms bus and train to place the reactor ii a safe shutdown condition or
as defined in this chapter. The specific meanings prevent the release of radioactivity to the environ
of these two slang terms, bus and train, are often mentL Such loads include components in the
confusing to new plant operators). turbine building, switchyard, and administrative
building.
Another electrical distribution term, also illus
trated on Figure 9-7, is train separation (see Table The vital distribution subsystem includes a
9-1). Note that there is no bus-tie breaker between medium voltage (416OV) vital bus, the low volt
bus 34C and bus 34D. Recall,'that one of the age motor control centers, and an EDG. As dis
essential requirements of General Design Crite cussed in section 9.2.5, the vital loads are sepa
rion 17 is that the two parts (trains) of the distribu rated onto two redundant safety electrical trains;
tion system must be sufficiently separated to pre only the A train is shown in Figure 9-8. The A
clude the loss of both parts should one part suffer electrical train has access to two offsite (preferred)
a severe fault. If there were a bus-tie breaker power supplies, and an onsite (backup) power
between bus 34C and bus 34D, and that breaker supply (the-EDG). Source selectibn is accom
suffered a severe short to ground such that the plished by automatically transferring from the
breaker was unable to trip open due to the high nuclear unit source (main generator), to the offsite
current, both trains would be faulted. In addition, source, to the backup source, in that order. The
neither train could be energized until the faulted reverse transfers are normally done manually.
breaker could be physically disconnected from the
two trains. In the meantime there would be no As previously discussed, the distribution buses,
safety function capability, and the reactor would motor control centers, and transformers compris
be unprotected from a major accident. To pre ing the A train are arranged to provide physical
clude this scenario, nuclear facilities adhere to the *independence and electrical separation from the B
policy of train separation meaning that there are power train.' The A safety train also has a DC bus
no electrical (or physical) connections between and battery associated with it. These components
the two safety electrical trains. Some- nuclear will be discussed in more detail later in this chap
facilities have components that can be powered ter.
from either safety train, but an extensive interlock
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 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual .Electrical Distribution Equipment
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9.3 Switc'vai-d Connection Comronents The bus duct mayT be made of insulating material
ormetal that is insulated from the high voltage bus
This section discusses three'types of compo within.
nents that are 'usually found in nuclear plant
switchyard connections and may also be found 9.3.2.1 Isolated Phase Bus Ducts
elsewhere in the distribution system. The three
components are: -'transformers,bus ducts, and The main generator output'buses are con
disconnects. nected by means of isolated phase (isophase) bus
ducts to the main and normal station service irans
9.3.1 Switchyard Transformers formers (see Figure 9-9). °The isophase-bus ducts
originate at the high Ioltage terminals (22kV) of
Elictric utility grids normally operate at235kV, the main generator and terminate- at the p "nmary
345kV, or 500kV. Nuclear plant main generators terminals of the main or service traniiformer. The
normally generate power at 22.5kV. The large use of isolhas•e bus ducts, one duct for each of the
moiors used to drive reactor coolant pumps, feed three generatoi phases-, provides physical separa
pumps, condei.isate pumps, and circulating water tion of the three phases to prevent phase-to-phase
pumps sometimes use 13.8kV, but 6.9kV or4160V faults. A forced. air cooling system is normally
is used,.for these motors at most plants. _ The ,used to cool the volume within each isophase duct
emergencydiesekl generators atrmostnuclearplants to carry the electrical current flow heat away, from
generate power at 4160V and most safety pump the bus.
motors use 4160V or 48OV. Transformers must be
uied between all these different operating volt 93.2.2 Pr6tective Bus Ducts
ages.
Inside the plant, much high voltage electricity
The switchyard traniformers used to trans is carried and distributed by buses in protective
formnthe grid voltage to, plant voltages are nor bus ducts. The bus duct consists of 'a metal or
mally large outdoor structures that use special oil nonconductive housing that'supports, encloses,
as a coolant around thie conductor coils. The oil is and insulates the copper or aluminum bus bars
normally circulated through the transformer cores within. In Figure 9-9 auxiliary transformer output
to ierfiove the heat of electrical current flow, and is delivered to the switchgear cubicle via protec
then through finned tubes where the heat is trans tive bus ducts. (Metal housings that contain elec
"feiredto air circulated by multiple self-contained trical buswork anid circuit breakers are called cu
fans. The. fans are automatically controlled to bicle switchgear or simply switchgear. Buiswork
maintain a specific oil temperature range. is the term used for the metal bus bars inside the
switchgear that connect power to'(or from) the
9.3.2 High Voltage Buses and Bus Ducts circuit breakers mounted in the switchgear.) High
voltage and emergency (vital) switchgear is nor
Power from the main transformer is connected m'ially connected by bus ducts. Nonvital and low
"to the switchyard via transmissioni lines at high voltage switchgear is-connected'with electrical
voltages (345kV,- 500kV,...). Power from the cables.
normal station service transformers to the in-house
loads is delivered via buses. The buses, usually 9.3.3 Disconnects
made of copper or aluminum, are specially' de
signed conductors in the form 6f a tube or bar. A disconnect isa piece of conductor that can
Buses that transport high voltages thr6ughi the be easily removed from the circuit (and subse
plant are normally supported by a protective hous quently replaced) like a removable link. An elec
ing or enclosure called a bus duct (see Figure 9-9). trical circuit symbol for a disconnection is shown
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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
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in Figure 9-5. The purpose of a disconnect is to snap the circuit breaker contacts open, and the
provide an additional, inexpensive way of isolat circuit is interrupted. A trip coil that is energized
ing equipment. Disconnects are not used to inter to trip is called a shunt trip coil. A trip coil that is
rupt circuits under load. The operating action of a deenergized to trip is called an undervoltage trip
disconnect is very slow when compared to a coil. Some breakers, such as reactor trip breakers,
breaker. If a disconnect were opened under load, may have both a shunt trip and an undervoltage
it would cause severe damage to the disconnect trip for redundancy/reliability.
and possible injury to the personnel operating the
disconnect. A typical use of a disconnect is to When contacts of a switch or breaker separate
isolate equipment, such as a large transformer or with current through them, an arc develops. (An
breaker. This is done by in'stalling a disconnect in etical arc is the passage of electrical current
series on either side of the equipment or breaker. through an air gap, between partially separated
The breakers associated with a disconnect must be contacts.) Air at room temperature is a good
open to isolate the power source or load before the insulator and will withstand relatively high volt
disconnect can be opened (or reclosed). ages without permitting the passage of current.
However,: when air is heated to a few thousand
Switchyards have very elaborate disconnects degrees, air mol6cules become highly afgitated and
because of the higher voltages that are encoun electrons fromi these atoms are easily freed to carry
tered. These disconnects are usually found through an electric current.' When contacts of a breaker
out the grid network. Higher ,•oltages require a first separate, only a thin layer of cool air exists
larger gap to ensure isolation, and more insulation between the contacts. Even a moderate voltage
from adjacent structures. Switchyard disconnects between the contacts is enough to ov-ercom e the
are usually operated by insulated levers or gear resistance ofthe thin layer of air and current will
mechanisms at a convenient location. The lever start to flow, forming an arc. The current flow
may be operated manually or by a motor. The rapidly heats the air. between the contaits to ex
latter type of disconnect is called a mot.r-.2• ted treme tem-peratures (90000'to 45,000 0F in some
dicnnet (MOD). high voltage breakers). The high air temperature
ionizes the air, lowers the air resistance, and al
9.4 Circuit Breakers aiid Breaker Control lows current flow to continue across the gap be
tween the contacts. Eventually, the contacts move
Circuit breakers are current interrupting de far enough apart that the air resistance becomes
vices used to supply current to appropriate loads, too great to sustain the arc. The arc extinguishes
and protect circuits from an overload or other and the circuit is open.
fault. A circuitbreaker consists ofa setfof contacts
held closed by a mechanical Wa6h. If an electro To prevent circuit breaker damage due to the
magnet or a thermal bimetallic strip generates high temperature circuit breaker designs must
enough force to unlatch the breaker, large tension include features that rapidly extinguish or dissi
springs rapidly force breaker contacts apart and pate the arc. Also, rapid extinguishment of the arc
the circuit is opened. For the operating mecha stops the cutrent flow to the load promptly, which
nism shown in Figure 9-10, the breaker is initially was the original intent of opening the breaker.
shut by energizing the closing solenoid, which
pushes upward, causing the operating linkage to To interrupt a DC circuit successfully, the
be straightened out. Heavy springs are stretched circuit .breaker must open far enough that the
and the trip latch keeps the breaker closed. If too voltage required to maintain the arc is greater than
much current is sensed, the solenoid trip coil is the voltage existing between the open contacts.
energized. Its core plunger is pushed out of the
solenoid, releasing the trip latch. The large springs Interruption of an AC circuit is different from
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Power Plant Engineering Course M2nu2l Electrical Distributi'on EquiPmnent
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
interruption of a DC circuit. In a purely resistive "fully stretched and poised to snap the cam all the
AC circuit, current and voltage are in phase. There way around. A spring retention pin is normally
fore, the arc will quickly be interrupted when used to hold the cam in this semistable'equilibrium
voltage passes through zero. The gap between the position until the breaker is required to be closed.
breaker contacts must then be large enough in the When the spring retention pin is released by a
next alternation to prevent reestablishment of the closing signal, the strong spring snaps the cam the
arc. rest of the way around to rapidly close the contacts.

Most AC loads are both resistive and induc The contacts are opened by another set of
tive. Interrpting an inductive load presents a springs (thetripping springs) attached to the con
greater pIroblem than interrupting a purely resis tact arm. These springs are Istre'tched into 'tensile
tive load.- With an inductive load current lags stress when the contacts are closed., 'Another
y'voltage to some degree. Therefore, current contin retention device, called the tripper'bar, holds the
ues to flow during the time that applied voltage contacts closed against the tripping springs until
passes through zero. When current finally passes an opening (trip) signal is received. The opening
throfigh zero, applied voltage will again exist. The (trip) signal releases the tripper bar, which allows
lagging current tends to prolong the arc. This the trpping springs to pull the contacts open
process is referred to as inuciic. Therefore, (apart). Once the breaker is bpen, the charging
the contacts in a circuit breaker installed in a motor or manually operated lever can be used to
normal AC circuit with inductive loads must open rotate the cam into the ready position'again (thus
farther and/or faster to extinguish the arc. "charging" the closing spring) in preparation for
repeating the cycle.
9.4.1 Air Circuit Breakers
-9.4.2 Air-Blast Circuit Breake•rs
Of the many circuit breaker designs that exist
to extinguish the arc produced by a breaker trip, Air-blast circuit breakers are commonly used
the air circuit breaker (ACB) is the simplest An for indoor high-voltage operations above 15 kV
ACB relies upon the air between the contacts to (see Figure 9-14).
extin guish the arc and to open up the circuit. ACB s
are used extensively in low and medium voltage In the air-blast breaker, a control circuit signal
applications, such as -switchboards, switcigear - opens a magnetic valve and admits compressed air
and distribution panels. In some medium
Sgroups, to the top of a piston for the opening operation. As
voltage ACBs, a short puff of air is used to help the piston moves downwardr, a mechanical linkage
extinguish the arc (see Figures 9-11 and 9-12). pulls back the contact arm, opening the contacts
and drawing an arc. At the same time, the linkage
"Mostmodern ACBs are called stored energy opens the air blast valve, and compressed air is
breakers and are rapidly closed by cam and spring released through the blast tube directly into the arc
arrangements rather than the relatiely slow sole "path'.As the contacts part, this blast' of air carries
noid closing operation shown in Figure 9-10. A tie arc up through the arc splitier and into the arc
"pictorialrepresentation of a cam-operated breaker "chutewhere it is extinguished." The arc gases are
sequence is shown in Figure 9-13. A breakeriusing cooled before they'lass out into -he aLnosphere.
the cam operation shown in the figuie is 'desig When -the contacts have opened efiough to ensure
nated as a stored energy breaker because a charg "anopen'circuit thei blast 'valve closes.
ing motor or lever-operated ratchet mechanism is
initially used to rotate the heavy cam into the To close the bieakerthe lower rmagntic valve
crossovei or ready position as shown in part A. At "admitdcoinpress~d air to the bottom of the pikton,
the crossover point the strong closing spring is "which close's the'contacts at high -speed.- Air

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
storage capacity provides tWo ciose-and-ope n tying most of the current; however, no arc is drawn
operations before more'air is needed (depending because contact has already been made by the
on design). A pressure switch prevents operation make-and-break contact.
of the breaker if air pressure falls below the set
value for opening or closing. In the oil circuit breaker, the arcing takes place
between the top of the make-and-break contact
Some switchyard gas blast breakers use sul and the tulip contact. An arc chamber is provided
fur-hexafluoride (SF-6) instead of compressed air. to contain the arc.
SF-6 has better arc extinguishing characteristics
than compressed air. The SF-6 circuit breaker As the make-and-break contacts move down
works very much like the compressed air breakers. ward, an arc is drawn. The arc produces a high
A high pressure reservoir of gas is maintained in pressure bubble in the oil that keeps down arc
readiness andwhen the main contacts of the breaker energy. As the contacts enter the throat passage of
part, a stream of high pressure gas is directed into the arc chamber, turbulent oil surges against the
the arc path to cool and extinguish it. The SF-6 gas arc and exting'ishes it. High gas pressure from the
is not exhausted to the atmosphere as the air is in arc forces oil through the arc path. Complete
the compressed air breaker. Instead, the SF-6 gas withdrawal of the make-and-break contacts lets
is recycled into a low pressure sealed tank. the gas bubbles escape, and oil refills the arc
chamber.
9.4.3 Oil Circuit Breakers
9.4.4 Vacuum Circuit Breakers
Oil circuit breakers (OCBs) are used for out
door high-current or high-voltage duty. OCB Vacuum circuit breakers (see Figure 9-16)
contacts are submerged in oil and interrupt the provide another inethod of interrupting a circuit
current under oil. Oil is a much better coolant and and is growing in popularity, particularly in the
insulator than air. primary distributionivoltage range. The principles
of vacuuinInieruption are quite different from
The "dead tank" breaker is the most common gas or oil breakers.
type of OCB used forvoltages above 13.8 kV. The
name dead tank" comes from the fact that the tank The conta-ts of a vacuum breaker are enclosed
is at ground potential and insulated from the ener in a ceramic envelope or "bottle-" that is evacuated
gized parts by oil The actuatg device (operator) to an extremely low atmospheric pressure, ap
is located outside the tank and moves a vertical proxirately .0023 in. Hg absolute. Although the
actuator rod through a mechanical linkage (see physics of interruption are quite complex, the
Figure 9-15). vacuum interrupter works because the arc requires
a conducting path to sustain it Within the vacuum
The dead tank breaker has two sets of contacts, bottle there are no gasses to ionize; therefore, for
the make-and-break bayonet contacts and the main all practical purposes, there can be no conducting
contacts.. The make-and-break contacts open and path and the arc cannot be sustained. Figure 9-15
close inside the arc chamber. The arcing takes shows a cutaway view of a single 'pole vacuum
place inside this chamber when the contacts are interrupter. This devirce, de-eptively simple in
opened or closed. When the make-and-break appearance, has astationary contactfirmly mounted
contacts are closed, low resistance contact is made on one end of the enclosure. The moving contact,
between the make-and-break bayonet contact and which travels a very short distance from open to
the stationary or tulip contact. The main contacts close (1 inch), is sealed to the other end of the
close immediately after the make-and-break con envelope with a flexible metal bellows.
tact and open immediately before them, thus car-

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•Power Plant Engineering Course Manual El•ectrical• Distributioni Equipment
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Although the technology of design and manu the breaker.-he opening action causes "b" con
facturing of the vacuum interrupters is extremely tacts to close and "a" contacts to open: the red light
complex, circuit breakers using these devices are is deenergized and the green light illuminates.
yery.simple in operation. They require only light When the "b" contact closes, the charging motor
iweight mechanisms to close and open the con "energizesagain to rotate the cam and recharge the
-tacts, which are quite'different from the massive closingspring. The breaker is ready for closure
"mechaniims'reqir~d for large oil and gas type aga4i when the closing spring has been recharged
circuit breakers. (the cam is in the ready position).

"9.4.5 iBreaker Control Additional auxiliary contacts are provided on

many bieakeis. These contacis cia be used 'for
A-' siplified wiring diagram for an ACB position indication needed in other logic or control
breaker control circuit is shown in Figure 9417. systems. Breaker compartment switches are used
Power for this control circuit is supplied from when racking the breaker out to the test position or
250V DC control power. Discussion of breaker "forcomrplete' removal. In the"test positioni the
operation will begin with the ACB breaker open remote closing feature is defeated to prevent mad
*and fully inserted into its switchgear cubicle vertent actuation whiile testing. The full out limit
(racked in"). With the breaker initially open, the switch is used io discharge the closing spring or to
"b" contacts (from the breaker auxiliary switches) 'recharge it depending on w;ether the breker is
are closed. With the closing spring initially dis being racked out or in.
"charged, one limit switch contact (LS1) for the
closing spring is also closed. The two closed "Theclosing spring can receive its energy manu
contacts allow current to flow to the charging ally or from the charging motoi. Manually-charg
motor to rotate the cam and charge the closing ing the closing spring is accomplished from'the
spring. When the closing spring is fully charged front of the breaker with the use of a hand crank
"and ratchet mechanism. Orn many breakers the
(cam is in riady position), the'LS2 contact for the
spring release relaycloses, and the LS 1 contactfor "spring retention pin can be maniually ieleasid to
ihi char ging motor opens-to deenergize the motor. close the breaker- by depressing a manual
-With the 8losing'switch or pushbutton contact C pushbutton on the frofitof the breaker enclosure.
open, the spring release relay remains deenergized The breaker can also be opened manually using a
'and the ACB stays ready for operition. The "b" "manual trip button on the front of the breaker
contact for the green indicating light is shut and the "enclosbreto actuate the tripping bar. The proper
light is illuminated, indicating the breakeris open. bra•ker operatinig tools and 1ersonnel protection
tegar should beused when operating bieakeiS lo
c-ally. ,. .. ,• : , .; .: ,
"To close the breaker the closing switch is
"operated, shutting contact C and energizing the "Protective lielays'_
"9S .• .
"sprinig release relay to remove the spring ietention
pin. The closing spring rotates the cam to shut the
breaker, causing the "b"auxiliary contacts to open System orci=cuitfaults are isolated by opering
and the-"a" auxiliary contacts to'shut. The green circuit breakers. In circuit breakers designed to
light is deenergized and the red light illuminates. operate below 600 volts, overcurrent fault sen.ing
"TheLS2 contact for the spring release relay opens is often accomplished by direct-actinig series trip
and the charging miotor LS 1 contact closes.- To coils that are built right into the breaker. In
open the breaker, the control switch is pla&ed in the :breakers above 600 Volts, fault sensing is gener
trip position causing the "T" contact to shut. This 'ally accomplished bypr6tective relays that may be
"circuit energizes the shunt trip coil, which moves "mounted-within the breaker itself or externally.
"thetripper bar to allow the tripping springs to open -Protective relays can monitor many different com-

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
plex circuit conditions: current and voltage mag short-circuit faults.
nitudes, phase relations, direction of power flow.
and frequency. When an unsafe or intolerable 9.5.2 Definite Time Delay
condition is detected, the protective relay actuates
contacts to compleie the trip-coil. circuit in the The definite time delay relay is designed to
control circuit of the breaker, to c'ause'the breaker have a s*cific time delay before actuating. The
to open to terminate the u-n.af6 condition. In large abnormal condition must exist for'a set period of
breakers the trip circuit is usually a DC circuit time before the relay will cause the ciicuiit breaker
supplied from a highly protected source, such as to open. The definite time delay relay is used to
the station batteries (vital DC). A pictorial repre protect a circuit that is designed for current surges
sentation of protective relays is shown in Figure 9 of short duration during equipment startup. The
18. duration is not long enough to damage the circuit
in the equipment.
A Rrotective reU is an electrical switching
device with one or more associated contacts that 9.5.3 Inverse Time Delay
can be opened or closed to interupt or complete
breaker control circuits. The switching device is The inverse time delay relay is also designed to
normally electromagnetically operated to open or have a time delay in its action. The length of time
close the contacts through a movable part called required to cause the relay to actuate to open the
the armature. The armature is attracted against circuit depends on the severity of the abnormal
spring pressure when the electromagnet is ener condition. The greaterthe fault current, the quicker
gized, and released by, spring pressure when the the relay will function.
magnet is deenergized. Protective relays pm- also
be operated by means other than electromagnetic 9.6 Eu=
forces. With relay protection, a short circuit, an
overload, or any other abnormal condition in the A fu= (s e Figure 9-19) is a current-carrying
main circuit can be sensed to cause a relay to protective device thatdestroys itself to break (open)
energize a trip coil control circuit that opens the a circuit befoie the associated wiring and equip
breaker in the main circuit. ment are damaged. Most fuses cannot be reused.

Protective relays are often classified accord The basic fuse consists of a strip of metal,
ing to the time that will elapse between the occur generally zinc or an alloy of tin and lead, that will
rence of an abnormal condition and the opening of melt at a lower temperature than the wire in the
the circuit. Different durations of delays are used circuit. The fuse is placed in series with the circuit.
to se: up the desired selective tripping protective The fuse has a higher resistance than that of the
scheme to protect the remaining distribution cir circuit wiring, causing it to heat faster than. the
cuits. Three general classifications of protective conductor. At should melt before damage occurs to
relay types have been establishid: instantaneous the circuit wiring or equipment.
or high-speed, definite time delay, and inverse
time delay. Fuses are rated by the number of amperes of
current that will flow through then' vithout melt
9.5.1 Instantaneous or High-speed ing the element. For example, a 20-amp fuse will
permit 20 amperes of current to flow through it. If
In the instantaneous relay, the time delay is the current rises a little above 20 amps, the fuse
omitted so that the circuit is opened instantly upon will carry 'the overload for a short time without
the occurrence of an abnormal condition. These blowing (melting). However, if a large overload
relays are used to protect against very high current occurs, the fuse melts quickly before the circuit

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SPower Plant Engineering Course Manual .Ele.ctri'cal Distribution Equipment
become
wires Plant
Power hot. TheCourse
Engineering common types of
mostManual Electrical Distribution Equipment
wires become hot. The most common types of normal bus to a backup bus when voltage is lost on
fuses used in the power plant are discussed below. the normal bus. With two sources, of power
available, one supplying power to the equipment
9.6.1 Low-Voltage Cartridge Fuse and the other in standby, a loss of the active power
source is sensed by the ABT device and the com
In the cartridge fuse, the metal strip (element) ponent is automatically disconnected fr6mo the
is enclosed in a fiber tube. Metal caps at the ends deenergized bus and connected to'the itandby bus.
-of the.tube are-connected to the fuse element. Depending on the design of the ABT device, the
.Usually the tube is filled with a protective powder transfer may be performed fast enough to pri'vint
that helps to break the circuit quickly, preventing the affected equipment from -tripping. on
"currenmfrorflowingin an arc between the unmelted undervoltage.
portions of the fuse metal. When the one-time
cartridge fuse has melted, it must be replaced with 9.7.2 "fiverters and Battery Chargers
another fuse of the same rating. The cartridge fuse
has ferrule or knife-blade type contacts. An inverteris a device iýýt converts DC power
to AC power. A bkt 'char~er converts AC
9.6.2' High-Voltage Fuses' power to DC .power. Both of these devices are
norm-ally solid-stmt components in modem nuclear
High-voltage fuses are used in circuits having plants. The'relationship of an invieirter and battery
more than 600 volts. This iype of fuse is designed is shown in Figu-e.9-8. Normally, the battery
for safe interruption of current with high voltages. "chargerisspplying all DC bus loadswhikemain
One example of a high-voltage fuse is the boric taining the batteryfully charged. 'If the battery
acid expulsion fuse shown in Figure 9-19. It charger suffers a failure or loses power, the elec
consists of aiglasstube lined'with boric acid that tron flow into the batiery instantaneously reverses
acts as an extinguisher for the electric arc that direction, and the'battery supplies the 125V DC
would be created when the fusible bar or Wire bus loads. The source of the electron flow (battery
begins to open. "charger or battery) makes no difference to the
inverter, which continues to use DC power from
9.7 'Snecial Onsite Distribution Eguipment the DC bus to generate AC power. Of course, the
Sbattery charger must bý returned to operation
"Mostnuclear plant electrical distribution sys before the'battery is exhausted.
"temsinclude special equipment designed to im
prove the.reliability and'continuity of powfer to 9.7.3 Motor-Generator Sets
selected plant components. Automatic bus trans
fer devices use two AC power sources to maintain As indicatedin section 9.7.2, modem inverters
power continuity, while inverters use DC power, and battery chargers are normally solid-state com
normally from a battery. Uninterruptible power ponents. Some older plants may use motor-gen
supplies use both AC and DC powerto accomplish erator sets to, accomplish the same functions as
the power continuity objective. battery chamgers and inverters. An AC motor can
be used to drive a DC generator to charge a battery
9.7.1 Automatic Bus Transfer Devices. with DC 'power, or a DC motor can be powered
"fromabattery and beiised to drive an AC genera
One method of providin g continuity of power tor to provide special-purpose, reliable AC power.
to selected plant components. is through the use of In modern plants, motor-gerierator sets are some
automatic bus transfer (ABT) devices. An ABT 'times used for these purposes if the loadpobwer
devee is a device which senses normal bus volt requirements are gieater than asolid-state charger
age, and automatically transfers the load from the or inverter can .provide.
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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
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9.7.4 Uninterruptible Power Supplies the electrolyte to contact and the chemical action
to occur.
Figure 9-20 illustrates the basic components
of an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) (see Cells may be externally connected in a variety
Table 9-1). An UPS uses a battery charger, a of ways to yield a number of terminal voltages and
battery, an inverter, a regulated AC transformer, amperages. Series connections of the cells raise
and a static or manual transfer switch to supply the voltage in increments while parallel cell con
continuous power to essential, low-power loads nections increase the current available. A combi
such as safety instrumentation. In an UPS these nation of these wirings is generally used to achieve
components are normally combined in one solid a convenient voltage and high capacity. Battery
state device. capacity is measured in ampere-hours and is based
upon the battery delivering X number of amps for
The relationship of the battery charger, bat Y number of hours.
tery, and inverter in an UPS was described in
section 9.7.2 for Figure 9-8: if voltage is lost from 9.8.1 Cells and Batteries
the normal AC source, the battery will instanta
neously reverse its current flow direction and send To discuss cells and batteries, we must first
power to the inverter to produce AC power. As define these terms. An electrochemical cell refers
shown in Figure 9-20 for a UPS, the addition of the to a single unit that converts chemical energy into
regulated transformer and the ranfer or bypass electrical energy. A ba= is a combination of
switch allows the inverter to be bypassed if it two or more cells.
develops a fault or needs maintenance. The by
pass switch may be a static transfer switch (auto Batteries may be much smaller than other
matic device) to maintain an uninterrupted AC energy sources such as mechanical generators or
power output from the UPS, or it may be set up for transformer power supplies in radio and television
manual operation only. receivers. They do 'not have the noisy moving
parts like mechanical generators. Batteries do not
9.8 Batteri develop any appreciable electrical noise such as
the static caused by sparking of the brushes in a
The batteries used for supplying DC voltage generator. Batteries need only a small amount of
and current are made up of voltaic cells. The cells maintenance and are usually dependable. How
used in station batteries are rechargeable and pro ever, batteries are limited in size for a specific
vide power by electrochemical means., Although current rating and are sensitive to temperature
differing widely in construction, all battery cells variations.
have an electrolyte, anode, and cathode, as well as
a nonconducting container. 9.8.2 Construction of a Lead-Acid Storage
Battery
Chemical action, encouraged by the electro
lyte, takes place at the anode and the cathode, and The lead-acid battery is an electrochemical
produces an electrical potential at the respective device for storing chemical energy until it is re
terminals. Completing an external circuit between leased as electrical energy. Active materials within
the anode and cathode will allow current to flow. the battery react chemically to produce a flow of
One of the more commonly used batteries is com direct current whenever current consuming de
posed of cells with a lead peroxide cathode, a vices are connected to the terminal posts on the
spofige lead anode, and a sulfuric acid electrolyte. electrodes. This current is produced by chemical
Porous sponge lead rather than lead plate is used reaction between the active material of the plates
for the anode to provide increased surface area for (electrodes) and the electrolyte (sulfuric acid).
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-The parts of a lead-acid battery,are illustrated in physically located adjacent to the positive termi
Figure 9-21 and are discussed in the following nal of the next cell; they are connected both physi
paragraphs. cally and electrically by a cell connector. Connec
tors must be of sufficient size to carry the current
A lead-acid battery consists of a number of demands of the battery without overheating.
cells connected together, the number needed de
pends upon the voltage desired, with each cell The cells have vent openings with covers made
producing approximately 2.1 volts. of permeable material to permit the slow escape of
hydrogen gas that may form within the cells, while
A cell consists of a hard rubber, plastic or preventing leakage of the electrolyte. These open
bituminous material compartment into which is ings are also used to determine the level and
placed thecell element, consisting of two types of chemical state of the electrolyte.
lead plates, known as positive and negative plates.
.These plates are insulated from each other by 9.8.3 Storage Battery Operation
"suitable separators (usually made of plastic, rub
ber, or glass) and submerged in a sulfuric acid In its charged condition, the electrodes in the
solution electrolyte. -lead-acid battery are lead peroxide (used as the
positive plate) and sponge lead (used as the nega
The plates are formed by applying lead oxide -tive plate). The electrolyte is a mixture of sulfuric
paste (PbO) to a grid made of a conductive alloy. acid and water. -The strength (acidity) of the
The plates are put through separate electrochemi electrolyte is measured in -terms of its specific
cal processes that convert the PbO of the positive Sgravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight
plates into lead peroxide (PbO2 ) and the PbO of of a given volume of electrolyte to the weight of an
the negative plates into spongy elemental lead equal volume of pure water.- Concentrated sulfu
(Pb), which is honeycombed and porous. nic acid has a specific gravity of about 1.830; pure
-water has a specific gravity of 1.000. The acid and
The positive plates (lead peroxide) and the -water are mixed in a proportion to give the desired
negative plates (spongy lead) are referred to as the *initial specific gravity. For example, an electro
active material of the battery. However, these lyte with a specific gravity of 1.210 requires roughly
materials alone in a container will cause no chemi *one part of concentrated acid to four parts of water.
cal action unless there is a path for interaction
between them. The elec trolyte provides this path In a fully charged ideal battery, the positive
for interaction and carries the electric current plates are pure lead peroxide and the negative
within the-battery. .plates are pure lead. Also, all acid -is in the
*electrolyte so that the specific gravity of the elec
"Abattery container is the receptacle for the trolyte isat its maximum value. .The active mate
cells thai make up the battery. Most containers are rials of both the positive and negative plates are
made from hard rubber, plastic or bituminous porous, and have absorption qualities similar to a
composition that is resistant to acid and mechani sponge. The pores -are filled with the battery
cal shock, and isable to withstand extreme weather solution (electrolyte) in which they are immersed.
conditions. Most batteries are assembled in a one
piece container with compaitments for each indi * When sulfuric acid (H2 S0) is diluted in wa
vidual cell. ter, the following ionic dissociation occurs:

Cell connectors are used to connect the cells of H2 So4 + 2H20-- 2H30+ So 4-.
a battery' in sei'is. -The element in each cell is
placed so that the neg-rti•elterminal of one cell is "The basic chemical reactioni occurring at the

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negative plates when the cell discharges (produces sulfate is converted to lead peroxide at the positive
current) is the loss of electrons by the lead (oxida plates, resulting in a gain of porosity ("sponginess")
tion) and the formation of lead sulfate, PbS04. in the plates. At the same time, the sulfite ions are
restored to the electrolyte with the result that the
Pb + S0 4 - -- PbSO4 + 2e-. specific gravity of the electrolyte increases. The
chemical reactions occurring during the charging
At the positive plates, lead peroxide gains process are as follows:
electrons (is reduced) and passes into solution as
Pb+- ions (reduction). The Pb++ ions combine PbSO 4 + 2e- -- Pb + S04- (Negative plate),
with SO4-. _ns, again forming lead sulfate, PbSO4:
PbSO 4 + 6H 2 0 -- PbO 2 + 4H 3 O+ + SO4-
PbO 2 + 4H 3 O+ + S04- + 2e- - PbSO 4 + 6H 2 0 + 2e- (- asitive plate).

These 3uations show that an excess of elec Figure 9-22 illustrates the chemical actions
trons is p:_ •duced at the negative plates and that that occur during discharge and charging opera
electrons are consumed, at the positive plates. tions.
Thus, a flow of electrons (current) occurs during
discharge when an external conduction path is One of the dangers involved in using lead-acid
provided between the negative and positive plates. storage batteries is the production of hydrogen
The equations also show that as the cell dis gas. Hydrogen ions are always present in the
charges, a coating of insoluble lead sulfate (PbSO4) sulfuric acid electrolyte. The hydrogen ions are
builds up on both the positive and negative plates. readily airailable to ieact wirn free electrons at the
The PbSO 4 causes an expansion of the materials cathode during battery discharge operations, or at
and a gradual clogging of the voids or pores of the the anode during battery charging operations, to
plates. he discharge is prolonged excessively, produce free hydrogen, which immediately coa
expans-.-.i may take place resulting in uneven lesces to form hydrogen gas by the following
swelling of the spongy lead, which creates me reaction:
chanical stresses that may reduce the battery life.
2H+ + 2e- -- 2H El
H2
During the discharge process, the conversion
of the electrolyte ions to lead sulfate and water The slow production of hydrogen gas during nor
causes the acid concentration of the electrolyte to mal battery operations can be dissipated through
decre, -e, which decreases the specific gravity of the porous vent caps on the cell tops. The use of
the e.ectro'-'te.- When so much of the active excessive charging voltage during battery charg
material h: -)een converted into lead sulfate that ing operations could cause rapid hydrogen pro
the c Ica; *olonger produce sufficient current, ducion and lead to the possibility of a hydrogen
the cell is considered discharged. explosion.

If t-. harged cell is then connected to a DC An inspection of the reactions that occur dur
charging soarce with a voltage slightly higher than ing the batterydischarge operations shows that the
the cell voltage, electrons will flow into the cell in SO 4 - ion and thie H30+ ion are "consumed" in
the opposite direction from thaf occurring during producing the lead sulfate coating and water that
discharge, and a charging process will occur. The result from these reactions. The S04- ion and the
cell will use the electrons to convert the lead H3 0+ ion are the constituents of the sulfuric acid.
sulfate anC" w-ater back into the initial active con Therefore, the sulfiric acid is being continuously
stituents. During charging operations, lead sulfate consumed during the discharge operatiohs to pro
is converted to lead at the negative plates and lead duce the discharge current flow. The discharge

Center
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 ýPower Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
Power Plazit Engineering Course Manual plates, and
lead on the negativeElectrical sulfuric acid
Distribution in the
Equipment
reaction equations show that the greater the dis lead on the negative plates, and sulfuric acid in the
charge current flow rate is, the faster the sulfuric electrolyte.
acid is consumed.
9.8.4 Hydrometer
I An inspection of the reactions that occur dur
ing charging operations shows that lead sulfate The specific gravity of a cell can be deter
-and water are converted back to H3 O+ and SO 4 mined by use of a hydrometer, which connsists of a
ions. Therefore, the sulfuric acid is continuously float within a syringe.. The hyidiometer float is a
regenerated during the charging operations. Simi hollow glass tube weighted at one end and sealed
lar to the discharge operations, the greater the at both ends. A scale calibrated in specific gravity
charging flow rate is, the faster the sulfuric acid is is laid off axially along the body (stem) of the tube.
-regenerated. When'the electiolýte io be testid is drawn up into
the syringe, the hydr6mmeter float -will sink to a
The total amount of sulfuric acid consumed at certain level in the'electrolyte. The dihtanice that
any time during discharge operations is directly the hydrometer stem protrudes above the level of
proportional to the total amount of current dis the liquid depends upohn the specific gravity of the
,charged. Therefore, the specific "gravity of the solution. The'feadingon the sem ait ihe -surfaceof
electrolyte can be used to determine the state of the liquid is the specific gravity of the electrolyte
discharge of the lead-acid cell. A similar relation -in the syringe:
ship holds during charging operations. Therefore,
the specific gravity of the electrolyte in battery 9.8.5 Potential Difference and Cuirrent
cells is routinely measured to determine the state
of discharge (or charge) of the battery. SThe potential difference or ,oltage
of a cell is
determined by the ease with wihich the electrodes
In summary, the chemical reactions in a lead yield positive or negative ions. The potential
acid storage battery during charging and discharg difference is deteirninýd by the types of materials
-ing may be conveniently summarized by a com used in the cell. The-size-of the cell or any of its
bined, reversible chemical equation: parts does not affect the potential difference the
cell is capable of producing. As an example,'the
Discharging -- > materials used in the lead acid cell will always
produce a potential difference of 2.1 volts p~r cell
PbO2 + Pb + 2H2 S0 4 e 2 PbSO4 + 2H20. when fully charged. If we change the material of
one of the electrodes in a cell, we will change the
<- Charging potential difference of the cell.

During discharge the combined reaction pro On the other hand,-the amount of current
-.- ceeds from left to right as both the positive plates Sproduced by a cell is determined by the size of the
.(lead peroxide) and the negative plates (sponge electrodes (assuming the concentration (specific
lead) react with the sulfuric acid to prodice cur ,gravity) and quantity of -the electrolyte is ad
-rentflow. -During discharge both plates become equate). The greater the volume of the •active
coated with lead sulfate (PbSO 4 ) and the electro material in the electrodes, the greater the current
lyte (H2SO4) is diluted by the formation of water. capacity of the cell is.
During charging operations the combined reac
tion proceeds from right to left as electrical current 9.8.6 Cell Capacity
from an outside source is used to convert the lead
sulfate and water back into the original constitu The capacity of a storage cell,-expressed in
ents: lead peroxide on the positive plates, sponge ampere hours; is the product the discharge
7of

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipm~ent
Powe
urs Ma
Pl ualEle
nt ngi eerng C tri al D strbuton qui me I
current in amperes multiplied by the number of provided it is reduced from time to time to prevent
hours the cell will maintain that current. It is excessive hydrogen production.
understood that the cell must be fully charged at
the start of the discharge, when determining its An equalizing charge is an extended normal
capacity. The ampere hours that may be obtained charge. This type of charge is performed periodi
from a battery are greater for a long, low rate or cally to ensure that all the sulfate is driven from the
intermittent rate of discharge, than for a short, high plates and that all the cells are restored to a maxi
rate of discharge. This is because the voltage mum specific gravity.
drops faster at the higher rate.
The practice of keeping a battery connected to
All batteries are given a capacity rating, which a bus in readiness to take unexpected, emergency
is the ampere hours obtainable under certain work or high momentary loads is well established. Such
ing conditions. Suppose a typical battery used as batteries are continually maintained in a fully or
a backup source of power for the AC instrument almost fully charged condition by receiving a
bus inverters is rated at 800 ampere hours at an 8 continuous charge at an extremely low rate, just
hour rate. This means that over an 8 hour period, enough to counteract the small internal losses that
the battery is capable of supplying 800 amperes, or are present in every storage battery. Periodic
100 amperes per hour. A greater capacity can be regular charges are given to the battery at slightly
obtained if the discharge rates are made lower, higher voltages to break up any stagnation in the
conversely, the capacity is reduced as the dis electrolyte.
charge rate increases. This characteristic is the
reason that battery loads must be minimized dur 9.9 Emergencv Resoonses
ing a "blackout" or loss of all AC power (including
failure of standby power sources). Although the electrical distribution system is
also needed for normal operations, the critical
The capacity of a cell is also affected by the design functions for the system involve the provi
temperature at which it is operated. Usually, the sion of reliable power to the safety-related equip
capacity decreases when a cell is operated at low ment during emergencies.
temperatures. In fact, at about -30 0 C, most elec
trochemical cells stop supplying energy because 9.9.1 Plant Trip
the electrolyte freezes.
For a plant trip, the main generator will be
9.8.7 Battery Charges promptly tripped off the line, and the main genera
tor breaker(s) to the grid will be tripped open. If
When a new battery is shipped dry, the plates the main generator was supplying onsite loads
are in an uncharged condition. After the electro through an auxiliary transformer, the opening of
lyte has been added, the plates must be converted the generator breakers may initiate an automatic
into the charged condition. This is accomplished fast transfer such that the reserve supply breakers
by giving the battery a long low-rate initial charge will close to provide power to the plant directly
that is referred to as a freshening charge. from the grid.- The fast transfer will include the
emergency or vital buses if they were not already
A normal or regular charge is given to the being powered directly from the grid. In many
bar y on a periodic basis, or if necessary to plants, the transformers for plant loads are located
resLre the energy taken out on a discharge. This on a branch off the line from the switchyard to the
reg.lar charge should be given at the normal rate main generator as shown for the NSSTs in Figure
specified by the manufacturer. If it is necessary to 9-7. At these plants there is normally no need for
hasten the charge, a higher rate may be used, a fast transfer on a plant trip; power is instanta-
9-18 Rev. 0194
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 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
Power Plant EngineeriDg Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
neously backfed from the grid through the main manually restarted by the operators.
transformers to the normal service station trans
formers so there is no loss of normal power. For 9.9.3 Safety Injection Actuation
either arrangement, the emergency diesel genera
tors remain shut down on a normal plant trip, and For a safety injection (Emergency Core Cool
there is no significant perturbation on the vital ing system) actuation, the plant is tripped, and the
(safety-related) buses. emergency diesel generators are automatically
started as a precautionary measure. Normally, the
9.9.2 Loss of Offsite Power electrical power supply response is essentially
identical to that for a plant trip, except that the
For a loss of offsite power, the plant will trip, diesel generators are running unloaded.
and the emergency diesel generators will be auto
matically started when the loss of voltage on the If offsite power is subsequently lost during a
vital buses is sensed. Each diesel generator breaker safety injection actuation, load shedding is again
will close automatically when the associated die actuated, causing all the major loads (and any non
sel generator attains rated speed and voltage. If all vital bus ties) connected to the vital buses to be
the emergency pump motors were still connected automatically disconnected. Because the diesel
to the vital buses, they would all try to start the generators are already running, the output break
instant the breaker closed. The combined starting ers will close almost immediately and load se
currents of all the emergency motors would put a quencing will begin.
serious overload on the diesel generator, causing a
diesel trip and/or other possible damage. This The order in which the emergency loads are
unsatisfactory situation is prevented by using loa sequenced onto the vital buses on a loss of offsite
sbeddin (see Table 9-1), which is the automatic power after a safety injection actuation signal
disconnection of all the major loads on the vital normally differs from the simple loss of offsite
buses when the loss of vital bus voltage is initially power situation. Loads used for a loss of coolant
sensed. accident need priority during a safety injection,
but not during a simple loss of offsite power
Note that if the normal supply for the emer situation.
gency buses is from the nonvital buses as shown in
Figure 9-8, the load shedding function will also
include disconnecting all the nonvital connections
from the vital buses. Also note that some loads
will remain continuously connected to the vital
buses, but these will be small, essential loads such
as instrumentation and communications.

Load sequenciig (see Table 9-1) is the term

applied to the staggered time sequence that is used
for reloading the major emergency loads back
onto the vital buses after the diesel generator
breaker has closed. The loads are sequenced to
start in a predetermined order with a spacing of 5
to 10 seconds. The time spacing allows the large
motor starting currents to subside before each
additional motor is started. If diesel loading al
lows, some nonvital loads may be subsequently

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Power Plant Engineering, Course Manual
Powe Plnt Curs
ngieerig
MaualElectrical Distribution EflUinment

Table 9-1. Definitions

REDUNDANCY A system or component that duplicates the essential

functions of another system or component to the extent that
either one can perform the necessary function regardless of
the operational condition of the other.
TRAIN SEPARATION The physical and electrical separation of redundant electrical
trains, structures, and components to prevent a fault in one
electrical train from affecting the operation of the redundant
train.
LOAD SHEDDING The process of disconnecting all nonvital connections and
deliberately removing most (preselected) large loads from a
vital bus in response to an undervoltage condition on the
vital bus.
LOAD SEQUENCING The process of starting large emergency motor loads in a
preselected order (rather than all at once) on a vital bus after
load shedding has occurred on that bus. Load sequencing
assures that essential equipment is energized as quickly as
possible while overcurrent conditions (i.e., overloading the
emergency diesel generator) due to starting a large number of
motors at the same time are avoided.
SELECTIVE TRIPPING The process of electrical fault isolation using protective
devices in series with one another such that the protective
device nearest to the fault operates first to protect the
integrity of the overall system. A properly designed
protective scheme will isolate a fault by removing the least
number of components from service.
UNINTERRUPTIBLE A solid state device that uses a battery charger, battery, and
POWER SUPPLY inverter to provide a continuous supply of regulated AC
power for essential, low power loads such as process
controllers, emergency instrumentation, plant computers,
control power, emergency lighting, and communications.
CLASS 1E ELECTRICAL The safety classification term given to safety-related electrical
COMPONENTS equipment that is used in systems that are essential to
emergency reactor shutdown, containment isolation, and
reactor core cooling, or are otherwise essential in preventing
a significant release of radioactive material to the
environment.

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 0

"~1

OVERHEAD
TRANSMISSION
p0 LINE
,-I
6.9 KV
TRANSFORMER

MAIN
TRANSFORMER

I-
CONSUMER
STEPDOWN TRANSMISSION
TRANSFORMER LINE FOR
MAIN GENERATOR LOCAL
DISTRIBUTION

O'C

mR

-I

€'.

Figure 9-1. Simplifled Grid System Pl

0*

"m
 TO OTHER TO OTHER 0
TRANSMISSION MEDIUM 6900 V
FACTORY LINES (b
LINES I
KV *1

. 345 KV 4

22/345 KV
TRANSFORMER TO OTHER 'I ) FUSE
TRANSMISSION 138 KV JBREAKER 900 V
6j
LINES SUBSTATION 18 KV In POLE 0
TRANSFORMER • rv, TRANSFORMER
SUBSTATION
FA R / TRANSFORMER
FACTORY (0
TO OTHER
138 KV- --- TO OTHER
18 KV LINES NEIGHBORHOOD
18 KV LINES ""HOUSEHOLD
FROM AUTOMATIC BUS TRANSFORMERS
ANOTHER TRANSFER DEVICE
345 KV POLE
LINE 138 KV 220211
V '
FUSEI
SUBSTATION
TRANSFORMER
RESIDENTIAL POLE
HOUSEHOLD MAIN TRANSFORMER
E-- FEED FOR THE HOUSE
BREAKER
WALL (
OUTLET 5' BRANCH
ISE GROU:ND BREAKER

F.

r¢*

B
Figure 9 - 2. Typical Distribution System
00
 BUS BUS
24 20 tb

28
"T
COOLING LAKE *1
M
PUMP A

B F C3
5. COOLING LAKE :3.
PUMP B 3

"T
21 CONDENSATE
PUMP
4160 V
22 KV
A
VENTILATION
FAN

CIRCULATING
E WATER PUMP
MAIN
T2 TRANSFORMER

00
345 KV
GRID
Figure 9- 3. In - Plant Load Tripping I
 0
cn

rn-I
NORTH BUS
U.
2.
a -.
t2

5.
eta
GENERATOR I

-I
MAIN
TRANSFOll

W
'C W

'C

,.•
V
PLANT
SERVICE
TRANSFORMER

SOUTH BUS

TO PLANT

to
Ul
C3
0, "U
0
O0
Figure 9 - 4. Switchyard Bus Arrangement
C

I NORTH BUS
ft

lu

93
5.
C, GENERATOR GENERATOR
ft
#1 #2
ft K

-I PLANT PLANT
SERVICE SERVICE
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER

TO PLANT #1 TO PLANT #2
ft'

5.
W

0
tI=

00 Figure 9 - 5. Parallel Bus Arrangement ft

 TO OFFSITE POWER (GRID) C

(ft

3
a a:!
a
a
'-1
I'4

a~
a>
a -S

5.
0
ft
a
-I

RING BUS
CIRCUIT
'.0 BREAKER

ta=
a
I.,

TO PLANT #1 TO PLANT #2
.=.
ft a
4O Figure 9-6. Ring Bus Arrangement
 RESERVE STATION SERVICE TRANSFORMERS (RSST)
C!
'-I
345 KV
SWYD

~I1
cm

CS, 4 RSST

U' W

BUS 32A0 BUS 32 RSTY BUS U.V,W.X BUS 32t.-O

NON . IE CLASS IE CLASS IE NON - IE
(NONVITAL) (VITAL) (VITAL) (NONVITAL)

W.
o*,0

.<
Figure 9 - 7. Typical Onsite Distribution System I.4

oo
00
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment

U3

U'0

W"Z

00

U z

0)
I

W2
wO5
0=z WU
UA

us0
.1 0 0 5-~
buL
: . 4-i
-K 2 E 0

~z

a P
,%~-. 0U

0
U
-i
a-

do- C

Ir. -I-ý r

0
a..

a" C
I..
z
0
2

USNRC Technical Training Center 9-37 Rev.0892

 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment

NONCONDUCTIVE
SUPPORT

PROTECTIVE
BUS DUCT PROTECTIVE
BUS DUCT

BUS

GE: SUPPLY
TRANSFORMERS

ISOPHASE
BUS DUCT

METAL-CLAD PHASE BUS,

SWITCHGEAR
CUBICLE

NONCONDUCTIVE
SUPPORT

Figure 9 - 9. In - Plant Protective Bus Ducts

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 0
ft
tr
1

Cm

0 MOVABLE
CONTACT TRIPPING
1

ft
0
0
-I TRIP
LATCH
SOLENOID
TRIP COIL

STATIONARY
SOLENOID
CONTACT
CLOSING
COIL

rr,
n
*9
-s
F;.

Figure 9 - 10. Solenoid - Operated Circuit Breaker Operating Mechanism 3.

tTl
0t
.0
0
00
'0 ft
 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
TERMINAL

ARC CHUTE

OPERATOR
UNKAGE

MAIN
CONTACTS
! !
BLOWOUT COIL
BLOWOUT
COILS
CLOSED POSITION of breakerwith current flowing
through the studs and the main contacts.

2
ARC
BLOWOUT
COILS

PUFFER

ARC RUNNER BLOWOUT ARC

COIL TIP
STARTING TO OPEN, main contacts part and the
current shifts to arcing contacts and first coiL

AR BLOWOUT
BARRERSRUNNER
BARRIERS ARC COIL

INTERRUPTION occurs as arc Is driven against

arc splitters by magnetic action of blowout coil.

Figure 9-11. Air-Circuit Breaker Operation

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Figure 9 - 12. Load Center With Air Circuit Breakers

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment

A. ENERGY IS STORED BY ROTATING B. ENERGY IS POISED AT CROSSOVER

CAM WITH CHARGING MOTOR OR POINT. SPRING RETENTION PIN KEEPS
LEVER-OPERATED RATCHET MECHANISM, CAM POISED AT READY POSITION UNTIL
EXPANDING (CHARGING) POWERFUL BREAKER OPERATION IS REQUIRED.
CLOSING SPRING.

D. THE CONTACTS ARE CLOSED AS THE

C. ENERGY IS RELEASED AND SPRING
CAM COMPLETES IT S TRAVEL, AND ARE
ROTATES THE CAM RAPIDLY, SHOVING
HELD CLOSED BY THE TRIPPER BAR
THE MOVEABLE CONTACT TOWARD
(NOT SHOWN).
THE STATIONARY CONTACT.

Figure 9-13. Cam-Operated Breaker Sequence

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
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ARC CHUTE

ARC SPUTTER
COOLER

ARC TIP

ARC TIP CONTACT

0

CONTACT. BLASTTUBE
ARM

BLAST VALVE

- - RESERVOIR

MAGNETIC VALVE (OPENING SIDE)

CHECK VALVE

AIR SUPPLY

MAGNETIC VALVE (CLOSING SIDE)

Figure 9-14. Air-Blast Circuit Breaker

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 C

A B C D
6 9
--------- TULIP
CONTACT Sa t!1
U

eVS-'
U

I I 3
U
('3
C
tro
S~ARC
PAtASG
•• • • CHAMBER
I S a

-- - - - - f -- - - - - - - - - - -
STHROAT

ARC EXTINGUISHING SEQUENCE IN O.C.B.

"MAKE-AND-BREAK
BAYONET CONTACT

00 Figure 9 - 15. Oil Circuit Breaker

%00
f,
 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment

GUIDE BEARING

STATIONARY MOVING CONTACT

CONTACT TERMINAL TERMINAL
AND SHAFT

"CERAMIC
CERAMIC ENVELOPE BELLOWS SHIELD

Figure 9 - 16. Vacuum Circuit Breaker

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipuient

250V DC CONTROL POWER

aS orPB IC
(t S -I--T CS or PB

SHTR
SR

JL S2 ý LS1 =ýa
7

b
F

LEGEND

LS1, LS2 UMIT SWITCHES FOR CLOSING SPRING

MOT MOTOR FOR SPRING CHARGING
SHTR SHUNT TRIP COIL (FOR TRIPPPING BREAKER)
SR SPRING RELEASE COIL (FOR CLOSING BREAKER)
CCSorPB CLOSING CONTROL SWITCH OR PUSHBUTTON
T CS or PB TRIPPING CONTROL SWITCH OR PUSHBUTTON
G GREEN (OPEN) INDICATING LIGHT
R RED (CLOSED) INDICATING LIGHT
a•b BREAKER AUXILIARY CONTACTS

Figure 9 - 17. Breaker Control Circuit

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 BREAKER
I" TRIP COIL
CONTROL
01

CIRCUIT
FIXED MOVABLE :3.
B' CONTACTS FIXED
CONTACTS
0 CONTACTS
o BREAKER
fto TRIP COIL
MOVABLE _ INSULATING CONTROL
-I
CONTACTS T BLOCK CIRCUIT

"C POWER
MOVABLE CIRCUIT
POWER ) ELEMENT SENSING
) (MAGNETIC UNIT
CIRCUIT
SENSING ) MATERIAL)
UNIT
COIL
MOVABLE
ELEMENT

Wt

Figure 9-18. Protective Relays

Ct
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment

FUSE
ELEMENT

KNIFE-BLADE
CONTACT

LOW-VOLTAGE CARTRIDGE FUSE

GLASS TUBE (lined with boric acid)

BORIC ACID HIGH-VOLTAGE FUSE

Figure 9-19. Typical Fuses

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment

CHARGER - BATTERY

VITAL 125 VDC BUS

LATED
SFORMER

INVERTER

STATIC SWITCH (AUTOMATIC)

OR MANUAL TRANSFER SWITCH

VITAL 120 VAC

INSTRUMENT BUS

Figure 9-20. Uninterruptible Power Supply

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 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
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SEAL NUT FILLING TUBE

SPOST GASKET
POSITIVE STRAP
S-NEGATIVE STRAP

POSITIVE PLATE S-LEVEL of ELECTROLYTE

RUBBER SEPARATOR - NEGATIVE PLATE

WOOD SEPARATOR -- SEDIMENT SPACE

CASE

A. SECONDARY CELL - Cross Sectional View

POSITIVE CELL
PLATE GROUP NEGATIVE
PLATE GROUP

B. PARTLY ASSEMBLED CELL ELEMENT

C. ASSEMBLED LEAD-ACID CELL

Figure 9-21. Lead-Acid Battery Construction

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Electrical Distribution Equipment
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ELECTRONS 30
NEGATIVE POSITIVE
PLATE PLATE
(ANODE)

Pb + SO-3P-PbSO4 + 2W PbO2 + 4H3O0 + S04 + 2e6->

Pb DECREASING PbSO4 + 6H2 0
LEAD PEROXIDE, PbO2
PbSO4 INCREASING
PbO. DECREASING
PbSO4 INCREASING

QD
-*- ELECTRONS NEGATIVE POSmVE
PLATE PLATE
(ANODE) (CATHODE)
I+

PbSO4 + 2W-_)Pb + So PbSO4 + 6H 2 O-) MINIMUM Pb MINIMUM PbO2

HEAVILY PbSO4 HEAVILY PbSO4
Pb INCREASING PbO 2 + 4H3 O0 + S0 +2e
COATED COATED
PbSO4 DECREASING PbO2 INCREASING
PbS0 4 DECREASING

LEGEND

Pb PbSO4 PbO2

Figure 9 - 22. Basic Chemical Action of a Lead-Acid Storage Battery

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
10.0 PIPING d. Hydraulic

Learning Objectives 7. Describe various terms concerning motor

operated valves:
After studying this chapter, you should be able
a. Seal-in feature
to: b. Throttle feature
c. Position limit switches
1. Explain' the following piping terms: d. Torque limit switches
a. Nominal pipe size e. Worm
b. Pipe schedule f. Clutch

2. Describe the functions of piping snubbers. 10.1 General Description

3. 'Describe thepurpose of the followingvalve Piping is a term used to describe a connected

-components:, assembly of pipe or tubing, valves, fittings. and
a.' Disk related components forming a system (or part of a
b. Seat system) for transferring gases and liquids. It is
c. Body more difficult to define the difference between
d. Bonnet pipe and tubing. In regular, commercial 6sage; no
e.iStem clear distiniction is',made. The manufacturer de
Sf.Packing cides whether the tubular product is called pipe or
g. Actuator tubing. In modem power plant application, the
Sh. Yoke distinction "is genei-ally made by custom. The
boiler and heat exchangers are'constructed from,
4. Describe attributes and application of the tubing, and the steam and water are transported in
following valve types: pipes. Generally, tubing is internal to components
a. Gate and piping is external.
b. Globe
For the purposes of this discussion, no specific
c. Check
d. Stop-check distinction will be made between pipe and tubing.
e. Butterfly
L Safety 10.2 Ej=
g. Relief
h. Solenoid "Powerplants use many different types of pipe.
i. Plug/Ball The type usdd for a specific application- depends
j. Diaphragm on the temperature, pressure, and corrosive effects
of the liquid or gas to be transported. The pipe
5. Define the following pressure-relief valve materials are selected on the basis of the require
terms: ments found in the various codes and standards.
a. Bl6wdown ,
b. Chatter 10.2.1 Piping Standards

.6. Describe the attributes and application of "- Standardization in the piping industry is the
the following valve actuator types: function of many groups, among whom are the'
a. Manual American Society forTesting and Materials
b. Electric (ASTM), the American National Standards Insti
c. Pneumatic tute (ANSI), the American Water Works Associa-

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tion (AWWA), and the Pipe Fabrication Institute nominal pipe size is 12 inches or smaller, nominal
(PFI); in addition, specifications have been issued pipe size approximates the pipe inside diameter.
by several governmental agencies to cover work depending on the pipe wall thickness.
on federal installations.
In addition to diameter, the other primary pipe
The ASTM has as its aim the "promotion of dimension is wall thickness. The designations
knowledge of materials of engineering, and stan STD, XS, and XXS in Table 10-1 refer to standard,
dardization of specifications and methods of test extra strong, and double extra strong pipe, respec
ing." It is concerned with chemical and physical tively. These designations of pipe wall thickness
properties of piping (and other materials or prod will sometimes be encountered in plant piping
ucts) as delivered from the fabricating mill systems. These designations were in common use
years ago, but there were no provisions for thin
The ANSI deals with overall piping systems. walled pipe and no intervening standard thick
It standardizes dimensions, sets permissible stress nesses among, the three designations. Schedule
values as functions of temperature, establishes numbers allow for specifying more exactly the
working formulas for determination of wall thick wall thickness and, therefore, the pipe strength
ness as determined by pressure and material at a needed to meet actual use requirements. The *
given temperature, specifies general character of schedule number refers to the pipe wall thickness.
construction of valves and fittings, deals with the
support, anchoring, and -flexibility of a piping The third through fifth columns of Table 10-1
system and, in general sets up a code of minimum relate iron pipe designations to the schedule num
requirements for the safety and reliability of a bers for steel and stainless steel. The last two
system.. The work done by this organization has columns in Table 10-1 give wall thickness and
culminated in hundreds of standards for individual inside diameter. (Note: This is not a complete pipe
materials, published in several issues of its Code data table, as found in industry standards. Other
for Power Piping and related publications. data that may be found include weight of pipe per
foot, cross-sectional area, and volume (cubic feet)
The AWWA was one of the first groups to per running foot.)
realize the importance and advantage of standard
ization of cast-iron pipe and fittings. Its standard,
Schedule number is determined approximately
first published in 1908, has been superseded by by the equation:
ANSI publications.
Schedule No. = 1,000 x P/SE,
PH has been active in preparation of standards
dealing with shop fabrication, particularly in stan where
dardizing the techniques for preparation of pipe
enas prior to welding. P = operating pressure, and
SE = allowable stress range of pipe material.
10.2.2 Pipe Size and Schedule
Example: Find the required schedule of ASTM A
As shown in Table 10-1, pipe size is given by 155 Class 1 pipe operating at 850 psi and 650'F.
a nominal pi=e size which is a "round number" or
approximation of the pipe diameter.ý Table 10-1 Table 10-2 lists the SE value as 11,250 psi using
lists the nominal pipe size and the inside and the above equation:
outside diameters for standard pipes, When the
nominal pipe size is 14 inches or larger, nominal Schedule No. = 1,000 (850/11,250) = 75.6
pipe size and outside diameterareequal. Whenthe
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In this example, schedule 80 would be specified. major radiation source.

10.2.3 Pipe Materials and Applications 10.2.3.3 Chromium-Molybdenum Pipe

Piping is available in both ferrous and nonfer Chromium-molybdenum-alloy steel pipe is

rous materials. Cast iron and steel represent the also used in some high pressure, high temperature
ferrous class; brass, copper, aluminum, and lead systems. This type of pipe is available with
are nonferrous metals which have wide applica different percentages of chromium and molybde
tions as piping materials. Concrete, wood, tile, num. The chromium alloy of steel resists corro
and plastic -have -found -general acceptance for sion and has increased strength and creep resis
specific usages. tance. Common upper limits of pressure and
temperature for chromium-molybdenum pipe are
10.2.3.1. Carbon-Steel Pipe approximately 1500 psig and 8751F.

Carbon steel is the most widely Used piping 10.2.3.4 Cast-Iron Pipe
material in a modem powerplant. Carbon steel is
used unless the temperature of the fluid is high SCast iron is one of the oldest pipe materials in
(above 750'F) or the fluid is corrosive or abrasive. use. Although once used exclusively.for power
When it is necessary to eliminate the possibility of plant piping, cast-iron pipe today is used only for
contaminating the fluid with rust or scale, other water or gas distribution and sewage disposal
* materials such as copper or stainless-steel pipe are because its resistance to soil corrosion makes it a
used for lubricating systems, instrument air sys good underground pipe.
ters, control air systems, and water sampling
systems. It is critical that these systems be main 10.2.3.5 Concrete Pipe
tained free of foreign particles and contamination.
The bearings in the lubrication systems can be Concrete pipe is typically used for large under
Sscored or scratched by foreign debris, and the ground piping, such as sewage and circulating
'small orifices in Instrument air systems can be water systems. The pipe is constructed of concrete
-come clogged. reinforcedlongitudinally with bars and transversely
with wire mesh and steel bands. It is manufactured
A clogged control air system will not perform . in sections of specified length and is designedto
its function, and water samples that are contami - provide for interlocking sections to form a con
nated will not yield valid test results. Thus, these tinuous line of pipe that is-free from leakage.or
systems require extremely pure conditions, more 'seepage.
than steam systems, for example.
10.3 Pipe Hangers. SupDorts. and Snubbers
.10.2.3.2 Stainless-Steel Pipe
Piping must be supported to prevent its weight
Stainless-steel pipe is normally used where from being transfer•ed to attached equipment.
operating conditions limit the use of carbon steels. Pipe hangers prevent the sagging of pipe but allow
These condition• include high temperature and the •"for slight movement of piping that results from
presence of corrosive fluids. Systems where rust expansion and contraction and normal vibration.
and scale must be prevented may also use stain The hangers and supports must be designed for
less-steel pipe. Stainless steel is used throughout piping movement in all directions.
-the Reactor Coolant System where low corrosion
-rates are irperiative. Excess corrosion products Hangers must carry the weight of pipe, valves,
cin be transported to the reactor and become a fittings, and insulation, plus the weight of the fluid
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inside the pipe. Power plant peTsonnel should be 10.3.3 Constant Supports
familiar with the different types of pipe hangers
and be able to determine when undue stress is Constant supports (see Figure 10-3) have a
being exerted on a hanger. coiled helical spring that moves as the pipe moves
to provide constant support. This type of support
The hangers and supports most commonly is used when vertical movement is substantial.
used in power plants are: Critical piping systems such as the main steam
system usually have constant supports.
adjustable hangers,;
0
variable spring hangers, The constant support is factory adjusted to
constant supports, support a specified load. However, spring com
0
roller stand supports, and pression may be readjusted by tightening or loos
snubbers. ening the spring tension. Constant supports should
be inspected periodically to prevent the spring
10.3.1 Adjustable Hangers from being fully compressed. Constant supports
are also fitted with the load indicator and markings
Adjustable hangers (see Figure 10-1) do not on the scale.
allow for any vertical movement of the system. A
simple strap may be used if horizontal pipe motion 10.3.4 Roller Stand Supports
is not a factor;,a roller can beused if some horizon
tal movement is expected. These hangers are also Roller stand supports (see Figure 10-4) may be
commonly referred to as rigid hangers. bolted to beams or floors; they may be adjustable
or noniadjustable. The adjustable type can be
10.3.2 Variable Spring Hangers raised or lowered by four adjusting 'screws to
match pipe position. This type of support allows
Variable spring hangers (see Figure 10-2) per for unrestricted horizontal movement alrhg the
mit piping to move up or down without suddenly piping run. A typical use of roller stand supports
disturbing the load distribution. This type of would be to support the long horizontal run of a
hanger supports pipe runs that may be subjected to piping system that is expected to expanid and
slight vertical movements. Variable spring hang contract as it warms and cools.
ers also support piping that may be shifted hori
zontally as a result of the movement of attached 10.3.5' Snubbers
equipment or piping. An example would be ther
mal expansiont of a vertical piping run that is Snubr (see Figure 10-5) are special appli
followed by a 900 elbow and a horizontal run. cation supports thatiare'desigfied to illow gradual
movement such as thermal growth, but resist sud
Variable spring hangers also provide a cush den pipe movement from events such as earth
ion for the piping system. Plant personinel'should quakes, fault loading (pipe whip), and vibration or
observe these hangers closely to make sure the shock. Many piping systems in a nuclear power
load is balanced and the springs are not fully plant must remain intact under seismic events or
compressed ("bottomed"). Each hanger is equipped accident conditions to ensure plant and equipment
with a load indicator and a load scale. The scale is reliability. These systems make extensive use of
normally marked with an "H" or "C" to denote the snubbers.
correct load reading when the supported piping is
hot or cold. The most comrmnon type of snubber'is the
hydraulic type?.- In this design, the movement of a
pipe drives ai isioi in'the cylinder of the snubl~er.
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number could make the system more susceptible
The piston forces hydraulic fluid to move past a number could make the system more susceptible
spring-loaded checkvalve. Fornormal movement to the event they were designed to protect against.
such as during thermal growth or expansion, the
10.4 Valves
fluid movement is small and is not restricted by the
check'valve. If the pipe movement is rapid, as
during an earthquake, the sudden increase in hy •It is often necessary to stop or control the flow
draulic pressure at the check valve will seat the of a fluid (vapor or liquid), into, through; or from
,check valve and create a "hydraulic lock"' on the a pipeline. This is accomplished by means of a
-operating piston., A'small "bleed valve" is pro valve; a device consisting of a body containing a
vided to slowly release the hydraulic lock to allow passage with a suitable means of tightly closing
normal operation to resume. Most snubbers are a the passage by closing a disk, plug; or ball against
a seating surface surrounding the passage.
'double-acting type to'restrain the pipe in both
directions.
10.4.1 Common Valve Parts
Plant designers have often specified snubbers
Figure 10-6 illustrates a basic gate valve. It
-for other than rigid seismic supports to preclude
the need to redo thermal flexibility analysis. This also illustrates the parts that are commonly found
*approach is more expedient and often more eco in most valves. While their size and some design
-nomical than an extensive re-analysis. It is also ,features may vary, the function to be performed by
more conservative, assuming the snubbers func the part must be performed no matter what vari
tion properly. Procedures such as this have yielded ables are involved (material of construction, size,
adequate support under dynamic (rapid) loadings pressure of liquid or gas in the system, etc.). Fluid
and lower stress during normal operations. How flow through the piping system is throttled, con
ever, subsequent operational problems have raised trolled, or shut off entirely by the relative position
questions about snubber availability and have led of the valve disk and its seat in the valve body. A
to tremendous increases in surveillance frequency simple example is a cork (disk) positioned in a
to ensure their availability. bottleneck (seat) that can be positioned partially in
the neck to throttle flow, withdrawn for full flow,
Snubber failures have occurred for many rea or fully inserted to stop flow from the bottle.
sons. Contaminated hydraulic fluid changes clear
10.4.1.1 Valve Disk
ances and bleed rates; failed seals and "0" rings
destroy the hydraulic action; cracked reservoirs The disk is the movable closure part that seals
T'
and loose fittings-cause hydraulic fluid loss; and
freezing or overheating can damage the internals. against the stationary seat to stop flow. The disk
In short, the small clearances and complicýted .provides the capability to regulate (throttle) or
- design have produced failure rates far in excess of
stop system flow through the valve. System flow
.expectations. is stopped when the disk is inserted into and is in
full contact with the valve -seat. The disk is
Although snubbers have only ,minor impact attached to the valve stem, which moves the disk
to open, close, or throttle the flow through the
for normal operations (e.g. increased surveillances
valve. The disk found in a gate valve is one of four
and maintenance), a heavier penalty can be ex
acted under earthquake loadings. Under such basic methods employed to control flow through a
dynamic loadings the snubbers lock up and stiffen -valve:
the piping system. By increasing the stiffness, the
1. Move a stopper, into or against an orifice
relative displacement loads resulting from differ
such as is done in the globe and needle type
ential support movements may actually be in
valves.
creased. Adding snubbers beyond an optimum
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 Powir Plant Engineering Course Manual piping
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2. Slide a flat, cylindrical; orispherical sur 10.4.1.5 Valve Stem
face across an orifice such as is done in the
gate, plug, ball, slide, or piston valve. The stem moves the valve disk onto and off the
valve seat. Valve stem motion may be manual
3. Rotate a disk or ellipse about a shaft ex (handwheel"or bar) or power operated (electric,
tending across the diameter of a circular hydraulic, or pneumatic).
casing as is done in a butterfly valve.
There are two common types of stems for gate,
4. Move a flexible material into the flow globe, and angle valves. Valve stems are classi
passage, such as is done in the diaphragm fied by whether they'move up and down as the
and pinch valves. valve is opened and closed, and whether the stem
threads are inside or outside the system fluid. A
10.4.1.2 Valve Seat stem that rises (when the valve is opening and the
disk is moving out of the seat) and falls (when the
The seat is the stationary half of the closure valve is closing and the disk is moving into the
surface against which the valve disk seals to stop seat) is called a rising stem. Figure 10-6 is a non
or throttle system flow. The valve seatI is an rising stem valve,'and Figure 10-7 is arising stem
integral part of the valve body. In some valves, the valve. If the stem threads are internal to the valve
body itself is machined to provide the seating and in contact with system fluid, the valve has an
surface. In other valve designs, the valve seat is inside screw; if the threads are not in contact with
screwed or welded into the valve body. In any system fluid, the valve has an outside screw.
case, the valve seat must be a very smooth and hard
surface to prevent leakage and resist wear. A valve with a rising stem and an inside screw
may not be suitable for a location having little
104.1.3 Valve Body clearance or in a system carrying corrosive fluid.
Outside" screw 'stems are often used' with large
The b forms the major part and outline of valves and are always recommended for severe
the valve. It supports all the other vaive parts. The service conditions.
valve body contains the valveiseat that receives the
valve disk to close off or throttle the flow. The 10.4.1.6 Valve Packing
body is constructed so that 'when the valve is
completely assembled, the valve will prevent sys Because the valve stem must pass through the
tem leakage whether it is open or closed. The valve bonnet to move the disk in and out of the
valve body is connected to the system by bolting seat, a means to prevent fluid leakage is required.
(flanges), threading (screwed connection), or weld P.acking is special malleable material that is forced
ing it to the piping. around the stem where it passes through the bon
net. The stuffing box encloses the packing and
10.4.1.4 Valve Bonnet prevents leakage around the stem. Fluid leakage
along the stem can usually be controlled by tight
The bonnet is the closure head on the valve ening the packing nut or gland nuts. This squeezes
body. Without a bonnet and other internals dis the packing tighter against the stem.
cussed below, the valve body is merely a cavity
containing the seat surface. The valve bonnet 10.4.1.7 Valve Actuator
supports the stem, disk, and actuator. The valve
b6nnet is connected to the valve body by bolting, The actuator (sometimes called operator)
threading, welding, or acombination of the three. moves the stem to seat (close) or unseat (open) the
disk in the valve seat. The actuator may be a
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handwheel, bar, or power operator. The actuator tight seal. When the valve is fully open, the gate
may be supported by the stem itself (handwheels is totally out of the flow path and does not obstruct
and bars), or the actuator may be supported by the the flow.
valve bonnet (power actuators). Specific types of
valve actuators or operators will be discussed in A- variation of the gate valve often used in
other sections of this chapter. heated piping systems is the split-disk-type. In the
split-disk type, the disk is composed of two sepa
10.4.1.8 Valve Yoke rate halves, each with its own seat. Springs force
,the two disk halves apart and against their seats.
A yoke (example shown in Figure. 10-8) is This arrangement prevents disk binding when the
--provided when the valve stem and actuator iieed --piping system expands and contracts with tem
mechanical support to prevent the stem frombeing perature changes.
-bent due to the force exerted 6n the stem when the
valve is operated. The yoke is the support arms The gate valve has two advantages: (1) ivery
- that extend from the valve bonnet to encircle the little flow restriction when the valve is full open
stem near the valve actuator. The arms are called and (2) long life span. Disadvantages of gate
the yoke because they are often shaped like the ,valves include: (1) poor throttling ability; (2) poor
yoke used for oxen. Large outside screw valves operation against high differential pressure;'(3)
normally have a yoke to support the stem and longer stroke times as compared with other valve
actuator (particularly when the actuator is a motor types due to the greater stem movement necessary
operator). Such valves are called outside screw -to remove the disk from the flowpath; and (4)
and yoke (OS and Y) valves. packing leakage is more difficult to control.

10.4.2 Gate Valves 10.4.3 Globe Valves

Gate valves (see Figure 10-6) are designed to The globe valve (see Figure 10-7) consists of
operate either fully open or fully closed. They a disk that is forced into a tapered seat. The angle
should not be used to regulate, adjust, or throttle used and the taper of the disk and seat vary with
system flow-. When gate valves are partially open valve size and the kind of service to which the
and being misused to regulate, adjust, or throttle valve is applied. Globe valves are used When the
flow, the valve can be .damaged. System flow flow, is to be regulated :or throttled. The globe
causes rapid erosion of the disk and seat whenever valve seat and disk are not damaged as readily as
the valve is not fully open. gate valves by the throttling action. Globe valve
parts are also easier to repair and replace. The four
The major parts of a gate valve are body, most coimmon designs of globe-type valves are:
bonnet, stem, and seat rings. Sometimes the disk
of a gate valve is referred to as the gate because of -metal disk with narrow conical seat,
its shape. It is in the form of a wedge and it is raised "-plug disk,
or lowered into a slot-type seat. In most gate valve 0
angle, and
designs, the seat is made up of seat rings on each 0 needle.
side of the disk.
,,10.4.3.1 Metal Disk With Narrow Conical
The valve gate is raised or lowered by the 'Seat
- valve actuator. The gate is lowered into the flow
path to stop flow. The gate is lifted out of the flow .This type of globe valve (see Figure 10-8)
path to allow flow. The gate is forced against the usually has a ball-shaped surface on the disk and a
valve seats as the valve is closed, thus providing a conical flat seating surface in the body, and is
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generally. what is referred to as the common type cause leakage.
of globe valve.
If top-grade seating material are used in this
Because of the narrow seating-surface area, design, itis extremely difficult to find another type
this valve is easily made tight, can be refaced or of valve that surpasses the service life of a plug
reground readily, and is adaptable to many types disk globe valve.
of service. The principal disadvantage of this type
of seat is that very hard dirt or foreign matter may 10.4.3.3 Angle Valve
scratch the seating surface, causing leakage. The
result ofsuch leakage is wire-drawing action of the The angle valve (see Figure 10-9) has the same
fluid, which will destroy the seat in a very short disk variations as other globe-type valves: plug
time. Even though the dirt may notbe hard enough disk and conventional disk. The valve will reduce
to cut into the metal, if it holds the disk away from turbulence, restriction of flow, and amount of
its seat and the disk is allowed to remain in this pressure drop of the fluid because the flow makes
position, the fluid leaking through the valve seat fewer changes in direction than in other globe
and disk will cut a groove in the seat ("wire type valves. The angle valve cuts down on piping
drawing"). Once a seat is wire drawn, leaktight installation time, labor, and materials, and reduces
valve closure is impossible. Wire-drawing action the number of joints or potential leaks by serving
often occurs in a dripping water faucet. The hot both as a valve and a 90 degree elbow.
water under pressure "wire draws" (cuts) a groove
in the valve seat. Because the typical globe valve 10.43.4 Needle Valve
is susceptible to the wire-drawing action of the
fluid, it should not be used in a close throttling or Needle valves (see Figure 10-10) are used for
fine tuming application. fine control of flow in small diameter piping. The
name needle valve is derived from the sharp pointed
10.43.2 -Plug Disk conical disk and matching seat. Needle valves
come in straight and angle patterns, and are used in
The plug disk design is advantageous because steam, water, oil, gas, light liquid, fuel oil, and
it (1)_ throttles flow more effectively than other similar service. The primary purpose of the needle
designs and (2) resists the wire-drawing action of 'valve is precise throttling. The design of the seat
high velocity flow. This construction comprises a and disk makes it a more efficient throttling valve
plug-shaped disk and mating seat, which produce: than the plug valve in small-diameter piping. The
stem threads are usually finei than most valves, so
" A gradual increase or decrease in the dis several rotations of the stem are required to in
tance between the seat and disk surfaces crease or decrease the opening through the seat.
when the valve is slowly opened or closed. This improves the throttling characteristics of the
This causes a gradual change in flow area, valve.
thereby providing a throttling action.
10.4.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of
" A wide contact area between disk and seat Globe Valves
surfaces. The effect of wire drawing is
"greatlyminimized because cutting always The advantages of globe valves are (1) flow
starts at outer edges of a seating surface. In can be restricted orthrottled without damage to the
addition, any indentions in the seat caused valve; (2) the valve flow path may be arranged
by hard particles of foreign matter are such that system -pressurein the reverse direction
unlikely to extend across the entire disk or will tend to sek the valve tighter, and (3) valve
seat surfaces and, therefore, are not apt to parts are easier to replace for service or repair. The

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"generaldisadvanitgaes of all types of globe valves -designed so that 'flow through the valve lifts the
are (1) they provide increased resistance to flow; disk away from its seat. Gravity, orbackpressure,
"(2)high system flow increases pressure under the holds the disk to its seat when closed. Because
"diskind more force is required to close the valve; flow changes direction as it passes through the
iand (3) foreign matter rhay cause plugging of the valve (as in a globe valve), these valves cause
"valveaa result of the several directional changes "considerable pressure drop. They are designed to
iin the flow. permit full disk lift under normal operating condi
,tions. Sometimes a free-floating ball is used
10.4.4 Check Valves instead of a plhg'disk. The ball never'seats twice
in exactly the same way. Each'seating presents a
.' Check valvesiare designed to permit fluid flow new ball surface, cutting down on wear'and pro
in one direction only. As system flow stops and longing valve life.
'starts to reverse, the check valve closes. The three
"basic types of chieck valves are swing-check, lift In the lift-check valve, the disk (plug) is at
check, and stop-check valves. Check valves are tached to slide rails on a ffied stem. The disk is
"extremelyimportant to proper functioning of any "free to open or close with no stem motion. The
piping system because of(1) their quick autoniatic "vlveAisk"lifts" off the seat wýhen the flow is from
action and (2) theirsefisitivity to changes in flow inlet to outlet. When the flow is reversed, the disk
conditions. Ftirthirmore-, they *'evient dangerous seats, preventing flow.
or uiudesirable backflow in a line when two or
moie fluids are being supplied to a common pioint Some lift-check valves have an internal pres
-at different-pressures. sure-equalization passage or pipe connecting the
bonnet area above the valve disk to the valve outlet
10.4.4.1 Swing-Check Valve area. This passage willrvent off any pressure
--lock- that might build up within the bonnet above
--The swing-chieckvalve (e Figurem 10-1) has the disk when the disk is lifted by flow in the
a hinged disk that swings vhin operating. 'Flow normal direction. When normal flow is lost or
from inlet to outlet swings the disk ope n. Reduced reversed, and the disk starts to drop toward the
system flow allows the disk to partially close as a seat,,he intemie passage supplies valve outlet
result of'gravity. This design feature helps prevent pressure to-the area above the disk 'to prevent
the valve from "slamming" on flow reversal (out formation of a "vacuut "lock", that might hinider
let *td- inlet). -- This reduces the shock the valve closing operation.
("waterhammer") to valve seat and disk, as well as
to system piping.- Swing-check valves offer little 10.4.4.3 Stop-Lift-Check Valve
-resistance to flow when open.- 'Therefore, this
valve is used in systems where pressure loss in the "kA special application of the check valve is the
open direction must be kept to a minimum. stOl-lift-check valve -(see Figure 10-13)- W'When
the sterm is withdrawn, ihe disk'is free to ift or
-Swing-check valves usuilly hale replaceable close, depending on the direction of flow, just as a
components.' Washers fitted 6nthi top of the disk typical lift-check valve. After system flow through
take most the valve wear, extending the life of the the valve is stopped, the stem iiay be inserted in
-valve seat. Moose-fitting hinge pin'allows easy the disk by the valve actuator.
'closure'as flow drops. -.

"-When the stem is inseited in the diskit forces

10.4.4.2 'Lift-Check Valve fthe disk tight against the seat. Iri'this position, the
valie serves as a stop valve, and all flow is stoppýd.
The lift-check valve (see Figure 10-12) is A ty'pical*location f6rthis valve is in a PWR

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feedwaterline, wbere it serves
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feedwater line,'where it sfbýes asa feedwater stop h4 occurred. This ressure drop issrdfried to as
check valve to the steam generator inlet. the-mbloydoern which can be adjusted, and is
no .rmallyspecifieda a percentage ofthevalve lift
10.4-5 Butterfly Valves" pressure. When the blowdown has been com
pleted, the valve will snap shut. Safety-vailves
Butterfly valves (see Figure 10-14) are ex must close tightly andremain closed without"chat
tremely durable, efficient, and reliable. The but ter." (Chatter is the repeated partial opening and
terfly valve derives its name from the Wing-like closing of a safety or relief valve.)
action of its disk, which moves from parallel
(open) to flow thi6ugh the valve to a right angle The lift of a safety valve disk is caused by
(closed). Thus, onfe-quarter turn of the stem and pressure of the fluid (or gas). The safety valve is
disk is all thi is required to go"from fully open to designed tjpopfuidly open'once the set pressure is
fully closed. reached" When the valve starts to open, the area
exposed to the pressure is increased, causing a
Butterfly valves use aivariety of materials for greater force to be exerted against the spring
seat linings and disk surfaces.-I The seat can' be pressure, and the valve pops fully open. The
made of a resilient lining for leak tightness, or of increased force is obtained by an effective in
a harder, long-wearing material for extended life. crease in exposed disk area as the disk rises. -The
Where high temnperatures preclude the use of the venturi effect ofthe inlet nozzle also adds to the lift
resilient lining, the disk itself can have a ring force as the steam expands past the throat of the
(similar to a piston ring) to minimize leakage. nozzle. The safety valve also closes rapidly and
completely because of this relationship in reverse.
The light weight of butterfly valves often per As the system pressure drops (pressure is being
mits their use in piping systems without separate relieved), the spring tension overcomes the de
support. Butterfly valves are relatively inexpen creasing lift force and the valve starts to close. The
sive, fit into tight places, and present little obstruc closing action decreases the area of lift force,
tion to system flow when' fully open. which allows the spring to suddenly overcome the
lifting force snapping the valve shut.
A disadvantage of butterfly valves is their
inability to seal tightly when there, are high pres 10.4.6.1.1 Safety Valve Discharge
sure differences. They are also unsuitable. for
throttling applications. Suitable arrangements must be made to ensure
that the discharge from safety valves is safely
10.4.6 Safety and Relief Valves removed and dispersed. Four critical design crite
ria for a safety valve escape system, regardless of
Safety and relief valves are essential to power fluid type being handled, are:
plant operation. These valves-provide automatic
over-pressure protection for, piping systems and 1. The fluid must not discharge into the atmo
equipment. sphere at a point where there is a conceiv
able danger to personnel safety.
10.4.6.1 Safety Valves
2. The escape system must provide for ther
There are many kinds of safety valves, all mal movement ofthe pressure source rela
designed to "pop" (open fully) when a specific or tive to the discharge point and thermal
"set" pressure is reached. The valve should "pop" expansion of the discharge system. There
open suddenly, and remain wide open and at full fore the safety valve is not subject to any
flow until a specified pressure drop or reduction external forces on its body or back pres-

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 Power Plant Engineering Cours Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
sure on its steam, chest, greater than the 10.4.6.L3 -Huddling Chamber Safety Valve
maximum defined by the valve maker.
In the huddling chamber safety valve (see
3. Materials used must be corrosion resistant, Figure 10-16), the'static pressure acting on the
- particularly where they are exposed to the -feather causes initial'opening. -As the valve pops
elements. open, the space within the huddling chamber-(be
tween the seat and adjusting ring) fills with steam
4. The steam blow must be silenced in accor - and builds up more pressure on the outer lipi ofthe
dance with local pollution regulations.. feather. The increased area of the'feather lips
increases the upward thrust against the spring'and
Two types ofhigh pressure steam safety valves causes the feather to lift to full opening. After a
in general use are*(1) nozzle reaction and (2) predetermined pressure drop (blowdown), the valve
huddling chamber. starts closing, resulting in a reduction in the area of
the feather exposed to the steam pressure. This
10.4.6.1.2 Nozzle Reaction Safety Valve causes the force exerted against the spring to
Sreduce,'causing the feather to close.
As explained in section 10.4.6.1, during the
opening phase of any safety valve, the spring force Blowd6wn is adjusted by raising or lowering
keeping the valve closed must be counteracted by -the adjusting ring. -Raising this ring decreases
a greater force on the steam or gas pressure side. blowdown; lowering increases blowdown.- Rais
But as the diskrises, the spring load increases from ing and lowering the adjusting ring-changes the
compression, so the total force needed to obtain volume under the disk, .which changes the
full lift must also increase., In the nozzle reaction blowdown.
valve (see Figure 10415);the valve internals cause
-the lifting force to be greatest at or near the end of 10.4.6.2 Relief Valves'
the lift, thus giving full bore lifts even with a small
volume of relieving steam. Relief valves (see Figure 10-17) are desijned
to limit pressure in'liquid systems. Relief valves
- System pressure drop is usually gradual, with do notpop open, andthey do not have ablowdown.
the disk falling slowly at first. As the disk falls to SRelief valves open in proportion to the'pressure
about 50% of the full-open position in response to - applied to them. They are suitable for incompress
system pressure drop, the reactive forces holding ible liquid systems such as water and oil because
the valve open are partly cancelled. Finally, the for a small amount of liquid released, a large drop
total lifting force becomes less than the spiing in pressure occurs. A relief valve consists of a
force, and the disk closes sharply from about 50% "valve body, 'stem, disk, seat, spring, idjusting
--ofitsratedlift. screws, locknuts, inlet, and outlet.

The nozzle ring adjusts the lifting area of the As static pressure overcomes the spring 'pries
disk and is used to adjust the popping point (lifting sure setpoint, the disk lists off its seat and allows
pressure) of the valve. Blowdown is adjusted by . the fluid to escape. -When system pressure falls
the adjusting ring. The adjusting ring alters the below spring pressure, the 'valve shuts. Spring
change in lifting area on the disk as the diskbegins tension is adjusted by the adjusting screws and is
to reseat. This means'that the spring tension locked into place using locknuts.
overcomes steam pressure at a different time,
thereby changing the blowdown. The main disadvantage of the relief valve is
chatter. Because relief valves essentially have no
blowdown feature, as-soon as the system pressure

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 Powe- Plan Eniern Course Manual Pi•pin
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is below the relief set point, the valve closes. This three-way valves.
causes a surge in system pressure that sometimes
causes the valve to open again momentarily. This 10.4.7.1 Solenoid Valves
action decreases the life of the valve because
excessive opening and closing can damage the A solenoid-valve (see Figure 10-18) has two
seating surface. major working parts: (1) a solenoid (electromag
net) with a metal core or plunger and (2) a valve
A safety valve opens quickly at set pressure for containing an orifice with a disk or plug to stop or
immediate full-flow discharge. In comparison, a allow flow. Solenoid valves may be direct acting
relief valve opens and closes slowly, allowing full or pilot operated.
flow only after significant overpressure builds up
in the system. The direct-acting valve is opened or closed by
movement of the plunger. When the solenoid is
External operating levers can be installed with energized (usuallyby a switch in the control room),
safety or relief valves; such levers are required electromagnetism draws the plunger into the sole
wherever frequent testing is a must. Both relief noid. The plungeris attached to or moves the stem
valves and safety valves are commonly installed or actuator inside the valve to open or close the
on high pressure systems.. Typically, the relief valve to system flow.
valves have a lower actuating pressure than the
safety valves. As pressure in the system builds up, Direct-acting solenoid valves are fully auto
the relief valves will open first in an attempt to matic. The solenoid core is mechanically" con
control the overpressure event. If pressure contin nected to the valve disk and directly opens or
ues to increase, the safety valves will open to closes the valve when energized or deenergized.
prevent pressure in excess of design values. In Valve operation does not depend on line pressure
most designs of this nature, the relief valves have or rate of flow; the valve will operate throughout
isolation valves which may be shut if the relief the full range of rated.temperature, pressure, and
valve sticks open or leaks. Safety valves, on the flow conditions.
otherhand, are neverprovidedwithisolationvalves.
The pilot-operated solenoid valve has a pilot
Both relief valves and safety valves are at orifice and a bleed orifice. Pilot-operated sole
tached to the system via flanged connections so noids use line pressure or another fluid-(such as
they can be removed for bench testing. External compressed air) to operate the main valve. When
gagging devices may be used to allow system the solenoid is energized, the pilot orifice opens,
hydro testing. Gagging devices are usually threaded allowing a small amount of flow to decrease pres
stems that impinge on the internal valve stem to sure on top of the valve diaphragm. With pressure
prevent its movement. decreased on top of the diaphragm, system pres
sure on the underside (inlet) raises the diaphragm
10.4.7 Specialty Valves and opens the valve. When the solenoid is
deenergized, the pilot orifice closes. Full inlet line
Steam plants need valves for special applica pressure is then applied to the top of the piston or
tions. This section discusses the construction and diaphragm to close the valve.
use of the following specialty valves:
10.4.7.2 Plug and Ball Valves
0 solenoid valves,
0 plug and ball valves, The plug valve's- main application is in the
0 diaphragm valves, handling of fluid/solid mixtures. The main advan
0 control valves, and tage of the plug valve is that foreign material that

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Power Plant Engineering Couruse Manrual SPiping
Pow Plant Engineering Course Manual 'Piping
mightprevent full closure of agate valve is scraped Poor flow regulation, and
off the plug as the plug valve 6loses. Plug valves Exliense.
go from fully open to fully closed with a 900 turn
of the handle. 'In recent years, plug valves also An important difference between these valves is
have been used in clear liquid systems where space that the plug valve restricts flow much more than
is limited. the ball valve.

-Plugvalves (see Figure 10-19) can be cylindri 10.4.7.3 Diaphragm Valves

cal or tapered and lubricated or non-lubricated,
depending on service and frequency of operation:, Diaphragm valves (see Figure 10-21)'have
A lubricated tapered plug seats tightly, but if it is several advantages: they provide smooth fluid
operated without lubrication, the plug can jam in passage without pockets, good flowv control, and
the tapered seat andbecome gouged and scratched. leaktight closure. Diaphragm valves work well
Lubricated plug valves are usually provided with even when suspended solids are in the pipeline.
a separate lubricating system that works as the Because the working parts are isolated from the
valve is opened or closed. Grease is forced around fluid, corrosion of the operating mechanism is
the plug as well as beneath it, raising it slightly, prevented.- Diaphragm valýes are'siuitable for
lubricating it, and permitting easy operation. lines handling corrosive fluids, fibrous slurries,
sludges, solids in'suspension, water, gases, and'
Cylindrical and tapered plug valves can also compressd 'air. They are used extensively in
be supported by an inert, resilient liner. In this radioactive fluid systems, where theirleaktightness
case, there is no need to lubricate the valve before is a major asset.
operation to prevent plug scratching; the resilient
liner serves this purpose. Diaphragm-type valves belong to the general
class known as "packless" valves because the
Multiport plug -valves may be positioned to flexible diaphragm between the body and the
permit flow in any of several directions, routing bonnet eliminates the need for a stuffing box to'
flow through several systems. Usually the incom prevent leakage around the stem. The diaphragm;
ing flow is directed to the bottom of the plug (the which is made of a flexible elastomer, seals the
internal opening), and then turns 90? throiugh the operating mechanism from the fluid passing
port. through the body so the operating mechanism of a
diaphragm valve is never in contact with corrosive
The ballvalve (see Figure 10-20) is an adapta chemicals or other pipeline materials.
tion of the-plug valve. The chief difference is the
shape of the valve internals. The plug valve is The valve diaphragm is the only part -that
cylindrical or conical; the ball valve is spherical. wears significantly. It cain, be replaced without
Each has a drilled passage. The ball valve has a removing the valve body from the pipeline. Sev
round passage, nearly matching the inside diam eral valve parts eliminated in the diaphragm výalve
eter of the pipe, while the plug valve has a rectan include the packing glands, disk holder, and seats.'
gular-shaped passage. As in plug valves, ball
valves go fully open to fully closed with a 90° turn Two types of diaphragm valves are the weir
of the handle. The handle always indicates the and the straightway. The weir diaphragm valve
direction of the drilled passage. has a flexible diaphragm connected to a compres
sor plug. The compressor plug is connected to a
The disadvantages of plug and ball valves are: stud molded into the diaphragm. The compressor
plug is moved up or down by the valve stem. The
Rapid wear of plug or ball-to-body seals, diaphragm is lifted high when the compressor is

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 Power Plant Engineering Course manual IIPiping
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raised (valve open) and is pressed tightly against In an, air-operated control valve (see Figure
the valve body weir when the compressor is low 10-22), control air pushing on the diaphragm pro
ered (valve closed). The weir is a type of valve vides operating power for the valve. The valve in
seat. Figure 10-22 has a direct-spring action to open the
valve while control air pushes the diaphragm and
The straightway diaphragm valve is similar to stem down to close the valve. An increase in
the weir valve except it does not have a weir-type control air pressure above the initial spring setting
seat. When the valve is open, fluid flows straight forces the stem down against the spring compres
through, not up and over the valve seat. The sion. The resulting valve action is know as air-to
diaphragm lifts high for full, streamlined flow in close (or fail open) action. The actuator may also
either direction. When the valve is closed, the be made with a reverse-spring return, where air
diaphragm seals tightly for positive closure even pushes up under the diaphragm, resulting in an air
with gritty or fibrous materials in the line. to-open (fail close) action.

For, corrosive fluid applications, diaphragm' A stop in the valve's uppercase holds the initial
valves are made of stainless steel or polyvinyl. diaphragm position. The spring is normally set so
chloride (PVC) plastics. Diaphragm valves also the stem starts to move when air pressure to the
may be lined with glass, rubber, lead, plastics, diaphragm is equal to the minimum spring range.
titanium, or other materials. The life of the dia Spring compression can be changed with an exter
phragm depends on the nature of the fluid handled, nal adjusting screw.
its temperature and pressure, and the frequency of
valve operation. The best orientation for any control valve is
upright. Most piping specifications call for con
10.4.7.4 Control Valves trol valves to be located above grade or platform
elevation and at the edge of accessways. For in
Control valves are the basic regulatory device place maintenance, clearance space is required
in any process using fluid streams. Therefore, below and above' the' valve to remove the seat,
operators must be thoroughly familiar with the plug, actuator cover, spring, and yoke.
different types of these valves and their flow
characteristics. 10.4.74.1 Single-Seated Valves

A control valve consists of two major subas Single-seated control valves (see Figure 10
semblies-a valve body and an actuator. The 22) are usually, used (1) when positive shut-off is
valve body subassembly is the portion that actu
required, (2) when piping sizes are 1 inch and
ally controls the passing fluid. It consists of a smaller, and (3) where the actuator is not affected
housing; internal trim, bonnet, and sometimes a by unbalanced forces acting on the disk. On
bottom flange. The. valve body is a pressure single-seated. control valves, the pressure on one
carrying part (a pressure vessel) that must meet all side of the valve disk is always greater than on the
the applicable pressure, temperatire, and corro other side.
sion requirements in the same manner as a normal
pressure vessel. The actuator sits on the valve 10.4.74.2 Double-Seated Valves
body and positions the valve stem and disk, de
pending on control signals received. A double-seated control valve (see Figure 10
23) is designed so that the pressures on the inlet
The most common control valve body style is side of the two seats counter each other. The
the globe valve. Such a control valve body can be advantage of double-seated construction is that it
either single- ordouble-seated. reduces the actuator forces required to move the

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
valve. The hydrostatic effects ofthe fluid pressure tials. Pressure control over an extremely, wide
acting on the two disks tend to,cancel out. Because capacity range might require two control valves in
double-seated valves have upper and lower disks parallel, one for the high flow rates and the other
of different diameters to allow removal of the for the low flow rates.
smaller lower disk through the upper port, the
"pressure forces are not completely balanced. With igh pressure or a'large pressure differ
ential, a pressure-reducing valve should not oper
10.4.7.5 Pressure-Reducing Valves ate close to its seat. The resulting high velocities
can wear the plug and seat, causing inaccurate
A pressure-reducing valve is a control valve pressure control and leakage when the valve shuts.
used for controlling the downstream pressure or
flow rate of a fluid from a high pressure source. 10.4.7.6 Three-Way Valves "
Three general types are (1) self-contained internal
pilot piston-operated, (2) self-contained external A te-way valve is an extension othe globe
pilot-operated, and (3) spring- or weight-loaded, valve that can be used for diverting or combining
direct-operated with a diaphragm, bellows; orpis (mixing) service. A three-way valve has a three
ton. A self-contained or self-opeiated valve uses portedbody containin g two valve seats. "The stem
the fluid being controlled to operate its main valve. p6sitions the plug against the upper seat, lower
seat, or some point in between.
"The operatidn :6f a self-contained pressure
reducing' valve '(see Figure 10-24) is the same "Figure 10-25 shows a three-way valve con
"whether it is inteinally or externally controlled. nected for diverting service. In this applcatidn the
High piessu're fluid'enteis the valve on the inlet fluid entering the inlet port is diverted so that flow
side and acti •gainit the main -Valve disk, tending can exit through outlet port A or B, orboth outlet
'to close the main valve. However, the high pres ports.: An upward movement of the plug decreases
sure fluid is also ported to the top-of the main valve the flow exiting through outlet po A and in
piston, which has alarger"surface area than the creases the flow exiting through outlet port B.
Lmain valve disk, iending to open the main valve.
Figure 10-26 shows a three-way~valveused for
- An auxiliar valve is used to control the amount combining service. In this application the fluid
of priessurie acting on the top of the main valve entering inlet port A and the"fluid •entering inlet
piston. The auxiliary valve is positioned by 'a port B are combined and exit through outlet port C.
controllingdiaphragm that senses the downstream A downward movement of the plug decreases the
(reduced) pressure. The'position ofthe diaphragm flow passing through inlet port A and increases the
"atan given moment is determine6d by ihe relative flow passing through inlet port B.
-strength of two opposing forces: (1) the downward
force exerted by the adjusting spring, and (2) the 10..7.7 Diluge Va ves
"upward force exeited on the iindeiside of the
"diaphragm by the reduced pressure fluid. These
A deluge' ¾alve (see Figure 10-27) can be
two forces are continixilly seeking to'reach asitate mianully or automatically opened-to let a high
of balance; because of this, the downstream (re 'flow rate of fire protection water douse the af
duced) pressure is kept constant as long as the fected area. When thermil detectors monitor the
amount of fluid used downstream is kept within protected area, a sudden rise in ambient tempera
the capacity of the reducing ývalve. ture can cause the valve to open.

Pressuie-reducing valves cn accommodate a Figure 10-27A'show*s'a" cross'section of a

wide range of capacities and pressure differen- deluge valve in the closed position.- Automatic
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Power Plant Engineering Comms Manual I Piping
Power Plant Engineering Coune Manual .Piphig
actuation of a fire sensor (or manual initiation)-- water applications, it- breaký down at elevated
energizes (opens) the solenoid valve. The sole temperatures (beginning between 4500 and 750 0 F,
noidvalvevents off the waterthat, with the spring, depending on the aj~plication).
held the clapr closed. Fire water system pres
sure compresses the spring to open the clapper. Braided asbestos is also a common packing
Water flows over the lip of the inlet line and out the material because it can be made in split rings that
discharge line to the sprinkler(s) served. can be wrapped around the valve stem. This type
of packing usually uses additives such as mica or
10.4.8 Valve Packing graphite for lubrication, particularly in high tem
perature service. The maximum temperature limit
Valve packing (see Figures 10-6 anid 10-10) is of asbestos is approximately 1000 0 F.
the malleable, replaceable material used within
the stuffing box of a' valve bonnet to'prevent Teflon used as a lubricant for asbestos packing
leakage around the valve stem. The stuffing box is either a suspensoid or.a pure braided covering
is the recessed area surrounding the stem where around an asbestos core. A pure braided Teflon
the stem enters the valve bonnet. Valve packing cover around asbestos is preferred because it com
arrangements include an adjustable slide feature bines the elasticity and deformability of asbestos
(packing gland and/or follower) to allow for com with the smoothness of Teflon.
pressing and tightening the packing. Packing
material must be malleable to be form-fitting, but A recent addition to the list of available pack
must cause little friction with stem rotation or ing materials is carbon ribbon. Carbon ribbon is a
moveient. The packing must stop the fluid from flexible all-graphite product with dirfction-de
leaking out, while allowing the stem to-move. pendent properties similar to pyrolytic graphite. It
is essentially chemically inert, except when strong
The conventional way to load the packing is to oxidizers are handled. The coefficient of friction
tighten the packing gland nuts. A more recent is low and the packing can be used for the high
innovation is the live-loaded packing system that temperatures a power plant produces. Care must
places Belleville springs (washers) between the be taken in adjusting this packing; it has a high
packing follower and the packing. The packing density, and overtightening could lead to a lock-up
load is then determined by the spring constant and of the valve stem. A disadvantage of carbon
the amount ofcompression ofthe Beleville springs. ribbon is that the surface roughness limits are
comparable to those of Teflon.
Teflonisoftenrusedforpackingvalves. Teflon
hiýs excellent chemical inertness and g6od lubri "0" rings or chevron rings are made of elas
cating properties. Teflon can be used in solid tomers such as Neoprene or Buna-Y. They can be
molded or tuned form (chevron rings), orit can be used for certain low pressure valves handling
used as a lubricant for asbestos packing. Disad nonabrasive fluids below- 180 0 F. This type of
vantages of solid Teflon packing are its high packing materiaisi, found in certain specialized
coefficient of thermal expansion, particularly near valve applications, such as temperature control
room temperature, and the need for extra-fine valves for air-conditioning units.
surface finishes. Surface finishes of 8 rms (rough
ness in micro-inches) on the stem surface and 10.4.9 Gaskets
16 rms at the inside of the packing box are com
ihn6nly 'spe-ified to, prevent undue friction and Gaskets are the replaceable materials used to
wear of the Teflon'rings. Teflon can- lso be cut seal flat surface junctions (see Figure 10-6). For
and used as split rings. Although Teflon is an common valves rated at 300 psi and below, rub
excelleni packing material for low temperature ber-bonded asbestos gaskets, approximately 1/16-
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,Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
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inch thick, can be used as bonnet and flange The secondary wheel is attached to the valve
gaskets. For higher pressures and temperatures stem. Wiih this type of operator, the valve can be
above 250 0F, metal-clad asbestos gaskets are used. pounded shut for tight closure, or pounded open if
stuck shut. -..

- The most common~gasket used in the power

plant is called a "flex." A flex is a spiral wound If additional mechanical advantage is needed,
system of stainless steel and asbestos or Teflon. A the valve bonnet can be fitted with gears. In such
-thin strip of asbestos and stainless steel is coiled cases, a special wrench (handheld, air or motor
like arope on a flat surface.,- The flat disk-like driven) is provided. A plant equipment operator
gaskets can then be crushed between two flanges attaches the portable air or electric motorto a lug
or a valve bonnet and body. These gaskets have on the valve and drives the valve open or closed
-brand: names such as Spirotallic or Flexitallic. through the gear arrangement. This allows one
Spiral-type gaskets with Teflon filler are limited to operator to operate the valve when, because of the
about 450°F; those with asbestos are used up to gear ratio, such operation would normally take a
1000 0F. long, time and/or another operator's assistance.
,When a valve's -location does-not perinit ,easy
10.5 Valve Operators access to the handwheel, chain wheels can be
fitted to the valve stem. The chain may be allowed
SValve operators (also called valve actuators or to hang free from the handwheel or can be held out
*positioners) move the valve stem, and thus the of the normal traffic pattern. The operator works
disk, in and out ;of the valve seating area. The the chain wheel to move the valve wheel (counter
,following valve operators are discussed in this clockwise to open, clockwise to shut), just as ifthe
.section: operator were grasping the valve handwheel itself.

S
manual operators, 10.5.2 Electric Operators
0
electric operators,
pneumatic operators, and Electric motors are fitted to valves throughout
hydraulic operators. the plant. The advantages ofmotor-operated valves
over manual valves include: .
10.5.1 Manual Operators
* remote operation, usually from the control
Manual operators can adjust a valve to any -room,
position. .Typical manual operators are the
handwheel operator, the handheld air motor, and * rapid opening and closing, and
,the chain operator.
0 automatic operation on a signal from an
Handwheels are directly attached to the valve other component (e.g., a tank level switch).
stem. The size (diameter). of the valve -wheel
provides the only, mechanical advantage (lever - Attaching an electric motor oýerator (see Fig
-age) to operate thevalve. - When large manual ure 10-28) usually makes the valve beneath it
.valves are exposed to service conditions that make unrecognizable because 6f the size and complex
operation difficult because of bindin•g (high tem ity of motor operators. Electric motor operators
perature or high system pressure), a "pounding-" .have a control and switching box, a drive motor, a
or "hammer-" type handwheel may be provided. handwheel for manual operation, an operating
-The "hammer"' moves freelythrough a portion of shaft, and a gear box. Position limit switches,
handwheel trav'el,• hen hits against a lug on a torque limit switches, or a combination are used.
secondary wheel. .The limit switches monitor the valve opening/

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closing and indicate valve position (usually by red backup to the valve travel limit switch and keeps
and green lighti) ii the control room. the valve from being jammed in the open or closed
position if the travel limit switch malfunctions.
Of maj or concern to plant operators is manual
operation of a motor-operated valve. After just a Gear•driven limit switches govern valve travel
few open-close cycles from- the control room, in the open or closed direction. These switches
opeiators become accustomed to the time it takes also regulate the position, indicator lights when
a valve to achieve its full stroke (typical stroke provided. The geared limit switches are of the
time is 12 inches per minute). When the same rotary-drive type. Depending on the type of opera
valve must be operated by hand, however, opera tor, both' the geared limit switches and the torque
tors will find they must turn the handwheel for limit switches are'always "in-step" during both
some time to fully open or close the valve. (Note motor and hand operation.- Keep in mind, how
that the engage-disengage lever must be moved to ever, that electrical interlocks are of little use
the manual position.) It takes longer to position a during manual operation.
motor-operated valve manually because of the
gearing fisedbetween the motor and valve stem. In The size of the Limitorque operator used de
an automobile, high engine speed coupled to a pends on the size of the valve and its applicahtion.
transmission in first or second gear gives high The differential pressure across the valve, stem
torque to the rear wheels but at a low wheel speed. diameter, desiied opening and closing times, oper
Valve operators use the sanie principle: high mo ating voltage, fluid temperature and frequency of
tor speed coupled through a high ratio gear box service are allfconsidei6d when matching an op
increases torque. erator to a valve. Lidiiitorque operators used in
nuclear service typically have an SMB designa
10-5.2.1 Limitorque Valve Operators tion. There are currently eight sizes available,
ranging from SMB-000 (smallest) to SMIB-5 (larg
The Limitorque type of electric valve operator est). The discussion which follows is for a SMB
(see Figure 10-29) controls and limits the opening 0 operator, but is also applicable to SMB-l, 2, 3,
and closing 'travel of the valve. Pr6per valve and 4 operators.
seating is very important because the valves can be
damaged by overtightening the valve in either the 10.5.2.1.1 Description of Motor Operation
closed or'open' (backseat) position. By limiting
torque and thrust loads with the valve torque limit The motors us~d on the Limitorque' valve
switches, the valve closing or backseat torque can controls are high-staiting torque, totally enclosed
be closely controlled. motors. They are furnished in weatherproof,'ex
plosion-proof, or submersible enclosures. All
The Limitorque design provides a constant motors are furnished with ball bearings and pro
seating thrusit ensuring that a valve is fully seated vided with grease"seals. -No lubrication of these
on each stroking operation and automatically com motors is necessaiy because they are lubricated at
pensates forvalve seat-and disk wear. This seating the factory for lifetime operation. All 3-phase AC
thrust can be varied by means of a micrometer motors are of the squirrel'cage design, and DC
adjustmint of the torque limit switches. motors are compound wound. The motor (see
Figure -10-30) transfobims the electrical' 'energy
The torque limit switch becomes operative input to mechanical energy outputL This miechani
and disconnects the drive motor if an obstruction cal output energy is trafismittid through i series of
is met,: regardless of whether valve travel is com gears inside the main hiising to open and close the
plete.'This prevents daraae to the valve seat, disk, valve.
and stem. The torque limit switch also serves as a
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A reversing starter and overload relay must be seating a valve, encountering an obstruction, or
-wired in series with the input motor leads to ;-during a valve malfunction, the worm (21) slides
control motor directional rotation and limit motor "axially along the- splines of the worm shaft and
"current,respectively. These two components may compresses the belleville springs in the spring
, be enclosed in the limit switch compartment or 'pack (located within the torque limit sleeve) (3).
wired to the unit from a central motor control The spring pack-worri assembly has a rack ma
station. chined onto the bearing cartridge (4) which en
-gages 'with the gear located on the shaft of the
As shown on Figure 10-30, the electric motor torque switch (2).
(14) has: a helical pinion mounted on its shaft
extension. This pinion (13) drives the worm shaft "Whenthe worm moves axially as a result of
clutch gear (12) which is engaged with the worm "increasedload on the gearing, it rotates the shaft of
shaft clutch (11). the torque switch. When'the torqueswitch reaches
a preset torque value, it opens a pair -of electric
The worm shaft clutch is splined to the worm contacts, which are wired into the motor control
shaft (6). A spring (10) pushes the clutch along the circuit. These contacts interrupt the circuit and
-.splines on the worm shaft and engages the clutch - stop motor operation."
with the worm shaft clutch gear.
A simplified iepresentation of the operation of
Two lugs cast into the top portion of the worm the worm is shown- in Figure 10-31. During
gear (17) engage the two lugs on the drive sleeve normal valve movemenet, the worm assumes an
(19). equilibrium position-on the splined worm' shaft
and simply rotates in place, turning the worm gear.
The lugs are spaced so that when the worm When the 'valve disc/stem encounters increased
gear begins to turn during motor operation, there is movement resistance-due to contacting the valve
-a certain amount of lost motion before the lugs seat or an obstruction, the increased resistance
engage and cause the hammer blow effect within creates increased back torque that is transmitted
Sthe operator. This hammer blow effect will help to through the stem nut and drive sleeve to the worm
unseat valves stuck on a backseat or seat. -, gear. The increased back torque tends to slow or
"stopthe rotation of the worm gear. However, the
As soon as. the worm gear lugs engage, the motor and the associated gearing are continuing to
drive sleeve (being splined internally with the turn the worm shaft and worm at the original
stem nut (20) causes the stem nut to rotate and speed., The speed difference resulting from the
open or close the threaded stem of the valve. "increased back torque causes the Worm to "dig"
into the worm gear teeth and move axially (to the
S -Thestem nut is threaded internally to fit the right in'Figure 10-31) along the splined worm
"thread of-the particular valve. In the case.of shaft. If the back torque is sufficidnt, the worm
nonrising stem valves, or where the electric motor will compress the Belleville spring pack enough to
is mounted in tandem with an -additional gear ",operate the torque switch, which stops current
drive, the stem nut is merely bored and keyed to fit flow to the motor: (For schematic simplicity, the
the shaft. -•: . . .... torque switch shown in Figure 10-31 is different
fromthe switches found onmostLimitorque valves,
The thrust developed by aLimitorque operator --but the action is the game.) The ability of the worm
is absorbed by the thrust bearings (16) and (18) on ",toeither rotate in place normally or move-axially
the top and bottom of the main drive sleeve. along the splined Worm shaft when increased back
torque is encountered is the heart of the torque
As the operator develops greater torque when limiting action of a Limitorque motoif'operator.,
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This feature of the operator keeps the valve desired position, two of these contacts open elec
from being damaged in the event of, excessive tric circuits and two contacts close electric cir
torque, i.e., valve malfunction or an obstruction to cuits. Generally, one rotor is set to trip at the full
valve operation. It also enables the valve to open position and the other is set to trip at the fulil
develop a predetermined amount of torque to seat closed position of the valve. Each drum switch
globe and gate valves and obtain a leaktight seal. may be adjusted independently of the other.

The spring pack is simply a series ofBelleville 10.5.2.1.2 Description of Hand Operation
springs which are initially compressed a certain
amount by the stop nut on the end of the assembly. In the event of a power failure, a handwheel is
The amount of initial compression or preload on provided for emergency hand operation of the
the springs determines the amount of worm travel Limitorque valve actuator. The SMB type of
when torque loads increase; This in turn deter operatorhas an automatic handwheel declutching
mines the amount oftorque applied by the operator arrangement. In order to hand operate the type
for a given torque setting on the torque switch. SMB operator, thedeclutch lever is pulled down
ward. This mechanically disconnects the electric
The torque switch has two sets of contacts motor from the valve operator through the clutch
(open, close) which are actuated mechanically by assembly.
the rotation of a pinion on the shaft, which engages
with a worm on the spring pack assembly. A dial This declutching action is similar in all the
on the front of the torque switch can be set for a larger size SMB operators. Refer to Figu're 10-32
desired torque output of the operator. The greater for the SMB-O operators. When the declutch lever
the torque setting, the more the cam must rotate to is depressed, the declutch lever shaft causes the
open the contact (equivalent to a longer worm clutch trippers to push the worm shaftgearing out
travel and a higher torque output). of engagement with the motor helical gearing and
into engagement with the handwheel pinion' gear.
The geared limit switch (1) is directly geared
to the worm shaft and is in step at all times with the When the handwheel is rotated, the handwheel
movement of the operator. Once the geared limit pinion gear, which is engaged with the worm shaft
switch is set to trip at its proper position of valve gearing, turns the worm shaft. The worm rotates
travel, it will trip at the same point every time. the worm gear and puts the operator into motion.

Generally, the torque switch is wired into the When the electric motor is energized, the trip
motor control circuit to stop the operator in the per pin (which is partof the clutch gearing) causes
closed position on torque-seated valves, and the the clutch trippers to be released, allowing the
limit switch is wired into the control circuit to stop clutch to be released. A spring located behind the
the operator at the full-open position; However, clutch pushes the clutch along the splines on the
even on torque-seated valves, the limit switch worm shaft and engages the clutch with the worm
must be set to trip at the closed position, once the shaft clutch gear. Now power is again transmitted
torque switch has tripped, to open contacts for through the motor jiinion to the worm shift clutch
"open" light indication. gear and on through the worm shaft.

The 8-contact geared limit switch employs When the hindwh'eel is turned it does not
two rotary drum switches, each having four con rotate the motor. Similarly, when the motor is in
tacts. Important uses of these limit switches are to operation, the handwheel does not tdfin. In' the
provide valve position indication and valve stroke SMB-O and larger operators, the handwheel drives
control- When the rotor is properly set to trip at the the operator through the same train as the motor
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and will operate the torque switch. When the declutch lever is depressed, the clutch
ring m6oes the clutch keys upward until they
10.5.2.1.3 SMB-000 Adtiator Differences engage 'with the lugs on the bottom of the
-handwheel.
The primary differences between the smaller
SMB-000 and the larger SMB-0 actuators, from a This assembly (clutch ring, clutch key, clutch
mechanical standpoint' are in the declutch assem fork) is held in the upward position by the clutch
bly parts, the handwheel gearing, and the actuation tripper lever assembly. The operator will remain
gearing for the torque and limit switches. An "inhafid operation until the electric motor is again
SMB-000'actuator is shown in Figures 10-33 and energized.
,10-34.° ,
When the niotor'is energized, cams'mounted
"Theelectric motor, like that on the SMB-O, has on the worm shaft automiatic/ely cause the trippers
.•a helical pinion mounted on its shift extension. to release tlieiclitch ring and clutch keys from their
.This pinion drives the worm shaft gear, which is hand position. Rotati6n of the handwheel during
keyed to, the worm shaft: The worm shaft is motor operation will have n6 effect.
splined to the worm so that rotation of the worm
shaft causes rotation of the worm. From this point, Unlike the SM1B-0 actuator, which has a slide
"poweris transiiiitted to the valve stem through the m6untid hanvdwheel with a gear located on its
"worm, worm gear,, drive sleeve, and stem nut, extension shaft that engages with a clutch pinion
respectively, just as in the SM1B-0. gear during hand operation, the SM1B-000 has a
t6p-mounhed hand'vheel. The handwheel has two
- 'The torque switch assembly operates in the lugs thit engage with the clutch keys.
:same manner as that used on the SMB-0, except
for'the way in which it is actuated.- Instead'of Ifi ihe SMB'-0 and larger operators, the
having a gear that is actuated by the 'axial move handwheel drives through the same train as the
"mentof the worm against the spring pack assem motor and will operate the torque switch; how
bly, axial 'movement of the worm moves an arm ever, in the SMIB-000 and SMB -00, the handwheel
that mates with a machined recess located behind turns the drive sleeve directly and will not operate
the teeth of the worm. the torque switch.

The geared limit switch assembly also oper 10.5.2.1.4 Limitorque Operator Problem
ates in the same manner as that used on the SUB " Areas
0 except that a different type gear drives the'limit
switch gear.- Instead of being driven by a worm Nuclear power plant applications have dem
machined onto the worm shaft, -the geared limit onstrated severil'problem areas associated with
switch is directly geared to a bevel gear -on the motor powered Liniitorque actuators. 'These in
drive sleeve. Just like the SMB-0 limit switch,-it clude environmental and seismic qualification,
also is in step at all times with the movement ofthe and problems related to higher valve speeds.
operator.
"At moderate operýating'speeds, service has
,Unlikethe SMB-0, which has i clutch splined been .satisfactoiY. However, the necessity'-for
to the worm shaft; the SMB -000 has a clutch ring, higherspeedsin nuclear operations, 1aiticularly in
which is mounted on the drive sleeve just above safety,'systems, has caused problems. Higher
the worm gear and is'mnoved upward by the clutch speeds hae been achievedby simply changing the
fork assembly (for hand operation). The clutch gearing in existing actuatoS.' Therefore, the mo-'
fork assembly is keyed to the declutch lever shaft. mentum of the high speed motor rotor has resulted

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Piping w
Piping
in-damaged and jamnied valves. Valves that areI Note that there are three sets of contacts la
rigid near the seat area (for resistance to leakage beled OL in series with the opening and closing
from distortion by temperature changes) experi coils. The OCL contacts open if the magnetic
ence higher loading. The increased loading has overload relays sense excessive current going to
damaged disks, seats, stems, and bonnets. the motor. There are also three thermal overloads
in. the power feed to the motor. These thermal
Changing the limit switch settings does not overloads will also open to provide protection
solve the problem; it merely creates other prob against excessive current and inotor burnout.
lems.. Cutting motor current farther from the seat
causes incomplete seating if friction'changes. There are two operating coils or relays used in
the control circuit, one for forward motion and one
Changing torque-switch settings helps, but for reverse motion or, in this case, "opening" and
even this will not eliminate two electrical prob "closing." The "opening" coil reverses the power
lems: unavoidable time-delay during torque switch leads from the "closing" configuration of phases
and starter-coil trip, and excess thrust when full A, B, and C. When the opening coil is energized,
line voltage is used on motors designed to give A, B, and C are tied on to T1 , T 2 , and T3 ,
required thrust at reduced (degraded) voltages. respectively. Conversely, when the "closing" coil
The degraded voltage requirement is imposed by is energized, the phase configuration is reversed to
safety-related equipment design considerations. connect A, B, and C to T 1, T 3 , and T 2 , respectively
(causing the electromagnetic field applied to the
Environmental hazards for nuclear llantac motor to rotate in the reverse direction).
tuators must be considered when testing operat0r.
Ambient temperature peaks of 340'F, pressure The 0 and C "'" contacts are electrical inter
peaks of 70 psig, radiation, and steam and chemi locks for the opening and closing coils to prevent
cal sprays are included in month-long test condi
both coils from being energized at the same time,
tions. Typically, the actuator must operate 20 which would damage the motor and power feeds.
times during and after the test. When the closing coil is energized, the C "b"
contact is opened, making it impossible to ener
10.5.2.2 Motor Operated Valve Control gize the opening coil. When the opening coil is
Circuit energized, the 0 "b" contact is opened, preventing
the closing coil from being energized.
Figures 10-35 and 10-36 illustrate the opera
tion of a typical motor-operated valve (MOV)
The 0 and C "a7 contacts that are in'parallel
control circuit. The circuit in Figure 10-35 is for
with the selector switch are the seal-in contacts for
a valve with a seal-in feature, such as a gate valve
the operating coils., When the open or close
used for system isolation. Figure 10-36 is a typical
position. is selected (a momentary contact); the
control circuit for a valve occasionally used by an
respective coil is energized closing the seal-in
operator to throttle flow. contact, and holding the circuit energized until a
limit switch or torque switch is opened to remove
In Figure 10-35, the power supply for the power from the circuit.
MOV is generally from a 480-volt, 3-phase power
supply. The motor control circuit is usually sup
The control station usually consists of a spring
plied from the same source through a stepdown return-to-neutral switch-and two indicating lights.
transformer to 120 volts single phase. A fuse is Whenever indicating lights are furnished, a red
provided on the secondary leg to protect the circuit light usually indicates the full open position of the
in case there is a short or a failure in the control valve, and a green light indicates the full closed
circuit. position.
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When both lights are energized, the valve is in a mechanical obstruction should be encountered
an intermediate position. Other combinations of during the opening or closing cycle. If the resis
pushbuttons, lights, and selector switches may be tance to valve movement causes the torque to
necessary for specific applications. become'excessive, the -applicable torque switch
'will open to interrupt'the current flow to the
"Also, it'should be noted'that in actual plant -associated operating coil to protect the motor and
application there would be parallel control sta "thevalve.'
tiio-ns, or devices (the-enigineered safeguards fea
tire (ESF) contact, for instance) that would open The torque bypass switches that are in parallel
"or close the valve automatically under'certain with the torque switches can be set up to bypass the
condition's. torque switches if the valve is fully closed or fully
open. At these positions the actuator may need
The iwo-train geared limit switch shown in extra torque to bring the valve off the closed seat
'Figure 10-30 employs two rotary drum switches, or the open backseat. Some nuclear plants set up
each having four contacts: When the rotor reaches -the bypass switches such that the bypasses can be
- the desired position, two of these contacts 'open "-closedby an ESF signal, allowing safety-related
electric circuits and two contacts close electric valve actuators to -usemaximum torque to move
circuits. One rotor is set to trip at the full open the -valves to required ESF positions for an acci
position of the-valve,'and the other rotor is set to dent.
trip at the full clos•d position of the valve. Each
drum switch may be adjusted independently of the -Figure 10-35 shows the valve in the closed
other. position with the green closed light lit. To open the
valve,-the operator places the control switch to
Normally, one circuit on one drum is used to "open.- This energizes the opening coil -which
open the "open" holding circuit of the motor closes the 0 Ia" seal-in contact (allowing the
controller, and another circuit of the drum is used 'operator 'to release the control switch), closes
to operate the "open" indicating light for the valve. contacts in the motor power-supply to turn the
motor in the open direction, and opens the 0 "b"
- contact in the closing circuit. "
"On' the other drum, one' circuit is used to
control the"'closed" indicating light, and another
circuit may be used to open the "'close" holding Some planits have the open and close limit
circuit of the motor controller. switches for the lights set up such that as the valve
leaves the close seat,-the open limit switch for the
'The open limit switch contact is connected in * red light closes, resulting in both the green and red
series with the open switch position and seal-in lights being lighted during valve movement.' Other
- plants set up the light limit switches so that both
contact. The open limit switch openst6 deenergize
the opening coil when the valve reaches the full lights are off when the valve is neither open or
open position. closed (intermediate position). When the valve
reaches the open position, the control circuit open
The close' limit switch contact is connected in ' limit switch contact will open to deenergize the
series with the close switch position and seal-in ':'opening coil.. The light circuit open limit switch
- will close to energize the red open light (if it is not
"contact. The close limit switch opens to deenergize
the closing coil when the valve reaches the full already on), and the light circuit close limit switch
--closed position. will open to turn off the green light. With the valve
; open and the opening coil deenergized, the close

The torque switches provide a means of inter limit switch in the closing control circuit will be
"ruptingthe control circuit of the valve actuator if Sclosed and the 0 "b" contacts will be closed,
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P rose w eanu lP l n t E g i n e ri n Co . P pi I
establishing aready path for closing the valve with valve, air is the actuating source. When air is lost,
the control switch. the valve fails, and it fails in a condition (open or
closed) that results in the least damage to equip
In Figure 10-35, note that if the valve is closed, ment and personnel.
an ESF actuation signal will automatically open
the valve and will prevent the operator from clos 10.5.3.1 Electronic to Pneumatic Converters
ing the valve using the control switch. The valve
in Figure 10-36 operates similarly to the one in Electronic to pneumatic (E/P) converters are
Figure 10-35, except that without a seal-in feature, used in a number of measurement and control
valve motion will stop whenever the operator applications. Two of these applications are: con
releases the control switch. verting the millivolt output of a thermocouple to a
pneumatic signal and converting the voltage out
10.5.3 Pneumatic Operators put of a tachometer to a pneumatic signal. The
most frequent use of the E/P converter, however,
Pneumatic (diaphragm) operators (see Figure is to convert the output of an electronic controller
10-37) control valve stem movement by using the to the pneumatic signal necessary to operate dia
energy of compressed air. Pneumatic operators phragm actuated control valves.
generally control or regulate flow but are also used
in simple open/closed applications. Pneumatic The conversion of an electronic signal to a
operator units generally consist of a sealed casing, pneumatic signal is accomplished using an anna
diaphragm, spring, and shaft (valve stem or exten ture bar and a flapper/nozzle motion detector.
sion). Air can be supplied either above or below These components are found in various arrange
the diaphragm, depending on whether the air is to ments, but the operation is basically the same. The
open or close the valve. A solenoid valve controls electronic signal causes a motion of the armature
the air supply. When the operator positions a bar, which has the flapper attached to it. This
switch to energize the solenoid, air is admitted to movement of the flapper results in a change in the
the diaphragm, and the valve opens. distance between the flapper and nozzle, resulting
in a change in the pressure of the pneumatic signal
As long as the solenoid is' energized (and out. In all cases, there is a "feedback" signal to
instrument air is available), the pneumatic valve minimize the movement needed to the range nec
remains open. When the solenoid is deenergized essary to produce a signal output of approximately
(or instrument air pressure is lost), air is vented 3 to 15 psi.
from under the. diaphragm and the valve closes.
With a different instrument air hookup and sole The operation of a simple E/P converter is
noid control, the valve can be made to close with shown in Figure 10-38. In this converter, an
air pressure and open when air is lost (or blocked increase in current to the coils moves the armature
by the solenoid). bar such that the flapper is closer to the nozzle.
This action increases the backpressure in the line
Valves of the type first described are called between the nozzle and the fixed restriction. This
"air to open, fail closed." Valves of the second higher pressure causes the diaphragm of the air
type, Iare "air to close, fail open." Piping and relay to flex downward increasing the opening in
instrumentation drawing (P&ID) symbol sheets the path from the air supply to the air output and
often illustrate these optionis. decreasing the opening in the path to exhaust. The
result of the increase in signal current, therefore, is
"Allautomatically controlled valves, whether an increase in air output pressure. The bellows
pressure reducing or n6t, can fail. They fail when provides feedback to the armature bar to reposi
th•y lose their actuating source. In an air-actuated tion the flapper relative to the nozzle. Without this
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bellows, the device would have an infinite gain, next operation.
for a small input the output would go to maximum.
The motion needed by the flapper to create full (15 The operator on the left of Figure 10-38 uti
psi) output is approximately .0005 inches. It is lizes on/off pump operation, controlled by the
easy to see that even a small input signal current to cylinder position transducer, to supply oil to drive
the coils would move the armature bar and flapper the piston to equilibrium position. This actuator
enough to obtain full output air pressure. provides high stiffness and accurate positioning.
An array of check valves retains pressure to hold
The bellows, however, senses the change in the piston at a setting. Motor-speed control can
output pressure and opposes the motion of the give a cushioning effect at stroke ends. Thrusts in
armature bar, thus, reducing the gain to some this type actuator go to 16,500 lb, as seating force.
usable level. Therefore, although a small current Continuous-duty thrust is 50% of this. Strokes are
input would attempt to move the armature bar a 24 in. maximum in the larger models and 4 in. in
large amount, the counteraction of the bellows the smallest.
reduces that motion to the small amount required
to produce a proportional change in the output The hydraulic-pump motor runs continuously
pressure. in the actuator shown on the right of Figure 10-38.
This actuator consists of a balance beam, flapper
10.5.4 Hydraulic Operators and nozzle, force motor, and feedback loop. Sig
nal current in the force-motor coil moves it and the
Hydraulic valve operators (see Figure 10-39) attached balance beam. The motion shifts a flap
convert fluid pressure into valve motion. Gener per in relation to a nozzle and changes pressure in
ally, the fluid is water or oil. an amplifier. The amplifier controls high-pressure
oil flow to the correct side of the piston. A
A piston is usually used to transfer hydraulic feedback linkage then restores equilibrium. If
force to valve motion. The piston may be directly pump power fails, the spring in the actuator yoke
attached to the vilve stem or work through rams or either opens or closes the valve. It is also possible
levers. to set up the actuator such that the valve is locked
in its last position on a power failure. The electric
Hydraulic valve operators are slightly more motor for the hydraulic pump is small, only 1/6 hp.
complicated than pneumatic operators because air All components are enclosed in this design, and
can be harmlessly vented off to allow spring pres the only external connections are for motor power
sure to close (or open) the valve. Hydraulic and control signals.
systems generally conserve the working fluid for
reuse. As shown in Figure 10-39, the piping Because hydraulic fluids are not compress
arrangement uses a pump, accumulator, and valves ible, these operators can hold valves in midstroke
to direct pressurized fluid below the operating against high system flow. If the motor is stopped
cylinder (close valve) or above the operating cyl with the valve in mid-position and no vent path is
inder (open valve). Note that the fluid on the other available, a very powerful hydraulic lock is placed
side of the cylinder must have an escape (vent) on the operator, and the valve will not move.
path, or the valve will not move (this is called a
"hydraulic lock"). The vented fluid generally is
directed to an accumulator for reuse or to the
suction side of the hydraulic motor. The accumu
lator is the ready supply that starts valve motion
quickly. The hydraulic motor will complete the
valve stroke and recharge the accumulator for the

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Chapter 10 Definitions

BLOWDOWN - The pressure drop required to reseat a safety valve

from a wide open, full flow condition.

CHATTER - The repeated partial opening and closing of a safety

or relief valve.

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Table 10-1. Pipe Data

Identification
Nominal Outside Steel
Pipe Diameter Stainless Wall Inside
Size Iron Schedule Steel Thickness Diameter
Pipe Number Schedule
Inches Inches Designation Number Inches Inches
- l0S 0.134 6.357
STD 40 40S 0.280 6.065
6 6.625 XS 80 80S 0.432 5.761
120 - 0.562 5.501
160 - 0.719 5.187
XXS - - 0.864 4.897
30 - 0.277 8.071
STD 40 40S 0.322 7.981
60 - 0.406 7.813
XS 80 80S 0.500 7.625
8 8.625 - 100 - 0.594 7.437
120 - 0.719 7.187
- 140 - 0.812 7.001
XXS - - 0.875 6.875
- 160 - 0.906 6.813
STD 40 40S 0.365 10.020
XS 60 80S 0.500 9.750
80 - 0.594 9.562
10 10.750 - 100 - 0.719 9.312
- 120 - 0.844 9.062
XXS 140 - 1.000 8.75
STD - 40S 0.375. 12.000
40 0.406 11.938
XS - 80S 0.500 11.750
12 12.75 - 60 - 0.562 11.626
80 - 0.688 11.374
- 100 - 0.844 11.062
XXS 120 - 1.000 10.750

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

-TURNBUCKLES

A. ADJUSTABLE STRAP HANGER

B. ADJUSTABLE ROLLER HANGER

Figure 10-1. Common Adjustable Hangers

10-31 Rev. 0892

USNRC Technicil Training Center
Technical Triining Center 10-31 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
.I-BEAM

ROD

HANGER

ROD - - PIPE

-*-ROD

LOAD Li
INDICATOR

LOAD SCALE
(ON SIDE)

SPRING

m/

31)

Figure 10-2. Variable Spring Hanger

10.33 Rev. 0892
USNRC Technical Center
Training Center
Technical Training 10-33 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Pipinge
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

MOUNTING LOAD ROD

STUD

SPRING
TENSION
ROD

SPRING
COVER

LOAD SPRING

Figure 10-3. Constant Support

10-35 Rev. 0892

USNRC Technical Training, Center
Training Center 10-35 Rev. 08.92
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

A. ADJUSTABLE ROLLER STAND

B. NONADJUSTABLE ROLLER STAND

Figure 10-4. Roller Stands

10-37 Rev. 0892

USNRC
USNRC Technical Training Center
Technical Training Center 10-37 Rev. 0892
C 0

z AFTER LOCKING
0
H ED VALVE ft>
w €1>

a
H
2 tnb
5.
0
ft

ft
*1

w
\0

Figure 10-5. Hydraulic Snubber Basic Arrangement

.0
C -o.
O0)
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

HANDWHEEL

GLAND NUT
PACKING GLAND OR
PACKING FOLLOWER
PACKING MATERIAL
STUFFING BOX

GASKE

DISK o

GASKET
GASKET

FLANGE BODY FLANGE

Figure 10-6. Basic Components of Gate Valves

10-41 Rev. 0194

Technical Training Center
USNRC Technical Center 10-41 Rev. 0194
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

*\ ACTUATOR
(HANDWHEEL)

SEAT

Figure 10-7. Typical Globe Valve

USNRC Technical Training Center 10-43 Rev. 0892

Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Pipingt
Power Piant Engineering Course Manual Piping

DISK

SEAT

Figure 10-8. Globe Valve with Conventional Disk and Conical Seat

10-45 Rev. 0892

Center
Technical Training Center
USNRC Technical 10-45 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power PlanL Engineering Course Manual Piping

HANDWHEEL
(ACTUATOR)

STEM

ING NUT

PACKING

THREADS

"SCREWED BONNET

-Figure 10-9. Angle Globe Valve

10-47 Rev. 0892

USNRC Technical Center
Tr.zining Center
Technical Training 10-47 Rev. 0892
 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

PACKING NUT

PACKING FOLLOWER STEM PACKING

STEM
INTERNAL
THREADS BONNET

BODY WITH
SOCKET WELD ENDS DISK

Figure 10-10. Needle Valve

10-49 Rev. 0194

USNRC Training Center
Technical Training
USNRC Technical Center 10-49 Rev. 0194
 BONNET
COVER

HINGE"

DISK

FLOW FLOW
OUTLET C INLET

BODY

Figure 10-11. Swing - Check Valve

0"
fil
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Planr Engineering Course Manual Piping

BONNET

PLUG (DISK)

FLOW FLOW
OUTLET INLET

BODY

Figure 10-12. Lift - Check Valve

Training Center
10-53 Rev. U892
Technical Training
USNRC Technical
USNRC Center 10-53
 "1
M
STEM
ACTUATOR
:z
:3

0*

V
0
C

ILI

DISK

BODY

fit

FLOW OUTLET 4- FLOW INLET

SEAT

Figure 10-13. Stop - Lift - Check Valve

It,
 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

STEM TURNING
SURFACE .

VALVE UNING

'BODY

PLASTIC
BASE RING

Figure 10-14. Butterfly Valve

10-57 Rev. 0892

Technical Training
USNRC Technical Center
Training Center 10-57 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

INLET

Figure 10-15. Nozzle Reaction Safety Valve

10.59 Rev. 0892

USNRC Technical Training Center
Center 10-59 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

RELEASE NUT
COMPRESSION SCREW LOCKING NUT

LEVER PIN

COMPRESSION
SCREW
LOCKING NUT

TOP SPRING
WASHER

FEATHER GUIDE
RETAINING RING LOCKING SCREW

ACTUAL LOCATION
OF RING PIN IS 90
TO THE RIGHT
WHEN FACING THE
FEATHER GUIDE.., OUTLET
OUTLET (
FEATHER
HUDDLING CHAMBER

SEAT BUSHING

SLOTS FOR
WRENCHES

Figure 10-16. Huddling Chamber Safety Valve.

Center 10-61 Rev. 0892

USNRC Technical Training Center
Technical Training 10-61 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

LOCKNUTS

ADJUSTING
SCREWS

DISK

P"OUTLET
PACKING

VALVE BODY

SEAT

INLET

Figure 10-17. Relief Valve

10-63 Rev. 0194

USNRC Technical Training Center
Center 10-63 Rev. 0194
 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

STATIONARY HOUSING
CORE -

CONNECTIONS

ý,LVE BODY
FLOW

L I
DEENERGIZED ENERGIZED

A. Direct-Acting Solenoid Valve

SHADING
COIL

SPRING -

Flow

Ii |

DEENERGIZED ENERGIZED

B. Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valve

Figure 10 - 18. Direct-Acting and Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valves

10-65 Rev. 0892

Training Center
USNRC Technical Training Center 10-65 Rev. 0892
 STEM
C
900)
STEM ft
*1

I TJ

C
C
ft
ft
ft
'1
OUT

IN OUT
0

A. Lubricated Plug Valve B. Multiport Plug Valve

ft
Figure 10-19.. Two Types of Plug Valves
C
'0
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

HANDLE STEM NUT

STEM
7(ROTATES 90°)
GLAND NUT

PACKING

STEM

STEM
BEARING -

(GLASS FILLED TEFLON)

Figure 10-20. Ball Valve

10-69 Rev. 0195

Training Center
USNRC Technical Training Center 10-69 Rev. 0195
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

STEM
HANDWHEEL
(ACTUATOR)
COMPRESSOR

DIAPHRAGM

BODY

WEIR

A. Weir-Type Diaphragm Valve

STEM
HANDWHEEL

COMPRESSOR
0, DIAPHRAGM

2 .BODY

SEAT RIDGE

B. Straightway-Type Diaphragm Valve

Figure 10- 21. Diaphragm Valves

10-71 Rev. 0892

Technical Training
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Training Center 10-71 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Piant Engineering Course Manual Piping

STOP
AIR INLET

OPERATOR

SPRING

INDICATOR
SCALE
STEM
-YOKE

INLET OUTLET
FLOW I FLOW

Figure 10-22. Air-Operated Single-Seated Control Valve

10-73 Rev. 0194

Technical Training
USNRC Technical Center
Training Center 10-73 Rev. 0194
 VALVE PLUG STEM

c,
0
-w UPPER SEAT RING • BONNET

- GUIDE BUSHING
VALVE BODY >.

tJ

VALVE PLUG

LOWER SEAT RING GUIDE BUSHING

B0 Figure 10-23. Double-Sealed Control Valve

Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

ADJUSTING SCREW

LOCKNUT
ADJUSTING SPRING

CONTROLLING DIAPHRAGM

P1STON STEAM PORTAUIARVLE

PISTON AUXILIARY VALVE

HIIGH PRESSURE LOW PRESSURE

PORT PORT

MAIN VALVE SPRING MAIN VALVE

DRAIN CONNECTION

Figure 10-24. Self-Contained Pressure-Reducing Valve

10-77 Rev. 0194

USNRC Technical Training Center
Training Center 10-77 Rev. 0194
 0

C-,

C-)
0

INLET >_
- - OUTLET (B)

OUTLET (A)
44
Figure 10-25. Three-Way Valve for Diverting Service
 C

UPPER SEAT 1

0-I
€=
S.
-I

C
1

'1
C (OUTLET) -< B (INLET)

00
" LOWER SEAT
PLUG

A (INLET)

0I
Figure 10-26. Three-way Valve for Combining Service
'C
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Pipingm
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Pi pi rig

FIRE WATER
SYSTEM PRESSURE
A. DELUGE VALVE CLOSED

I I
I I
I I
I I
TO
SPRINKLER(S)

B. DELUGE VALVE OPEN

Figure 10 - 27. Deluge Valve

10-83 Rev. 0892

Teinical Training
USNRC Teohnical Center
Training Center 10-83 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Nianual Piping

CONTROL AND
DRIVE SWITCHING
MOTOR BOX

OPERATING HANDWHEEL
SHAFT

Figure 10-28. Electric Valve Operator

10-85 Rev. 089Z

Training Center
Technicil Training
USNRC Technical Center 10-85 Rev. 0892
z
GEARED LIMIT
SWITCH DRIVE SHAFT
DRIVE VALVE
= ~ ~MOTOR •
"SLEEVE SE STEM RVLIMIT
TORQUE HF SWITCH
PINION WORM ST DRIVE SLEEVE DRIVE SHAFT
THRUST BEARING
5. ~GEAR
UQ

WORM SHAFT

WORM
SHAFT WORM
HAMMER-BLOW LUG
BELLEVILLE
SPRING

Figure 10-29. Culaway View of a SMII-0 Limilorque Operator

CN
o
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

I. Geared Limit Switch Assembly 12. Worm Shaft Clutch Gear

2. Torque Switch 13. Honor Pinion
3. Torque Limit Sleeve 14. .1otor
4. Bearing Cartridge Stem 15. Bearing Cartridge Cap
5. Valve Stem 16. Thrust Bearing
6. Worm Shaft 17. Wom Gear
7. Bearing 18. Thrust Bearing
8. Drive Shaft Key 19. Drive Sleeve
9. Locking Nut 20. Stem Nut
10. Fork Return Spring 21. Worm
i.1 Worm Shaft Clutch 22. Spri=g Ring
23. Hand W"neel Clutch Pinion

Figure 10-30. SMB-O Limitorque Operator

10-89 Rev. 0892

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USNRC Technical Center
Ti-dining Center 10.-89 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

nut

Worm ,Belleville
spring pack

Motore

Valve stei
Torque switch

Figure 10-31. Simplified Worm Operation Diagram

10-91 Rev. 0892

Center
Training Center
USNRC Technical Training 10-91 Rev. 0892
C
U,
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tlb

Housing Cover, MI

%0
JJ

lb

0
00
'0
N Fiiguire 10-32. SNMlI-f Limitorque Operai(or (E~xploded View)
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

Handwheel

Figure 10-33. SMB-000/00 Limitorque Operator

10-95 Rev. 0892

Technical Training Center
USNRC Technical Center 10-95 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Piping

Handwheel

Drive Sleeve Housing Cap

Locknut

Stem Nut

Declutch Lever

Motor

Motor

Limit Switch
Torque Switch
Assembly

Figure 10-34. SMB-000 Limitorque Operator (Exploded View)

10-97 Rev. 0892

Training Center
USNRC Technical Training Center 10-97 Rev. 0892
 0
ft
Cr -I
,

THERMAL U
OVERLOADS
,..
0
U

U
ml

OPEN LIMIT 0
U
9
'-I SWITCH

U
U

NOTE: Circuit is shown

with MOV in closed
position
V

Figure 10-35. Basic MOV Valve Control Circuit wilh Seal-in

T0
 A BC
0

-I

U
THERMAL
OVERLOADS U
a
U

=1 0
U
OPEN
LIMIT
SWITCH
U
U
U

('0

Note: Circuit is shown

with MOV in the closed
position.
Figure 10-36. Basic MOV Throttle Valve Control Circuit
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-4 m
A
00
C)

00
C)
C

(0

INITIAL TRAVEL STOP ACTUATOR AIR CONNECTION

C)

,DIAPHRAGM

W
DIAPHRAGM
CASES

SPRING

00 YOKE,
SPRING ADJUSTOR

(A) DIRECT ACTUATOR (B) REVERSE ACTUATOR

01
%0
Figure 10-37. Diaphragm Operators
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C, M

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C,
C

-4
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-a
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-a
0
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AIR SUPPLY NOTE: Armature bar rotates

counterclockwise as coil
current increases

Figure 10-38. Simple E/P Converter

C
-4
'0
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"ft
C,4
En
z
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cr

FLAPPER AND
".4 NOZZLE
AMPLIFIER .•

CYLINDER
WA

PISTON

•0

fti POSITION N
.<
TRANS.
ft DUCER MAIN RETURN
SPRING

h-A

Figure 10-39. Hydraulic Operators

'Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
11.0 TURBINES the reactor to the turbine generator where the
energy is converted to mechanical energy. (Note:
Learniig Objectives The Babcock-& Wilcox and high-temperature gas
reactor designs use slightly superheated steam.)
Afteri tudying this chapter, you'should beable The mechanical energy of the turbine is converted
to: "toelectrical energy by the generatorattached to the
main turbine shbaft. Other steam turbines are used
i. State the purpose of a turbine. to piovide the motive power formain and auxiliary
feed pumps, reactor core isolationii cooling pumps,
2. -Define- idescribe the following as appro etc.
p-riate:
a. -Stop valve The admission of steam to a turbine is con
b- CbCntrol valve trolled by governing valves and quick-acting stop
c. Combiiiedintermendiate valve (includes valves that will trip shut in an emergency.
'reheat ktoý valve and intercept valve)
d. :Extraction n6nreturn valve The basic function of a steam turbine is to
e. -Governor convert the stored thermal energy of steam into
f.- Front standard mechanical work. This is accomplished by the
g. Critical speed expansion of the 'steam-through stationiary nozzle
h. Journal bearing vanes and rotating blades. The geometry of the
i. Thrust bearing' nozzles and blades determines the pressure distri
j. Labyrinth seal bution throughout the turbine and 'also directs and
turns the steam jets so that the forces on the blades
'3. Explain the purpose of the following tur develop a torque on the shaft.
bine auxiliary systems/components:
a. Moisture separator/reheater 11.2 Turbine Design Types
b. 'Lubricating oil system
c., Turning gear and lift pumps A turbine can convert thermal energy to me
d. Gland seal steam system chanical rotation in two ways: 'by using the im
pulse force of the steam or by using the reaction
4. Explain why a turbine is tripped under the force of the steam. Most turbines use both of these
-following conditions: forces. In fact, both are frequently used in the
a., - High vibrition same stage of a turbine. For descriptive purposes,
b. Overispeed' they are presented here as separate major turbine
c. Low lube oil'pressure types.
d. 'High thrust bearing wear
e. Reactor trip 11.2.1 Impulse Turbines
f. High reactor vessel (steam generator)
+level " Figure 11-:1 shows the operating principle of
5. Explain how the addition of waier'to a an impulse turbine. Steam enters an impulse
iirbine through' a stationary nozzle that expands
Terryturbinecain lead ijoturbhie ov'erspeel. ithe'steam and creates a' steanijet. The steam jet
strikes the rotor blades, forcing them to rotate.
11.1 Introduction
'A pure impulse stage of a turbine is onewhere
Thenuclearpowerplant utilizes saturatedsieam the entire press re drop of the stage occurs across
for transporting the thermal energy produced by the Stationary blades and no pressure drop occurs
Training Center '11-1 Rev. 0195
0195
USNRC Technical Training
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 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual
STurbines
,Turbines
-in the rotating buckets (see Figure 11-2A). Thus, b
blhdes would be the-onl• nozzles. This is imprac
the acceleration of the steam (and the attendant tical in large turbines because it is difficult to
pressure drop) takes place entirely in the station admit steam to moving blades without using some
aiy row or nozzle. The nozzles, arranged in a ring form of guiding nozzles or blades. For this reason,
at one side to clear the moving blades, direct steam most so-called "reaction" turbines are in reality
at an angle to the moving buckets. The crescent using both impulse and reaction principles.
shaped, moving buckets permit free entry/exit and
change the speed/direction of the stean:, which Figures 11-2A and 11-2B show the steam
gives the rotational force. The steam expansion pressure and velocity profiles of ideal impulse and
(pressure drop) occurs only in the nozzles, and reaction turbines. Note that the "reaction" turbine
pressure remains essentially constant in the mov shows some ofthe characteristics of the "impulse"
ing buckets. The velocity rises in the nozzles but design because the fixed nozzles direct the steam
falls in the buckets. so as to impart some change-of-direction force on
the moving blades., The "reaction" turbine of
A force is exerted in changing either the speed Figure 11-2B in actuality also employs some in
or direction of a body in motion, and the amount of pulse effect., Although it is possible to have a pure
force depends on the extent to which speed or "impulse" turbine, there are no pure "reaction"
direction is changed. For this reason, and because turbines. Reaction turbines are so designated to
all ofthe pressure drop occurs across the stationary distinguish them from pure impulse turbines.
row in a pure impulse- stage, the steam velocity
leaving the stationary row is quite high, generally 11.3 Turbine Staring
twice that of the bucket speed. 1h addition, be
cause the change in direction is important in the Regardless of the type of turbine, multiple
impulse bucket to optimize the energy conversion, stages must be used to extract the maximum en
the turning angle is quite large. In-the impulse ergy from the steam. The stage design may be
stage, the kinetic energy of the steam is imparted impulse, reaction, or combined-type stages. For
to the rotating buckets, as evidenced by the re simplification, multiple staging will be discussed
duced steam energy in the form of reduced veloc first as "pure" impulse and "pure" reaction.
ity of the steam as it passes through the moving
buckets. 11.3.1 Impulse Turbine Compounding

11.2.2 Reaction Turbines The steam supplied to a typical nuclear plant

turbine-generator is saturated- steam at approxi
In the impulse stage described in section 11.2.1, mately 1000 lb/iM 2. It leaves the turbine at a
the energy imparted to the moving buckets took vacuum, which represents an enthalpy change of
the form of reduced velocity of the steam. Another approximately 400 BTU/lbm across, the turbine.
form of energy extraction is accomplished by a An impulse stage is capable of extracting approxi
reaction turbine or stage by the reactive force of mately 40 BTU/lbm. This implies that 10 or more
steam expanding from a nozzle (see Figure 11-3). stages would be required to extract all the avail
able energy. (Actually more than 10 would be
In this design, energy is extracted from the needed because the efficiency of each succeeding
steam when the moving blades albsorb thiereactive stage decreases as the, velocity of the steam de
orjet thrust of the steam exiting the nozzle-shaped creases, and the 40 BTU/Ibm value per stage is
moving blades. The energy given up by-the steam subsequently lowered.) There are two ways of
to the moving nozzles shows up as a decrease in extracting more energy - velocity compounding
the steam velocity and pressure (see Figure 11 and pressure compounding.
2B). In'aii ideal reaction tdrbine, 'the moving

Rev. 0195
USNRC Technical Training Center .11-2
11-2 Rev. 0195
'Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
_The. velocity-compounded turbine was de- -the stage may be recovered, or"carried over." Not
signed and patented by C. G. Curtis, and a turbine all that energy can be recovered. Typical value sof
stage using his design is generally known as a -carryover, range around 85%; thus about 15, Fo is
Curtis stage. -Essentially a Curtis stage makes use lost in each stage. There is, of course, no carryc wver
of higher nozzle vel6cities than are possible in a for the last stage.
straight impulse turbine because the Curtis stage.- +
absorbs the kinetic energy of the jet in more than 11.3.2 Reaction Turbine-Compounding
one row of moving buckets. There are stationary '

blades between the rows of buckets whose sole Reaction turbines are compounded by sin iple
function is to redirect the flow to the next row of, -.multiple staging, with each stage conisisting of a
bickets. For the ideal turbine, there is no pressure : row of stationary blades or nozzles, followed tby a
Sdrop over either the moving buckets or stationary- row of moving blades or nozzles.
,.blades. A plressure-velocity diagram for a Curtis
,stage is show in Figure 11-4. As was done for the impulse turbine, a discus
sion of the turbine efficiency in terms of blade
Curtis stages with up to four rows of moving speed vs. steam speed is useful. For the reaction
buckets have-been built. It is most common, principle, maximum efficiency occurs when blade
however, to -have only two rows because effi speed is equal (and opposite in direction) to steam
acinc) beyond two rows increases only margin jet speed. This is twice the speed required for the
ally. For-aple, for a Curtis stage with four -impulse type. This implies that a reaction turbine
rowis of moving buckets, the-prportion of power would require many more stages than a compa
'absorbed by the moving rows of buckets varies in "Jrableimpulse turbine. Obviously;the greater the
"theproportion 7:5:3:1. That is, the last bucket number-of stages, the larger and more costly, the
-

absorbs only 1/16 of the total energy. Clearly, the ,machine. , Practical ieaction turbines will have
point of diminishing returns is quickly reached. about 150% more stages than an impulse turbine.
Note that althoiugh a Curtis stage may have more
than one row of moving buckets, the group con 11.3.3 Stage Efficiencies in Practical Turbines
"sisting of one nozzle, two to four rows of buckets,
"andone to three stationary turning vanes is one -An efficiency based partly on the nozzle effi
stage. MWie-thin one Curtis stage may be used in ciency and partly'on 'the. bucket or blade effi
series. ciency, known as the diagram efficiency, may be
defined to help qualify stage efficiency.-- It can'be
The second Way' to use more rows of buckets is shown that the peak efficiency of the 50% reaction
pressure c6inpounding. In this arrangement, also stage, often known as an element, is greater than
knowk as the Rateau turbine, there are multiple that of an impulse stage. The relative efficiencies
nozzles, each followed by one row of moving of the turbine types may be examined as functions
buckets. of p , the ratio of wheel velocity to jet velocity, or
enthalpy drop per stage (assuming constant wheel
The total enthalpy dr6p is divided, approxi velocity) as shown in Figures 11-6A and 11-6B.
mately equally among each of the stages. Each
stage is designed essentially as -a single-stage These figures show that, while the peak effi
impulse turbine. The pressure-velocity diagram ciency of the reaction element is better than either
for a Rateau turbine is shown in Figure 11-5. type of impulse turbine, it falls off very quickly as
the enthalpy drops per-stage increases. In com
"An additiohal advantage of the Rateau turbine parison, although the Curtis stage has a relatively
is that, with properdesign ofdownstream nozzles, low efficiency, it maintains its efficiency better at
some of the eneg in the st eam exhausting from "higher enthalpy drops: -Such high enthalpy drops
Center 11-3 Rev. 0493
USNRC Technical Training
USNRC Technical Training Center S11-3 S-
I Rev. 0493
 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual
Turbines

are -common in the first stage of a multistage bucket 3 w here there is littleSthe
pressure drop.
turbine. Thus, as mentioned earlier, it is common Note also that there is a hole 4 in the buicket wheel
to see Curtis stages, used in the first stage of a of the impulse turbine. This "balance" hole allows
"reaction" turbine.
the steam that does leak past the labyrinth packing
to pass on to the next stage. If the-hole were not
Conversely, although it is possible to design "there, ihe leaking steam would build up p'ressure
pure impulse turbines, this is seldom done'except on that side of the bucket ,wheel, producing thrust
in small, single-stage, mechanical-drive turbines
and disturbing smooth flow through the buckets.
for which cost rather than efficiency is the prime
consideration. Practical power utility, impulse
The construction used for impulse' tuirbines is
turbines generally use some degree of reaction in known
as compartment conrtruction; so called
design. The degree of reaction in most turbines "because
the wheels run in' what appear' to be
increases from the first to the last stage. compartments'separatd by the'diaphragms. The
reaction construction is known as drum construc
11.4 Construction Details tion. This is because the diameter of the rotors in
reaction turbinies is generally greater than that for
11.4.1 Stage Sealing - § -impulse turbin'esi The"greater diameter is neces
sary becaus6; 'vhile b6th impulse and reaction
A principal difference between reaction and
turbines for utility applicanons must run at the
impulse turbines is the place where the pressure same rotational
speed, the' bucket velocity'for the
drop occurs. In the impulse turbine, essentially all reaction turbine"
must be greater for optimuimi'effi
the pressure drop occurs across the siati6nary ciency.-
This is accomplished by using the larger
nozzle; in the practical reaction turbine; the pres
diameter rotor:
sure drop is split more or less equally between the
stationary nozzle and the moving bucket. 1LS Axial Thrust Loading
In any turbine, one design consideration is to
Another major difference between the, reac
ensure that as much of the steam as possible passes tion and imp lse designs is the axial thrusf on the
through the steam path, ratherthan leakingaround
rotor. Considerable axial force is generated on the
it. It is obvious that, considering where the pres
rotor of th6 reaconiitrbie because of the pres
sure drops occur, leakage control and sealing are
sure differential across each row of moving blades.
different for impulse and reaction' turbines. The impulse turbine, with very little pressure drop
across its buckets, has comparatively low axial
In reaction turbines, there is a' pressure drop force on the rbi6r.' A major design consideration
-across* both the moving and stationary, buckets;
in reaction turbýnes is how to deal with this thrust.
therefore, equal attention to leakage is necessary
at the tips of the buckets ind between the shaft and One simple, brute-force method of dealing
the diaphragm, which supports the buckets. Fig
with large thrust forces is simply to have a large
ure 1 l-7A shows that there are about the same thrust bearig. Ho'wever, this is' impractical in
number of teeth in the labyrinth packing at these
most cases because such a thrust bearingiv6uld
two locations (1 and 2). simply be too large.'
'In the impulse turbine shown in Figure 11-7B, Although all turbines have thrust bearings that
because most of the pressure drop is across the help keep the shaft from moving axially, another
stationary diaphragm, there are many teeth in the method to elimin aite thdst in larger, more recent
shaft packing 1 and only abbreviated packing or turbine designs is the double flow rotor shown in
"spill strips" at the bucket tips 2 and at the root
of Figure 11-8. In this design, the flow is split into
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 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
two equal parts and passes in opposite directions described is for a multiturbine designfhaving a
through symmetrical, half-sized blading. The - single high pressure turbine mounted on the same
forces on'the two groups of blading, FA and FB, shaft with three low pressure turbines (typical of a
•- are approximately equal and opposite, practically 1200 megawatt nuclear unit).
eliminating-the thrust problem.
11.5.3 Rotor Glands
11.5.1 Rotor Designs
The glands contain a number of labyrinth seal
The rotors that contain the rotating blades or Sstrips'that encircle the rotor at theenids of each
nozzles may be machined from a single forging as outercylinder, clearing therotorsurfacejust enough
an integral part of the turbine shaft for smallei to prevent contact during operation (see Figure 11
-turbine units (see Figure 11-9A). 'Larger units "11). The labyrinth seals provide a torturous path
-have rotors that ire separate disks orwheels shrunk "alongihe rotorthat inhibits the flow of steam orair.
and keyed on to the shaft (see Figure 11-9B). The labyrinth seals are formed when a set of teeth
machined in-t6 the turbine rotor mesh with teeth in
-Thethermal and mechanical stresses involved the turbine casing. The teeth do not contact each
in heat-expanding/shrink-fitting disks or wheels is other, but rather they form a torturous winding
- avoided in the design in Figure 11-9C. This path for any flow along the turbine rotor. Any
European design features forged hollow sections steam or air leakage along the rotor is constrained
welded together. Aftir~heat treating and stress to flow through the labyrinth seals, effectively
relieving, blade root slots are machined into the slowing the moement of steam or air and reduc
outer periphery.. ing leakage'around the rotor.

The rotor shaft is supported by journal bear-, Ofi starting the turbine,-and at low loads, the
ingsateachend. A thrustbearing actingon a thrust "pressureat ihe highpressure (BP) and low pres
collar keyed to the shaft maintains axial position. sure (LP) exhaust is below atmospheric pressure.
Low-speed electric turning gears will rotate the Therefore, the pressure at the inner side of the
shaft when the turbine is 'shut down to prevent "glafidsis"also below atmospheric (in a vacuum).
shaft bowing from either gravity acting on the "Underthese 6onditions (see Figure 11-12A), seal
heavy rotor, or from uneven heating or cooling. ing steam is supplied from the gland sealimg sys
tem todchamber X on both the HP and LP turbine
11.5.2 -Shaft Sealing System seals -The sealing steam leaks past the seals into
'the turbine exha'ust on one side, and inio chamber
At points where the rotor penetrates the outer "Yon the other. The leakage of steam and air is
cylinders, some means is needed to prevei-t leak removed from chamber Y through a connection to
age of air into or steam out of the&c(ylinders. The the gland steam condenser.
glands, with their labyrinth-type seal rifigs and the
gland sealing steam system, are designed to per As the turbine load increases, the -P turbine
form this function. - "exhaustbressure incei'ases. When the HP exhaust
"pressureequals chamber X pressure, a reversal in
.,- The system, shown in Figure 11-10; consists -flow occurs across the inner seal ring (see Figure
of -individually controlled diaphragm-operated 11-12B). As HP turbine exhaust pressure in
valves, relief valves, and a gland steam condenser. creases, the -reveirse flow increases and the HP
turbine gland is sealed by the flow coiming from
The gland sealing steam is supplied from ei- the HP turbine exhaust. At this point, steam also
ther the main steam system or from an auxiliary begins to flow from the HP turbine gland chamber
,source" during- the starting cycle.- The system X to the LP turbine gland chamber X.- At high
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 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual
Turbines
Turbines
loads, steam from the HP turbindeglands provides
In other instances, the steam exhausted from
all sealing steaim to the LP'glands; the gland seal I the turbine may be used in
some process such as
pressure regulator then bypasses excess seal steam heating, as shownin Figure 11-13B. In some cases
pressure to the condenser rather than providing
the turbine may be used. simply as a pressure
steam to the sealing system. reducer. If the exhaustpressure ofa noncondensing
turbine is higher than atmospheric, the
11.5.4 Gland Steam Condenser noncondensing unit is called a backpressure tur
bine.
The gland steam condensermaintains a slightly
subatmospheric pressure in the gland leakoff sys
11.6.2 Extraction vs. Nonextraction
tem at all times. This draws the leakage steam
from the glands, condenses, and removes it. The
Many multistage turbines are designed so that
gland steam condenser may also receive steam
steam may be extracted, or bled, from the steam
from the feed pump turbine gland seal and control path at some point or points between the first and
valve and throttle-stop valve steam leakoff. last stages. This steam may be used for some
process such as heating or driving other smaller
11.6 Practical Turbine TIMe
turbines. An added benefit of extraction is the
concurrent removal of moisture. Some large tur
The discussion of turbines thus far has been bines may have as many as six or eight extraction
oriented principally toward understanding the
points. Figure 1 -13C shows a turbine with three
physics and thermodynamics of the'single stage.
extraction points. , Extraction turbines are also
The practical details of getting steam into and out
sometimes called bleeder units.
of the turbine, support of the rotor and bearings,
etc., have not been examined. Ful understanding
Extraction turbines may be further subdivided
of turbines requires some kinowledge of some of
into simple and automatic extraction units. In
these practical details. normal operation the pressure at any point in a
turbine, and thus any extraction point, is a function
The varieties of turbine design and arrange
of load. In a simple extraction turbine, no effort is
ment (beyond impulse and reaction differences)
made to control the extraction pressure. -In an
are seemingly endless. It would be impossible to
automatic extraction turbine, valves are placed in
coverall the combinations and permutations in the
line at the extraction points to control pressure.
scope of this text.. However, within the industry,
Pressure and/or flow control may be required for
their are characteristics by which these many
some processes. Figure 11-13C shows a triple
variations may be classified and so described (see
automatic extraction condensing unit, Figure 11
Figure 11-13).
13D a double automatic extraction nonconderising
unit, and Figure 113E a single nonautomatic
1L6.1 Condensing vs. Noncondensing
extraction condensing unit.
The first characteristic to consider is whether 11.7 Reheat vs. Nonreheat
or not the exhaust from a turbine is condensed or
not. In somevery old power plants the exhaust In some multistage units, all the steam is piped
-
mstea
was simplyyented to the atmosphere. Later
back to the boiler or a separate reheater after it
therealization was made that the powerplant cycle
passes through a portion of the turbine. The
could be more efficient and water treatment prob
reheated steam is piped back to pass through the
lems could be minimized by condensing and reus
remaining turbine sections, is shown in Figure 11
ing the condensed exhaust (condensate), as shown 13F. In some large units the steam may be piped
in Figure 11-13A. back to the boiler to be reheated a second time.

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 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
These are&called double reheat units (see' Figure tandem-compounded, six flow steam turbine. Fig
11-13G). The advantage of reheating the steam is ure 11-15 is a cross section ofthe same turbine unit
'that-it improves the Rankine efficiency of the showing steam inlets and exhaust from each ofthe
power plant and delays the onset of saturation of four turbines. Steam flow can be traced through
the steam as it expands through the turbine. the turbine unit utilizing Figure 11-16.

11.7.1 Single Casing vs. Compound Turbines - Steam -approaches the turbine unit from the
main steam system through four main steam lines
Simple, small, multistage turbines are gener that'are connected by-an equalizing header just
ally built with all the stages on a single shaft that prior to the turbine unit. The steam flow is then
-runs in •oie casing.- As turbine sizes increase through four lines to an inlet steam chest contain
beyond about 40 megawatts, it becomes impracti ing four stop valves (SV) and then four control
c-al to use a sifigle casing. The differenft stages may valves (CV). Flow is then to the center of the HP
be split among two or.more casinigs on separate turbine and the first stage of blades. Steam flow
shafts. As many as six different casings may be splits into two flow paths due to the double flow
used., -design of the HP turbine. This double flow design
is used on both the HP and LP turbines to counter
If all the shafts of the different casings-are act the thrust of the steam flow through the turbine
- bolted together in line to drive the same generator, stages. The HP turbine casing is a horizontally
this is called a tandem-compound turbine. In some split, single shell approximately 8 inches thick.
other instances, the sections may be arranged with This thickness imposes stringent heatup limits on
two shafts, or groups- of shafts,' side by side, the HP shell casing prior to rolling the turbine to
driving two separate 'generators. This' latter ar rated rpm. -
frangement is called cross-compounding and'is
advantageous when it is easier to build two half Steamis exhausted from the HP turbine through
sized generators than one large one. Tandem four lines. The steam that has passed through the
compound and cross-compound units are shown "-HP turbin*e has-provided approximately 70% of
in Figures 11-13H and l1-131, respectively. the total work'accomplished by the turbine unit.
However the steam has changed from pure satu
11.7.2 Single vs. Multiple Flow -rated steam at the HP turbine inlet to steai carry
ing 20 to 24% moisture at the HP turbinie exhaust.
Another characteristic used to classify the tur Flow is then directed to the moisture separator
bines is the number of flows among which exhaust reheaters where the' moisture is removred and the
steam is divided. There is generally only one flow -steam is reheated by stiam from the Main Steam
-,for a single casing unit. Compound turbines may 'System. This reduces blade erosion and efficiency
have the exhaust flow divided among two, three, losses due to moisture'in the LP turbine. •'-
or up to six flows. This is generally accomplished
by using double-flow, low pressure turbine sec - Steam flow then divides into six flow paths
tions. A tandem-compound, double-fl6w unit is and passes throuigh the combined intermediate
shown in Figure 11-13J. valves for entry to the center of the three LP double
flow turbines. The LP turbines are of double shell
11.8 Moderm Power Plant Turbines construction, and due to the lower temperature of
'the steam,- do not present an operation problem
Figure 11-14-shows a turbine-generator unit -during heatup of the turbine unit. Steam is ex
- that could be utilized with either a BWR or a PWR -hausted from each end of the LP turbine down
reactor. The turbine consists of one HP and three ward to the main condenser which is at a 28 in/Hg
dual exhaust LP turbines. It -is. an 1800 rpm, vacuum to improve turbine efficiency.

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual - urbines

Power Plant Engineering Course Manual -Turbines
11.8.1 Turbine Valves the other valves position. The first part of the valve
is the intermediate stop (reheat stop) valve. It is
11.8.1.1 Stop Valves normally fully open and will trip close on a turbine
trip. The second part of the valve is an intermedi
As shown on Figure I1-16, four turbine stop ate control (intercept),valve. This valve is also
valves are located in the main steam piping just normally fully open, but will modulate closed
upstream of the turbine control valves. These stop during a turbine overspeed condition.
valves are normally open during turbine operation
and are emergency, valves which rapidly close to 11.8.2 Electro-hydraulic Control System
isolate the turbine steam supply for turbine protec
tion. The four stop valves have a below the seat The EHC oil system is a separate high pressure
equalizing header common to all four. The num (1600 psig) hydraulic system used to position the
ber 2 stop valve has an internal bypass which is turbine valves as required by the EHC logic sys
used to warm up the turbine priorto turbine startup. tem.- The EHC system uses specific plant param
The stop valves are hydraulically opened against eters to regulate steam flow to the turbine during
spring tension and can trip closed within 0.1 sec heatup, roll to rated rpm, and power generation.
ond. These parameters are different for the plant type.
The EHC system also provides for testing of
11.8.1.2 Control Valves turbine valve operation and initiation of trip com
mands to the turbine steam valves.
The four turbine control valves (governor
valves) are located between the turbine stop valves The EHC hydraulic-power unit, shown in
and the turbine. The control valves regulate the Figure 11-17, provides high pressure hydraulic
flow of steam to the turbine and control the turbine fluid, which is divided into several different oil
generator load. supply paths to various steam valves.

The Electro Hydraulic Control (EHC) system The hydraulic power unit consists of a fluid
for a BWR unit will moderate the control,valves reservoir, pumps;, fluid coolers, strainers, filter,
position to maintain a constant reactorpressure for and accumulators. The pumps are motor driven,
a specific reactor power. This means the turbine variable delivery, piston pumps. Normally one
output follows reactor power. pump is running and the other is in standby. If the
running pump fails, the standby pumps will auto
The EHC system for aPWR unit will moderate matically start when system pressure decays. The
the control (governor) valves position to maintain hydraulic drain lines from the various steam valves
a constant generator output. This means that the are routed through tube and shell coolers, which
reactor output follows turbine load. are cooled by the Turbine Building Cooling Water
(TBCW) system.
The turbine control valves also trip closed on
a turbine trip due to spring tension. 11.8.3 Lube Oil System

11.8.1.3 Combined Intermediate Valves The main turbine lube oil system, shown in
Figure 11-18, provides lubricating oil to the bear
- The combined intermediate valves (CIVs) are ings of the turbine and generator during startup,
located in the steam flow path just upstream of the shutdown; and normal operation. It also provides
LP turbine. These valves have two valve seats lube oil to the overspeed and mechanical trip
inside'one valve body, on 'a GE turbine.' Each devices, to the thrust bearings, and to the thrust
valve can travel 100% of its stroke regardless of bearing wear detector.

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 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
The main turbine lube oil arrangement con coming up-to speed, coasting dwini to sop, or in an
sists of a turbine lube oil tazik, five oil pumps, two emergericy condition. These pumps are the turn
lube oil coolers,ý a vapor extractor, oil mist elimi ing gear oil pump, which is AC powered, and the
nator, ten turbine shaft'lift pumps, and associated emergency bearing oil pump, which is DC pow
straiers, piping, and instrumentation. .ered. They take oil directly from the lube oil tank
and discharge it into the bearing header prior to the
During'turbine startup and •coastdown, the turbine lube oil' coolers. The motor suction oil
"turbineshaft lift pumps supply pressuried oil to "pump" is an XC moior driven centrifugal oil pump
lift the main turbine shaft off the lower bearings, that performs the function of the oil driven booster
'surface.. This -helps to reduce the turning gear pump until the furbine shaft has reached approxi
"torque requirements and to protect the bearings at mately 95% ofrated speed. High pressure operat
low turbine speeds by preventing metal to metal ing oil is'not available to drive the oil driven
contact. booster pump until the main shaft oil pump has
reached about 95% of rated speed (1800 rpm).
The turbine lube oil tank, which proyides the Thus, until this speed is attained, the function of
mounting structure for the turbine lube oil coolers, the oil driven booster pump (to provide the main
motor suction 'oil pum, t g -gearoil 'pump, shaft oil pump With suction oil at a positive pres
"emergency bearing oil pump, anrd vapor extractor, sure), must be provided by the motor suction oil
"is supplied ,oil from 'and "discharges oil to the pumnp.
turbine lube oil storage and conditioning system.
"Duringnormal operation of the main turbine, only 11.8.4 Turbine Bearings
one lube oil cooler is in service with the other
"maintainedin a standby condition. 11.8.4.1 Main Bearings

"Themain shaft oil pump, which supplies oil to Journal earings -re provided at both ends of
"thebearings of the turbine generator shaft,: is a each turbine and both ends of ih• generator and
centrifugal pimp moounted on the turbine shaft. It exciter for support of themhaini shaft's weight and
is supplied .with suction: oil by the' oil driven 'full lateral alignment inside the*tubine and gen
"booster'pumplocated in the turbine lube oil tank. erator casings.
-Oil discharging from the main shaft oil pump is
piped to the lube oil tank where-it passes through ".Figure 11-19 illustrates various views of a
"anoil driven tuibine which drives the oil driven' jouirnal beating. If d6'nsisti of a cast steel shell
booster pump. In passing through the oil turbine, 'lined with babbitt and provided'with means for
the oil pressure is reduced while providing power lubrication and for vertical and horizontal adjust
to drive the oil driven booster pump. " "ment of the position of the bearing axis. The shell
is split and bolted at the horizontal joint. Two
"Theoil then proceeds through the tuibine lube d6wielsensure pe'rfect alignment of the two halves,
. oil cooler and on to the bearing. The oil driven when assembled.
booster pump has the advantage of not adding any is in a ' ring si
" 6pwr requirements to the system, while accem- bearing is carriedisuppo
plishing oil pressure reduction for urbine bering :ing of two halves,which has a spherically bored
use. This allows'a more efficient use'o f the oil seat thatiis machined to a slightly largerradius than
system. ". the outer spherical 'surface of the bearing. This
"allowsthe bearing to'm6ve inside the supportring,
-Two motor driven centrifugal oil pumps 'are enabling the'bearing to align itself to the j6urnal.
"pr•vided to su'uply bearing oil to the turbine bear- The bearing is prevented from rotating' by a pin
ings while the turbine is on the turning gear, that has ample clearance in the upper support item

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual

Turbines
Turbines
so as not to restrict the self-aligning capabilities of The thrust bearing is flooded with oil under
the bearing. pressure at all times.' The oil is supplidd directly
from the bearing oil line through two connections
Oil is supplied to the bearing through a flange in the upper half ofthe thrust bearing cage. As the
bolted to the upper suppori and into the upper half thrust collar rotate6 with reference to the shoes, the
of the bearing. The oil enters' the bearing in the film of oil between each shoe and the loaded collar
relieved section that does not extiend to the ends of will tend to take a wedge-shape with the thick side
the bearing but stops inside of anannular groove at ofthe wedge on the forward or entering edge of the
each end. From these grooves, the oil passes to shoes. Thus, the oil is carried between the bearing
drain through the holes in the bottom half of the surfaces' by the motion of the collar and assures
bearing. This arrangement ensures a positive proper lubrication.
supply of oil for thejournal lubrication at all times.
11.8.5 Extraction Steam
11.8.4.2 Thrust Bearing
Extraction' steam provides the heat'source for
One thrust bearing is provided (see Figure 11 heating up the feedwater to approximately 400°F
20) for the turbine-generator urnit and is usually prior to entry into the reactor or steam generators.
l6cated near'a LP turbine casing. Even though the This heating is provided in tube and shell feedwater
turbine is designed for a balanced thrust due to heateis that pass feedwater inside tubes that are
balanced extraction points and double flow de heated from outside by the extraction steam. There
sign, there will be thrust experienced by the rotor are usuially sixl different pressure ranges of
during changing steam or load conditions. feedwater heaers. The higher pressure heaters
receive extraction steam from the HP turbine and
The thrust of the rotor is transmitted to the the lower pressure heaters receive extraction steam
shoes by the collar machined integrally with the "fromthe LP iuibines.' Because the steam pressure
turbine rotor shaft. A full complement of shoes is decreases with passage through each turbine stage,
provided on each side of the thrust collar to carry each set of feedwater heaters will have a progres
the thrust in either direction. sively lower pressure. For each feedwater heater
pregsure, thereý are.usually two or three parallel
The thrust bearing is of the leveling plate type, flow paiths for th'feedwater, therefore, two or
which automatically distribute's the'load equally
three feedwater heaters are operating at that pires
on the shoes. These shoes are supported on the sure.
leveling plates; which are carried in the retaining
ring. The leveling plates, by means of their rock The extraction steam lines to the feedwater
ing motion, allow the shoes to take a: p6sitio n so heaters are equipped with extraction nonreturn
that the c nter of loading of the babbitt faces are all
(ENR)yalves that automatically close on a trip of
in the same plane. the main turbine or- on high water level in, the
heater. The ENR valves, prevent backflow of
Consequently, each shoe takes an equal share water or steam from entering the turbine and
of the load. This construction eliminates the causing damage either by water induction or by
necessity of having all the shoes exactly of the furbine o;verspeed as a. result of reverse steam
same' thickness. By adcninulative shifting of the flow. The ENR valves 'maybe either air-operated
leveling'plates, the thrust shoe load is also uni check valves or a combination of an air or motor
formly distributed if the shaft carrying the collar is operated isolation valve with a simple swing check
not exactly parallel to the bore of the housing. valve, depending on the design of the particular
system.

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 Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Because the lowest pressure heaters are lo ports the weight of the HP turbine shell.
cated within the condenser, their extraction lines
have no' shutoff or check valves to isolate the "Inaddition to providing structural support for
"the'`HP turbine,' the front standard also houses
heaters. The extraction steam piping to these
"heaters is protected from water induction by the "various devices and control comp6nents. Thlese
automatic closing of the heater condensate inlet include, but are not limited to:
and outlet valves when high heater level is de
tected. 'Control Devices

11.8.6 Exhaust Hood Spray • Overspeed trip,

* Mechanical trip valve,
Steam not only supplies the energy to move the • Lockout valve,
turbine blades, but also provides a means to re 'Oil trip valve;
move frictional heat from-the'turbine blades. At * Mechanical trip solenoid,
low steam flow rates, the last stages of the low - Low speed'switch, afid
" pressure tiiibine can• ieat up causing the exhaust '* Mechanical maiuW trip.`
hood temperature to rise an excessive amount. To
"-6o61-the exhaust hoiod, an exhaust hood spray Oiher Devices
system automatically coiitrols the temperature by
spraying cool water on the hood (not onto the 0
Shaft grounding devices,
rotating blades) and removes some of this heat. "Oil sights;
The turbine generitor should not be operated at 0
Main oil pump, and'
low loads (less than 5%) for any long period of -0 Speed sensing head.
time to p-reveit damage to the last stage buckets.
11.8.9 Turbine Governor
11.8.7 Turning Gear
The function of the turbine governor is to
The motor driven turning gear shown in Figure control steam flow through the turbine to maintain
11-21 is used when the turbine is shutdown and shlaft speed conistant uiider varying load -condi
:[tions• :Althouglithere are many types of gove''or
'still hot. The turnifig gear motor turns the tiirbine
shaft at 1 to 2 rpm to prevent shaft bowing due to systems, all are fundamentally the same.' All
weight or differences in thermal expansion. Even 'governors have a ldev,ice which will s6iise turbine
though the. turning gear is not needed when the ri6torip•ed and will open the throttle valve when
turbine is < 200°F, the turbine is usually left on the it senses turbine speed decreasing and will shutthe
turning gear for the dtiration of the shutdown, throttle valve when it senses turbine speed increas
except during times of turbine maintenance. ing.

11.8.8 Front Standard The simplest type bf governor system is 'the

flyweight governor (see Figure 11-22A). This
"The front standard, as.,the name implies, is "-systemiuses two flyweights that are connected to
'located at the front end of the HP turbine. Its 'main the turbine rotor speed. As the rotor and flyweights
function is to support the HP shell and the HP spin faster, centrifugal force pushes the flyweights
rotor. The front'sianidafd ban be pictured most "otitward. This causes the flyweights to pivot about
simply as a large metal box that slides. At the rear their fulcrum, lifting the speeder rod up against the
of the front standard is the number one bearing that speeder spring force. As shown in Figure 11 -22B,
supports the HP -rotor.' The rear of the front when the speeder rod is lifted, it pivots the steam
standard, along with the mid standard, also sup- control valve lever causing the control (throttle)

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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
PoweMnua
Plat Eginerin Couse Turine
valve to close, thereby reducing steam flow to the Corroded blades
turbine. The same logic applies to the case where
turbine speed decreases., As the turbine rotor Unequal heating of rotor parts
slows, the flyweights move inward, forcing the
speeder rod downward. ,This action lifts the con "Unbalancedforces due to heavy
trol valve, letting more steam into the turbine and distortional stresses
increasing turbine speed. Most large turbines use
a hydraulic governor system. Thissystem uses an Shifting of conductors or gen
oil pump and oil pressure to measure turbine speed erator
rather than flyweights and mechanical linkages,
but the concept of operation is the same. Unequal generator air gaps

11.9 Turbine Operational Problems

Poor Alignment Eccentric coupling
The principal troubles arising in steam-turbine
operation that must be guarded against are (1) Unequal settling of foundation
unequal expansion of different parts during startup,
(2) water in the casing, (3) overspeeding, and (4) Steam-piping strains due to ex
vibration. A peculiar fact is that nearly all troubles pansion or weight
experienced with steam .turbine, except
overspeeding, will manifest sooner or later as
vibrations. Hence, the chief duties of a turbine Bad Foundation Improper grouting
operator, while a turbine is in, operation, are to
carefully guard against overspeeding and vibra Nonrigid fastening of bedplate
tions.
Nonhomogeneous foundation
11.9.1 Vibration resulting in unequal settling

As already stated, turbine vibration is a major

concern to the turbine operator. Listed below are Loose Parts Too much bearing clearance
several causes of turbine vibration and the prob
able reason for the problem. Most- problems Ball joint of bearing loose
require a turbine shutdown and maintenance to
solve the cause of the vibration. Loose construction in built up
rotor
Cause Probable Reason
Loose coupling or bolts
Unbalanced Sprung Shaft

Improperly placed balance Internal Revolving buckets coming in

weights, Rubbing contact with stationary buckets
Displacement of balance
Insufficient casing clearance
weights
Deflection, of a diaphragm or
Sediment in blades or buckets disc in one stage
I
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 Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual

S.... Thrust-be-ring troubles natural frequencies. It is difficult t6 balance a shaft

perfectly so that during rotation centrifugal forces
are setup within it that act on the shaft at the sa-me
Steam Troubles Water coming over with the frequency as the shaft rotates.. If this impressed
steam frequency coincides with a natural frequency -of
the shiaft, resonance occurs. This speed of rotation
Sediment in the steam is then known as a critical speed.

"Faulty valve gear causing ir - Resonance is an undesirable condition be

regular steam admission cause it may cause parts to rub and creates high
shaft stresses. Consequently, the running speed is
Accidental closing of emer - kept at least 20% away from the critical speed.
gency steam valve shiftinig Because the shaft has a number of natural frequen
generator's load to other ma - cies, it'also has a number of critical speeds.- For
chines most actual machinery shafts, only the first or
second critical speed is of importance.

Packing "Improperadjustment of laby As shown in Figure 11-23, rotors have more

Tioubles rinth packing than one critical speed. In general, turbine genera
tors operate well below the turbine rotor's third
"Packingrings too small for shaft critical speed and just above the generator rotor's
second critical speed.

Oil Troubl es Breaking down of oil film due When starting or stopping a turbine, it'is 'n
to insufficient supply portant to pass through the c riticil speeds without
unnecessary delay (in a few seconds). Excessive
-Oil supply cut off or too slow vibration will usually not be a problem if critical
speeds are passed rapidly. _If the unit is held at a
- Poor oil'(frothing, gumming, critical speed fortoo long, excessive vibration and
emulsifying) rubbing can occur.

11.9.2 Critical Speeds If there is excessive vibration at acritical speed

while the unit is slowing after a trip, the operator
Critical speed is a physical characteristic of all "mayopen the vacuum breakers' This will open the
rotating shafts. The critical speed of any rotor condenser to the atmosphere,increasing the pres
depends on its geometry, material, and size. The sure in the condenser and later stages of the tur
.vibration of a shaft at critical speed may be much bine, which will cause the turbine to 'slow more
greater than the vibratiofi'of the same shaft above quickly.'
and below the critical s-peed (see Figure 11-23).
However, vacuum'should not be broken at
Any body having weight End "springin'ess" "greaterthan tw>o-thirds rated speed (1200 rpm for
has bne or more natural freqiieicies at which it can a 1800 rpm unit) unless vibration is extreme be
vibrate. If forces a-reapplied to the body at any of causebreaking vacuum at higherspeeds can dam
these natural frequencies, a resonanice condition "ageLP turbine buckets because of aerodynamic
"willbuild up, and the amplitude of motion will .(windage) heating.
"become quite TLrge. Because a machine shaft has
weight and'deflects under load,- it has several In addition, during shutdowri and startup, the
Rev. 0195
USNRC Center
Training Center
USNRC Technical Training -- 11-13
11-13 .. . Rev. 0195
 I

Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

Turbines
unit shouldInotbe operated for a significant amount 11.9.3.2 Steam Seal System
oftime below its first critical speed. The manufac
turer will place a maximum time on operating in The steam seal header has a continuous drain
this condition. Rubbing and bowing may be the from its lowest point to the condenser to prevent a
result of such operation. Note that an exception is gradual accumulation of water from flooding the
when the unit is on the turning gear. header and entering the turbine. This drain can
become plugged, and in any case, is not sufficient
11.9.3 Water Induction to pass large quantities of water if admitted into the
steam seal system.
Experience has demonstrated that serious dam
age can occur in steam turbines as a result of water 11.9.3.3 High Reactor Vessel/Steam
entering any of the various openings in the shells Generator Water Level
while the turbine is hot and running'or hot and
shutdown on turning gear. Suchi'operation can If the water level in the reactor vessel of a
result in overstressed and humped casings, dam boiling water reactor or the steam generator of a
aged buckets, badly rubbed internal parts, and pressurized water reactor is too high, moisture
even permanently bowed rotors. droplets could become entrained in the steam and
could be carried over into the turbine. High
11.9.3.1 Extraction Lines moisture content steam can cause turbine blade
erosion, or in some cases, catastrophic failure of
Extraction lines 'represent the' most frequent the turbine blading. To prevent turbine damage,
source ofwaterinvolvedin turbine mishaps. Water the turbine is tripped when reactor vessel/steam
from high and intermediate pressure extraction generator water level becomes too high.
lines can cause serious quenching of hot turbine
sections and from the low pressure lines can cause 11.9.4 Overspeed
damage to LP turbine buckets. Water induction
involving extraction lines can usually be attrib If the generator circuit breaker is opened while
uted to one of the following causes: the turbine is producing power, turbine-generator
speed will increase. This is because only 2% of
"* Leaking feedwater heater tubes, rated steam flow is required to maintain the turbine
at rated rpm. Any steam flow above this amount
" Feedwater heater level controls that mal is used to add torque to the turbine shift and
function or are not adequate for some tran produce electrical power.
sient condition,
Closure of the turbine valves and nonreturn
* Improper drain systems such as drain mani valves associated with iextractions, flash tanks,
folds that choke and restrict flow, etc., will close off sources of energy external to the
turbine, the turbine "fillcease producing power,
-Leakage ormisoperation ofthe ENR valves and the speed increase will be limited to design
"inthe extraction lines to feedwater heaters, values (assuming no abnormal energy source such
or as excessive water'"in a hot steam' path). But
failure-to-close of' certain combinations of 'the
Leakage or misoperation of Valves where valves mentioned above or excessive watei in a
extraction lines are ifiterboinect6d with hot steam path can result in the turbine continuing
such sources of steam as startup steam for to produce power with the result that the turbine
boiler feed pump turbines or deaeration. generator speed will continue to rise.

Rev. 0195
USNRC Technical Training Center 11-14 Rev. 0195
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
During this time the turbine control system pumps for a BWR utilize turbine driven pumps.
(EHC) will close the turbine control valves (100 to These pumps are normally not operating, but must
105% rated rpm) and the turbine intermediate be capable of startup and obtaining rated flow in
control valves (105 to 107% rated rpm). If these < 25 seconds. This requires a turbine with larger
control measures fail, there are two separate trip clearances than the main turbine, thus not requir
devices at approximately 110% of rated rpm. ing any pre-heating before operation.

11.9.5 Low Lube Oil Pressure/High Thrust The nuclear industry utilizes an impulse re
Bearing Wear entry turbine of the axial-flow type made by the
Terry Turbine Company. This type of blading can
Commercial nuclear plant steam turbines nor best be described as water wheel type of blading.
mally operate at 1800 rpm; therefore, adequate This type of blading can utilize steam of low
lubrication of the various bearing surfaces is criti quality but can lead to an overspeed problem in
cally important. Loss of bearing lubrication, even startup of the turbine due to the increased mass of
for a short period of time, can completely destroy the water on the turbine blading.
a bearing surface. To prevent bearing damage, the
turbine is immediately tripped when there are A Terry turbine is an impulse noncondensing
indications of low oil system pressure. type turbine, which means that it is driven by
impulse force rather than reaction force. An
High thrust bearing wear is also an indication impulse turbine is effected by a direction change in
of a malfunction of the lubricating oil system. the fluid stream leaving the blading, but it is not
When high thrust bearing wear is indicated, the effected by expansion of the fluid leaving the
turbine is tripped as a precautionary measure until blade. There is no velocity change across the
the cause of the excessive wear can be identified. moving blade in an impulse turbine like there is in
a reaction turbine. It is not effected by the fluid
11.9.6 Reactor Trip stream leaving the blade, only the fluid stream
striking the blade. Therefore, it does not matter if
PWR plants automatically trip the turbine when the water flashes leaving the blade; however, the
the reactor trips. This is done to prevent the rapid mass and velocity of the fluid striking the blade
cooldown of the reactor coolant system. When the does matter. Water has more mass per volume than
reactor trips, most heat generation in the core steam; therefore, at any given velocity it will strike
stops. If the secondary steam system continues to the impulse blade with more force than steam at
remove heat from the primary system via the the same velocity. (This means that more work is
steam generator and the steam turbine, the primary being done by the water because of the difference
system will rapidly cool down. This cooldown in mass per volume.)
could cause high thermal stresses which could
adversely effect the integrity of the reactor vessel. ATerry turbine is protected from overspeeding
The cooldown would also add positive reactivity, by a mechanical tripping mechanism. A mechani
which could cause an inadvertent reactor restart if cal key, whose position is a function of the cen
it were allowed to continue too long. trifugal force generated by motor speed will trip a
mechanical lever in the turbine casing during
11.10 Standby Auxiliary Turbines turbine overspeed conditions. This will shut the
turbine steam supply valve and stop the turbine.
Both BWRs and PWRs have a need for auxil
iary feedwater supplies under specific plant condi
tions. These auxiliary feedwater pumps for a
PWR or reactor core isolation cooling system

11-15 Rev. 0195

USNRC Technical Center
Training Center
Technical Training 11-15 Rev. 0195
 Turbines
'Dower PIont En ohmeerini Coursep Manual ubie

Chapter 11 Definitions

STOP VALVE - An emergency valve located upstream of the turbine

control valve that can be rapidly closed to isolate the
turbine steam supply for turbine or plant protection.

CONTROL VALVE - The valve or group of valves located between the

stop valve and the turbine that regulates the flow of
steam to the turbine and controls the turbine speed or
turbine generator load.

COMBINED 1NEREDIATE - A valve located in the steam flow path between the
VALVE moisture separator-reheater and the low pressure
turbine that has two valve seats inside one valve
body. The first part of the valve, the intermediate
stop (reheat stop) valve, trips shut on a turbine trip.
The second part of the valve, the intermediate control
(intercept) valve, modulates closed during a turbine
overspeed condition.

EXTRACTION NON-RETURN - A valve in the extraction steam line to a feedwater

VALVE heater that automatically closes on a trip of the main
turbine or a high water level in the heater.

GOVERNOR - A device used to control steam flow to a turbine to

maintain a constant shaft speed under varying load
conditions.

FRONT STANDARD - A large box-like structural member with sliding feet

that supports the forward bearing of the high
pressure turbine and part of the weight of the high
pressure turbine shell.

CRITICAL SPEED - The resonant speed of a rotating shaft, which can

produce very high amplitude vibrations that are
potentially destructive.

JOURNAL BEARING - An axial bearing that restrains the radial movement of

a rotating shaft. In horizontal machines, the journal
bearings are also used to support the weight of the
rotating shaft.

THRUST BEARING - A bearing that absorbs the axial thrust experienced by

a rotating shaft. In vertical machines, the thrust
bearing also supports the weight of the shaft.

Rev. 1295
USNRC
USNRC Technical Center
Technical Training Center 11-D
11-D Rev. 1295
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

ROTOR

NOZZLE

Figure 11 - 1. Impulse Turbine Principle

11-17 Rev. 0892

USNRC Technical Training Center
Training Center 11-17 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

LU

0'0
~ -~Im>

t BUCKETS
MOVING
FIX ED
M VN

STEAM PRESSURE PRESSURE

STEAM SPEED
STEAM SPEED

A. Impulse B. Reaction

Figure 11 - 2. Ideal Turbines

11-19 Rev. 0892

USNRC Technical Training Center
Training Center 11-19 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual "T'urbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

FR

Figure 11 - 3. Reaction Turbine Principle

11-21 Rev. 0892

Center
USNRC Technical Training Center 11-21 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

MOVING ROWS
OF BUCKETS

NOZZLE-
I

P
PRESURE I I STATIONARY
IBLADES

I I

VELOCITY

Figure 11-4. Velocity Compound Staging (Curtis Stage) Pressure-Velocity Diagram

11-23 Rev. 0195

USNRC
USNRC Technical Training Center
Technical Training Center 11-2.3 Rev. 0195
 Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

PRESSURE

VELOC1TY

Figure 11-5. Pressure Compound Staging Pressure-Velocity Diagram

11-25 Rev. 0195

USNRC Technical
USNRC Technical Training Center 11-25 Rev. 0195
C,, DIAGRAM EFFICIENCY (%) 0

-I
3333 83
a

m
2
H 0 -I

S.
E
1. 0

*1

-4

NOZZLE AND DIAGRAM UnCIdENCY (%)

a 1 8 33 s
a3 2
n.

w
2
H
C
-I
CD
00 S.
(I,

i
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

Moving
A Buckets
Flow
BFlSe

Nozzle

B. Impluse Stage Design

A. Reaction Stage Design

Notes:
1. Shaft Labyrinth Seal
2. Blade Tip Packing
3. Spill Strip
4. Balance Hole

Figure 11-7. Interstage Sealing

11-29 Rev. 0892

USNRC Technical Training Center
USNRC Center 11-29 Rev. 0892
 Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual

t I.

V.._e

11-31 Rev. 0892

USNRC Center
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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

(a) Integral Rotor Discs

(b) Shrink-fit and Keyed Rotor Discs

(c) Forged Separate Disc Section Rotor

Figure 11-9. Rotor Types

11-33 Rev. 0892

USNRC Technical Training Center
Training Center 11-33 Rev. 0892
 0
C'7 Vb
z 1

0
0
C
-I

FROM
MAIN STEAM
(HIGH PRESSURE
SUPPLY)

FROM
AUXILIARY STEAM
SYSTEM

-4
C

C,
lFigure I I - 10. Shaft Giland Sealing System -I

o0 rt
 Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual

Figure 11-11. Labyrinth Seals

11-37 Rev. 0892

USNRC
USNRC Technical Center
Training Center
Technical Training I11-37 Rev. 0892
 Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

A. TURBINE AT NO OR LOW LOAD

L.P. TURB. GLAND H.P. TURB. GLAND

ATMOS. EXHAUST EXHAUST ATMOS

14.7 PSIA 14.6 PSIA 16 PSIA (VACUUM) (VACUUM) 16 PSIA 14.6 PSIA 14.7 PSIA

I ---
- -
y
-4 -
LN SEAL RINGS -
-
;pxyr---
-- -,

STM. TO GLAND COND.

B. TURBINE AT HIGHER LOADS

L.P. TURB. GLAND H.P. TURB. GLAND

EXHAUST ATMOS.
ATMOS. EXHAUST
(OVER 21 PSIA) 20 PSIA 14.6 PSIA 14.7 PSIA
14.7 PSIA 14.6 PSIA 16 PSIA (VACUUM)
I I I I
_ -
- y -

SUPPLIED FROM H.P.

STM. TO GLAND COND.

Figure 11-12. Gland Seal Steam Distribution

11-39 Rev. 0195

Center
Technical Training Center
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Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

A. Straight-Flow Condensing B. Straight-Flow Noncondensing

C. Triple Automatic Extraction D. Double Automatic Extraction

Condensing Noncondensing

E. Single Nonautomatic Extraction

Condensing

Figure 11 - 13. Turbine Types

11-41 Rev. 0892

Training Center
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 Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual

F. Single Reheat Condensing G. Double Reheat Condensing

H. Tandem-Compound

I. Cross-Compound

J. Tandem-Compound, Double-Flow

Figure 11 - 13. Turbine Types, Continued

Rev. 0892
USNRC
USNRC Technical Training Center
Training Center 11-43
11-43 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

.-_

l1145 Rev. 0892

USNRC Technical Training Center
 0

"tb

C-.

€1

LOW PRESSURE LOW PRESSURE

HIGH PRESSURE LOW PRESSURE ELEMENT
ELEMENT ELEMENT
ELEMENT

'I
I1I
(,ONIfl NtL ii

Figure 1I -15. Four Cylinder Turbine, Cross Section

--I

"j.
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

r
C1

1-49
I11-49 Rev. 0892
USNRC Technical
USNRC Center
Truining Center
Technical Training Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

wU0

p-A

9..
LIU

ccz IL :U

a Ir

~ C.

cm A 171 =1I=

USNRC Technical Training Center 1151Rev. 089:2

 JOURNAL JOURNAL 00
SBEARIING BEARING 0

rn :4

MAI SHF TURUBINE

-U.1O BERN Ot 9ARN

-- _v-------------
1--
PS
IMOTOR
M GEAR EMERGENCY

SEMATO RO
SoEDR tI
Pt
PUMP
MOO
s PUMP
ER
: L PU MP
MREC
- VALE OIL1EVIE

: SUCTIONL LE OIL
T MITIPMI PUMP OI PUM

SERVICE

-E
VAPORVE
LBEEILTAKR560NAL
P

OIL

,mif VE VAAV

BOOSTE OI0AN 000L

U'Tf

U11
 Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual

OIL DRAIN

S1.0

Ac-0

Figure 11-19. Typical Journal Bearing

11-55 Rev. 0892

Center
Training Center
Technical Training
USNRC Technic._al 11-55 Rev.0892
 0
ft
*1

(to a
m
,,4 a
a
a
-t
a
C-)
0
C
CA
ft

a
C
-.i

C--

A. STATIONARY VIEW B. ROTATING VIEW

COLLAR

"*1
ft C.
a3
CM Figure I1-20. Thrust Bearing ft
 0

--,, *1

..-)
H,
I m,

Ht

CENTER LINE '' 0

"1
OF TURBINE'

tU,

Figure 11-21. Side-Mounted Turning Ge:ar

"*1
0•
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

SPEED CONTROL
CHANGER VALVE

A. Speed-changer spring alters force acting

on the steam-control-valve lever

SPEEDER
SPRING

FLY
WEIGHTS

TURBINE
"SHAFT
WORM
GEAR

GOVERNOR
TRAVEL

2
F = MR(rpm)

B. Flyweight governor balances the force

of spring and weights, moves speeder rod

Figure 11-22. Flyweight Governor System

USNRC Technical Training Center 11-61 Rev. 0892
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines
Power Plant Engineering Course Manual Turbines

W
0

z
0
Fe

I I
1st 2nd 3rd
CRITICAL CRITICAL CRITICAL

rpm

Figure 11-23. Rotor Critical Speeds

11-63 Rev. 0892

Training Center
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USNRC Technical Center 11-63 Rev. 0892