MIDTERM REVIEWER MR. RYAN G.

TUBOG

In the mks system of measurement, the unit of force is newton

1 Resolution of Forces-Graphical Method (N).
Scalar quantity – one that is described by a single number Ways to find the resultant force of a system of forces:
(including any units) giving its size. The size is also referred to as 1. Graphical method
magnitude 2. Component method
 Example: 50m3, 20°C, 85kg, denominations (e.g. one 3. Analytical method (not included)
peso) as long as it has a size or unit without direction
Vector quantity – characterized by both magnitude and
direction.
Graphical Method
Convention to use: the direction of the vector is expressed in
 Example: 90km/hr, South (velocity)
terms of angle in degree unit always measured from the zero
10N, 45°N or E (force)
line or positive x-axis to the vector arrow.
80m, 210° (displacement)
A vector quantity can be represented by an arrow-tipped line
Step by step:
segment. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the
1. Draw Cartesian plane (x and y axis)
quantity. This arrow-tipped line segment is called a vector.
2. Draw your vector arrow and use the given scaling
1cm=1N
Step by step:
3. Measure and use your protractor. Make sure your
1. Always check the calibration
angles are perpendicular.
of your ruler (1cm = 10mm)
4. Label your drawing without vector symbol.
2. Measure from end of the line
5. If you have a second vector start drawing it at the tip
segment (zero line) to the tip
of the first vector, repeat the steps depending on what
of the arrow.
is given.
3. When using the protractor,
6. The last vector is always Fr (resultant vector). It should
make sure that the vertex is
always start from the origin (F1) and draw a line to
in the middle of the
the tip of the last vector.
protractor. Measure the
angle using the black or 7. Label the Fr. To measure the angle θ, start at the
inner circle of the protractor. positive x-axis. Measure the length of the Fr.
8. The answer should follow the decimal place of the
given. Make sure to write the right units and labels.
Addition of Colinear Vectors Exercise: Find Fr using graphical method.
When two vector quantities act in the same or opposite directions, 1. F1= 8.0N, 160°
their numerical sum is the same as their algebraic sum. F2= 6.0N, 90°
 Colinear vectors – any vectors in one direction you can F3 = 12.0N, 70°
directly add them but if opposite direction, change the
signs of the lesser number
2 Kinematics in One Dimension
Example: the same direction colinear vector Motion in one dimension means that an object is moving in a
𝑎⃑ = 8𝑐𝑚, 𝐸 𝑐⃑ = 𝑎⃑ + 𝑏⃑⃑ straight line.
⃑⃑
𝑏 = 5𝑐𝑚, 𝐸 𝑐⃑ = 8𝑐𝑚, 𝐸 + 5𝑐𝑚, 𝐸
Distance and Displacement
𝑐⃑ = ? 𝑐⃑ = 13𝑐𝑚, 𝐸 Distance is the total movement of an object without any regard
to direction.
 It is a scalar quantity (no direction, only magnitude)
 We can define distance as to how much ground an
object has covered despite its starting point.
Displacement is the change in position of an object.
 It is a vector quantity and has a magnitude and
Example: opposite direction colinear vector direction
𝑎⃑ = 15𝑐𝑚, 𝐸 𝑐⃑ = 𝑎⃑ + 𝑏⃑⃑  Represented as an arrow that points from the starting
⃑⃑
𝑏 = 5𝑐𝑚, 𝐸 𝑐⃑ = 15𝑐𝑚, 𝐸 + 5𝑐𝑚, 𝑊 point to the final position.
𝑏⃑⃑ = −5𝑐𝑚 = 15𝑐𝑚, 𝐸 + (−5𝑐𝑚, 𝐸)
= 15𝑐𝑚, 𝐸 − 5𝑐𝑚,
⃑⃑⃑𝒄 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝑬

Vector Addition of Forces

Force vectors, and other kinds of vectors are added in the same For distance, no need to write (+)(-). For displacement, you need
ways as displacement vectors. to write the signs. Example: S = +15m
 Concurrent forces – forces which act on the same
point of the same time Convention to use: For simplicity purposes, distance and
displacement will be using the same variable S. To differentiate
them, a plus (+) and minus (-) signs are indicated in the
displacement value.

Danica Rose A. Rayla

CNU BS Psychology II-D
Average and Instantaneous Speed  If the speed of a body is increasing, acceleration is
Speed is a scalar quantity (no direction, only magnitude). positive. If the speed is decreasing, the acceleration is
The instantaneous speed of a moving body is the actual speed negative.
at which it is moving at any given instant. Acceleration is the rate of the change of speed. It is related to
 For a car, this is the reading of the speedometer at a time. That means, if your speed or velocity is constant, then there
given moment. is no acceleration. If there is a change from rest and speed is
Often, a body in motion does not move at a constant speed. changing, then there is acceleration. Therefore, to find
acceleration, you divide the change in speed of a body by the
 Accelerates – a car speeds up
time needed to make the change.
 Decelerates – a car slows down Δ𝑣
Thus, the total distance traveled by a body during a period of 𝑎=
time is often the result of an average speed. The average speed t
a = acceleration
of a body during a time period can be calculated by:
𝑠 Δv = change in speed
𝑣̅ = t = time required to make the speed change
𝑡 Acceleration is not always constant. In this discussion, we will
v bar = average speed
s = distance traveled think of all accelerations as constant or uniform. Here, a will
t= time spent on travel or elapsed time denote constant acceleration.
If the speed is uniform of constant, drop the v bar to a simple v.
𝑠 The change in the speed of a body is the difference between
𝑣= final speed (vf) and its original speed (vo). Thus, Δv is simply Vf-
𝑡
Exercise: Average speed Vo.
A car travels a distance of 450km during a 10-hr period. What 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜
is its average speed? 𝑎=
𝑡
Example: Positive Acceleration
Average Velocity During an 11-sec period, the speed of a race car is
To take into the account of the direction of motion, the vector increased uniformly from 44m/s to 88m/s. What is the
concept of velocity is needed. The equation of the average acceleration?
velocity is expressed the same as the average speed. That is, Known: Solution:
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜
𝑠 𝑡 = 11𝑠 𝑎=
𝑣̅ = 𝑉𝑓 = 88𝑚/𝑠 𝑡
𝑡 𝑎 = (88𝑚/𝑠 − 44𝑚/𝑠)/11𝑠
v bar = average velocity 𝑉𝑜 = 44𝑚/𝑠
s = displacement 𝑎 = (44𝑚/𝑠)/11𝑠
𝑎 =?
t = elapsed time 𝑎 = 4𝑚/𝑠 2
For uniform motion (constant velocity) the bar over the v is also
dropped. Example: Negative Acceleration
During an 11-sec period, the speed of a race car is
Speed and Velocity increased uniformly from 88m/s to 44m/s. What is the
Speed and velocity will use the same format of their equations. acceleration?
𝑠
𝑣= Known: Solution:
𝑡
v = speed or velocity 𝑡 = 11𝑠 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜
s = distance traveled or displacement 𝑎=
𝑉𝑓 = 44𝑚/𝑠 𝑡
t = elapsed time 𝑉𝑜 = 88𝑚/𝑠 𝑎 = (44𝑚/𝑠 − 88𝑚/𝑠)/11𝑠
The variable s could also mean Δs, or the change in distance or 𝑎 =? 𝑎 = (−44𝑚/𝑠)/11𝑠
displacement and t as Δt or the change in time. 𝑎 = −4𝑚/𝑠 2
𝛥𝑠
𝑣 = 𝛥𝑡 where Δs = Sf – Si and Δt = Tf – Ti

Example: Average Velocity Final Speed after Constant or Uniform

A truck driver drives 20,000m down the road in 300s. Acceleration
He then reverses and drives 12,000m back the road in 200s. In some cases, where the uniform acceleration is known, it may
What is the average velocity for each run? be desirable to calculate the final speed of a body at the end
Known: of an acceleration period. The equation for acceleration is 𝑎 =
Run 1: 𝑉𝑓−𝑉𝑜
𝑠 +20,000𝑚 𝑡
s = +20,000m 𝑣̅ = =
𝑡 300𝑠
t = 300s 𝑣̅ = +67𝑚/𝑠 Solving for Vf,
v̅ =? 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑎𝑡
Run 2: 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑠 −12,000𝑚
s = −12,0,000m 𝑣̅ = =
𝑡 200𝑠 Example: A ball rolling down in an incline undergoes a uniform
t = 200s 𝑣̅ = −60𝑚/𝑠 acceleration of 4 m/s2 for 5s. If the ball has an initial speed of
v̅ =? 2m/s when it starts down the incline, what is its final speed?
Known:
Constant or Uniform Acceleration a = 4m/s2 t = 5s
Convention to use: Acceleration is treated as scalar quantity when Vo = 2m/s Vf= ?
dealing with objects moving in a straight line. That is, direction of
motion is disregarded. The vector form of acceleration will be Solution: 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡
used later in dealing with freely falling objected. Vf = 2m/s + (4m/s2)(5s)
Vf = 22 m/s
Acceleration is the rate at which speed (or velocity) is changing
with time.
Distance Traveled During Constant or Uniform Freely Falling Bodies
Acceleration  The effect of gravity causes objects to fall downward.
The distance traveled by a body during any given time period  In the absence of air resistance, it is found that all
can be calculated from the average speed of the body during bodies at the same location above the earth fall
that time period. Solving the average speed equation for S, we vertically with the same acceleration
𝑠
can obtain 𝑣̅ = o E.g. you have a stone and feather in a
𝑡
vacuum tube, they will reach the ground at
𝑠 = 𝑣̅ 𝑡
𝑉𝑜+𝑉𝑓 the same time when released at the same
Take note: for constant or uniform acceleration 𝑣̅ = 2 time from any height from the earth’s
𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑓 ground. Therefore, they have the same
𝑠=( )𝑡 acceleration.
2
1 o With air, the stone lands first than the
𝑠 = (𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑓)𝑡 feather because the air particles slow down
2
It is also convenient to find the distance traveled by the body the feather
where the acceleration is given instead of the final speed. Take  If the distance of the fall is small compared to the
note that 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡. To do this, we have radius of the earth, the acceleration remains
1 essentially constant throughout the fall.
𝑠 = (𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑓)𝑡
2
1
𝑠= (𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑡 Free-fall – idealized motion in which air resistance is neglected
2
1 and the acceleration is nearly constant.
𝑠 = 2 (2𝑉𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑡
1
 Equations of kinematics is used since acceleration is
𝑠 = 2 (2𝑉𝑜𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 ) constant
1 Acceleration due to gravity (g) – acceleration of a freely
𝑠 = 𝑉𝑜𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 falling body g=9.8m/s2
 it is directed downward, toward the center of the
When a, Vf, and Vo are known, it is possible to calculate the earth
distance s in a single step. Recall that 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡 and  In reality, g decreases with increasing altitude and
1
𝑠 = 2 (𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑓)𝑡. Using these two equations we have varies slightly with latitude
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜 o People in polar radius, their g is slightly
𝑡= different from those near the equator
𝑎
𝑉𝑓−𝑉𝑜
Substituting in t of the other equations, it gives;
𝑎
1
Convention to use: We will use the vector form of acceleration in
𝑠 = 2𝑎 (𝑉𝑓 2 − 𝑉𝑜2 ) or dealing with freely falling bodies. Since the acceleration due to
2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉𝑓 2 − 𝑉𝑜2 gravity is directed towards the center of the earth, by vector
principle, g becomes g= - 9.8m/s2
Exercise:  For displacement, y is used instead of s +𝑦 ↑ −𝑦 ↓
1. What distance is traveled by a train as it is  For velocity v, +𝑣 ↑ −𝑣 ↓
accelerated uniformly from 22m/s to 44m/s in a 20-
second period? Formulas for Freely Falling Bodies
2. A car starting from rest is accelerated at a constant 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑔𝑡
rate of 6.2m/s2. What distance does the care travel 1
during the first 7-sec of acceleration? 𝑦 = (𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑓)𝑡
2
3. A jet is taking off from the deck of an aircraft carrier, 1
starting from rest, the jet is catapulted with constant 𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
acceleration of 31m/s2 along a straight line and 2
2𝑔𝑦 = 𝑉𝑓 2 − 𝑉𝑜2
reaches a speed of 62m/s. What is the distance
covered?
Example: What is the velocity of a brick that drops from a high
Summary of Equations
𝑠 scaffold after 4s of free fall? How far does the brick fall from
𝑣̅ = Speed or velocity, the first 4s (being dropped, the brick starts from rest)?
𝑡 average Known:
𝑠 Vo= 0m/s (from rest) Vf=?
𝑣= Speed or velocity, constant g= - 9.8m/s2 y=
𝑡 t= 4 s
Δ𝑣 Constant or uniform Velocity of the brick after 4s of free fall:
𝑎= acceleration
t 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑔𝑡
𝑉𝑓 = 0𝑚/𝑠 + (– 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 )(4𝑠)
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜 Acceleration
𝑎= 𝑉𝑓 = −39𝑚/𝑠 The velocity is negative, indicating
𝑡
that the brick is moving downward.
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜
𝑡= time Displacement of the brick covered during the first 4s
𝑎 1
𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2
Constant acceleration: 𝑦 = (0𝑚/𝑠)(4𝑠) + 1/2(– 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 )(4𝑠) 2
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡 Final speed 𝑦 = 0 + 1/2(– 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 )(16𝑠 2 )
1 Distance travelled 𝑦 = −78.4 The minus sign in the answer for y
𝑠 = (𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑓)𝑡
2 indicates that the displacement vector points in the
1 *use if no Vf negative direction, toward the earth.
𝑠 = 𝑉𝑜𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉𝑓 2 − 𝑉𝑜 2 or *use if no t
1
𝑠 = (𝑉𝑓 2 − 𝑉𝑜 2 )
2𝑎
Example: Fired or Thrown Straight Up 4 Thermal Expansion
A motor shell is shot straight up with an initial velocity of 98m/s.
a) How long does the shell remain in the air? Two frequently observed effects of temperature changes are
b) How high does the shell rise? change in size and change in state.
Known:  Change in state – from solid to liquid to gas
Vo= +98m/s (+ directed upward) Atoms of a solid are help together in a regular array by electrical
g= - 9.8m/s2 forces (represented by squiggly lines). The atoms are in place
Vf= 0m/s (shell is at rest at the highest height) because of the electrical forces.
Solution:  They constantly vibrate randomly.
𝑎) 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑔𝑡 → 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑔𝑡  There vibrations are not simple harmonics, as the
𝑉𝑓−𝑉𝑜
𝑡= 𝑔 =
0𝑚/𝑠−(+98𝑚/𝑠) temperature rises, the increase in the amplitude of
–9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 atomic vibrations results in a shifting apart of the
𝑡 = 10𝑠 positions of equilibrium of individual atoms.
 Produces an expansion of all linear dimensions of a
1
𝑏) 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑜𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2 solid body, and an increase in volume.
= (+98𝑚 ⁄ 𝑠)(10𝑠) + 1/2(– 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 )(10𝑠) 2
When you increase the
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = +490𝑚 Plus sign indicates that the temperature, the atoms
displacement vector points in the positive direction, need a larger area to
away from the center of the earth. move. There will be an
Note: If you are being asked about the highest height put ymax. expansion of a solid.
If it is the highest height,Vf=0m/s When you decrease the
temperature, movement is
3 Thermometry also limited. There will be
compression.
Qualitative measurement – non-numerical e.g. describing a
temperature whether it is hot, warm, or cold.
 Feeling hot or cold is just a matter of comparison Liquids and gases have no shape on their own, and therefore only
 We need a thermometer to know the degree of hotness volume expansion has meaning.
or coldness.
Thermometer is a device that measure temperature or a
temperature gradient (the degree of hotness or coldness of an
object)
 Celsius (formerly centigrade)
 Fahrenheit

The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are directly proportional to

each other. They have the same value at -40. Conversion Figure B: When the temperature of a bar is raised, the length of
equation of these scales can be formulated. the bar increases.
𝐹𝑎ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑛ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠  Linear expansivity or the coefficient of linear
5 expansion (∝) is defined as the change in length per
℃ = (℉ − 32°)
9 unit length per degree rise in temperature.
∆𝐿
𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝐹𝑎ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑛ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑡 ∝=
𝐿𝑜 (𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜 )
9 ∆𝐿
℉ = ℃ + 32° ∝=
5 𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑡
Note: when finalizing your answer, always include ∴ and take
∆𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 ∝ ∆𝑡 (𝑒𝑞. 1)
note of the number of decimal places.
 In figure B, we can see that L=Lo+∆L. Substituting eq. 1
Concept insight: There is a subtle difference in the way the in
temperature of an object is reported, as compared to a change L=Lo+∆L
in temperature. 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 + ∆𝐿
Change in temperature ∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 answer is in C° or F° a 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 + 𝐿𝑜 ∝ ∆𝑡
 Celsius degree is the unit of the change in temperature 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜(1+∝ ∆𝑡)
Where;
Lord Kelvin (1824-1907) devised a scale known as the Kelvin ∝= coefficient of linear equation
temperature scale. This scale extends the Celsius scale to absolute t = final temperature
zero and places the zero mark at that point. The phrase “absolute to= initial temperature
zero” means that temperatures lower than -273°C cannot be ∆t= change in temperature, t-to
reached by continually cooling a gas or any substance. Lo= initial length
L = final length
K=°C+273 ∆L= change in length, L-Lo
 Area Expansion
Concept insight: The linear expansivity means how fast an object Consider a rectangular sheet of solid material as shown in
will expand or compress. Different objects have different Figure C. The shaded portions are the changes in dimensions ∆a,
expansivities. The bigger the coefficient of linear expansion, the ∆b, and ∆a∆b.
faster the object expands or compresses.

Linear Expansivities
Material ∝, per C°
Aluminum 23 x 10-6
Brass 19 x 10-6
Copper 17 x 10-6
Germanium 6.0x 10-6
Glass, ordinary 9 x 10-6
Glass, pyrex 3.3 x 10-6
Inver (Nickel-steel alloy 0.9 x 10-6
Iron 12 x 10-6
Platinum 9.0 x 10-6 Figure C: Increase of area in thermal expansion
Fused quartz 0.5 x 10-6 Remember that area = length x width
Silicon 2.4 x 10-6 ∆𝐴 = 𝑎𝑜 ∆𝑏 + 𝑏𝑜 ∆ + ∆𝑎∆𝑏 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2)
Steel 11 x 10-6 Under linear expansion:
Tungsten 4.4 x 10-6 ∆𝑎 = 𝑎𝑜 ∝ ∆𝑡 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3)
Uranium 15 x 10-6 ∆𝑏 = 𝑏𝑜 ∝ ∆𝑡 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 4)
Area expansion formulas derived from equation 2,3,4:
Example 1: An aluminum bar is 100.000cm long at 20.0°C. What 𝐴𝑜 = 𝑎𝑜 𝑏𝑜
is its increase in length when heated to 34.7°C?
∆𝐴 = 2𝐴𝑜 ∝ ∆𝑡
Known:
Lo = 100.00cm t=34.7°C 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑜 (1 + 2 ∝ ∆𝑡)
∝ = (aluminum) 23x10-6/ C° ∆L=?
Where;
to = 20.00°C
A = is the final area
Solution: Ao= initial area
∆𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 ∝ ∆𝑡 Note: the value of ∝2 can be neglected for practical
= (100.000cm) (23x10-6/ C°) (34.7°C – 20.0°C) temperatures since its value is so small
= (100.000cm) (23x10-6/ C°) (14.0C°)
Example: A copper coin has a surface area of 2.4041cm2 of
∆𝐿 = 0.034𝑐𝑚 25°C. What is its surface area at 60°C?
Known:
Example 2: A steel baseball bat has a length of 86.000cm at Ao=2.4041cm2 t=60°C
25°C. When exposed to direct sunlight, it can lengthen by as ∝ (copper)= 17 x 10-6/C° A=?
much as 0.016cm. How hot is the bat to have such expansion? to=25°C
Known: Solution:
Lo = 86.000cm ∆L=0.016cm
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑜 (1 + 2 ∝ ∆𝑡)
∝ = 11x10-6/ C° t=?
= 2.4041𝑐𝑚2 [1 + 2(17 x 10 − 6/C°)(60℃ − 25℃)]
to = 25°C
= 2.4041𝑐𝑚2 [1 + 2(17 x 10 − 6/C°)(35℃)]
Solution: isolate t from ∆L=Lo∝∆t = 2.4041𝑐𝑚2 (1.00119)
∆𝐿 𝐴 = 2. 4070𝑐𝑚2
∆𝑡 = + 𝑡𝑜
𝐿𝑜 ∝
𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜 =
∆𝐿 Volume Expansion
𝐿𝑜 ∝ Applicable to liquids and gases but also to solid materials.
∆𝐿  In volume expansion, the volume expansivity (β) of a
𝑡= + 𝑡𝑜
𝐿𝑜 ∝ material is the change in volume per unit volume per
0.016𝑐𝑚 degree rise in temperature
𝑡= + 25∁°
(86.000𝑐𝑚)(11x10−6 / 𝐶°) ∆𝑉
𝑡 = 17∁° + 25°∁ change C° to °C since the value is no longer 𝛽=
𝑉𝑜∆𝑡
a change in temperature ∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜𝛽∆𝑡
𝑡 = 42°∁  Since 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 + ∆𝑉, the final volume is
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑜𝛽∆𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜(1 + 𝛽∆𝑡)
 For solid materials, 𝛽 = 3 ∝

Volume Expansivities of Liquids

Liquid 𝛽, 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐶°
Alcohol 1.0 x 10-3
Mercury 1.8 x 10-4
Water (15-100°) 3.7 x 10-4
Gasoline 9.6 x 10-4

Note: We are only including the change in size, not the change
of phase or state.
Example: A cup contains 500.00ml of water. Assuming the cup Charles’ Law (Volume-Temperature
does not expand, what is the decrease of volume of water when Relationship)
it is cooled to 20°C?
 Jacques Charles (1746-1823) found the relationship
between the temperature and the volume of the gas at
constant pressure.
 At constant pressure, all gases expand the same amount
at given temperature change.

Charles’ law under constant pressure, the volume of a gas varies

directly with its kelvin temperature. Volume is directly
proportional to temperature. Note: if the known value is in
Known: Celsius or Fahrenheit, you convert it to kelvin unit. T=absolute
Vo=500.00ml to=70°C ∆V=? temperature with Kelvin unit
β (water)= 3.7 x 10-4/C° t=20°C
Solution: 𝑉1 𝑉2
= → 𝑣 ↓= 𝑡 ↓ 𝑣 ↑= 𝑡 ↑
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜𝛽∆𝑡 𝑇1 𝑇2
=500.00ml(3.7 x 10-4/C°)(20°C – 70°C)
=500.00ml(3.7 x 10-4/C°)(-50C°) 𝑉∝𝑇
∆𝑉 = −9.25𝑚𝑙 Negative sign means decrease in volume 𝑉 = 𝑘𝑇

5 Expansion of a Gas: The Gas Laws

Boyle’s Law (Pressure-Volume Relationship)
Consider a person pushing the piston of gas-filled cylinder at
constant temperature as shown below.

When exposed to heat, gas particles absorb heat energy and

they change it into kinetic energy, making them more agile. Gas
particles move randomly at a faster rate, colliding with the piston
with more force. The gas particles will push the piston upwards,
increasing the volume.
The direction of the applied force forces the confined gas to
compress. This results in the increase in the internal pressure. Example: A volume of 22.0m3 of nitrogen gas at 234K is heated
 Gas particles are forces to compress. under constant pressure to 440K. What is the new volume of the
 Pressure – if you compress, the particles are vibrating nitrogen gas?
randomly, bumping into each other. Known:
 There will be an increase in pressure if you decrease V1=22.0m3 V2=?
the volume. T1=293K T2=440K

Boyle’s law States that, at constant temperature, the volume Solution:

𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
occupied by a gas varies inversely with the applied pressure. =
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
1
Therefore, 𝑉 ∝ 22.0𝑚3 𝑉2
𝑃 = = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦
 𝑣 ↓= 𝑝 ↑ 𝑣 ↑= 𝑝 ↓ Inversely proportional 293𝐾 440𝐾
= 293𝐾(𝑉2 ) = 9680𝑚3 𝐾 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉2
Boyle’s Law: 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑉2 = 33.0𝑚3
Example: Under a pressure of 2x105N/m2, a confined gas has a
volume of 2.6m3. The pressure acting on the gas in increased to
5x105N/m2. The temperature of the gas remains unchanged.
What is the new volume of the gas?
Known:
P1=2x105N/m2 P2=5x105N/m2
V1=2.6m3 V2=?
Solution:
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑉2 =
𝑃2
(2x105N⁄m2)(2.6𝑚3 )
𝑉2 =
5x105N⁄m2
𝑉2 = 1.0𝑚3
Gay Lussac’s Law (Pressure-Temperature General Gas Law
Relationship) By combining two of the three previously discussed gas laws, an
equation can be derived which related to pressure, temperature,
Joseph Gay-Lussac (1778-1850) discovered the relationship and volume of a confined gas.
between the pressure of a gas and its absolute temperature.
 More general because if the system doesn’t maintain a
 Volume is constant
constant temperature, volume, or temperature, use the
 When the temperature of a sample gas in a rigid general gas law.
container (volume is constant) is increased, the pressure
of the gas increases as well. Deriving the Gas Law
o The increase in kinetic energy results in the
molecules of the gas striking the walls of the
contained with more force, resulting in a
greater pressure.

 There is transformation of energy: heat energy

converted to kinetic energy.
o The more heat, the more agitated the
particles are, the more force they exert on the
wall of the container.

Gay-Lussac’s law states that pressure of a given mass of gas

varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas, when 4) Substitute eq.1 in eq.2
the volume is kept constant. 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑇1
=
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃2 𝑇2
= → 𝑉 ↓= 𝑇 ↓ 𝑉 ↑= 𝑇 ↑
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2 = 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑇1 cross multiply

 It is similar to Charles’ law, they only differ in the type 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑇1

= All subscript 1 must be on left.
of container. In Charles’ law, the container is flexible 𝑇1 𝑇1
while in Gay-Lussac’s law the container is rigid. 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2 All subscript 2 must be on the right
Example: The gas in an aerosol can is under a pressure of = 𝑃2 𝑉2
3.00atm at 298K. It is dangerous to dispose of an aerosol can 𝑇1
by incineration. What would the pressure in the aerosol can be 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑉2
at a temperature of 1118K? =
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇2
Known:
P1=3.00atm P2=? 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
T1=298K T2=1118K = 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤
𝑇1 𝑇2
Solution:
𝑃1 𝑃 *Express the equation in this format. Do not interchange the
𝑇1
= 𝑇2
2
3.00𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑃2 format.
= = Example: 20L of gas are kept under a pressure of 1atm at a
298𝐾 1118𝐾
= 298𝐾(𝑃2 ) = 3354.00𝑎𝑡𝑚𝐾 temperature of 273K. The gas temperature is lowered to 91K.
𝑃2 = 11.26𝑎𝑡𝑚 The pressure is increased to 1.5atm. What is the new volume?
Known:
P1=1atm T1=273K V1=20L
P2=1.5atm T2=91K V2=?
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
Solution: 𝑇 = 𝑇
1 2
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2 = 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑇1
𝑃 𝑉 𝑇 (1𝑎𝑡𝑚)(20𝐿)(91𝐾)
𝑉2 = 1𝑃 1𝑇 2 = (1.5𝑎𝑡𝑚)(273𝐾)
2 1
𝑉2 = 4𝐿
 o They
The Ideal Gas Law
Expresses the relationship between the pressure, the Kelvin
temperature, the volume, and the number of moles of an ideal
gas.
 Ideal gas – idealized model for real gases. Ideal gas
actually doesn’t exist. It is just a hypothetical gas. Its
value is assumed.
o Real gases (e.g. oxygen, nitrogen, carbon considered protons but not electrons before.
dioxide, etc.) behave according to this model
if their densities are sufficiently low.
o Condition of low density means that the  The higher the number the electrons that passes the
molecules of the gas are so far apart that point at a given time, the higher or bigger is the
they do not interact (except for collisions that current.
are effectively elastic).
Resistance – a material’s tendency to resist the flow of charges
The ideal gas law states that the absolute pressure P of an ideal (current).
gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature T and the  Atoms resist the flow of electric charges
number of moles n of the gas and is inversely proportional to the
volume V of the gas: The relationship of current (ampere), voltage, and resistance
𝑛𝑇
𝑃 =𝑅( )
𝑉
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑘𝑃𝑎𝐿
Where 𝑅 = 8.317 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐾 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Example: At what temperature will 0.508moles of oxygen gas

occupy 10L at 100kPa?
PV=nRT
𝑃𝑉 (100𝑘𝑃𝑎)(10𝐿)
𝑇 = 𝑛𝑅 = 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝐿
(0.508𝑚𝑜𝑙)8.317
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐾
𝑇 = 237𝐾

Ohm tries to resist the movement of ampere. While voltage is

pushing ampere to move forward.
6 Electricity A circuit is a closed loop that allows charge to move from one
It is the flow of electric charge. place to another
 Example of electric charge: electron. If there is a
transfer of electron, then there is electricity.
o There is movement of electron from one
place to another
Ohm’s Law
George Simon Ohm (1787-1854) discovered that the ratio of
the potential difference (or voltage) between the ends of the
wire and the current flowing through the wire is a constant.
 This ratio is known as the resistance of the wire.
 It is constant for any given wire

Ohm’s Law, states that the current that flows through a given
wire varies directly with the applied voltage. Example: What current flows between a potential difference of
𝑣 12 volts through a resistance of 3ohms?
𝑖= Known: V=12volts
𝑅
Where: i in ampere (A) R=3ohms
v in volt (v) I=?
R in ohm (Ω) Solution:
𝑣
𝑖=
Voltage – is the difference in charge between two points. 𝑅
 It pushes charge electrons (current) through a 12𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑖=
conducting loop, enabling them to do work such as 3𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
illuminating a light. 𝑖 = 4𝐴
Electric Power
Current – the rate at which charge is flowing. When there is a current i in a circuit as a result of a voltage v,
 rate is associated with time the electric power P delivered to the circuit is
 Conventional current- considers a charge flowing 𝑃 = 𝑖𝑉
from positive to negative. It is actually wrong but SI Unit of Power: watt (W)
commonly used because equations that uses
conventional current will also arrive at the same Example: In the flashlight, the current is 0.4A, and the voltage is
answer. 3.0V. Find (a) the power delivered to the bulb and (b) the
energy dissipated in the bulb in 5.5 mins of operation.
Known: i=0.4A P=?
V=3.0V E=?
Solution
 a) P=iv = (0.4A)93.0V) 3. A train moving at a speed of 15m/s is accelerated
𝑝 = 1.2𝑤 uniformly to 45m/s over a 12s period. What is its
60𝑠 acceleration?
b) 5.5𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑥 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 330.0𝑠 𝑡 = 330.0𝑠 4. A car is uniformly accelerated at the rate of 2.5m/s2
𝐸 = 𝑃𝑇 for 12s. If the original speed of the car is 8.0m/s, what
𝐸 = (1.2𝑊)(330.0𝑠) is its final speed?
E = 396.0J 5. A plane flying at the speed of 150m/s is accelerated
uniformly at a rate of 5m/s2
*If you convert watt to kilo and time to hr, it will be kilowatt a. What is the plane’s speed at the end of 10s?
hour (kWh) b. What distance has it traveled?
6. Convert 57°C to Fahrenheit
7. Convert 243°F to Celsius
8. [Boyle’s Law] What pressure is required to compress
Resistivity 196.0L of air into a cylinder whose volume is 26.0L?
The electrical resistance of a wire would be expected to be: 9. A 40.0 L tank of ammonia has a pressure of 12.7 kPa.
 Greater for a longer wire Calculate the volume of the ammonia if its pressure is
 Less for a wire of larger cross-sectional area changed to 8.4 kPa while its temperature remains
 Material of which the wire is made constant.
Resistance can be expressed as: 10. [Charles’ Law) A container containing 5.00 L of a gas is
𝐿 collected at 100 K and then allowed to expand to 20.0
𝑅=𝜌 L. What must the new temperature be in order to
𝐴
Where: maintain the same pressure?
ρ = resistivity 11. A gas occupies 900.0 mL at a temperature of 27.0 °C.
L = length What is the volume at 132.0 °C?
A = cross sectional area 12. [Gay-Lussac] The pressure of a gas in a tank is
R = resistivity 324.24kPa at 295.0K. Determine the gas pressure if
the temperature is raised to 333.0K.
 Resistivity – kind of the material (aluminum, iron, etc.) 13. A gas in a sealed container has a pressure of 125.0kPa
at 30.0°C. Determine the temperature in the container
 Length – length of the wire if the pressure is increased to 201.0kPa
 A – cross-sectional area of the wire 14. [Combined] A gas at 110.0kPa and 30.0°C fills a
flexible container with an initial volume of2.00L. If the
Demo: If the bulb is dim, the resistance is high. If bright, the temperature is raised to 80.0°C and the pressure
resistance is low. increased to 440.0kPa, what is the new volume?
 Length: The bulb gets dimmer when the wire is longer 15. A gas balloon has a volume of 106.0 liters when the
o The longer the wire, the greater the temperature is 45.0 °C and the pressure is 740.0 mm
resistance; the dimmer the light of the bulb. of mercury. What will its volume be at 20.0 °C and 780
o The shorter the length, the lesser resistance, .0 mm of mercury pressure?
the brighter the light of the bulb. 16. [Ideal] Determine the number of moles of gas in a 3.00L
 Cross-sectional area: it is the thickness of the wire container at 300.0K and a pressure of 1.50atm
o The longer the diameter, the bigger cross- 17. What is the current of a circuit with a voltage of 12V
sectional area and a total resistance of 5Ω?
o Thin wire: dimmer light, higher resistance 18. What is the resistance in a circuit with a voltage of 50V
o Thick wire: brighter light, lower resistance and a current of 8A?
 Resistivity: material 19. An electrical circuit has a current of 13A and 26Ω of
o Good conductors are slow to resist electron resistance. What is the voltage?
flow 20. A current of 0.5 A flows through a lamp when it is
connected to a 120.0-volt source.
The resistivity of a material depends on temperature. In metals, (a) What is the resistance of the lamp?
the resistivity increases with increasing temperature. (b) What is the wattage of the lamp?
 Atoms will absorb the heat energy which will we (c) How much electric energy does the lamp use in 10.0
converted to kinetic energy (or energy in motion). The minutes?
atoms will vibrate more, thereby occupying a large
space. Electron flow will have difficulty transferring
from one point to another.
 If you increase the temperature of the wire, the
resistivity also increases.

Exercises
I.Find the resultant force of the following system of forces:
1. ⃑⃑⃑
𝐹1 = 3.4𝑁, 45°
⃑⃑⃑
𝐹2 = 5.0𝑁, 95°
2. ⃑⃑⃑
𝐹1 = 6.5𝑁, 0°
⃑⃑⃑
𝐹2 = 2.6𝑁, 55°
⃑⃑⃑
𝐹3 = 4.0𝑁, 250°
II.Answer the following problems:
1. A motorist travels 406km during a 7.0hr period. What
was the average speed in km/h and m/s?
2. A bullet is shot from a rifle with a speed of 720.0m/s.
a. What time is required for the bullet to strike a
target 3240.0m away?
b. What is the velocity of the bullet in km/hr?
 LIST OF FORMULAS
Kinematics in One Direction
𝑠 Average speed or velocity
𝑣̅ =
𝑡
𝑠 Average speed or velocity ,
𝑣=
𝑡 uniform speed or velocity
Δ𝑣 Acceleration
𝑎= 𝑜𝑟 𝑎
t
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜
=
𝑡
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡 Final speed after uniform
acceleration
𝑠 = 𝑣̅ 𝑡 Distance traveled during uniform
1 acceleration
𝑠 = (𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑓)𝑡
2
1 Distance traveled during uniform
𝑠 = 𝑉𝑜𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 acceleration
2
*use if no Vf
2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉𝑓 2 − 𝑉𝑜2 Distance traveled during uniform
or acceleration
𝑠 *use if no t
1
= (𝑉𝑓 2 − 𝑉𝑜2 )
2𝑎
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜 Distance traveled during uniform
𝑡= acceleration
𝑎
Unknown: t
Freely Falling bodies
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑔𝑡
1
𝑦 = (𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑓)𝑡
2
1
𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2
2𝑔𝑦 = 𝑉𝑓 2 − 𝑉𝑜2
Temperature
5 F to C
℃ = (℉ − 32°)
9
9 C to F
℉ = ℃ + 32°
5
K=°C+273 Kelvin Conversion
Thermal expansion
∆𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 ∝ ∆𝑡 Change in length
𝐿 Final length
= 𝐿𝑜(1+
∝ ∆𝑡)
∆𝐿 Unknown: temperature
𝑡= + 𝑡𝑜
𝐿𝑜 ∝
Area Expansion
𝐴𝑜 = 𝑎𝑜 𝑏𝑜 Initial Area
∆𝐴 = 2𝐴𝑜 ∝ ∆𝑡 Change in area
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑜 (1 + 2 Final area
∝ ∆𝑡)
Volume Expansion
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜𝛽∆𝑡 Change in volume
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜(1 + 𝛽∆𝑡) Final Volume
𝛽=3∝ Volume for solid materials