Lecture (4)

Computer Hardware Requirements for

Real-Time Applications
Prof. Kasim M. Al-Aubidy
Computer Engineering Department
Philadelphia University

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Lecture Outline:
 Features of microcomputers and microcontrollers.
 Standard interfacing techniques.
 Digital input/output interface.
 Analog input/output interface.
 Pulse input/output interface.
 Data acquisition system design.
 Management of data acquisition system.

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Microcomputers & Microcontrollers:
• General purpose microprocessors include the Intel xx86 series, Motorola 680xx
series, National 32xxx series, and the Zilog Z8000 series.
• The ALU together with control unit and the general purpose registers make up the
CPU.
• The CPU, memory and input/output units represent a microcomputer. The CPU in
a single chip microcomputer or a microcomputer board is called microprocessor.

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Computer Architecture:
1. The Von Neumann System.
2. The Harvard System.

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General-Purpose Computer :
1. CPU : Features :
– Word length. - Instruction set .
– Addressing methods. - No. of registers.
– Information transfer rates. - Interrupt structure.
2. Storage:
– RAM, ROM, EPROM and auxiliary storage unit .
– DMA for fast I/O information transfer.
3. Input and Output:
– Process I/O
– Operator I/O
– Computer I/O
4. Bus structure:
– Mechanical (physical) structure
– Electrical
– Functional

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Specialized Computers:
• Specialized processors have been developed for two main purposes:
– Safety-critical applications.
– Increased computation speed .
• For safety-critical applications , use RISC computers.
• The advantage of simplifying the instruction set is:
1. The possibility of formal verification (using math. proofs) that the logic of
the processor is correct.
2. It is easier to write assemblers and compilers for simple instruction set.
• Many different forms of parallel computer architecture have been used SIMD,
MISD, and MIMD .
• Digital signal processors .

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Single Chip Microcontrollers:
• Small amount of RAM and EPROM , it can be extended .
• Instruction set .
• DAC and ADC
• Interrupt structure
• I/O lines .
• Timers.

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Microcontroller Selection:

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The PIC16F84 Microcontroller:
• The 16F84A architecture is representative of all 16 Series microcontrollers, with
Harvard structure, pipelining and a RISC instruction set.
• The PIC 16F84A has a limited set of peripherals, chosen for small and low-cost
applications. It is thus a smaller member of the family, with features that are a
subset of any of the larger ones.
• A particular type of memory location is the Special Function Register, which
acts as the link between the CPU and the peripherals.
• Reset mechanisms ensure that the CPU starts running when the appropriate
operating conditions have been met, and can be used to restart the CPU in case
of program failure.
• The parallel port allows ready exchange of digital data between the outside
world and the controller CPU.
• It is important to understand the electrical characteristics of the parallel port and
how they interact with external elements.
• A microcontroller needs a clock signal in order to operate. The characteristics of
the clock oscillator determine speed of operation and timing stability, and
strongly influence power consumption.
• Interrupts and counter/timers are important hardware features of almost all
microcontrollers. They both carry a number of important hardware and software
concepts, which must be understood.

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Communications:

• Level (1): parallel analog/digital transmission (High speed, frequent transfer)

• Level(2): Asynchronous direct or synchronous network (Medium speed)
• Level (3): Synchronous (High speed , intermittent)
• At high levels, it is more usual to use serial communication methods due to the
distances between computers (few hundred meters).
• At plant level , parallel analog and digital signal transmission techniques are
involved, since the distances are small.
• Serial communication techniques can be characterized in several ways:
1. Mode: Synchronous and Asynchronous .
2. Quantity: Character by character and block .
3. Distance: Local and remote (Wide area).
4. Code: ASCII and others.
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Process Related Interface:
• Instruments and actuators connected to
the plant can take a wide variety of
forms; they may be used for measuring
a variable, they could be used to
control an actuator.
• There is a need to convert a digital
quantity to a physical quantity, or an
analog signal generated from a sensor
into a digital quantity.
• Most devices can be allocated to one of
the following categories;
1. Digital quantities.
2. Analog quantities.
3. Pulses and pulse rates.
4. Telemetry.

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SENSORS USED IN RT SYSTEMS:
• A sensor is a device that outputs a signal which is related to the measurement of
a physical quantity such as temperature, speed, force, pressure, displacement,
acceleration, torque, flow, light or sound.
• Sensors are used in RT systems in the feedback loops, and they provide
information about the actual output of a plant. For example, a speed sensor gives
a signal proportional to the speed of a motor.
• Sensors can be classified as analog or digital;
– Analog sensors are more widely available, and their outputs are analog
voltages. For example, the output of an analog temperature sensor may be a
voltage proportional to the measured temperature. Analog sensors can only
be connected to a computer by using an A/D converter.
– Digital sensors are not very common and they have logic level outputs
which can directly be connected to a computer input port.
• The choice of a sensor for a particular application depends on many factors such
as the cost, reliability, required accuracy, resolution, range and linearity of the
sensor.

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The choice of a sensor:
• Range: The range of a sensor specifies the upper and lower limits of the
measured variable for which a measurement can be made. For example, if the
range of a temperature sensor is specified as 10–60 ◦C then the sensor should
only be used to measure temperatures within that range.
• Resolution: The resolution of a sensor is specified as the largest change in
measured value that will not result in a change in the sensor’s output, i.e. the
measured value can change by the amount quoted by the resolution before this
change can be detected by the sensor. In general, the smaller this amount the
better the sensor is, and sensors with a wide range have less resolution. For
example, a temperature sensor with a resolution of 0.001K is better than a sensor
with a resolution of 0.1 K.
• Repeatability: The repeatability of a sensor is the variation of output values that
can be expected when the sensor measures the same physical quantity several
times. For example, if the voltage across a resistor is measured at the same time
several times we may get slightly different results.
• Linearity: An ideal sensor is expected to have a linear transfer function, i.e. the
sensor output is expected to be exactly proportional to the measured value.
However, in practice all sensors exhibit some amount of nonlinearity depending
upon the manufacturing tolerances and the measurement conditions.
• Dynamic response: The dynamic response of a sensor specifies the limits of the
sensor characteristics when the sensor is subject to a sinusoidal frequency
change. For example, the dynamic response of a microphone may be expressed in
terms of the 3-dB bandwidth ofProf.
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its Kasim
frequency response.
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Analog Input/Output Interfacing:

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Pulse Input/Output Interfacing:
- Reading sequence of pulses generated from a sensor.
- Reading the width of a pulse width modulated signal.
- Generating number of pulses with fixed frequency.
- Generating a controllable pulse width modulated signal.
 Several design circuits will be considered during lecture.

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Example:
Simple Robot System: Hardware interfacing with an 8-bit microcontroller.

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Example:
Four-digit display unit design.

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Example:
LCD interfacing with an 8-bit microcontroller.

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Data Acquisition System Design:

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DAS: Software Design:
- Using flowchart.
- Writing an assembly program.
- Different sampling rates.
- Selecting the suitable sampling
frequency.
- Task execution time.
- Dealing with interrupts.
- Memory management.

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