UCS505

Computer Graphics

Fundamentals of Computer
Graphics
Dr Tarunpreet Bhatia
Assistant Professor
CSED, TIET, Patiala
Fundamentals of Computer Graphics

• Evolution of Computer Graphics

• Input -Output Devices
• Video Display Devices
• Raster-Scan System
• Random-Scan Systems
 History of Computer
Graphics
• First Generation (1951 - 1959)
– UNIVAC (1951) (Universal automatic computer)
• Data was displayed on printers or hardcopy plotters
• Computers were “number crunchers”; hardware was expensive!
• First computer-driven display (Late 50s and early 60s)
– attached to MIT’s Whirlwind I computer
– display was CRT similar to one used in TV sets
 .
.
• SAGE air-defense system (mid 50s) used command & control CRT
• used CRT display consoles on which operators identified targets with
light pens
• Beginnings of modern interactive graphics attributed to Ivan Sutherland’s
doctoral work
 presented work at Spring Joint Computer conference in 1963.
 developed the Sketchpad drawing system.
 the system included interactive techniques that used the keyboard and light pen for
making choices, pointing, and drawing
 the film showed Sutherland sketching a bolt on the screen.
• He formulated the ideas of
– display primitives (lines, polygons, arcs, characters)
– constraints on primitives
– developed algorithms for dragging, transforming(rotating, scaling, translating)
– introduced data structures for storing hierarchies built up via easy
replication of standard components

• He is considered to be the founder of the computer graphics field

• Because of his work, CAD & CAM became attractive
• By the mid-sixties, much research was being done
 Computer Graphics of 60’s
• large scale, expensive computing resources needed
• About 1965, IBM brought out the first widely available interactive computer
graphics terminal
 vector graphics display
 sold for more than $100,000
 only elite designers could use the display system
 More developments
•The next landmark was a special type of CRT produced by Tektronix - the
direct-view storage tube (DVST)
• Introduced in 1968
 complete with keyboard, mouse, simple computer interface for $15,000
 made interactive computer graphics affordable
 Where did graphics go next?
•By late 60’s many researchers were concerned with dynamic graphics.
• Realistic flight simulation applications were needed to make them realistic,
solid colored surfaces were needed (not wireframe)
• TV raster displays were used to create such images
• Systems built by GE for NASA were probably the earliest examples of such
displays
 Where did graphics go next?
•Xerox Palo Alto Research Center designed a new graphics based personal
minicomputer called the Alto
• Design was based on:
 cost of computing falling - every “knowledge worker” should have a personal
computer
 Alto computers should be connected for communication & resource sharing
 interface between user & computer should be graphical
 graphics display should be based on raster-graphics technology – a very bold idea
 More hardware developments
• PC’s in the 80’s
 costs decrease drastically
 built-in raster displays
 bitmap graphics used
 Software developments
• Sketchpad graphics
• Early days software was non transportable at the assembly language level
• Push in 70’s for high-level, machine- and device-independent graphics subroutine packages
•The awareness of the need for standards culminated in
 specification of the 3D Core Graphics System
 produced by an ACM SIGGRAPH Committee in late 70’s
 used as input to official standards projects within both ANSI and ISO
• First graphics standard was GKS (1985)
 like Core but 2D
• PHIGS (Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System) was a 3D extension of GKS
became an ANSI standard in 1988
 More Software
• OpenGL was introduced by SGI in 1992
 OpenGL is the “Assembler Language” of Computer Graphics
 has portable, interactive 2D and 3D graphics applications
 low-level, vendor-neutral software interface
 broad platform accessibility in the industry

•Sun formally announced Java in 1995

 Developed by James Gosling (originally called Oak)
 Considered to be a software development platform

• Includes graphics & windowing capabilities

 Java AWT (Abstract Windowing Toolkit)
 Java 2D
 Java 3D
 Input and Output Devices
• Do you ever wonder how information gets in your computer and
how comes out in a form you can use? So, It is only possible with
the help of Devices.
 What is Devices?
• It can be defined as the components or peripherals which are
attached to the computer to enter the data and get the desired
result.
• Examples:-
Monitor, Keyboard, Mouse, Printer etc.

• Type of Devices:
Input Device
Output Devices
 Input Devices
• It is an Electromechanical Device that can be used to enter data
and instructions to the computer
 Output Devices
• Output Devices are used to receive information from the computer
either in Softcopy or Hard Copy
 Output Devices
•Monitor was invented in 1897 By Karl Ferdinand Braun.
•A computer monitor or a computer display is an electronic
visual display for computers.
•A computer monitor is an electronic device that shows
pictures for computers. Monitors often look similar to
televisions.
 .
Video Display Devices

• A Video display device is an output device for presentation of information

in visual way.
• When the input information is supplied as an electrical signal, the display is
called an electronic display.
• Common applications for electronic visual displays are televisions or
computer monitors.
• Different types of Video display devices are Cathode Ray Tube, Raster
Scan displays, Random Scan displays, Color CRT-monitors, Direct View
Storage Tube, Flat-Panel Displays, Light-emitting Diode (LED), Liquid-
crystal Displays (LCDs)
 .
Video Display Devices
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

Figure 1: Basic design of a magnetic-deflection CRT

 .
Video Display Devices
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
 Invented by Karl Ferdinand Braun(1897).
 Convert electrical signals to visual signals.
 Beam of electrons directed from cathode(-) to phosphor-coated
(fluorescent) screen (anode(+)).
 Directed by magnetic focusing and deflection coils(anodes) in vacuum
filled tube.
 Phosphor emits photon of light, when hit by an electron, of varied
persistence (long 15-20 ms for texts/short <1 ms for animation)
 Phosphors are organic compounds characterized by their persistence and
their color (blue, red, green).
Figure 2 Operation of an electron gun
with an accelerating anode.
Figure 3 Electrostatic deflection of
the electron beam in a CRT.
 Video Display Devices

Characteristics of Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Intensity: It is proportional to the number of electrons repelled in beam per
second (brightness).
 Resolution: It is the maximum number of points that can be displayed
without overlap. It is expressed as number of horizontal points by number
of vertical points. These points are called pixels (picture elements).
Example: resolution 1024 x 768 pixels. Typical resolution is 1280 x 1024
pixels.
 High-definition systems means high resolution systems.
 .
Video Display Devices
Characteristics of Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

Figure 4: Resolution
 .
Video Display Devices
Related Terms
 Fluorescence: It is the light emitted as electrons lose their excess energy
while the Phosphor is being struck by electrons.
 Phosphorescence: It is the light given off by the return of the relatively
more stable excited electrons to their unexcited state, once the electron
beam excitation is removed.
 Persistence: Time from the removal of the excitation to the moment when
Phosphorescence has decayed to 10% of the Initial Light Output.
 Video Display Devices
Categories Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 .
Video Display Devices
Brands of CRT

Figure 5: CRT Brands

 Raster Scan System
 In raster scan approach, the viewing screen is divided into a large number
of discrete phosphor picture elements, called pixels/dots.
 Pixel: One dot or picture element of the Raster.
 Scan Line: A row of pixels

Figure 6: Example of Pixel

 Raster Scan System

Figure 7: Image of Raster Scan System

Raster Scan System
Raster Scan System
 Raster Scan System
• The electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time from top to
bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is
turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots.
• Each pixel on the screen can be made to glow with a different brightness.
• Color screen provide for the pixels to have different colors as well as
brightness.
• Picture Definition is stored in a memory area called the Refresh Buffer or
Frame Buffer.
• This memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points.
• Stored intensity values are then retrieved from there fresh buffer and
"painted“ on the screen one row (scan line) at a time.
 Raster Scan System

A raster-scan system displays an object as a set of discrete points across each scan line.
Interlaced scan
 Raster Scan System

• In addition to the Central Processing Unit (CPU), a special processor, called the
Video Controller or Display Controller, is used to control the operation of the
Display Device.
• A fixed area of the system memory is reserved for the frame buffer, and the video
controller is given direct access to the frame buffer memory.
• Frame buffer locations and the corresponding screen positions are referenced in
Cartesian coordinates.
• The coordinate origin is defined at the lower left screen corner.
• The screen surface is represented as the first quadrant of a 2D system, with positive
x values increasing to the right and positive y values increasing from bottom to top.
• Scan lines are labeled from ymax at the top of the screen to 0 at the bottom.
• Along each scan line, screen pixel positions are labeled from 0 to xmax.
Architecture of a simple raster-
graphics system
Architecture of a raster system with a fixed portion of
the system memory reserved for the frame buffer
Cartesian reference frame with origin
at the lower-left corner of a video
monitor
Basic video-controller refresh operations
 Raster Scan System
 Other Operations performed by Video Controller are:
• It can retrieve pixel intensities from different memory areas on different
cycles
• In high quality systems, two frame buffers are often provided so that one
buffer can be used for refreshing and other filled with intensity values.
Provide the fast mechanism for generating real time animation.
• Video controllers often contain a lookup table, so that pixel value in the
frame buffer are used to access the lookup table instead of controlling the
CRT beam intensity directly. This provides a fast method for changing
screen intensity values.
Architecture of a raster-graphics
system with a display processor.
A character defined as a rectangular
grid of pixel positions
A character defined as an outline
shape
 Random Scan System
• When operated as a random-scan display unit, a CRT has the
electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where a
picture is to be drawn.
• Random-scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time and for
this reason are also referred to as vector/stroke-
writing/calligraphic displays.
 Random Scan System
• Refresh rate on a random scan system depends on the number of lines to be
displayed.
• Picture definition is now stored as a set of line drawing commands in an
area of memory referred to as the refresh display file.
• Random scan systems are designed for line drawing applications and can
not display realistic shaded scenes.
• Since picture definition is stored as a set of line drawing instructions and
not as a set of intensity values for all screen points, vector displays
generally have higher resolution than raster systems.
 .

Random Scan System

The component lines of a picture can be drawn and refreshed.

Figure : Random Scan System

 .

Random Scan System

Figure : Random Scan System’s Architecture

• An application program is input and stored in the system memory along with
a graphics package.
• Graphics commands in the application program are translated by the graphics
package into a display file stored in the system memory.
• This display file is then accessed by the display processor to refresh the
screen.
• The display processor cycles through each command in the display file
program once during every refresh cycle.
• The display processor is also referred to as a display processing unit or a
graphics controller.
• Graphics patterns are drawn on a random-scan system by directing the
electron beam along the component lines of the picture.
• Lines are defined by the values for their coordinate endpoints and these points
are converted to x and y deflection voltages.
• A scene is then drawn one line at a time by positioning the beam to fill in the
line between specified endpoints.
 .

Random Scan System

Random Scan Displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture 30 to 60 times
each second.

Figure : Random Scan System’s Display

 .

Raster v/s Random Scan System

Difference Raster Scan System Random Scan System
Resolution It has poor or less Resolution because It has High Resolution because it
picture definition is stored as a intensity stores picture definition as a set of
value. line commands.

Electron Beam It is directed from top to bottom and one It is directed to only that part of
row at a time on screen, but electron screen where picture is required to be
beam is directed to whole screen. drawn, one line at a time so also
called Vector Display.

Cost It is less expensive It is Costlier than Raster Scan

System.
Refresh Rate Refresh rate is 60 to 80 frame per Refresh Rate depends on the number
second. of
lines to be displayed i.e 30 to 60/sec
 .

Raster v/s Random Scan System

Difference Raster Scan System Random Scan System
Picture It stores picture definition in Refresh It stores picture definition as a set of
Definition Buffer also called Frame Buffer. line commands called Refresh
Display File.

Line Drawing Zig–Zag line is produced because Smooth line is produced because
plotted value are discrete. directly the line path is followed by
electron beam

Realism in It contains shadow, advance shading It does not contain shadow and
Display and hidden surface technique so gives hidden surface technique so it can
the realistic display of scenes. not give realistic display of scenes.

Image It uses Pixels along scan lines for It is designed for line drawing
Drawing drawing an image. applications and uses various
mathematical function to draw.
Raster v/s Random Scan System

Figure : Raster v/s Random Scan image

Color CRT Monitors: Beam-penetration
method
• In this method, the CRT screen is coated with two layers of
phosphor, red and green and the displayed color depends
on how far the electron beam penetrates the phosphor
layers.
• The speed of electrons, and hence the screen color is
controlled by the beam-acceleration voltage.
• Advantages:
– Inexpensive
• Disadvantages:
– Only four colors are possible: red, green, orange and yellow.
– Quality of pictures is not as good as with another method.
 Color CRT Monitors: Shadow mask
• Shadow Mask Method is commonly used in Raster-Scan System because they
produce a much wider range of colors than the beam-penetration method.
• A shadow mask CRT has 3 phosphor color dots at each pixel position.
• This type of CRT has 3 electron guns, one for each color dot and a shadow mask
grid just behind the phosphor coated screen. Shadow mask grid is pierced with
small round holes in a triangular pattern.
• The deflection system of the CRT operates on all 3 electron beams simultaneously;
the 3 electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask,
which contains a sequence of holes aligned with the phosphor-dot patterns.
• When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a
dotted triangle, which occurs as a small color spot on the screen.
• We obtain a color variation by varying intensity levels of 3 electron beams.
• Advantage:
– Realistic image
– Million different colors to be generated
• Disadvantage:
– Relatively expensive compared with the monochrome CRT.
– Relatively poor resolution
Operation of shadow-mask CRT