CAPE PURE

MATHΣMATICS
UNIT 1

1 0
( )
0 1
Video Solutions are available at 0

sirhunte.teachable.com
Table of Contents
MODULE ONE: ALGEBRA, RELATIONS and FUNCTIONS............................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER 1: INEQUALITIES ..............................................................................................................5
QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES..................................................................................................................................... 5
RATIONAL INEQUALITIES........................................................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER 2: THE DISCRIMINANT ......................................................................................................9
CALCULATING THE DISCRIMINANT ........................................................................................................................ 9
THE DISCRIMINANT AND DISTINCT REAL ROOTS................................................................................................... 9
THE DISCRIMINANT AND EQUAL ROOTS ............................................................................................................. 10
THE DISCRIMINANT AND NO REAL ROOTS .......................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 3: SURDS ....................................................................................................................... 12
PROPERTIES OF SURDS ......................................................................................................................................... 12
SURD SIMPLIFICATION ......................................................................................................................................... 12
FRACTIONS INVOLVING SURDS ............................................................................................................................ 13
CHAPTER 4: LAWS OF INDICES ....................................................................................................... 15
MULTIPLICATION .................................................................................................................................................. 15
DIVISION ............................................................................................................................................................... 15
RAISING A POWER TO A POWER .......................................................................................................................... 15
NEGATIVE INDICES ............................................................................................................................................... 15
ZERO INDEX .......................................................................................................................................................... 16
FRACTIONAL INDICES ........................................................................................................................................... 16
FURTHER LESSONS ............................................................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER 5: DISGUISED QUADRATIC EQUATIONS........................................................................... 18
CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................ 20
DEFINITION OF A FUNCTION ................................................................................................................................ 20
REPRESENTING A FUNCTION................................................................................................................................ 20
MAPPING DIAGRAMS ....................................................................................................................................... 20
ORDERED PAIRS................................................................................................................................................ 21
EQUATIONS ...................................................................................................................................................... 21
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................................... 21
THE VERTICAL LINE TEST ...................................................................................................................................... 22
THE RANGE OF A FUNCTION ................................................................................................................................ 22
POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................................ 22
SQUARE ROOT FUNCTIONS .............................................................................................................................. 23
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 23
CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS....................................................................................................................................... 24
INJECTIONS ....................................................................................................................................................... 24
DETERMINING WHETHER A FUNCTION IS ONE –TO – ONE ............................................................................. 24
THE HORIZONTAL LINE TEST ............................................................................................................................ 25
SURJECTIONS .................................................................................................................................................... 26
DETERMINING WHETHER A FUNCTION IS ONTO............................................................................................. 26
BIJECTIONS ....................................................................................................................................................... 26
FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES ....................................................................................................................... 28
ONE – TO – ONE QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS........................................................................................................... 29
PIECE-WISE FUNCTIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 31

1
 CHAPTER 7: POLYNOMIALS ........................................................................................................... 34
SYNTHETIC DIVISION ............................................................................................................................................ 34
REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREM .................................................................................................................. 35
ROOTS OF POLYNOMIALS .................................................................................................................................... 37
CUBIC POLYNOMIALS ....................................................................................................................................... 39
FACTORING POLYNOMIALS .................................................................................................................................. 42
CHAPTER 8: LOGARITHMS ............................................................................................................. 43
PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS.............................................................................................................................. 44
LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS .................................................................................................................................. 44
THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION ............................................................................................................................. 46
THE NATURAL LOGARITHM .................................................................................................................................. 47
LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS .................................................................................................. 47
UNKNOWN INDICES ............................................................................................................................................. 49
CHAPTER 9: MODULUS/ ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION ................................................................... 51
MODULUS EQUATIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 51
MODULUS INEQUALITIES ..................................................................................................................................... 52
GRAPHS OF MODULUS FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................. 54
CHAPTER 10: SEQUENCES, SERIES and MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION............................................... 56
SEQUENCES .......................................................................................................................................................... 56
SERIES ................................................................................................................................................................. 57
SPECIAL SUMMATION FORMULAE............................................................................................................... 59
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 61
PROOF OF SUMMATION................................................................................................................................. 61
PROOF OF DIVISIBILITY ................................................................................................................................ 63
CHAPTER 11: THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM ................................................................................... 65
BINARY OPERATIONS............................................................................................................................................ 65
CAYLEY TABLE....................................................................................................................................................... 65
CLOSURE ............................................................................................................................................................... 65
COMMUTATIVITY ................................................................................................................................................. 65
ASSOCIATIVITY...................................................................................................................................................... 66
IDENTITY AND INVERSE ........................................................................................................................................ 67
DIRECT PROOFS .................................................................................................................................................... 68
CHAPTER 12: REASONING AND LOGIC .......................................................................................... 69
TRUTH TABLES................................................................................................................................................... 69
CONVERSE, INVERSE AND CONTRAPOSITIVE................................................................................................ 70
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE .................................................................................................................................... 70
LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA .......................................................................................................................... 71
MODULE TWO: VECTORS, TRIGONOMETRY AND COORDINATE GEOMETRY ....................................................... 73
CHAPTER 13: TWO DIMENSIONAL VECTORS .................................................................................. 73
𝒊, 𝒋 REPRESENTATION ........................................................................................................................................... 73
𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌 REPRESENTATION ....................................................................................................................................... 74
UNIT VECTORS...................................................................................................................................................... 74
SCALAR (DOT) PRODUCT ...................................................................................................................................... 74
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS......................................................................................................................... 75
THE VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE ...................................................................................................................... 78
VECTOR EQUATION OF A PLANE .......................................................................................................................... 79
CHAPTER 14: THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE ..................................................................................... 82
DETERMINING THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE........................................................................................................ 82

2
 FINDING THE CENTRE AND RADIUS OF A CIRCLE ................................................................................................. 82
TANGENTS AND NORMALS .................................................................................................................................. 83
THE INTERSECTION OF TWO CIRCLES .................................................................................................................. 85
EQUATION OF A CIRCLE GIVEN 3 POINTS ............................................................................................................ 85
CHAPTER 15: THE LOCUS OF A POINT ............................................................................................ 87
CHAPTER 16: RADIAN MEASURE.................................................................................................... 89
CONVERTING RADIANS TO DEGREES ................................................................................................................... 89
CONVERTING DEGREES TO RADIANS ................................................................................................................... 89
ARC LENGTH ......................................................................................................................................................... 89
AREA OF SECTOR .................................................................................................................................................. 89
CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY ...................................................................................................... 92
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES ............................................................................................................................... 92
PROVING TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES........................................................................................................... 93
GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS .......................................................................................................... 94
GRAPHS OF RECIPROCAL FUNCTIONS.............................................................................................................. 95
SKETCHING TRIGONOMETRIC GRAPHS ............................................................................................................ 95
TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS ............................................................................................................................. 96
GENERAL SOLUTIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 96
SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS.......................................................................................................... 98
HARMONIC FORM............................................................................................................................................. 101
COMPOUND ANGLE FORMULAE ........................................................................................................................ 103
DOUBLE–ANGLE FORMULAE.............................................................................................................................. 105
HALF–ANGLE FORMULAE .................................................................................................................................. 106
FACTOR FORMULAE......................................................................................................................................... 107
CHAPTER 18: PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS..................................................................................... 112
MODULE THREE: CALCULUS.................................................................................................................................... 115
CHAPTER 19: LIMITS................................................................................................................... 115
LIMITS BY DIRECT SUBSTITUTION ................................................................................................................ 116
LIMIT PROPERTIES .......................................................................................................................................... 117
LIMITS AS 𝒙 APPROACHES INFINITY ............................................................................................................. 117
LIMITS AS 𝒙 APPROACHES 0 ........................................................................................................................... 118
Limit of 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒙𝒙 ................................................................................................................................................ 118
LIMITS AND PIECEWISE FUNCTIONS............................................................................................................. 119
PIECEWISE FUNCTIONS AND CONTINUITY .............................................................................................. 120
DIFFERENTIATION FROM FIRST PRINCIPLES ...................................................................................................... 123
CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION .................................................................................................. 125
HOW TO DIFFERENTIATE.................................................................................................................................... 125
THE DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ..................................................................................... 126
PROPERTIES OF DERIVATIVES ........................................................................................................................ 126
DIFFERENTIATION RULES ............................................................................................................................... 126
THE SECOND DERIVATIVE............................................................................................................................... 128
PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION .............................................................................................................. 129
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION................................................................................................................. 133
GRADIENTS AND DIFFERENTIATION............................................................................................................... 133
INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS.................................................................................................. 134
POINTS OF INFLECTION .................................................................................................................................. 136
CURVE SKETCHING ...................................................................................................................................... 137
RATE OF CHANGE ........................................................................................................................................... 138

3
CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION ........................................................................................................ 145
HOW TO INTEGRATE .......................................................................................................................................... 145
INTEGRATION NOTATION............................................................................................................................... 145
PROPERTIES OF INTEGRALS............................................................................................................................ 145
TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRATION .................................................................................................................... 146
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS............................................................................................................................. 147
DEFINITE INTEGRALS ...................................................................................................................................... 147
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION.............................................................................................................. 148
APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION .................................................................................................................. 151
THE EQUATION OF A CURVE .......................................................................................................................... 151
THE AREA UNDER A GRAPH ........................................................................................................................... 151
VOLUME OF REVOLUTION ABOUT THE 𝒙 AXIS .............................................................................................. 156
VOLUMES OF REVOLUTION ABOUT THE 𝒚 AXIS ...................................................................................... 156
CAPE 2012 .................................................................................................................................. 168
CAPE 2013 .................................................................................................................................. 171
CAPE 2014 .................................................................................................................................. 175
CAPE 2015 .................................................................................................................................. 178
CAPE 2016 .................................................................................................................................. 181
CAPE 2017 .................................................................................................................................. 184
ANSWERS FOR CAPE PAST PAPERS .............................................................................................. 188

THIS PDF IS INTERACTIVE.

YOU CAN CLICK ON THE MANY HYPERLINKS TO
WATCH VIDEO SOLUTIONS FOR THE EXAMPLES
PROVIDED.
ALL THAT IS REQUIRED IS A SUBSCRIPTION TO
SIRHUNTE.TEACHABLE.COM

4
 CHAPTER 1: INEQUALITIES

MODULE ONE: ALGEBRA, RELATIONS

and FUNCTIONS
CHAPTER 1: INEQUALITIES
At the end of this section, students should be able
to:
 find the solution set s of quadratics
inequalities using algebraic and graphical
methods
 find the solution sets of inequalities of the
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
form 𝑐𝑥+𝑑 > 0; ≥ 0; < 0; ≤ 0 using
algebraic and graphical methods.

QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES
Quadratic inequalities deal with determining the 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0
range of values of 𝑥 which satisfy {𝑥 < 𝑥1 } ∪ {𝑥 > 𝑥2 }
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0 as well as
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≥ 0 and 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≤ 0.
If 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are the roots of a quadratic equation,
with 𝑥1 < 𝑥2, then we have the following possible
ranges as solutions to the varying quadratic
inequalities.
NB: WE ideally want the coefficient of 𝑥 2 to be
positive so that the graphs have the shape below.

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≥ 0
{𝑥 ≤ 𝑥1 } ∪ {𝑥 ≥ 𝑥2 }

LESSON 1 Solve the inequality

𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 < 0
SOLUTION
𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 < 0
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0
𝑥(𝑥 − 7) < 0
Solution: 𝑥1 < 𝑥 < 𝑥2
Roots: 𝑥 = 0, 7
0<𝑥<7

LESSON 2 Solve the inequality

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 < 0
SOLUTION
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 < 0
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 2) < 0
Roots 𝑥 = −4, 2
{−4 < 𝑥 < 2}

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≤ 0
Solution: 𝑥1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥2

5
 CHAPTER 1: INEQUALITIES

LESSON 3 Determine the range of values of (r) 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 33 < 0

𝑥 for which 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 ≥ 2.
(s) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 80 > 0
SOLUTION
3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 ≥ 2 (t) 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 7 > 0
3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0
(u) 2 − 2 𝑥 − 12 𝑥 2 > 0
(3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) ≥ 0
1
Roots 𝑥 = − 3 , 2 (v) 6 − 7 𝑥 − 5 𝑥 2 ≥ 0
1 (w) 12 − 8 𝑥 − 15 𝑥 2 ≤ 0
{𝑥 ≤ − } ∪ {𝑥 ≥ 2}
3
(x) 16 − 12 𝑥 − 4 𝑥 2 > 0
LESSON 4 Solve the inequality (y) 20 − 8 𝑥 − 9 𝑥 2 < 0
15 − 7𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 > 0
SOLUTION SOLUTIONS
15 − 7𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 > 0
2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 15 < 0 1. (a) −14 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
(2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 5) < 0 (b) {𝑥 ≤ −10} ∪ {𝑥 ≥ 7}
3
Roots 𝑥 = −5, 2 (c) −16 < 𝑥 < 1
3 (d) {𝑥 < −6} ∪ {𝑥 > 4}
{−5 < 𝑥 < } (e) −16 < 𝑥 < 4
2
(f) −10 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 8
NB: When we divide or multiply by a negative (g) {𝑥 ≤ −7} ∪ {𝑥 ≥ 3}
number the inequality sign MUST be REVERSED. (h) −5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
(i) −15 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4
…………………………………………………………………………..
(j) −14 < 𝑥 < 5
EXERCISE 1.1 (k) {𝑥 ≤ −16} ∪ {𝑥 ≥ 5}
Solve each of the following inequalities. (l) {𝑥 < −12} ∪ { 𝑥 > 4}
(m) −4 < 𝑥 < 1
(a) 𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 28 ≤ 0
(n) −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
(o) {𝑥 < −6} ∪ {𝑥 > 1}
(b) 𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 − 70 ≥ 0
(p) {𝑥 ≤ −8} ∪ {𝑥 ≥ 10}
(c) 𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 − 16 < 0 (q) −5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 16
(d) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 24 > 0 (r) −11 < 𝑥 < 3
(s) {𝑥 < −10} ∪ {𝑥 > 8}
(e) 𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 64 < 0
(t) {𝑥 < −7} ∪ {𝑥 > 1}
(f) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 80 ≤ 0 1 1
(u) − 2 < 𝑥 < 3
(g) 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 21 ≥ 0 3
(v) −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5
(h) 𝑥2 + 4𝑥 − 5 ≤ 0 6 2
(w) {𝑥 ≤ − 5} ∪ {𝑥 ≥ 3 }
2
(i) 𝑥 + 11𝑥 − 60 ≤ 0
(x) −4 < 𝑥 < 1
(j) 𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 − 70 < 0 10
(y) {𝑥 < −2} ∪ {𝑥 > }
9
(k) 𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 80 ≥ 0
…………………………………………………………………………..
(l) 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 48 > 0
(m) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 < 0
(n) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 18 < 0
(o) 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6 > 0
(p) 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 80 ≥ 0
(q) 𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 80 ≤ 0

6
 CHAPTER 1: INEQUALITIES

RATIONAL INEQUALITIES 𝑥+6

(h) >0
𝑥−4
LESSON 5 Solve the inequality
𝑥 −3 𝑥−3
≥0 (i) <0
𝑥−2
𝑥 +2
SOLUTION NB: We have to multiply 𝑥+2
throughout by the square of the denominator. (j) <0
𝑥−4
𝑥 −3
≥ 0 × (𝑥 + 2)2 𝑥+1
𝑥 +2 (k) ≥1
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2) ≥ 0 𝑥−2

Roots 𝑥 = −2, 3 𝑥+1

{𝑥 < −2} ∪ {𝑥 ≥ 3} (l) ≥3
𝑥−3
NB: 𝑥 cannot equal −2 since that would lead to
𝑥−1
division by zero. (m) 𝑥−4 ≥ 2

LESSON 6 Determine the range of values of 𝑥−2

𝑥 for which (n) ≤4
𝑥+3
2𝑥 − 3
≤1 𝑥+3
𝑥 +1 (o) ≤2
𝑥−3

SOLUTION 𝑥+2
2𝑥 − 3 (p) −1≥0
𝑥−5
≤ 1 × (𝑥 + 1)2
𝑥+1 𝑥+3
(2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) ≤ (𝑥 + 1)2 (q) +3≥1
𝑥−5
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 ≤ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 ≤ 0 𝑥−1
(r) −2≥1
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 1) ≤ 0 𝑥−4
Roots 𝑥 = −1, 4 𝑥+2
{−1 < 𝑥 ≤ 4} (s) −4≤0
𝑥−3
NB: 𝑥 ≠ −1 since that would lead to division by
zero. 𝑥+5
(t) +1≤0
𝑥−1

………………………………………………………………………….. 3𝑥+1
(u) ≥1
𝑥+4

EXERCISE 1.2 (v)

2𝑥−3
≤1
1. Determine 𝑥 ∈ ℝ for each of the following. 𝑥+1

𝑥+10 2𝑥+3
(a) >0 2. Solve for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ the inequality 3𝑥+4 < 1. [10]
𝑥−7

𝑥−3 CAPE 2002

(b) >0
𝑥−6 3. Find the range of values of 𝑥 ∈ ℝ for which
𝑥−2
𝑥+10 > 0, 𝑥 ≠ 3. [6]
(c) <0 𝑥+3
𝑥−4 CAPE 2004
𝑥+1
4. (i) Find 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ such that
(d) >0 3𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑥+5 −2=
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
𝑥−5 where 𝑥 ≠ −1. [2]
(e) >0
𝑥+8 (ii) Hence, find the range of values of
3𝑥
𝑥+9 𝑥 ∈ ℝ for which 𝑥+1 > 2. [4]
(f) <0
𝑥−10 CAPE 2006
𝑥+9 5. Solve, for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, the inequality
(g) >0 2𝑥 − 3
𝑥+2 −5 > 0
𝑥 +1
[5]

7
 CHAPTER 1: INEQUALITIES

CAPE 2010
6. Solve 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 ≤ 5. [4]
CAPE 2013

SOLUTIONS
1. (a) {𝑥 < −10} ∪ {𝑥 > 7}
(b) {𝑥 < 3} ∪ {𝑥 > 6}
(c) −10 < 𝑥 < 4
(d) {𝑥 < −5} ∪ {𝑥 > −1}
(e) {𝑥 < −8} ∪ {𝑥 > 5}
(f) −9 < 𝑥 < 10
(g) {𝑥 < −9} ∪ {𝑥 > −2}
(h) {𝑥 < −6} ∪ {𝑥 > 4}
(i) 2 < 𝑥 < 3
(j) −2 < 𝑥 < 4
(k) 𝑥 > 2
(l) 3 < 𝑥 ≤ 5
(m) 4 < 𝑥 ≤ 7
14
(n) {𝑥 ≤ − 3 } ∪ {𝑥 > −3}
(o) {𝑥 < 3} ∪ {𝑥 ≥ 9}
(p) 𝑥 > 5
7
(q) {𝑥 ≤ 3} ∪ {𝑥 > 5}
11
(r) 4 < 𝑥 ≤ 2
14
(s) {𝑥 < 3} ∪ {𝑥 ≥ }
3
(t) −2 ≤ 𝑥 < 1
3
(u) {𝑥 < −4} ∪ {𝑥 ≥ 2}
(v) −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 4

4
2. {𝑥 < − } ∪ {𝑥 > −1}
3
3. {𝑥 < −3} ∪ {𝑥 > 2}
4. (i) 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −2 (ii) {𝑥 < −1} ∪ {𝑥 > 2}
8
5. {𝑥 < − } ∪ {𝑥 > −1}
3
2
6. −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3

…………………………………………………………………………..

8
 CHAPTER 2: THE DISCRIMINANT

CHAPTER 2: THE DISCRIMINANT

At the end of this section, students should be able
to:
 determine the nature of roots of a
quadratic equation
___________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
For the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 we
have that
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0
The Discriminant is 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 from the above
formula and this gives us useful information about CALCULATING THE DISCRIMINANT
the corresponding roots as shown below
Discriminant and Roots LESSON 1 For each of the following
Discriminant Roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 quadratic equations determine the discriminant.
𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 real numbers, 𝑎 ≠ 0 (a) 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0
Positive Two distinct roots (b) 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
0 Equal roots. One real root (c) 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 = 0
(a double/repeated root) SOLUTION
Perfect Squares (a) 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0
𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −3 and 𝑐 = −4
Negative No real roots.
Discriminant is 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0, 𝑎 > 0
(−3) 2 − 4(2)(−4) = 41
Since 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 the equation 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4
This is explained graphically.
has 2 real and distinct roots
(b) 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = −4 and 𝑐 = 1
Discriminant is 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
(−4) 2 − 4(4)(1) = 0
Since 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 the equation
4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0 has a repeated (double)
root.

(c) 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 = 0
𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −3 and 𝑐 = 4
Discriminant is 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
(−3) 2 − 4(2)(4) = −23
Since 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 the equation
2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 = 0 has no real roots.

THE DISCRIMINANT AND DISTINCT

REAL ROOTS
LESSON 2 Find the range of values of 𝑝 for
which the following equations has two distinct
real roots.
(a) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑝𝑥 − 5𝑝 = 0
(b) 𝑝(𝑥 2 − 1) = 3𝑥 + 3

9
 CHAPTER 2: THE DISCRIMINANT

SOLUTION EXERCISE 2
(a) For 𝑥 2 + 2𝑝𝑥 − 5𝑝 = 0 to have 2 real and 1. If a quadratic equation has two distinct roots,
distinct roots, 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 the value of the discriminant is
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2𝑝 and 𝑐 = −5𝑝 (A) Positive
(2𝑝) 2 − 4(1)(−5𝑝) > 0 (B) Negative
4𝑝2 + 20𝑝 > 0 (C) Zero
4𝑝(𝑝 + 5) > 0 2. If a quadratic equation has no real roots, the
Roots: 𝑝 = 0, −5 value of the discriminant must be
{𝑥 < −5} ∪ {𝑥 > 0} (A) Positive
(b) 𝑝(𝑥 2 − 1) = 3𝑥 + 3 (B) Negative
𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑝 = 3𝑥 + 3 (C) zero
𝑝𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 𝑝 − 3 = 0 3. For a quadratic equation to have a repeated
𝑎 = 𝑝, 𝑏 = −3 and 𝑐 = −𝑝 − 3 root the value of the discriminant
𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 must be
(−3) 2 − 4(𝑝)(−𝑝 − 3) > 0 (A) Positive
9 + 4𝑝2 + 12𝑝 > 0 (B) Negative
4𝑝2 + 12𝑝 + 9 > 0 (C) Zero
(2𝑝 + 3)2 > 0 4. For a quadratic equation to have a repeated
3
Root 𝑝 = − 2 root the quadratic expression must be
3 (a) A perfect square
𝑝≠− (b) Factorisable
2 (c) Unfactorisable
5. Calculate the discriminant of
THE DISCRIMINANT AND EQUAL (i) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5. [−11]
ROOTS (ii) 3𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 10 [−39]
6. (i) Calculate the discriminant of
LESSON 3 Find the values of 𝑝 for which the 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 11. [−52]
expression 𝑥 2 + (𝑝 + 3)𝑥 + 2𝑝 + 3 is a perfect (ii) State the number of real roots of the
square. equation 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 11 = 0.
SOLUTION 7. (i) Calculate the discriminant of
For perfect squares 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 − 8. [560]
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 𝑝 + 3 and 𝑐 = 2𝑝 + 3 (ii) State the number of real roots of the
(𝑝 + 3)2 − 4(1)(2𝑝 + 3) = 0 equation 5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 − 8 = 0.
𝑝2 + 6𝑝 + 9 − 8𝑝 − 12 = 0 8. Find the set of values of 𝑘 for which the
𝑝2 − 2𝑝 − 3 = 0 equation 𝑥 2 + (𝑘 − 2)𝑥 + (2𝑘 − 4) = 0 has
(𝑝 − 3)(𝑝 + 1) = 0 real roots. {𝑘 < 2} ∪ {𝑘 > 10}
𝑝 = 3, −1 2 (𝑘
9. The equation 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 + + 3) = 0, where 𝑘
is a constant, has different real roots.
(A) Show that 𝑘 2 − 4𝑘 − 12 > 0.
THE DISCRIMINANT AND NO REAL (B) Find the set of possible values of 𝑘.
ROOTS {𝑘 < 2} ∪ {𝑘 > 6}
LESSON 4 Find the range of values of 𝑘 for 10. Find the set of values of 𝑝 for which the
which the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 + 25 = 0 has no real equation 𝑝𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + (5 − 𝑝) = 0 has 2
roots. distinct real roots. {𝑘 < 1} ∪ {𝑘 > 4}
SOLUTION 11. Find the possible values of 𝑘 for which 𝑥 2 +
For no real roots 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 (𝑘 − 3)𝑥 + (3 − 2𝑘) = 0 has two distinct real
𝑘 2 − 4(1)(25) < 0 roots. {𝑘 < −3} ∪ {𝑘 > 1}
𝑘 2 − 100 < 0 12. The equation (𝑘 + 3)𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 𝑘 = 5 has two
(𝑘 + 10)(𝑘 − 10) < 0 distinct real roots. Determine the set of
Roots: 𝑘 = −10, 10 possible values of 𝑘. [−4 < 𝑘 < 6]
−10 < 𝑘 < 10 13. Given that the equation 𝑘𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 𝑘 = 0,
where 𝑘 is a positive constant, has equal
roots, find the value of 𝑘. [𝑘 = 6]

10
 CHAPTER 2: THE DISCRIMINANT

14. The equation 𝑥 2 + 3𝑝𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0, where 𝑝 is a

non – zero constant, has equal roots. Find the
4
value of 𝑝. 𝑝=9
15. The equation 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − (𝑘 + 1) = 0, where
𝑘 is a constant, has no real roots. Find the set
17
of possible values of 𝑘. [𝑘 < − 8 ]
16. The equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 + 8 = 𝑘 has no real
solutions for 𝑥.
(A) Show that 𝑘 satisfies 𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 − 32 < 0.
(B) Find the set of possible values of 𝑘.
[−8 < 𝑘 < 4]

11
 CHAPTER 3: SURDS

CHAPTER 3: SURDS
At the end of this section, students should be able = 7√5 + (3)(2)√5 − 4√5
to: = 7√5 + 6√5 − 4√5
 perform operations involving surds = (7 + 6 − 4)√5
__________________________________________________________
= 9√5
INTRODUCTION
(c) 2(√3 + √12)
Surds are numbers left in 'square root form'. They
are therefore irrational numbers. The reason we = 2(√3 + 2√3)
leave them as surds is because in decimal form = 2(3√3)
they would go on forever and so this is a very = 6√3
clumsy way of writing them. LESSON 3 Simplify
Note: √9 = 3 which is a rational number. (a) (2 + √5)(2 − √5)
Roots such as √2, √3, √5 ……. are SURDS (b) (√2 − 3)(√2 + 3)
(c) (3√3 + 4)(3√3 − 4)
PROPERTIES OF SURDS SOLUTION
(a) (2 + √5)(2 − √5)
1. √𝑎 × √𝑏 = √𝑎𝑏 → √𝑎 × √𝑎 = √𝑎2 = 𝑎
= 4 − 2√5 + 2√5 − √5√5
√𝑎 𝑎
2. =√ = 4 − √25
√𝑏 𝑏
= 4 − 5 = −1
3. 𝑎 √𝑐 + 𝑏 √𝑐 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)√𝑐 By factorization
(b) (√2 − 3)(√2 + 3)
SURD SIMPLIFICATION = √2√2 + 3√2 − 3√2 − 9
A surd is simplified when the number under the = √4 − 9
square root sign does not have a perfect square as =2−9
one of its factors. = −7
LESSON 1 Simplify each of the following (c) (3√3 + 4)(3√3 − 4)
(i) √50 = 9√3√3 − 12√3 + 12√3 − 16
(ii) √80 = 9√9 − 16
SOLUTION = 27 − 16
(a) √50 = √25 × 2 = 11
= √25 × √2 …………………………………………………………………………..
EXERCISE 3.1
= 5√2
(b) √80 = √16 × 5 1. Simplify each of the following surds.
= √16 × √5
a) √27
= 4√5 b) √63
LESSON 2 Simplify each of the following.
c) √32
(a) 5√20 + 2√45
d) √44
(b) 7√5 + 3√20 − √80
e) √54
(c) 2(√3 + √12)
f) √72
SOLUTION
g) √80
(a) 5√20 + 2√45 = 5√5 × 4 + 2√9 × 5
h) √96
= 5√4√5 + 2√9√5
i) √112
= (5)(2) √5 + (2)(3)√5
j) √108
= 10√5 + 6√5
k) √147
= (10 + 6) √5
l) √192
= 16√5
m) 3√52 + 2√117
(b) 7√5 + 3√20 − √80
n) 4√18 + √98 − 2√8
=7√5 + 3√5 × 4 − √16 × 5
o) √180 − 3√125 + √45
= 7√5 + 3√5√4 − √16√5

12
 CHAPTER 3: SURDS

2. Express √18 − √2 in simplified surd form. 10√7√5

=
3. Express √300 − √48 in the form 𝑘√3, where 𝑘 5
is an integer. 10√7 × 5
=
4. Express each of the following in the form 𝑘√2, 5
where 𝑘is an integer. = 2√35
(i) √200 4√45
(d)
(ii) 5√8 − 3√2 5√8
4√9 × 5
SOLUTIONS =
5√4 × 2
1. (a) 3√3 (b) 3√7 (c) 4√2
4√9√5
(d) 2√11 (e) 3√6 (f) 6√2 =
5√4√2
(g) 4√5 (h) 4√6 (i) 4√7 12√5
(j) 6√3 (k) 7√3 (l) 8√3 =
10√2
(m) 12√13 (n) 15√2 (o) −6√5
6√5
2. 2√2 =
5√2
3. 6√3
6√5(√2)
4. (i) 10√2 (ii) 7√2 =
5√2(√2)
………………………………………………………………………….. 6√10
=
10
FRACTIONS INVOLVING SURDS =
3√10
When surds appear in the denominator of a 5
fraction, it is usual to eliminate them from. This is
called RATIONALISING THE DENOMINATOR i.e. LESSON 5 Express each of the following in
𝑎+𝑏√𝑐
converting it from a SURD to a RATIONAL the form ; 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℤ
𝑑
Number. To do this we use two (2) facts 1
(a) 2+√3
3
1. √𝑎 × √𝑎 = 𝑎 (b)
√3−6
2. Difference of two Squares: 2+√2
(𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ) = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏) (c) 2−√2
where (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ) is ALWAYS a Rational (d)
3+√24

Number √6+2

LESSON 4 Express each of the following in SOLUTION

𝑎√𝑐
1
the form ; 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℤ (a)
3
𝑏 2 + √3
(a) 1 2 − √3
√2 = ×
5
(b) 2 + √3 2 − √3
√3
10√7 2 − √3
(c) =
√5 (2 + √3)(2 − √3)
4√45
(d) 2 − √3
5√8 = 2
SOLUTION 22 − (√3)
3 3 √2 3√2 2 − √3
(a) = × =
√2 √2 √2 2 =
4−3
5 5 √3 5√3 = 2 − √3
(b) = × =
√3 √3 √3 3
10√7 3
(c) (b)
√5 √3 − 6
10√7 √5 3 √3 + 6
= × = ×
√5 √5 √3 − 6 √3 + 6

13
 CHAPTER 3: SURDS

12
3(√3 + 6) (a) √108 − , 𝑘√3
= √3
20
(√3 − 6)(√3 + 6) (b) √45 + , 𝑘√5
√5
3(√3 + 6) 15+√40
= (c) , 𝑎√5 + 𝑏√2
3 − 36 √5
3(√3 + 6) 2. Express each of the following in the indicated
= form.
−33 4
(a) 3−√7 , 𝑎 + 𝑏√7
√3 + 6 (b)
12
, 𝑎 − 𝑏√5
= 3+√5
−11 8−3√2
2 + √2 (c) , 𝑎 + 𝑏√2
(c) 4+3√2
2 − √2 √5+3
(d) , 𝑎√5 + 𝑏
√5−2
2 + √2 2 + √2 15+√3
= × (e) , 𝑎 + 𝑏√3
2 − √2 2 + √2 3−√3
8+√7
(f) , 𝑎 + 𝑏√7
2+√7
(2 + √2)(2 + √2)
= SOLUTIONS
(2 − √2)(2 + √2) 1. (a) 2√3 (b) 7√5 (c) 3√5 + 2√2
4 + 2√2 + 2√2 + 2 2. (a) 6 + 2√7 (b) 9 − 3√5
=
4−2
(c) −25 + 18√2 (d) 11 + 5√5
4 + 4√2 + 2
= (e) 8 + 3√3 (f) −3 + 2√7
2
6 + 4√2 EXAM QUESTIONS
=
2 5−√3
1. Express in the form 𝑥 + 𝑦√3 where
= 3 + 2√2 2+√3
𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ. [5]
3 + √24 CAPE 2007
(d) 2. Without using calculators or tables, show that
√6 + 2 √6+√2
3 + √24 √6 − 2 (i) = 2 + √3 [5]
√6−√2
= × √6+√2 √6−√2
√6 + 2 √6 − 2 (ii) + =4 [5]
√6−√2 √6+√2
(3 + √24)(√6 − 2) CAPE 2008
=
(√6 + 2)(√6 − 2) 3. Without the use of the tables or a calculator,
3√6 − 6 − 2√24 − √24√6 simplify √28 + √343 in the form 𝑘√7, where
= 𝑘 is an integer. [5]
6−4
3√6 − 6 − 2√6√4 − √144 CAPE 2009
= 4. Without using calculators, find the exact value
2 2 2
3√6 − 6 − (2)(2)√6 − 12 of (√75 + √12) − (√75 − √12) [3]
= CAPE 2011
2
3√6 − 6 − 4√6 − 12 5. Without the use of a calculator, show that
= √3 − 1 √3 + 1 √2 − 1 √2 + 1
2 + + + = 10
−18 − √6 √3 + 1 √3 − 1 √2 + 1 √2 − 1
=
2 [5]
10√35 CAPE 2014
= SOLUTIONS
5
= 2√35
………………………………………………………………………….. 1. 13 − 7√3
2.
EXERCISE 3.2 3. 9√7
4. 120
1. Express each of the following in the indicated
5.
form.
…………………………………………………………………………..

14
 CHAPTER 4: INDICES

CHAPTER 4: LAWS OF INDICES

SOLUTION
MULTIPLICATION (i) (𝑏2 )3 = 𝑏2 × 𝑏2 × 𝑏2
LESSON 1 Simplify each of the following. = 𝑏2+2+2
(i) 𝑏2 × 𝑏3 = 𝑏6
(ii) 𝑥4 × 𝑥 (ii) (2𝑎3 )4 = 2𝑎3 × 2𝑎3 × 2𝑎3 × 2𝑎3
(iii) 2𝑚7 × 3𝑚5 = 24 𝑎3+3+3+3
(iv) 3𝑥 2 𝑦 × 4𝑥 5 𝑦 7 = 24 𝑎12
2 2
(v) 𝑎𝑛 × 𝑎𝑚 2𝑥2 𝑦4 2𝑥
(iii) ( 5𝑥𝑦6 ) = (5𝑦2 )
SOLUTION
(i) 𝑏2 × 𝑏3 = 𝑏 × 𝑏 × 𝑏 × 𝑏 × 𝑏 = 𝑏5 22 𝑥 2
=
(ii) 𝑥4 × 𝑥 = 𝑥 × 𝑥 × 𝑥 × 𝑥 × 𝑥 = 𝑥5 52 𝑦 4
(iii) 2𝑚7 × 3𝑚5 = 2 × 𝑚 × 𝑚 × 𝑚 × 𝑚 × 𝑚 × 4𝑥 2
=
𝑚 ×𝑚 ×3×𝑚×𝑚 ×𝑚 ×𝑚×𝑚 25𝑦 4
= 6𝑚12 (iv) (𝑎𝑛 )𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛𝑚
(iv) 3𝑥 2 𝑦 × 4𝑥 5 𝑦 7
= 3×𝑥 ×𝑥×𝑦 ×4×𝑥 ×𝑥 ×𝑥 ×𝑥 ×𝑥× NEGATIVE INDICES
𝑦×𝑦 ×𝑦×𝑦×𝑦×𝑦×𝑦 1 1
= 12𝑥 7 𝑦 8 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛
𝑎 𝑎−𝑛
(v) 𝑎𝑛 × 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 LESSON 4 Write each of the following using
positive indices.
1
(i) 2−3 (ii) 𝑥 −4 (iii) 𝑎 −5
DIVISION SOLUTION
2

LESSON 2 Simplify each of the following. 1

ℎ3 (i) 2−3 = 23
(i) 1
ℎ3 (ii) 𝑥 −4 =
𝑘9 𝑥4
(ii) 1 1 1 1
𝑘5 (iii) 𝑎 −5 = × =
𝑚6 𝑟4 2 2 𝑎5 2𝑎5
(iii)
𝑟2
2𝑥3 𝑦8 LESSON 4 Write each of the following in the
(iv) 6𝑥𝑦3 form 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 .
𝑎𝑛 1
(v) (i)
𝑎𝑚 𝑥3
SOLUTION 2
(ii)
ℎ3 ℎ×ℎ×ℎ 𝑥7
(i) ℎ3
= ℎ×ℎ×ℎ
=1
𝑘9 𝑘×𝑘×𝑘×𝑘×𝑘×𝑘×𝑘×𝑘×𝑘 1
(ii) = = 𝑘4 (iii)
𝑘5 𝑘×𝑘×𝑘×𝑘×𝑘 3𝑥2
𝑚6 𝑟4 𝑚×𝑚×𝑚×𝑚×𝑚×𝑚×𝑟×𝑟×𝑟×𝑟 5
(iii) = = 𝑚6 𝑟 2 (iv)
𝑟2 𝑟 ×𝑟 7𝑥4
2𝑥3 𝑦8 𝑧2 2×𝑥×𝑥×𝑥×𝑦×𝑦×𝑦×𝑦×𝑦×𝑦×𝑦×𝑦×𝑧×𝑧 SOLUTION
(iv) = 1 −3
6𝑥𝑦3 𝑧4 (i) 3 = 𝑥
6×𝑥×𝑦×𝑦×𝑦×𝑧×𝑧×𝑧×𝑧
𝑥
1𝑥 2 𝑦 5 2
= (ii) = 2𝑥 −7
3𝑧 2 𝑥7
𝑎𝑛
(v) = 𝑎𝑛−𝑚 1 1
𝑎𝑚
(iii) = 3 𝑥 −2
3𝑥2
5 5
(iv) = 7 𝑥 −4
7𝑥4
RAISING A POWER TO A POWER
LESSON 3 Simplify each of the following.
(i) (𝑏2 )3
(ii) (2𝑎3 )4
2
2𝑥2 𝑦4
(iii) ( 5𝑥𝑦6 )
(iv) (𝑎𝑛 )𝑚

15
 CHAPTER 4: INDICES

ZERO INDEX 4𝑥 = 2
0 1
𝑎 =1 𝑥=
Any quantity, except zero, raised to the power 2
zero is 1
PROOF: LESSON 8 Without the use of a calculator
find the exact value of
𝑎1 × 𝑎 −1 = 𝑎1+(−1) = 𝑎0 1 3 1
1 274 × 98 × 818
𝑎1 × 𝑎 −1 = 𝑎 × = 1
𝑎 SOLUTION
∴ 𝑎0 = 1 1 3 1 1 3 1
274 × 98 × 81 8 = (33 )4 × (32 )8 × (34 ) 8
3 3 1
FRACTIONAL INDICES = 34 × 34 × 32
1⁄ 3 3 1
𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑛√𝑎 = 34+4++2
1 1 = 32
𝑎 −𝑛 = 𝑛
√𝑎 =9
𝑛 𝑛
𝑎𝑚 = ( 𝑚√𝑎 ) LESSON 8 Without the use of a calculator,
𝑛 1 show that
𝑎 −𝑚 = 𝑚 𝑛 42
( √𝑎 ) 1 = 24 (√2)
LESSON 6 Write each of the following in the √2 × 8 −3
form 𝑛√𝑎𝑚 .
1 SOLUTION
(i) 92 LHS
1
(ii) 125−3 42 (22 )2
2 1 = 1 1
− −
(iii) 643 √2 × 8 3 22 × (23 ) 3
2
(iv) 𝑥5 24
3
= 1
(v) 2𝑥 −4 22 × 2−1
SOLUTION 24
1 = 1
(i) 92 = √9 = 3 2−2
1 1
1 1
(ii) 125−3 = 1 = 3
= 24 (22 )
125 3 √125
2 2 = 24 √2
(iii) 𝑥 5 = ( 5√𝑥 )
3 RHS
2 2
(iv) 2𝑥 −4 = 3 = 3
( 4√𝑥 )
GRAPHS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS APH OF
𝑥4

FURTHER LESSONS EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒎 → 𝒏 = 𝒎 Any function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎 > 0 is an
LESSON 7 Solve for 𝑥 the equations exponential function and they have the shape as
(i) (3𝑥 )2 = 27𝑥−3 shown in the diagram.
1 𝑥
(ii) 3𝑥−2 = ( )
27
SOLUTION
(i) (3𝑥 ) 2 = 27𝑥−3
32𝑥 = 33(𝑥−3)
2𝑥 = 3(𝑥 − 3)
2𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 9
𝑥=9
1 𝑥
(ii) 3𝑥−2 = ( )
27
𝑥−2
1 𝑥
3 = ( 3)
3
3𝑥−2 = (3−3 )𝑥 It is important to note that the graphs all cross the
3𝑥−2 = 3−3𝑥 𝑦 axis at the same point and that the graphs will
𝑥 − 2 = −3𝑥 NEVER touch or cross the 𝑥 axis since 𝑎𝑥 > 0.

16
 CHAPTER 4: INDICES

EXERCISE 4

4
1. Solve the equation 163𝑥−2 = 82𝑥 . [𝑥 = 3 ]

2. Solve the equation 92𝑥−1 = 27𝑥 . [𝑥 = 2]

3. Solve the equation (23−4𝑥 )(4𝑥+4 ) = 2. [𝑥 = 5]

1 5
4. (i) Express as a power of 2. [2−2 ]
√32
1 6
(ii) Express (64) 𝑥 as a power of 2. [2 𝑥 ]
1
(64)𝑥 1
(iii) Hence solve the equation = .
2𝑥 √32
3
[𝑥 = − 2]
5. Solve, for 𝑥 and 𝑦, the simulatneous equations
125𝑥 = 25(5𝑦 )
7𝑥 ÷ 49𝑦 = 1
4 2
[𝑥 = , 𝑦 = ]
5 5
EXAM QUESTIONS
1 𝑥−1
6. Solve for 𝑥, the equation 23−5𝑥 = ( ) . [3]
64
CAPE 2000
[𝑥 = 3]
7. Without using a calculator, find the exact
1 3 1
value of 274 × 98 × 818 . [3]
CAPE 2011
[Ans: 9]

17
 CHAPTER 5: DISGUISED QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

CHAPTER 5: DISGUISED QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

1
At the end of this section, students should be able 𝑥 3 = 4 → 𝑥 = 64
to:
 solve equations in 𝑥 reducible to a LESSON 5 Solve the equation
quadratic equation; 4𝑥 − 2𝑥+1 − 8 = 0.
__________________________________________________________ SOLUTION Rewrite expressions in 𝑥 using a
It is often possible to solve equations by the use of common base
a substitution. In this section we look at equations (22 ) 𝑥 − 2(2𝑥 ) − 8 = 0
which can be solved by being transformed into (2𝑥 ) 2 − 2(2𝑥 ) − 8 = 0
quadratic equations. Let 𝑦 = 2𝑥
LESSON 1 Solve the equation 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 8 = 0
𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 2 − 6 = 0 (𝑦 + 2)(𝑦 − 4) = 0
SOLUTION Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 since 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 2 )2 = 𝑥 4 𝑦 = −2, 4
2
𝑦 − 5𝑦 − 6 = 0 Re – substituting 𝑦 = 2𝑥
(𝑦 − 6)(𝑦 + 1) = 0 2𝑥 = −2 → NO REAL ROOTS
𝑦 = −1, 6 2𝑥 = 4 → 𝑥 = 2
Re – substitute 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
𝑥 2 = −1 → NO REAL ROOTS LESSON 6 Determine the values of 𝑥 ∈ ℝ for
𝑥 2 = 6 → 𝑥 = ±√6 which 3𝑥 + 32−𝑥 = 10.
SOLUTION
LESSON 2 Solve the equation 3𝑥 + 32−𝑥 − 10 = 0
𝑥 6 − 9𝑥 3 + 8 = 0. 32
SOLUTION Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 since 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 3 )2 = 𝑥 6 3𝑥 + 𝑥 − 10 = 0
2
3
𝑦 − 9𝑦 + 8 = 0 Let 𝑦 = 3𝑥
(𝑦 − 1)(𝑦 − 8) = 0 9
𝑦 = 1, 8 𝑦 + − 10 = 0 ×𝑦
𝑦
Re – substituting 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 2
𝑦 + 9 − 10𝑦 = 0
𝑥3 = 1 → 𝑥 = 1 𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 + 9 = 0
𝑥3 = 8 → 𝑥 = 2 (𝑦 − 1)(𝑦 − 9) = 0
𝑦 = 1, 9
LESSON 3 Solve the equation Re – substituting 𝑦 = 3𝑥
𝑥 − 3√𝑥 + 2 = 0. 3𝑥 = 1 → 𝑥 = 0
2
SOLUTION Let 𝑦 = √𝑥 since 𝑦 2 = (√𝑥) = 𝑥 3𝑥 = 9 → 𝑥 = 2
𝑦 2 − 3𝑦 + 2 = 0
(𝑦 − 1)(𝑦 − 2) = 0 LESSON 7 Solve the equation
𝑦 = 1, 2 23𝑥 − 8(2−3𝑥 ) = 7
Re – substituting 𝑦 = √𝑥
SOLUTION
√𝑥 = 1 → 𝑥 = 1 8
√𝑥 = 2 → 𝑥 = 4 23𝑥 − 3𝑥 = 7
2
8
LESSON 4 Solve the equation 𝑦− =7
2 1 𝑦
2𝑥 − 5𝑥 = 12.
3 3 𝑦 2 − 8 = 7𝑦
1 2
SOLUTION
1
Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 since 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 3 ) = 𝑥 3
2
𝑦 2 − 7𝑦 − 8 = 0
(𝑦 − 8)(𝑦 + 1) = 0
2𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 − 12 = 0 𝑦 = −1, 8
(2𝑦 + 3)(𝑦 − 4) = 0
Re – substituting 𝑦 = 23𝑥
3
𝑦 = − ,4 23𝑥 = −1 → INVALID
2 23𝑥 = 8 → 𝑥 = 1
1
Re – substituting 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
1 3 27
𝑥3 = − → 𝑥 = −
2 8

18
 CHAPTER 5: DISGUISED QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

EXERCISE 5 EXAM QUESTIONS

1. Solve the equations 1.
1 1
Solve for 𝑥 the equation 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 −3 = 3. [5]
(i) 𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 2 + 9 = 0 [𝑥 = ±1, ±3] [𝑥 = 64]
(ii) 𝑥 4 + 36 = 13𝑥 2 [𝑥 = ±2, ±3] 2. By using the substitution 𝑦 = 2𝑥 , or
2. Find the real roots of the equations otherwise, solve 4𝑥 − 3(2𝑥 +1 ) + 8 = 0. [7]
(i) 2𝑥 4 = 𝑥 2 + 1 [𝑥 = ±1] CAPE 2010
1
(ii) 4𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 − 1 = 0. [𝑥 = ± 2] [𝑥 = 1, 2]
7 6
3. Solve the equations 3. Solve the equation 3 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 0. [5]
9 81
(i) 𝑥 6 + 7𝑥 3 = 8 [𝑥 = −2, 1] 1
6 3 1 [𝑥 = ]
(ii) 8𝑥 + 7𝑥 − 1 = 0. [𝑥 = −1, 2] 2
4. Solve the equation
(i) 𝑥 = 2√𝑥 + 3 [𝑥 = 9]
(ii) 𝑥 − 8√𝑥 + 12 = 0. [𝑥 = 4, 36]
(iii) 𝑥 + 3 = 4√𝑥 [𝑥 = 1, 9]
25
(iv) 2𝑥 + 15 = 11 √𝑥 [𝑥 = 4 , 9]
5. Solve the following equations.
1 1
(i) 2𝑥 − 7𝑥 2 + 3 = 0 [𝑥 = 4 , 9]
2 1
(ii) 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 3 − 10 = 0 [𝑥 = 8]
2 1 8
(iii) 3𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0
3 3 [𝑥 = 27 ]
1 1 16
(iv) 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 4 + 4 = 0 [𝑥 = 81 , 16]
2 1 64 1
(v) 6𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 3 = 4 [𝑥 = − 27 , 8]
6. Solve the equations
(i) 22𝑥 − 5(2𝑥 ) + 4 = 0 [𝑥 = 0, 2]
(ii) 3(9𝑥 ) − 10(3𝑥 ) + 3 = 0 [𝑥 = ±1]
(iii) 4𝑥 − 12(2𝑥 ) + 32 = 0 [𝑥 = 2, 3]
(iv) 4𝑥 + 8 = 9(2𝑥 ) [𝑥 = 0, 3]
(v) 22𝑥 + 1 = 2𝑥+1 [𝑥 = 0]
(vi) 22𝑥 + 128 = 3(2𝑥+3 ) [𝑥 = 3, 4]

7. Find the real roots of the equation

3 10
− −8 =0
𝑦4 𝑦2
1
[𝑦 = ± 2]
1
8. Solve the equation 𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 + 2 = 0, giving
your answer in the form 𝑝 ± 𝑞 √𝑟, where 𝑝, 𝑞
and 𝑟 are integers. [𝑥 = 16 ± 6√7]
9. Solve the equation 𝑥 − 8√𝑥 + 13 = 0, giving
your answer in the form 𝑝 ± 𝑞 √𝑟, where 𝑝, 𝑞
and 𝑟 are integers. [𝑥 = 19 ± 8√3]
10. By using the substitution 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)2 , find
the real roots of the equation
(𝑥 + 2) 4 + 5(𝑥 + 2)2 − 6 = 0.
[𝑥 = −1, −3]
11. By using the substitution 𝑢 = (3𝑥 − 2)2 , find
the roots of the equation
(3𝑥 − 2) 4 − 5(3𝑥 − 2)2 + 4 = 0.
1 4
[𝑥 = 0, , 1, ]
3 3

19
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS
At the end of this section, students should be able
to:

 use terms to functions;

 determine the range of a function given
its domain;
 determine whether a given function is
many – to – one or one – to – one;
 determine the inverse of a given function,
(if it exists); Figure 1
 plot and sketch functions and their
inverse, (if they exist);
 state the geometrical relationship
between 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and its inverse 𝑓 −1 (𝑥);
 find the composition of two functions;
 recognise that, if 𝑔 is the inverse of 𝑓,
then 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑥, for all 𝑥, in the domain
of 𝑔.

DEFINITION OF A FUNCTION
A function is a rule that produces a
correspondence/relation between two sets of Figure 2
elements, say 𝐴 and 𝐵, such that to each element
in the first set, 𝐴, there corresponds one and only
one element in the second set, 𝐵.
The first set is called the domain and the second
set is called the co-domain. The set of all
corresponding elements in the second set is called
the range of the function.

REPRESENTING A FUNCTION
Functions can be represented using
- mapping diagrams Figure 3
- ordered pairs
- equations
- graphs

MAPPING DIAGRAMS
LESSON 1 State giving reasons for your
answer whether the following mapping diagrams
represent functions. If the mapping diagram
represents a function, state its domain, co –
domain and range.

Figure 4

SOLUTION
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 in Figure 1 represents a function since
each element in 𝐴 is mapped to one and only one
element in 𝐵.

20
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

Domain = {0, 2, 3, 5} SOLUTION

Co – Domain = {1, 4, 6, 8}
Range = {1, 4, 6, 8} (a) 𝑓 is a function with domain = {2, 3, 4, 5} and
This type of function is a one – to – one function range = {4, 6, 8 , 10}
since each element of the domain is mapped to (b) 𝑔 is a function with domain = {−1, 0, 1, 2} and
only one element of the co – domain. Furthermore, range = {4, 3, 2, 1}
since the range and the co – domain are identical (c) ℎ is not a function since the first number 10 is
the function is said to be onto. mapped to 2 elements, as well as 5.
(d) 𝑓1 is a function with domain = {−10, −5, 0, 5, 10}
𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐵 in Figure 2 represents a function because and range = {10, 5, 0}
each element in 𝐴 is mapped to one and only one (e) 𝑔1 is a function with domain = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and
element in 𝐵. range = {1, 2}
Domain = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} (f) ℎ1 is not a function since the first numbers 1, 2
Co – domain = {0, 1, 2, 3} and 3 are each mapped to more than 1 element.
Range = {1, 2, 3}
This type of function is called a many – to – one EQUATIONS
function since 1 ∈ 𝐵 is mapped onto by more than Functions can be of the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). This is read
one (many) element from the domain. as “𝑦 equals 𝑓 of 𝑥. 𝑓 is the function, 𝑥 represents
the members of the domain and 𝑦 represents the
𝑓: 𝐶 → 𝐷 in Figure 3 does not represent a function members of the range. These functions can be
since ℎ which is an element of the domain is not represented graphically.
mapped to any element in 𝐵.
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
ℎ: 𝐸 → 𝐹 in Figure 4 does not represent a function Since the coordinates on a graph are of the form
because 1 which is an element of the domain is (𝑥, 𝑦) and functions can be written in the form
mapped to more than 1 element in the co – 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), corresponding 𝑥 (domain) and 𝑦
domain. (range) values can be illustrated as coordinates
and plotted to form a graph.
ORDERED PAIRS
A function is a set of ordered pairs with the LESSON 3 Graph the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 for
property that no two ordered pairs have the same −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.
first component and different second components.
SOLUTION
The set of all first components in a function is
called the domain of the function, and the set of all 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
second components is called the range.
𝑓(−3) = (−3)2 = 9 → (−3, 9)

LESSON 2 Write the functions from Figure 1 𝑓(−2) = (−2)2 = 4 → (−2, 4)

and Figure 2 as sets of ordered pairs.
SOLUTION 𝑓(−1) = (−1)2 = 1 → (−1, 1)
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 = {(0, 1), (2, 4), (3, 6), (5, 8)}
𝑓: 𝐶 → 𝐷 = {(𝑎, 1) , (𝑏, 1) , (𝑐, 2), (𝑑, 3)} 𝑓(0) = 02 = 0 → (0, 0)

LESSON 2 Indicate whether each set of 𝑓(1) = 12 = 1 → (1, 1)

ordered pairs defines a function. Find the domain
𝑓(2) = 22 = 4 → (2, 4)
and range of each function.

(a) 𝑓 = {(2, 4), (3, 6), (4, 8), (5, 10)} 𝑓(3) = 32 = 9 → (3, 9)
(b) 𝑔 = {(−1, 4), (0, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)}
(c) ℎ = {(10, −10) , (5, −5), (0, 0) , (5, 5), (10, 10)}
(d) 𝑓1 = {(−10, 10), (−5, 5), (0, 0) , (5, 5), (10, 10)}
(e) 𝑔1 = {(0, 1), (1, 1) , (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 2) , (5, 2)}
(f) ℎ1 = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 2)}

21
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

Figure 2 represents a function since any vertical

line drawn through the graph does not cut the
graph in more than one place.
Figure 3 does not represent a function since any
vertical line drawn through the graph of the
function will cut the graph in two places.

THE RANGE OF A FUNCTION

POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
The domain is assumed to be 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

For polynomials of odd degree the range is 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.

LESSON 5 State the range of the function,

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4.

THE VERTICAL LINE TEST SOLUTION Since the function is of degree 3

The vertical line test states that if any vertical line the range of 𝑓 is 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.
drawn through a graph cuts the graph in only one
place then the graph represents a function.

LESSON 4 State which of the following graphs

represent functions.

For polynomials of even degree the range can be

determined via a sketch obtained by substituting
values for 𝑥. However, for quadratics written in
the form 𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ) 2 + 𝑘 the range is 𝑦 ≥ 𝑘 if 𝑎 > 0.
If 𝑎 < 0 the range is 𝑦 ≤ 𝑘.
Figure 1
LESSON 6

(i) Write 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 3 in the form

𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ) 2 + 𝑘 where 𝑎, ℎ and 𝑘 are real
numbers.
(ii) Hence, state the range of 𝑓.
Figure 2
SOLUTION

(i) 2𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 3
3
= 2 [𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + ]
2
2
3 2 3 5 2
= 2 [𝑥 − 5𝑥 + ( ) + −( ) ]
2 2 2
2
Figure 3 5 3 25
= 2 [(𝑥 − ) + − ]
2 2 4
SOLUTION 2
5 19
Figure 1 represents a function since any vertical = 2 [(𝑥 − ) − ]
line drawn through the graph will cut the graph in 2 4
only one place.
22
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

5 2 19
= 2 (𝑥 − ) −
2 2

(b) 𝑓(𝑥) has a maximum value since the

coefficient of √1 − 2𝑥 is negative.
Range: 𝑦 ≤ −8

RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
LESSON 8 Determine the range of
4
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = − 𝑥+3
2𝑥+5
19 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥−1
(ii) Range of 𝑓: 𝑦 ≥ − 2
SOLUTION
SQUARE ROOT FUNCTIONS (a) We know that 𝑓(𝑥) is undefined when
𝑥 = −3. Therefore, for the range we simply
For square root functions of the form
need to determine the value of 𝑦 which would
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 √𝑥 + ℎ + 𝑘 we have the following:
have corresponded to this undefined value.
 𝑓(𝑥) has a minimum value if 𝑎 > 0 with 4
Let 𝑦 = − 𝑥+3
range 𝑦 ≥ 𝑘
 𝑓(𝑥) has a maximum value if 𝑎 < 0 with 𝑦(𝑥 + 3) = −4
range 𝑦 ≤ 𝑘 𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 = −4
𝑥𝑦 = −3𝑦 − 4
−3𝑦 − 4
𝑥=
𝑦
Range: 𝑦 ∈ ℝ , 𝑦 ≠ 0
2𝑥+5
(b) 𝑦 = 3𝑥−1
𝑦(3𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑥 + 5
3𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 5
3𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥 = 𝑦 + 5
𝑥(3𝑦 − 2) = 𝑦 + 5
𝑦+5
𝑥=
LESSON 7 Determine the range of 3𝑦 − 2
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2√𝑥 − 1 + 4 Range: 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑦 ≠ 0
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = −8 − 3√1 − 2𝑥.
SOLUTION
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) has a minimum value since the
coefficient of √𝑥 − 1 is positive.
Range: 𝑦 ≥ 4

23
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

………………………………………………………………………….. 5. Determine the range of each of the following

EXERCISE 6.1 functions.
2𝑥−10
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑥−4
1. The diagram below shows an assignment 𝑔
2𝑥+4
from 𝐴 → 𝐵. (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−7
2𝑥−3
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥−3
−4𝑥+7
(d) 𝑓(𝑥) = −2(𝑥+3)
4𝑥+9
(e) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+10
5𝑥−3
(f) 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥−7
2
(a) 𝑦 ≠ − 3 (b) 𝑦 ≠ 2 (c) 𝑦 ≠ −2
a. Write 𝑔 as a set of ordered pairs (d) 𝑦 ≠ 2 (e) 𝑦 ≠ 4 (f) 𝑦 ≠ −5
b. State 2 reasons why 𝑔 is not a function. …………………………………………………………………………..
c. The assignment 𝑔 can be transformed
into a function, 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵, by moving a
CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS
single arrow. Draw the function 𝑓.
Functions are classified by three classes:
d. Under 𝑓, what is
(i) Injections (ii) Surjections and (iii) Bijections.
(i) the pre – image of 4
(ii) the image of 𝑥 INJECTIONS
A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is injective, or one–to–one, if
(a) {(𝑥, 1), (𝑦, 3), (𝑧, 2), (𝑧, 5), (𝑢, 5)} 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 is the image of only one 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
(b) 𝑡 is not mapped to and 𝑧 is mapped to 2
elements (c) (d) (i) 𝑡 (ii) 1 LESSON 9 Determine whether the following
functions are injective
2. State the range of the function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 1
𝑦∈ℝ
3. State the range of each of the following
functions.
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 5
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 3
(d) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5
(e) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 10
(f) 𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 6
45 25
(a) 𝑦 ≥ −10 (b) 𝑦 ≤ 4 (c) 𝑦 ≥ − 8
71 17
(d) 𝑦 ≤ 8 (e) 𝑦 ≥ (f) 𝑦 ≤ − SOLUTION In the diagrams above 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is
8 3
injective since every element in 𝐵 is the image of
only one element in 𝐴. However, 𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is not
4. Determine the range of each of the following
functions. injective since, for example, 1 ∈ 𝐵 is the image of
𝑏, 𝑑 ∈ 𝐴.
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = −3√𝑥 − 2 − 6
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = √2𝑥 + 8 + 4 DETERMINING WHETHER A FUNCTION IS ONE
(c) 𝑔(𝑥) = 3 √1 + 𝑥 − 4 –TO – ONE
(d) 𝑔(𝑥) = 5 √𝑥 + 3 − 7 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is one-to-one if and only if for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴
(e) 𝑔(𝑥) = −2√4𝑥 + 10 the following exists
(f) 𝑔(𝑥) = −3√𝑥 − 8 − 8 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) → 𝑎 = 𝑏
(a) 𝑦 ≤ −6 (b) 𝑦 ≥ 4 (c) 𝑦 ≥ 4
(d) 𝑦 ≥ −7 (e) 𝑦 ≤ 0 (f) 𝑦 ≤ −8

24
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

LESSON 10 The function, 𝑓, is defined on ℝ This is made possible by the restriction on the
by 𝑓: 𝑥 → 4𝑥 − 1. domain.

(i) Show that 𝑓 is one to one. THE HORIZONTAL LINE TEST

(ii) Hence find the value of 𝑥 ∈ ℝ for which This test states that any if any horizontal line drawn
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥 + 2)) = 𝑓(𝑥 − 5). through the graph of a function cuts the graph in only
one place then the graph represents a one – to – one
SOLUTION function.
(i) 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) LESSON 14 State which of the following graphs
4𝑎 − 1 = 4𝑏 − 1 represent one – to – one functions.
4𝑎 = 4𝑏
𝑎=𝑏
Therefore 𝑓 is one to one.
(ii) Since 𝑓 is one to one
𝑓(𝑥 + 2) = 𝑥 − 5
4(𝑥 + 2) − 1 = 𝑥 − 5
4𝑥 + 8 − 1 = 𝑥 − 5
3𝑥 = −12
𝑥 = −4
Figure 1
2𝑥+1
LESSON 11 Determine if 𝑓(𝑥) = is
1−5𝑥
injective.
SOLUTION
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
2𝑎 + 1 2𝑏 + 1
=
1 − 5𝑎 1 − 5𝑏
(2𝑎 + 1)(1 − 5𝑏) = (2𝑏 + 1)(1 − 5𝑎)
2𝑎 − 10𝑎𝑏 + 1 − 5𝑏 = 2𝑏 − 10𝑎𝑏 + 1 − 5𝑎
Figure 2
2𝑎 − 5𝑏 = 2𝑏 − 5𝑎
SOLUTION
7𝑎 = 7𝑏
Figure 1 does not represent a one – to – one function
𝑎=𝑏
since any horizontal line drawn through the graph of
Therefore 𝑓 is injective.
the function will cut the function in more than one
place. The function is many – to – one.
Figure 2 represents a one – to – one function since
LESSON 12 Determine if 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2
any horizontal line drawn through the graph of the
represents a one - to – one function.
function will cut the function in only one place.
SOLUTION
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑎2 = 𝑏2
±𝑎 = ±𝑏
either 𝑎 = 𝑏 or 𝑎 = −𝑏 or −𝑎 = 𝑏 or 𝑎 = −𝑏
Therefore 𝑓 is not one to one.

LESSON 13 Let 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≥ 1}

A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → ℝ is defined as
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥. Show that 𝑓 is one – to – one.
SOLUTION
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑎2 − 2𝑎 = 𝑏2 − 2𝑏
(𝑎 − 1)2 − 1 = (𝑏 − 1) 2 − 1
(𝑎 − 1)2 = (𝑏 − 1) 2
𝑎−1 = 𝑏−1
𝑎=𝑏
25
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

SURJECTIONS 𝑦−1
=𝑥
A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is surjective or onto if every 2
𝑦−1
𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 is the image of at least one 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴. Therefore, the real number 2 is the pre-
𝑦−1
image of 𝑦 by 𝑓 and 2 is in ℝ for
LESSON 15 Determine whether the
following functions are surjective. any 𝑦 in ℝ so 𝑓 is onto.
However, for 𝑓: ℕ → ℕ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1 is not
𝑦−1
onto since 2 is not in ℕ for every 𝑦 in ℕ. For
2−1 1
example, when 𝑦 = 2, 2 = 2 ∉ ℕ
(b) Let 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 3
√𝑦 + 3 = 𝑥
Therefore, the real number √𝑦 + 3 is the pre-
image of 𝑦 by 𝑓, but √𝑦 + 3 is a real number
only when 𝑦 > −3, so 𝑓 is not onto.
2𝑥−3 1
LESSON 17 Determine if 𝑓(𝑥) = ,𝑥 ≠ −
4𝑥+1 4
is surjective.
SOLUTION
2
Since there is a horizontal asymptote at 𝑦 = , 𝑓 is
4
NOT onto.

BIJECTIONS
SOLUTION A function that is both injective and surjective is a
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is surjective since every 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 is the bijective function (one–to–one and onto).
image of one 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is surjective because every 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 is the LESSON18 Determine whether the
image of at least one 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 following functions are bijective.
ℎ: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is not surjective because 3 ∈ 𝑌 is not the
image of a 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋
Consequently, for a function to be a surjection the
range of the function must be equal to the co-
domain of the function.
NB: 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 illustrates that an injection can be a
surjection.

DETERMINING WHETHER A FUNCTION IS

ONTO
A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is onto if and only if for every
𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 there exist at least one 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 such that
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
SOLUTION
LESSON 16 Prove whether the following
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is bijective since it is injective and
functions, 𝑅 → 𝑅, are surjective.
surjective
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1 𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is surjective but not injective therefore it
(b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3 is not bijective.

SOLUTION
(a) Let 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1

26
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

The four possible combinations of injective and Does 𝑔−1 exist? Give a reason for your answer.
surjective features are illustrated in the following
diagrams. 2. For surjective functions, the codomain of the
Injective and Surjective (Bijective) function is equal to its
(A) Domain
(B) Range
(C) Inverse
(D) Set of pre - images
3. If 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} explain why
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 cannot be surjective.
4. Using 𝐴 = {𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ} and 𝐵 = {0, 4, 9},
construct a surjective function. Does the
function you created have an inverse? Give a
reason for your answer.
Injective and Non – Surjective 5. For a function to be bijective the domain of
the function must contain the same number of
elements as its
(A) Codomain
(B) Range
6. For a function to have an inverse it must be
(A) Injective
(B) Surjective
(C) Bijective
(D) None of the above
Non – Injective and Surjective 7. Show that each of the following functions are
1 – 1.
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 6𝑥
𝑥
(ii) 𝑔(𝑥) = 3 + 4

𝑥2
8. Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥2 −1 , 𝑥 ≠ −1, 1
is not one – to – one.
9. The functions, 𝑓 and 𝑔, are defined by
𝑥2 1
𝑓: 𝑥 → , 𝑥2 ≠ 1 𝑔: 𝑥 → 𝑥 − 3
1 − 𝑥2 2
Non – Injective and Non-Surjective (a) Explain clearly why 𝑓 is not one-to-one
(b) Find, and express in its simplest form,
𝑔𝑓(𝑥)
10. Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5 is one –
to – one.
11. Show that 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2 is onto.
1
12. Show that 𝑓: ℝ → ℕ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 is not
2
onto.
13. Consider the following sets 𝐴 = {1, 2,3, 4} and
𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} and the set of ordered pairs
………………………………………………………………………….. 𝑓: {(1, 𝑏), (3, 𝑑),(2, 𝑏), (4, 𝑒)}. Draw the arrow
diagram to represent 𝑓 and answer the
EXERCISE 6.2 following questions.
a. Is 𝑓 a function?
1. Given that 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and 𝐵 = {1, 5, 7}, b. Is it injective? Is it surjective?
(i) explain why 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 cannot be c. What is the image of 2?
injective.
d. What is the pre-image of 𝑏?
(ii) construct the injective function e. What is the pre-image of 𝑐?
𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴.

27
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

14. If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝐴 has 5 elements while 𝐵 has SOLUTION

4 elements, can 𝑓 be injective?
15. If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝐴 has 5 elements while 𝐵 has (i) 𝑓𝑔(𝑥)
6 elements, can 𝑓 be surjective? 𝑥+2 𝑥 +2
𝑓( ) = 3( )−2
16. Construct a surjective function that is not 3 3
injective between {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and {𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔} =𝑥

SOLUTIONS (ii) 𝑔𝑓(𝑥)

3𝑥 − 2 + 2
𝑔(3𝑥 − 2) =
1. (i) A domain element would have to be 3
omitted for one – to – oneness. =𝑥
2. (B) Generally, 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑓 −1 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥. Since
3. At least one element in 𝐴 would have to be 𝑓𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑔 is the inverse of 𝑥. Furthermore, (as
mapped to more than one element in 𝐵. expected) since 𝑔𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑓 is the inverse of 𝑔.
4. No, since an element in co – domain would not
be mapped to. The functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 written as sets of ordered
5. (B) pairs are as follows:
6. (C) 𝑓 = {(−1, −1), (0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7), (4, 9)}
𝑔 = {(−3, 9), (−2, 4), (−1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9)}
7. (i) (ii)
We realise that 𝑓 is a one – to – one function while
8.
7𝑥2 −6 𝑔 is a many – to – one function.
9. (a) Counter – Example (b) 2(1−𝑥2 ) Now let’s consider the inverses of each function by
10. simply switching the first and second elements of
11. each pair.
12. 𝑓 −1 = {(−1, −1), (1, 0), (3, 1), (5, 2), (7, 3), (9, 4)}
13. (a) Yes (b) Non Injective, Non Surjective 𝑔−1 = {(9, −3), (4, −2), (1, −1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (4, 2), (9, 3)}
(c) 𝑏 (d) 1, 2 (e) Does not exist The inverse of 𝑓 is clearly a function. However,
14. No 𝑔 −1 is not a function since an element in the
15. No domain, for example the element 9, is mapped to
16. more than one element in the range.
…………………………………………………………………………..

FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

LESSON 19 For a function to have an inverse
it has to be

(A) Injective

(B) Surjective

(C) Bijective

(D) None of the above.

VIEW SOLUTION

LESSON 20 Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2 and

𝑥+2
𝑔(𝑥) = , determine
3
Generally, if 𝒇 is one – to – one and onto, then 𝒇 −𝟏
(i) 𝑓𝑔(𝑥) exists.
(ii) 𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 )
State the relationship between 𝑓 and 𝑔. Here are the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑓 −1, along with the
line 𝑦 = 𝑥. In the diagram we realise that the
graph of 𝑓 −1 is a reflection of the graph of 𝑓 in the
28
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

line 𝑦 = 𝑥. This is the geometric relation between Diagram 1

a function and its inverse. That is to say, if 𝑓 has an
inverse then this inverse, 𝑓 −1, is a reflection of 𝑓 in
the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.

LESSON 21 The functions 𝑓 is defined by

𝑓: 𝑥 → 2𝑥 + 3, 𝑥∈ℝ

Sketch, in a single diagram, the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

and 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥), making clearly the relationship
between the two graphs.
SOLUTION Diagram 2

We will construct a table for corresponding pairs

of 𝑥 and 𝑦 values for 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 −2 0 2
𝑦 −1 3 7

We will plot these values to graph 𝑓(𝑥) and plot

the reverse values for 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
𝑓 = {(−2, −1), (0, 3), (2, 7)}
𝑓 −1 = {−1, −2), (3, 0), (7, 2)}
Diagram 3

In diagram 1 it is clear that the graph does not

pass the horizontal line test and therefore it is not
one – to –one. However, by restricting the domain,
we can create a one – to – one relation. The largest
one – to – one relation will be created by using
line of symmetry as seen in the latter 2 diagrams
above.

LESSON 22 Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 4

(a) Express 𝑓(𝑥 ) in the form 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐, where
𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are real numbers.
(b) State the least value of 𝑥 for which 𝑓(𝑥) is one
ONE – TO – ONE QUADRATIC – to – one.
FUNCTIONS (c) State the range of 𝑓(𝑥) for which 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
Diagram 1 shows the graph of exists.
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 4 with its line of symmetry. (d) Determine the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥).
Diagram 2 and diagram 3 show the right half and
the left half of the graph respectively. SOLUTION
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 4
4
𝑓(𝑥) = 3 [𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + ]
3
4
𝑓(𝑥) = 3 [𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 𝑐 + − 𝑐]
3
−4 2
𝑐=( ) =4
2
4
𝑓(𝑥) = 3 [𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + − 4]
3

29
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

8 (ii) Express each of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and 𝑔−1 (𝑥) in

𝑓(𝑥) = 3 [(𝑥 − 2)2 − ]
3 terms of 𝑥.
𝑓(𝑥) = 3(𝑥 − 2)2 − 8 (iii) Show that the equation
(b) The equation for the axis of symmetry is 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑔 −1 (𝑥) has no real roots.
𝑥 = 2, therefore the least value of 𝑥 for which (iv) Sketch, on a single diagram, the
𝑓(𝑥) is one – to – one is 𝑥 = 2. graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥),
(c) The minimum value of 𝑓(𝑥) is −8, therefore making clear the relationship
the corresponding range is 𝑦 ≥ −8. between these two graphs.
(d) Let 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑦 = 3(𝑥 − 2)2 − 8 4. Functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined by
𝑦 + 8 = 3(𝑥 − 2)2
𝑦+8 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 > 0
= (𝑥 − 2)2 2𝑥 − 1
3 𝑔(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥 +3
𝑦+8 (i) Solve the equation 𝑔𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥.
√ = 𝑥−2
3 (ii) Express 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and 𝑔 −1 (𝑥) in terms of 𝑥.
(iii) State the range of 𝑔.
𝑦+8 (iv) Show that the equation 𝑔 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 has no
2+√ =𝑥
3 solutions.
Replacing 𝑦 with 𝑥 (v) Sketch, in a single diagram the graphs of
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥), making clear
𝑥+8 the relationship between the graphs.
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 2 + √
3
5. (i) Express 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 8 in the form
NB: ± is not used since the function is one – to
– one. Since the least value of 𝑥 was required 𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑏) 2 + 𝑐, where 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are
integers.
we want the right half of the graph and
A function 𝑓 is defined by
consequently + was used. – would have been
used if the left half of the graph was required. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 8, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
…………………………………………………………………………..
EXERCISE 6.3 (ii) Find the coordinates of the minimum
1. The function 𝑓 is defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 1. point on the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
(i) Determine 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
(ii) On a single graph, sketch the graphs of A function is defined by
𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓 −1 (𝑥). Clearly show the 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 8, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, where 𝑥 ≤ 𝑁.
relationship between 𝑓 and its inverse. (iii) State the greatest value of 𝑁 for which 𝑔
2. The functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined by has an inverse.
(iv) Using the result obtained in part (i), find
𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ an expression for 𝑔 −1 .
𝑔: 𝑥 → 3𝑥 + 5, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
6. (i) Express 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3 in the form
(i) Find the set of values for which 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏) 2 + 𝑐, where 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are
𝑓(𝑥) > 15. integers.
(ii) Show that 𝑔𝑓(𝑥) = 0 has no real solution.
(iii) Sketch in a single diagram the graphs of A function 𝑓 is defined by
𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔 −1 (𝑥), clearly showing 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
the relationship between the two graphs. (ii) Find the coordinates of the minimum
point on the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
3. Functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined by
(iii) Find the value of 𝑓 2 (0).
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5, A function is defined by
4 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, where 𝑥 ≤ 𝑁.
𝑔(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 2 (iv) State the greatest value of 𝑁 for which 𝑔
2−𝑥
(i) Find the value of 𝑥 for which 𝑓𝑔(𝑥) = 7. has an inverse.

30
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

(v) Using the result obtained in part (i), find LESSON 24 The function 𝑓 is defined by
an expression for 𝑔 −1 . 𝑥 − 3; −5 ≤ 𝑥 < −2
SOLUTIONS 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2; −2 < 𝑥 < 0
𝑥+1
1. (i) 3 (ii) √𝑥; 0≤𝑥<9

2. (i) {𝑥 < −3} ∪ {𝑥 > 5} 1. State the domain of 𝑓.

(ii) Discriminant is negative (iii) 2. Determine the values of the following.
4 𝑥+5 2𝑥−4
3. (i) 3 (ii) 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 2 , 𝑔−1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 i. 𝑓𝑓(4)
(iii) Discriminant is negative ii. 𝑓𝑓(−1)
iii. 𝑓𝑓(−4)
1 𝑥−1 3𝑥+1
4. (i) 𝑥 = ±√2 (ii) 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = , 𝑔 −1 (𝑥) = SOLUTION
2 2−𝑥
(iii) 𝑦 ≠ 2 (iv) Discriminant is negative
1. Placing the intervals on a number line we
have
5. (i) 3(𝑥 − 2)2 − 4 (ii) (2, −4) (iii) 2
𝑥+4
(iv) 2 + √ 3
6. (i) 2(𝑥 − 2)2 − 5 (ii) (2, −5) (iii) −3 The domain of 𝑓: {𝑥: −5 ≤ 𝑥 < 9, 𝑥 ≠ −2}
𝑥+5 2. i. 𝑓𝑓(4) using √𝑥
(iv) 2 (v) 2 + √
2 = 𝑓[√4]
………………………………………………………………………….. = 𝑓(2) using √𝑥
= √2
PIECE-WISE FUNCTIONS ii. 𝑓𝑓(−1) using 2
A Piece-wise function is a function whose formula
= 𝑓 (2) using √𝑥
changes depending upon the input values used.
= √2
iv. 𝑓𝑓(−4) using 𝑥 − 3
LESSON 23 The function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined as
𝑥 + 5; 𝑥≤0 = 𝑓(−7)
𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 Undefined: −7 is outside domain of 𝑓
𝑥 ; 𝑥>0
Evaluate:
NB: For compositions of piece-wise functions DO
1. 𝑓(0) NOT create a formula for the composition.
2. 𝑓(5)
3. 𝑓(−2) …………………………………………………………………………..
4. 𝑓(−1) + 𝑓(1) EXERCISE 6.4

𝑥 + 7, 𝑥 ≤ 2
SOLUTION 1. For 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { 𝑥 , 𝑥 > 2 , evaluate
3
i. 𝑓(0) (a) 𝑓(2)
0 is in the interval 𝑥 ≤ 0 therefore we use the (b) 𝑓(−4)
formula 𝑥 + 5 (c) 𝑓(15)
So 𝑓(0) = 0 + 5 = 5 (d) 𝑓(63)
ii. 𝑓(5) 𝑥 − 5, − 9 ≤ 𝑥 < 3
5 is in the interval 𝑥 > 0, therefore we use the 2. For 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 , 3 ≤ 𝑥 < 8 , determine
2
formula 𝑥 2 . (i) the domain of 𝑓
So 𝑓(5) = 52 = 25 (ii) 𝑓𝑓(0)
iii. 𝑓(−2) = −2 + 5 = 3 since −2 is in the (iii) 𝑓𝑓(4)
interval 𝑥 ≤ 0
iv. 𝑓(−1) = −1 + 5 = 4 and 𝑓(1) = 12 = 1
SOLUTIONS
𝑓 (−1) + 𝑓 (1) = 4 + 1 = 5
1. (a) 9 (b) 3 (c) 5 (d) 21
2. (i) −9 ≤ 𝑥 < 8 (ii) −10 (iii) −3

…………………………………………………………………………..

31
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

EXAM QUESTIONS 7. The functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined as follows:

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 1
1. (i) The function 𝑓 is defined by 𝑥−1
𝑓: 𝑥 → 1 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. 𝑔(𝑥) = √ where 1 ≤ 𝑥 < ∞, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ .
2
(i) Determine, in terms of 𝑥,
Show that 𝑓 is NOT one – to – one. (a) 𝑓 2 (𝑥) [3]
(b) 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] [3]
(ii) The function 𝑔 is defined by
1 (ii) Hence, or otherwise, state the
𝑔: 𝑥 → 𝑥 − 3, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. relationship between 𝑓 and 𝑔. [1]
2
CAPE 2014
(a) Find 𝑓𝑔(𝑥), and clearly state its 8. The diagram below (not drawn to scale)
domain. represents the graph of the function
(b) Determine the inverse, 𝑔 −1 , of 𝑔 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1, −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 and 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℝ.
sketch on same pair of axes, the
graphs of 𝑔 and 𝑔−1 .
ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS 2014

2. The functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined on 𝑅 by

𝑓: 𝑥 → 2𝑥
𝑔: 𝑥 → 𝑥 2 − 3
Determine the set of values of 𝑥 for which
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)). [7] (a) Find
CAPE 2000 (i) the value of 𝑝 and 𝑞. [2]
3. The function 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined on ℝ by (ii) the range of the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) for the
𝑓: 𝑥 → −3𝑥 + 6, 𝑔: 𝑥 → 𝑥 + 7 given domain. [1]
(b) determine whether 𝑓(𝑥)
Solve, for 𝑥, the equation 𝑓(𝑔(2𝑥 + 1)) = 30
(i) is surjective (onto) [1]
[5]
(ii) is injective (one – to – one) [1]
CAPE 2004
(iii) has an inverse. [1]
4. The function 𝑓(𝑥) has the property that
CAPE 2006
𝑓 (2𝑥 + 3) = 2𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 3, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
9. The function 𝑓 on 𝑅 is defined by
If 𝑓(0) = 6, find the value of
𝑥 −3 if 𝑥 ≤ 3
(i) 𝑓(3) [4] 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥
(ii) 𝑓(9) [2] if 𝑥 > 3
4
(iii) 𝑓(−3) [3]
CAPE 2011 Find the value of
5. The function 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined by
(i) 𝑓[𝑓(20)] [3]
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 1, 0≤𝑥≤3 (ii) 𝑓[𝑓(8)] [2]
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 5, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ (iii) 𝑓[𝑓(3)] [2]
where ℝ is the set of real numbers.
(i) Determine the composition function CAPE 2009
𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)). [1]
10. Let 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≥ 1}.
(ii) State the range of 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)). [1]
A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → ℝ is defined as
(iii) Determine the inverse of 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)). [2] 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥. Show that 𝑓 is one to one. [7]
ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS 2012
2𝑥−1
CAPE 2013
6. A function 𝑓(𝑥) is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = . 11. The relations 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 are
𝑥+2
functions which are both one – to – one and
(i) Find an expression for the inverse onto. Show that (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) is
function 𝑓 −1 (𝑥). [3] (i) one – to – one [4]
(ii) The function 𝑔 is given by 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1. (ii) onto [4]
Write an expression for the composite CAPE 2015
function, 𝑓𝑔(𝑥). Simplify your answer. [2]
ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS 2013
32
 CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS

SOLUTIONS
𝑥 2
1. (ii) (a) 1 − (2 − 3) , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
(b) 𝑔−1 (𝑥) = 2(𝑥 + 3)
1 3
2. 𝑥 = − 2,2
3. 𝑥 = −8
4. (i) 15 (ii) 33 (iii) −3
5. (i) 𝑥 3 + 6 (ii) 𝑦 ∈ ℝ (iii) 3√𝑥 − 6
−1−2𝑥 2𝑥+1
6. (i) 𝑥−2 (ii) 𝑥+3
7. (i) (a) 8𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 2 + 3 (b) 𝑥
8. (a) (i) 𝑝 = 2, 𝑞 = 1 (ii) 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2
(b) (i) Yes (ii) No (iii) No
5
9. (i) 4 (ii) −1 (iii) −3
10.
11.

…………………………………………………………………………..

33
 CHAPTER 7: POLYNOMIALS

CHAPTER 7: POLYNOMIALS
At the end of this section, students should be able = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6)
to: = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2)
 factorise polynomial expressions of
degree less than or equal to 4, leading to LESSON 3 If 𝑥 + 3 is a factor of
real linear factors; 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 9 find the remaining
 apply the Remainder Theorem; factor(s).
 use the Factor Theorem to find factors SOLUTION
and to evaluate unknown coefficients;
 use the relationship between the sum of
the roots, the product of the roots, the
sum of the product of the roots of the
roots pair – wise and the coefficients of
𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0
𝑃(𝑥) =
 extract all factors of 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏𝑛 for positive
integers 𝑛 ≤ 6;
LESSON 4 Find the quotient and remainder
__________________________________________________________ when 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 5 is divided by
INTRODUCTION 2𝑥 − 1.
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 SOLUTION Dividing 2𝑥 − 1 by 2 we
1
is called an 𝑛th degree polynomial function. 𝑎 is a have 𝑥 − 2 which is then our divisor.
real number and 𝑛 is a non – negative integer.
 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎 is a constant function. A zero
degree polynoimial.
 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 is a linear function. A 1st
degree polynomial
 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is a quadratic
function. A 2nd degree polynomial.
 𝑃 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 is a cubic Then we have
polynomial. A 3rd degree polynomial. 1
𝑃(𝑥) ≡ (𝑥 − ) (2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 2) + 4
2
SYNTHETIC DIVISION 1
≡ 2 (𝑥 − ) (𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1) + 4
LESSON 1 Divide 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 by 𝑥 + 2. 2
SOLUTION NB: 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 is called the ≡ (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1) + 4
dividend whereas 𝑥 + 2 is the divisor. …………………………………………………………………………
EXERCISE 7.1
1. Divide
(a) 𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 38𝑥 − 40 by 𝑥 − 2
(b) 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 by 𝑥 + 1
(c) 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 25𝑥 + 50 by 𝑥 − 2
(d) 2𝑥 3 + 11𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 + 9 by 𝑥 + 3
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
∴ = 𝑥+3 (e) 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 4 by 𝑥 − 4
𝑥 +2 (f) 9𝑥 3 − 27𝑥 2 + 23𝑥 − 5 by 𝑥 − 1
(g) 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 2 by 𝑥 + 2
LESSON 2 If 𝑥 − 1 is a factor of
(h) 4𝑥 3 + 20𝑥 2 + 29𝑥 + 10 by 𝑥 + 2
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 + 6 find the remaining factor(s).
(i) 6𝑥 3 + 13𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 24 by 𝑥 + 2
SOLUTION
(j) 3𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 32 by 𝑥 − 4

2. Divide
(a) 2𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 − 4 by 2𝑥 − 1
(b) 2𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 19𝑥 − 10 by 2𝑥 − 5
(c) 3𝑥 3 + 20𝑥 2 + 27𝑥 + 10 by 3𝑥 + 2
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 + 6 (d) 4𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 45 by 2𝑥 + 5

34
 CHAPTER 7: POLYNOMIALS

SOLUTIONS SOLUTION
1. (a) (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 5) (b) (𝑥 − 1)2 By the Factor Theorem
(c) (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 5) (d) (2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑃(−1) = 0
(e) (2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1) (f) (3𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 − 5) 2(−1) 3 + 𝑎(−1) 2 + 𝑏 = 0
(g) (𝑥 − 1)2 (h) (2𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 5) 𝑎+𝑏 = 2
(i) (3𝑥 − 4)(2𝑥 + 3) (j) (3𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 2) By the Remainder Theorem
2. (a) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4) (b) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑃(3) = 16
(c) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 5) (d) (2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) 2(3) 3 + 𝑎(3) 2 + 𝑏 = 16
9𝑎 + 𝑏 = −38
………………………………………………………………………… Solving (*) and (**) simultaneously
𝑎+𝑏 = 2
REMAINDER AND FACTOR 9𝑎 + 𝑏 = −38
THEOREM 𝑎 = −5 and 𝑏 = 7
INTRODUCTION
LESSON 7 Given that
If 𝑅 is the remainder after dividing the polynomial
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 𝑞 is divisible by
𝑃(𝑥) by 𝑥 + 𝑟, then
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 show that 𝑝 = −1 and 𝑞 = −9.
𝑃(−𝑟) = 𝑅
SOLUTION
It is clear that if 𝑥 + 𝑟 is a factor of the polynomial
𝑃(𝑥) then the remainder (𝑅) is zero. Therefore 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 0
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
from (*) above we would have that 𝑃(−𝑟) = 0.
𝑥 = −1, 3
This leads us directly to the factor theorem.
The roots of 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 have to be roots of
If −𝑟 is a root of the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥), then 𝑥 + 𝑟 is 2𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 𝑞
a factor of 𝑃(𝑥). Conversely, if 𝑥 + 𝑟 is a factor of By the Factor Theorem
𝑃 (−1) = 0
𝑃(𝑥 ), then – 𝑟 is a root of 𝑃(𝑥).
2(−1) 3 + 𝑝(−1)2 − 12(−1) + 𝑞 = 0
𝑝 + 𝑞 = −10 (*)
LESSON 5 The expression
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 𝑏 is divisible by 𝑥 − 4, 𝑃(3) = 0
determine 2(3) 3 + 𝑝(3) 2 − 12(3) + 𝑞 = 0
9𝑝 + 𝑞 = −18 (**)
(i) the value of 𝑏,
(ii) the remainder when 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is divided by 2𝑥 − 1 Solving (*) and (**) simultaneously
𝑝 + 𝑞 = −10
9𝑝 + 𝑞 = −18
SOLUTION
𝑝 = −1 and 𝑞 = −9
𝑥 − 4 is a factor → 𝑥 = 4 is a root
𝑃(4) = 0 by Factor Theorem
LESSON 8 Factorise 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2.
𝑃(4) = 2(4)3 − 3(4) 2 − 7(4) + 𝑏
2(4) 3 − 3(4)2 − 7(4) + 𝑏 = 0
SOLUTION
128 − 48 − 28 + 𝑏 = 0
𝑏 = −52 Let 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2
We now need to find a root of 𝑃(𝑥), therefore we
2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 52
1 try various values of 𝑥 until we get 𝑃(𝑥) = 0. By
2𝑥 − 1 → corresponding 𝑥 is 𝑥 = inspection we see that 𝑃(1) = 13 + 2(1) 2 − 1 −
2
2 = 0, therefore (𝑥 − 1) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥). We can
1 1 3 1 2 1
𝑃 ( ) = 2 ( ) − 3 ( ) − 7 ( ) − 52 = −56 continue by guessing the other 2 roots (a cubic
2 2 2 2 equation has at most three roots) or we can use
polynomial long division
LESSON 6
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 𝑏
(i) Given that 𝑥 − 1 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) and that
there is a remainder of 9 when 𝑓(𝑥 ) is divided
by 𝑥 + 2, find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
(ii) Hence
(a) factor 𝑓(𝑥)
(b) solve the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.

35
 CHAPTER 7: POLYNOMIALS

SOLUTIONS
1. 5
2. −21
3. 𝑝 = −11, 𝑞 = 6
4. (i) 𝑎 = −3, 𝑏 = −2 (ii) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1) 2
5. (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 5)
5
6. 𝑥 = −2, 2 , 3
1 1
7. (i) −3, , 2 (ii) −4, −2,
2 3
3 1
8. − 2 , − 2 , 2
…………………………………………………………………………
EXAM QUESTIONS
or synthetic division. 1. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑝2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 𝑝 has
remainder −5 when it is divided by 𝑥 + 1.
Find the possible values of 𝑝. [6]
CAPE 2004
2. The function 𝑓(𝑥) is given by
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − (𝑝 + 1)𝑥 2 + 𝑝, 𝑝 ∈ ℕ.
(i) Show that (𝑥 − 1) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)
for all values of 𝑝. [2]
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2)
(ii) If (𝑥 − 2) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), find the
= (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)
value of 𝑝. [2]
…………………………………………………………………………
CAPE 2006
EXERCISE 7.2
3. If 𝑥 − 1 is a factor of the function
1. Use the remainder theorem to find the
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2, 𝑝 ∈ ℝ, find
remainder when 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 9 is divided by
(a) the value of 𝑝 [2]
𝑥 + 2.
(b) the remaining factors [4]
2. The expression 𝑎𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 − 5 has a
CAPE 2007
factor of 𝑥 + 1 and leaves a remainder of 4
4. The roots of the cubic equation
when divided by 𝑥 − 3. Calculate the
𝑥 3 + 3𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 = 0 are 1, −1 and 3. Find
remainder when the expression is divided by
the values of the real constants 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟. [7]
𝑥 − 2.
CAPE 2008
3. Find the value of 𝑝 and 𝑞 for which
5. Find the values of the constant 𝑝 such that
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6 is a factor of 2𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 𝑞.
𝑥 − 𝑝 is a factor of
4. The cubic polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is given by
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 3 − (3𝑝 + 2)𝑥 2 − (𝑝2 − 1) 𝑥 + 3.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
[5]
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants. It is given that
6. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 16
(𝑥 + 1) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) and that the
(i) Given that (𝑥 + 1) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥),
remainder when 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 − 3) is
show that 𝑝 = 6. [2]
16.
(ii) Factorise 𝑓(𝑥) completely. [4]
(i) Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
(iii) Hence, or otherwise, solve 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.
(ii) Hence verify that 𝑓(2) = 0, and factorise
[3]
𝑓(𝑥) completely.
CAPE 2013
5. Factorise 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 32𝑥 + 15.
7. The polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑞 has
6. Factorise 2𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 30, hence solve
a factor (𝑥 − 5) and a remainder of 24 when
the equation 2𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 = −30.
divided by (𝑥 − 1).
7. Solve the following equations
(i) Find the values of 𝑝 and 𝑞. [4]
(i) 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 6 = 0
(ii) Hence, factorise
(ii) 3𝑥(𝑥 2 + 6) = 8 − 17𝑥 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑞 completely.
8. Factorise completely the expression
[5]
4𝑥 3 − 13𝑥 − 6 and hence solve the equation
3 CAPE 2015
2 (2𝑥 2 − ) = 13
𝑥

36
 CHAPTER 7: POLYNOMIALS

SOLUTIONS 𝑏 (−𝑝)
1. 𝑝 = −2, 1 𝛼+𝛽=− =− =𝑝
𝑎 1
2. (ii) 𝑝 = 4 𝑐
𝛼𝛽 = = 𝑝
3. (i) 𝑝 = 2 (ii) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑎
4. 𝑝 = −1, 𝑞 = −1, 𝑟 = 3 LESSON 10 If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the
3
5. 𝑝 = −1, 2 equation 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 2 = 0, find the values of
a) 𝛼 + 𝛽 b) 𝛼𝛽 c) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2
6. (iii) −1, 2, 8
7. (i) 𝑝 = −6, 𝑞 = 30 (ii) (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)
SOLUTION
………………………………………………………………………… 𝑏 −4
a) 𝛼+𝛽=− =− =4
𝑎 1
ROOTS OF POLYNOMIALS 𝑐 2
b) 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎 = − 1 = −2
INTRODUCTION
A number 𝑎 is called a root of the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥)
if 𝑃(𝑎) = 0. For a quadratic equation we have c) (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 = 42
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 𝛼 2 + 2𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2 = 16
𝑏 𝑐 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = 16 − 2𝛼𝛽
→ 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + = 0 = 16 − 2(−2) = 20
𝑎 𝑎
Also if 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of a quadratic
equation then LESSON 11 If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the
(𝑥 − 𝛽 )(𝑥 − 𝛼 ) = 0 equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0, find equations whose
𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0 roots are
Equating coefficients of 𝑥 we then have: a) – 𝛼, −𝛽 b) 𝛼 2 , 𝛽 2 c) 𝛼 − 1, 𝛽 − 1
𝑏
−(𝛼 + 𝛽) = SOLUTION
𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 1
∴ 𝛼+𝛽 =− 𝛼+𝛽 =− = − = −1
𝑎 𝑎 1
i.e. the sum of the roots of a quadratic equation = 𝑐 −2
𝛼𝛽 = = = −2
−
𝑏 𝑎 1
𝑎 a) (– 𝛼) + (−𝛽) = −(𝛼 + 𝛽) = −(−1) = 1
Equating constants we have: (−𝛼)(−𝛽) = 𝛼𝛽 = −2
𝑐
𝛼𝛽 = 𝑥 2 − (sum of roots)𝑥 + (product of roots) = 0
𝑎 𝑥 2 − (1)𝑥 + (−2) = 0
i.e. the product of the roots of a quadratic
𝑐 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0
equation = b) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽 )2 − 2𝛼𝛽
𝑎
Thus, we know that given the roots of a quadratic = (−1)2 − 2(−2)
equation the corresponding equation is =5
𝑥 2 − (sum of roots)𝑥 + (product of roots) = 0 (𝛼 2 )(𝛽 2 ) = (𝛼𝛽)2 = (−2) 2 = 4
𝑥 2 − (sum of roots)𝑥 + (product of roots) = 0
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 = 0
LESSON 9 Find the sums and products of the
c) (𝛼 − 1) + (𝛽 − 1) = 𝛼 + 𝛽 − 2
roots of the following equations.
a) 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 = 0
= −1 − 2 = −3
b) 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0
(𝛼 − 1)(𝛽 − 1) = 𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼 − 𝛽 + 1
= 𝛼𝛽 − (𝛼 + 𝛽) + 1
SOLUTION
Let 𝛼 and 𝛽 be the roots of the equations = −2 − (−1) + 1
=0
a) 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝑥 2 − (sum of roots)𝑥 + (product of roots) = 0
𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −5, 𝑐 = −2 𝑥 2 − (−3)𝑥 + 0 = 0
𝑏 −5 5
(sum of roots): 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − = − = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 = 0
𝑎 3 3
𝑐 2
(product of roots): 𝛼𝛽 = = −
𝑎 3
b) 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −𝑝, 𝑐 = 𝑝

37
 CHAPTER 7: POLYNOMIALS

LESSON 12 The roots of the equation a. 𝛼2 + 𝛽2

3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽. b. (𝛼 − 𝛽)2
Without solving the equation c. 𝛼3 + 𝛽3
1 1
(i) write down the values of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽 d. +𝛽
𝛼
(ii) find the value of 𝛼2 + 𝛽2 1 1
e. + 𝛽2
(iii) obtain a quadratic equation whose roots are 𝛼2
1 1 𝛼 𝛽
and β2 f. + 𝛼2
α2 𝛽2

SOLUTION 7. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation

4 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 4 = 0, find equations whose roots are
(i) 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 3
a) – 𝛼, −𝛽
𝛼𝛽 b) 𝛼 2 , 𝛽 2
(ii) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽 c) 𝛼 − 1, 𝛽 − 1
4 2 1
= ( ) − 2( )
3 3 SOLUTIONS
10 1. A
=
9 2. B
1 1 1 1
(iii) 𝑥 2 − (𝛼2 + 𝛽2 ) 𝑥 + (𝛼 ) (𝛽) = 0 3. C
7 4 1
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 9 = 0 4. (a) 1, 125 (b) 8, 10 (c) 0, − 3 (d) 3 , − 3
………………………………………………………………………… 3
EXERCISE 7.3 5. (a) −3 (b) − 2 (c) 12 (d) −40.5
1. For 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 9 = 0 the sum of the roots is 6. (a)
17
(b)
33
(c)
25 1
(d) − 4 (e) 16
17
(A) 5 4 4 8
25
(B) −5 (f)
1 32
(C) 7. (a) 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 4 = 0 (b) 𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 16 = 0
5
1
(D) − 5 (c) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2 = 0
2. What is the value of the sum of the roots of …………………………………………………………………………
the equation 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3 = 0?
(A) −4 EXAM QUESTIONS
(B) 4 1. Let 𝛼 and 𝛽 be the roots of the equation
(C) 8
4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
(D) −8 (a) Without solving the equation, write down
3. What is the value of the product of the roots of the values of
the equation 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 25 = 0? (i) 𝛼+𝛽
3
(A) 25 (ii) 𝛼𝛽 [1]
3
(B) − 25 (b) Find the value of 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2. [2]
25 (c) Find the equation whose roots are
(C) 2 2
3
25 2
and 2. [3]
𝛼 𝛽
(D) − 3
CAPE 2000
4. Find the sum and product of the roots of the 2. Given that 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the
following equations. equation 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 1 = 0, find the equation
a. 5 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = 0 whose roots are 1 + 𝛼 and 1 + 𝛽. [5]
b. 𝑥(𝑥 − 3) = 5(𝑥 − 2) CAPE 2004
c. 3𝑥 2 − 7 = 0 3. The roots of the quadratic equation
1
d. 3𝑥 − 𝑥 = 4 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 5 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽. Without
5. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation solving the equation
2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3 = 0, determine the values of (i) write down the values of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and
a. 𝛼 + 𝛽 𝛼𝛽 [2]
b. 𝛼𝛽 (ii) calculate
c. 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 (a) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 [2]
d. 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 (b) 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 [4]
6. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation (iii) find a quadratic equation whose roots
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 4 = 0, find the values of are 𝛼 3 and 𝛽 3 . [4]

38
 CHAPTER 7: POLYNOMIALS

CAPE 2008 LESSON 13 For the following equations

4. The roots of the quadratic equation determine the values of 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾, 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛽𝛾
2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 5 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽. Without and 𝛼𝛽𝛾.
solving the equation, find a quadratic (i) 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6 = 0
2 2
equation with roots and . [6]
𝛼 𝛽 (ii) 4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 6 = 0
CAPE 2009
5. The quadratic equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 24 = 0, SOLUTION
𝑝 ∈ ℝ, has roots 𝛼 and 𝛽.
(i) Express in terms of 𝑝 (i) 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = −5, 𝑑 = −6
(a) 𝛼 + 𝛽 [1] 𝑏 2
𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = − = − = −2
(b) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 [4] 𝑎 1
(ii) Given that 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = 33, find the possible 𝑐 −5
𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛽𝛾 = = = −5
values of 𝑝. [3] 𝑎 1
CAPE 2010 𝑑 −6
𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − = − =6
𝑎 1
SOLUTIONS
3
1. (a) (i) 4
1
(ii) 4 (b) 16
1 (ii) 𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = 1, 𝑐 = 11, 𝑑 = 6
𝑏 1
(c) 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 64 = 0 𝛼+𝛽 +𝛾 =− =−
𝑎 4
2. 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = 0 𝑐 11
5 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛽𝛾 = =
3. (a) (i) −2, 2 (ii) (a) −1 (b) 7 𝑎 4
𝑑 6 3
4. 5𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 8 = 0 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − = − = −
𝑎 4 2
5. (i) (a) 𝑝 (b) 24 (ii) 𝑝 = ±9
LESSON 14 Find the cubic equation with
………………………………………………………………………… roots, 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 given that 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = −6,
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛾 2 = 38 and 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = 30.
CUBIC POLYNOMIALS
INTRODUCTION SOLUTION
For a cubic polynomial we have NB: 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛾 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)2 − 2
𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0 (𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾 )
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 Required equation is
→ 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + = 0
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 3 − (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)𝑥 2 + (𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾)𝑥 − 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = 0
Now, if 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are the roots of the polynomial
then Using equation
(𝑥 − 𝛼 )(𝑥 − 𝛽 )(𝑥 − 𝛾 ) = 0 38 = (−6)2 − 2(𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾)
→ 𝑥 3 − (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)𝑥 2 + (𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾)𝑥 − 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = 0 38 − 36
Equating coefficients of 𝑥 2 : = 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾
−2
𝑏 −1 = 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾
−(𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾) =
𝑎
𝑏 𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 30 = 0
→ 𝛼+𝛽+𝛾 =−
𝑎
Equating coefficients of 𝑥: LESSON 15 The cubic equation
𝑐
𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 has roots 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾. Determine
𝑎 the cubic equations with roots
Equating constants:
𝑑 (a) 2𝛼, 2𝛽, 2𝛾
−𝛼𝛽𝛾 =
𝑎 1 1 1
𝑑 (b) 𝛼 , 𝛽 , 𝛾
→ 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = −
𝑎
Therefore, for a cubic polynomial SOLUTION
𝑏 𝑑
(sum of roots) = − and (product of roots) = − (a) We know that for the given equation
𝑎 𝑎

39
 CHAPTER 7: POLYNOMIALS

𝑥 = 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 and for the required equation we = −19

will let 𝑋 = 2𝛼, 2𝛽, 2𝛾. Therefore we see that (𝛼 2 𝛽 2 𝛾 2) = (𝛼𝛽𝛾)2 = (−2)2 = 4
𝑋
𝑋 = 2𝑥 → 𝑥 = 2 Required equation is
Substituting we get, 𝑥 3 − 27𝑥 2 − 19𝑥 − 4 = 0
𝑋 3 𝑋 2 LESSON 17 Two of the roots of the cubic
( ) + 4( ) − 1 = 0
2 2 equation 2𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 3 are −1 and 3. Find
𝑋3 𝑋2
+ 4( )− 1 = 0
8 4 (i) the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏
𝑋3 + 8𝑋2 − 8 = 0 (ii) the third root

1 1 SOLUTION
(b) Let 𝑋 = → 𝑥=
𝑥 𝑋
1 1 2 (i) By the Factor Theorem
+ 4 ( ) −1 =0
𝑋3 𝑋 𝑃(−1) = 0
1 4 2(−1) 3 + 𝑎(−1) 2 + 𝑏(−1) + 3 = 0
+ −1 =0
𝑋3 𝑋2 𝑎 + 𝑏 = −5 (*)
1 + 4𝑋 − 𝑋3 = 0 𝑃(3) = 0
𝑋3 − 4𝑋 − 1 = 0 2(3) 3 + 𝑎(3) 2 + 𝑏(3) + 3 = 0
3𝑎 − 𝑏 = 17 (**)
LESSON 16 The cubic equation Solving (*) and (**) simultaneously
𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 = 0 has roots 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾. 𝑎 + 𝑏 = −5
Determine the cubic equations with roots 3𝑎 − 𝑏 = 17
𝑎 = 3 and 𝑏 = −8
(a) 𝛼𝛽, 𝛼𝛾, 𝛽𝛾
𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3
(b) 𝛼 2 , 𝛽 2, 𝛾2
(ii) Let the roots be 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 where 𝛾 is the
SOLUTION third root
𝛼𝛽𝛾 = −3
𝑏 (−1)(3)𝛾 = −3
𝛼+𝛽 +𝛾 =− = −5 𝛾=1
𝑎
𝑐
𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛽𝛾 = = −1 …………………………………………………………………………
𝑎
𝑑 EXERCISE 7.4
𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − = −2 1. Write down the sums and products of the
𝑎
(a) Equation with roots 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 is roots of the following equations.
𝑥 3 − (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)𝑥2 + (𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾)𝑥 − 𝛼𝛽𝛾 (a) 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 12 = 0
=0 (b) 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 0
Therefore with the roots 𝛼𝛽, 𝛼𝛾 and 𝛽𝛾 the (c) 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 = 0
equation is (d) 𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 − 6 = 0
𝑥 3 − (𝛼𝛽 + αγ + 𝛽𝛾)𝑥 2 2. Given that
+ [(𝛼𝛽)(𝛼𝛾) + (𝛽𝛾)(𝛼𝛽) 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = 0,
+ (𝛼𝛾)(𝛽𝛾)]𝑥 − (𝛼𝛽)(𝛼𝛾)(𝛽𝛾) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛾 2 = 14,
=0 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = −18
𝑥 3 − (−1)𝑥 2 + [𝛼𝛽𝛾(𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)]𝑥 − (𝛼𝛽𝛾)2 = 0 find a cubic equation whose roots are 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾.
𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + [−2(−5)]𝑥 − (−2)2 = 0 3. A cubic equation has roots 𝛼, 𝛽, and 𝛾 such
𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 4 = 0 that
(b) Required equation is 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = 4,
𝑥 3 − (𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛾 2 )𝑥 2 + [(𝛼 2 𝛽2) + (𝛼 2 𝛾 2) + (𝛽 2 𝛾 2)]𝑥 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛾 2 = 14,
− (𝛼 2 𝛽2 𝛾 2) = 0 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 + 𝛾 3 = 34
Now, Find the value of 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾.
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛾 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)2 − 2(𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾) Show that the cubic equation is
= (−5)2 − 2(−1) 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 6 = 0 and solve this equation.
= 27
(𝛼 2 𝛽 2 ) + (𝛼 2 𝛾 2 ) + (𝛽 2 𝛾 2 ) 4. Given that 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are the root of the
= (𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛽𝛾)2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝛾(𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾) equation 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 − 5 = 0, find the value of
= ( −1)2 − 2(−2)(−5) 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 + 𝛾 3.

40
 CHAPTER 7: POLYNOMIALS

5. Given that 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are the roots of the Find 𝑝 and 𝑞.

equation 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1 = 0, find the 𝑝 = −4, 𝑞 = 5
exact values of 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛾 2 and 3. The equation 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 = 0 has roots
𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 + 𝛾 3. 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾, where
6. The roots of the cubic equation 𝛼+𝛽+𝛾 = 3
𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 = 0 are 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾. Find the 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = −7
values of 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛾 2 = 13
(i) 𝛼2 + 𝛽2 + 𝛾 2 (i) Write down the values of 𝑝 and 𝑟.
(ii) 𝛼3 + 𝛽3 + 𝛾 3 (ii) Find the value of 𝑞.
7. The equation 8𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1 = 0 has (i) 𝑝 = −3, 𝑟 = 7 (ii) 𝑞 = −2
roots 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾. Show that the equation with root 4. The cubic equation 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 has
2𝛼 + 1, 2𝛽 + 1 and 2𝛾 + 1 is 𝑦 3 − 𝑦 − 1 = 0. roots 𝛼, −3𝛼 and 𝛼 + 3. Find the values of 𝛼, 𝑝
8. The cubic equation 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 = 0 has and 𝑞.
roots 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾, find a cubic equation whose 𝑝 = −8, 𝑞 = 12
roots are 𝛼 + 𝛽, 𝛽 + 𝛾, 𝛾 + 𝛼. 5. The cubic equation 3𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0
9. If the roots of the equation 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + ℎ𝑥 + 𝛼
has roots 𝛼, 6 and 𝛼 − 7. Find the values of
𝑘 = 0 are 𝛼, 2𝛼 and 𝛼 + 3, find the values of
𝛼, ℎ and 𝑘. 𝛼, 𝑝 and 𝑞.
𝛼 = 2, 𝑝 = −33, 𝑞 = 10
NB: 6. The roots of the cubic equation
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛾 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)2 − 2(𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾) 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 are 2𝑤, −6𝑤 and 3𝑤.
𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 + 𝛾 3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)3
− 3(𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)(𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾) Find the values of the roots and the values of
+ 3𝛼𝛽𝛾 𝑝 and 𝑞.
3
Roots: 1, −3, 2 𝑝 = −12, 𝑞 = 9
(𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 + 𝛾)(𝛽 + 𝛾) = (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)(𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 +
𝛼𝛾) − 𝛼𝛽𝛾. 7. The cubic equation 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 1 = 0 has
roots 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾.
SOLUTIONS (i) Write down the values of 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾,
3 5 4 2
1. (a) − 2 , 6 (b) − 2 , 0 (c) − 3 , 3 (d) 0, 6 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛾𝛼 and 𝛼𝛽𝛾.
2. 3
𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 18 = 0 (ii) Find the cubic equation with roots
3. 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾 =1, 𝑥 = −1, 2, 3 2𝛼, 2𝛽 and 2𝛾, simplifying your
4. 66 answers as far as possible.
5. 17, 66 (i) −3, −7, −1 (ii) 𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 28𝑥 + 8 = 0
6. (i) 45 (ii) 310 8. The roots of the cubic equation
7. 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0 are 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾.
8. 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2 = 0
Find the cubic equation whose roots are
9. 𝛼 = −2, ℎ = 2, 𝑘 = −8 2𝛼, 2𝛽 and 2𝛾, expressing your answer in a
form with integer coefficients.
………………………………………………………………………… 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 4 = 0
EXERCISE 7.4.1 9. The roots of the cubic equation
1. The cubic equation 𝑧 3 + 4𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 + 1 = 0 has 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 1 = 0 are 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾.
roots 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾. Find the cubic equation whose roots are
(i) Write down the values of 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾, 3𝛼, 3𝛽 and 3𝛾, expressing your answer in a
form with integer coefficients.
𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾 and 𝛼𝛽𝛾.
𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 63𝑥 + 27 = 0
(ii) Show that 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛾 2 = 22.
10. The roots of the cubic equation 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 −
(i) −4, −3, −1 8𝑥 + 11 = 0 are 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾. Find the cubic
2. The equation 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 3 = 0 has roots
equation with roots 𝛼 + 1, 𝛽 + 1 and 𝛾 + 1.
𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾, where
𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 16 = 0
𝛼+𝛽+𝛾 = 4
11. The roots of the cubic equation
𝛼2 + 𝛽2 + 𝛾 2 = 6
2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 4 = 0 are 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾.

41
 CHAPTER 7: POLYNOMIALS

Find the cubic equation whose roots are …………………………………………………………………………

2𝛼 + 1, 2𝛽 + 1 and 2𝛾 + 1, expressing your EXERCISE 7.5
answer in a form with integer coefficients. 1. Factorise each of the following completely.
𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 22 = 0 (a) 9𝑥 2 − 4
12. The roots of the cubic equation (b) 4𝑎2 − 9𝑏2
𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 3 = 0 are 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾. (c) 𝑎2 𝑏2 − 𝑐 2
Find the cubic equation whose roots are (d) 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 9𝑥𝑦 3
2𝛼 − 1, 2𝛽 − 1 and 2𝛾 − 1, expressing your (e) 4𝑢3 𝑣 − 𝑢𝑣 3
answer in a form with integer coefficients. (f) 𝑟 3 − 𝑡 3
𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 19𝑥 + 1 = 0 (g) 𝑚3 + 𝑛3
13. The cubic equation 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 6 = 0 has (h) 𝑦 4 − 14
roots 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾. Find a cubic equation with (i) 2𝑥 5 − 162𝑥
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 (j) 𝑎5 − 32
roots 3 + 1, 3 + 1 and 3 + 1, simplifying your (k) 32 − 𝑏5
answer as far as possible. (l) 𝑎6 − 𝑏6
9𝑥 3 − 42𝑥 2 + 60𝑥 − 29 = 0
SOLUTIONS
…………………………………………………………………………
1. (a) (3𝑥 + 2)(3𝑥 − 2)
FACTORING POLYNOMIALS (b) (2𝑎 + 3𝑏)(2𝑎 − 3𝑏)
(c) (𝑎𝑏 − 𝑐)(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐)
(i) 𝑢3 − 𝑣 3 = (𝑢 − 𝑣)(𝑢2 + 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑣 2 )
(d) 𝑥𝑦(𝑥 + 3𝑦)(𝑥 − 3𝑦)
Difference of Cubes
(e) 𝑢𝑣(2𝑢 + 𝑣)(2𝑢 − 𝑣)
(ii) 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 = (𝑢 + 𝑣 )(𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑣 2 )
(f) (𝑟 − 𝑡)(𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 )
Sum of Cubes
(g) (𝑚 + 𝑛)(𝑚2 − 𝑚𝑛 + 𝑛2 )
(iii) 𝑢4 − 𝑣 4 = (𝑢 − 𝑣 )(𝑢3 + 𝑢2 𝑣 + 𝑢𝑣 2 + 𝑣 3 )
(h) (𝑦 − 1)(𝑦 3 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 + 1)
= (𝑢 − 𝑣)(𝑢 + 𝑣)(𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 )
(i) 2𝑥(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 27)
In general, (j) (𝑎 − 2)(𝑎4 + 2𝑎3 + 4𝑎2 + 8𝑎 + 16)
𝑢𝑛 − 𝑣 𝑛 (k) (2 − 𝑏)(16 + 8𝑏 + 4𝑏2 + 2𝑏3 + 𝑏4 )
= (𝑢 − 𝑣)(𝑢𝑛−1 + 𝑢𝑛−2 𝑣 1 + ⋯ + 𝑢1 𝑣 𝑛−2 + 𝑣 𝑛−1 ) (l) (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎5 + 𝑎4 𝑏 + 𝑎3 𝑏2 + 𝑎2 𝑏3 + 𝑎𝑏4 + 𝑏5 )

…………………………………………………………………………
LESSON 1 Factorise, completely, each of the
EXAM QUESTIONS
following.
12. Let 𝑥 and 𝑦 be positive real numbers such that
(a) 8𝑚3 − 1
𝑥 ≠ 𝑦.
(b) 𝑥 3 + 27𝑧 3 𝑥4 −𝑦4
(c) 𝑥 4 − 16 (i) Simplify 𝑥−𝑦
. [6]
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, show that
SOLUTION (𝑦 + 1)4 − 𝑦 4 = (𝑦 + 1)3 + (𝑦 + 1)2 𝑦 + (𝑦 + 1)𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3
[4]
(a) 8𝑚3 − 1 (iii) Deduce that
= (2𝑚) 3 − 13 (𝑦 + 1)4 − 𝑦 4 < 4(𝑦 + 1)3 . [2]
= (2𝑚 − 1)[(2𝑚) 2 + (1)(2𝑚) + 12 ] CAPE 2009
= (2𝑚 − 1)(4𝑚2 + 2𝑚 + 1) (i) 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑥 3
(b) 𝑥 3 + 27𝑧 3
= 𝑥 3 + (3𝑧) 3
= (𝑥 + 3𝑧)[𝑥 2 − (𝑥)(3𝑧) + (3𝑧) 2 ]
= (𝑥 + 3𝑧)(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑧 + 9𝑧 2 )

(c) 𝑥 4 − 16
= 𝑥 4 − 24
= (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 (2) + 𝑥(2) 2 + 23 )
= (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 8)

42
 CHAPTER 8: LOGARITHMS

CHAPTER 8: LOGARITHMS
At the end of this section, students should be able LESSON 1 Write the following in
to; logarithmic form

 use the fact that log 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑐 ↔ 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏 1. 52 = 25 2.

1
643 = 4
where 𝑎 is any positive whole number; 1
3. 2−2 =
 simplify expressions by using the laws: 4
(a) log 𝑎 (𝑃𝑄) = log 𝑎 𝑃 + log 𝑎 𝑄 ; SOLUTION
𝑃 1. 52 = 25 → log 5 25 = 2
(b) log 𝑎 (𝑄) = log 𝑎 𝑃 − log 𝑎 𝑄; 1 1
(c) log 𝑎 𝑃 𝑏 = 𝑏 log 𝑎 𝑃; 2. 643 =4 → log 64 4 =
3
1
(d) log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1 3. 2−2 = 4 → log 1 2 = −2
(e) log 𝑎 1 = 0 4
1
(f) log 𝑎 𝑥 = log 𝑎 LESSON 2 Find 𝑥 or 𝑦 as indicated below
𝑥
log𝑏 𝑥
(g) log 𝑎 𝑥 = log
𝑏𝑎 1. log 2 𝑥 = 3 2. log 3 𝑥 = 2
 solve logarithmic equations; 3. log 9 27 = 𝑦
1
4. log 5 25 = 𝑦
 use logarithms to solve equations of the
5. log 7 0 = 𝑦 6. log 5(−5) = 𝑦
form 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏;
 apply logarithms to problems involving
SOLUTION
the transformation of a given relationship
to linear form. 1. log 2 𝑥 = 3
 solve logarithmic equations 𝑥 = 23
 use logarithms to solve equations of the 𝑥=8
form 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏; 2. log 3 𝑥 = 2
 define an exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 for 𝑥 = 32
𝑎∈ℝ 𝑥=9
 sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 ; 3. log 9 27 = 𝑦
 define the exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 9𝑦 = 27
and its inverse 𝑦 = ln 𝑥, where (32 ) 𝑦 = 33
ln 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥; 32𝑦 = 33
 solve problems involving changing of the 2𝑦 = 3
base of a logarithm 3
𝑦=
2
Logarithm is another word for index of power. 1
Any statement in index (exponent) form has an 4. log 5 =𝑦
25
equivalent Logarithmic Form 1
5𝑦 =
Now, 23 = 8 25
(index form) 1
5 = 2 = 5−2
𝑦
i.e. 3 is the power to which the base 2 must 5
be raised to obtain 8 or log base 2 of 8 is 3 𝑦 = −2
log 2 8 = 3 (logarithmic form) 5. log 7 0 = 𝑦
7𝑦 = 0
Similarly, 32 = 9 (index form) 𝑦 is undefined
i.e. log base 3 of 9 is 2 or log 3 9 = 2 6. log 5 (−5) = 𝑦
(logarithmic form) 5𝑦 = −5
1 −2 𝑦 is undefined
Also ( ) = 25 (index form)
5
1 NB: We can only find logarithms of positive
i. e. log base of 25 is − 2 or log 1 25 = −2 numbers, since 𝑎𝑛 > 0
5 5
(logarithmic form)

43
 CHAPTER 8: LOGARITHMS

LESSON 3 Find the logarithms to base 4 of = lg 9 − lg 𝑥 3 + lg 10

1 9
a) 16 b) 2 c) = lg 3 + lg 10
4
d) 4 e) 1 f) 8 𝑥
90
SOLUTION = lg 3
a) 16 = 42 ↔ log 4 16 = 2 𝑥
1 1
b) 2 = 42 ↔ log 4 2 = LESSON 5 Given that 𝑢 = log 9 𝑥, find in
2 terms of 𝑢
1 −1
1
c) = 4 ↔ log 4 = −1 (i) 𝑥 (ii) log 9 (27𝑥)
4 4 (iii) log 3 𝑥 (iv) log 𝑥 81
d) 4 = 41 ↔ log 4 4 = 1
e) 1 = 40 ↔ log 4 1 = 0 SOLUTION
3 3 (i) log 9 𝑥 = 𝑢 → 𝑥 = 9𝑢
f) 8 = 42 ↔ log 4 8 = (ii) log 9(27𝑥)
2
= log 9 27 + log 9 𝑥
3
= log 9 92 + 𝑢
PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS 3
= +𝑢
(a) log 𝑎 (𝑃𝑄) = log 𝑎 𝑃 + log 𝑎 𝑄 ; 2
𝑃 (iii) log 3 𝑥
(b) log 𝑎 ( ) = log 𝑎 𝑃 − log 𝑎 𝑄;
𝑄 log 9 𝑥
(c) log 𝑎 𝑃 𝑏 = 𝑏 log 𝑎 𝑃; =
log 9 3
(d) log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1 𝑢
(e) log 𝑎 1 = 0 = 1
(f) log 𝑎 𝑥 =
1 log 9 92
log𝑥 𝑎 𝑢
log𝑏 𝑥 = = 2𝑢
(g) log 𝑎 𝑥 = log 1⁄
𝑏𝑎 2
(h) lg 𝑥 = log 10 𝑥
(iv) log 𝑥 81
LESSON 4 Write each of the following as a log 9 81
=
single logarithm. log 9 𝑥
1. log 2 + log 7 log 9 92 2
2. log 3 − log 8 = =
𝑢 𝑢
3. 2 log 𝑥 − 3 log 𝑦
log 6
4.
3 LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS
5. 3 log 2 + log 4 − log 16 Solving equations involving logarithms generally
6. 2 lg 3 − 3 lg 𝑥 + 1 require the application of the properties of
logarithms. In most cases the use of the property –
SOLUTION log 𝑎 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑦 → 𝑥 = 𝑦 is needed to obtain an
1. log 2 + log 7 = log(2 × 7) = log 14 equation (linear, quadratic or otherwise) which
3
2. log 3 − log 8 = log 8 can then be easily solved.
3. 2 log 𝑥 − 𝑦 log 2 LESSON 6 Solve the equation
= log 𝑥 2 − log 2𝑦 3 lg(𝑥 − 1) = lg 27
= log 𝑥 2 − log 2𝑦 SOLUTION
𝑥2 3 lg(𝑥 − 1) = lg 27
= log 𝑦 lg(𝑥 − 1)3 = lg 33
2
log 6 1 1
∴ (𝑥 − 1) 3 = 33
4. = log 6 = log 63
3 3 𝑥 −1 =3
𝑥=4
5. 3 log 2 + log 4 − log 16
= log 23 + log 4 − log 16 LESSON 7 Find the value(s) of 𝑥 ∈ ℝ which
= log 8 + log 4 − log 16 satisfy 2 log 3 𝑥 = log 3 (𝑥 + 12)
8×4 SOLUTION
= log ( ) = log 2
16 2 log 3 𝑥 = log 3(𝑥 + 12)
6. 2 lg 3 − 3 lg 𝑥 + 1 log 3 𝑥 2 = log 3(𝑥 + 12)
= lg 32 − lg 𝑥 3 + lg 10

44
 CHAPTER 8: LOGARITHMS

𝑥 2 = 𝑥 + 12 SOLUTION
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 12 = 0 log 3 𝑥
log 9 𝑥 =
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 log 3 9
𝑥 = −3, 4 log 3 𝑥
𝑥 = −3 is INVALID since substituting this value =
2
into the original equation will result in us having log 9 𝑥 = 1 + log 3 3𝑥
to find logarithms of a negative number. 1
log 𝑥 = log 3 3 + log 3 3𝑥
2 3
LESSON 8a Solve the equations log 3 𝑥 = 2 log 3 3 + 2 log 3 3𝑥
log 3 (4𝑥) + log 3 (𝑥 − 1) = 1 log 3 𝑥 = log 3 9 + log 3 9𝑥 2
SOLUTION log 3 𝑥 = log 3 81𝑥 2
log 3 (4𝑥) + log 3 (𝑥 − 1) = 1 𝑥 = 81𝑥 2
log 3 [(4𝑥)(𝑥 − 1)] = log 3 3 81𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 0
4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 = 3 𝑥(81𝑥 − 1) = 0
1
4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3 = 0 𝑥 = since 𝑥 > 0
81
(2𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1) = 0
3 1
𝑥 = ,− LESSON 11 Given that
2 2 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 = 24𝑎𝑏2 show that
1
𝑥 = − 2 is INVALID since substituting this value 𝑎+ 𝑏
3 log [ ] = log 𝑎 + 2 log 𝑏
into the original equation will result in us having 3
to find logarithms of a negative number. SOLUTION
𝑎+ 𝑏
LESSON 8b Solve the equation 3 log [ ] = log 𝑎 + 2 log 𝑏
3
3
lg(10𝑥 ) − lg(𝑥 − 9) = 2 𝑎+𝑏
SOLUTION log [ ] = log 𝑎 + log 𝑏2
3
lg(10𝑥) − lg(𝑥 − 9) = 2 (𝑎 + 𝑏) 3
lg(10𝑥) − lg(𝑥 − 9) = lg(102 ) log = log 𝑎𝑏2
33
10𝑥 (𝑎 + 𝑏)3
lg ( ) = lg 100 = 𝑎𝑏2
𝑥−9 27
10𝑥
∴ = 100 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏2 + 𝑏3 = 27𝑎𝑏2
𝑥 −9 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 = 24𝑎𝑏2
10𝑥 = 100𝑥 − 900
900 = 90𝑥 …………………………………………………………………………..
10 = 𝑥 EXERCISE 8.1
LESSON 9 Solve the equation 1. Write the following in logarithmic form.
log 2 𝑥 + 4 log 𝑥 2 = 5 (a) 34 = 81
SOLUTION 1

log 2 𝑥 + 4 log 𝑥 2 = 5 (b) 3433 = 7

1
4 (c) 5−4 = 625
log 2 𝑥 + =5 2
log 2 𝑥 (d) 4 = 83
Letting 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥 we have 3
4 (e) 64 = 162
𝑦+ =5 (× 𝑦) 1 1
𝑦 (f) 81−4 = 3
2
𝑦 + 4 = 5𝑦 2 1
(g) 32−5 = 4
𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 + 4 = 0
(𝑦 − 1)(𝑦 − 4) = 0 (h) 5 = 3√125
𝑦 = 1, 4 2. Find 𝑥 or 𝑦 as indicated below
log 2 𝑥 = 1 → 𝑥 = 21 = 2 (a) log 5 125 = 𝑦
log 2 𝑥 = 4 → 𝑥 = 24 = 16 (b) log 3 𝑥 = 5
(c) log 2 (−8) = 𝑦
LESSON 10 Solve the equation (d) log 4 1 = 𝑦
log 9 𝑥 = 1 + log 3 3𝑥, 𝑥 > 0. (e) log 3 𝑥 = −3

45
 CHAPTER 8: LOGARITHMS

3. Find the logarithm to base 2 of SOLUTIONS

(a) 1
1
(b) 2 1. (a) log 3 81 = 4 (b) log 343 7 = 3
(c) 8 1 2
1 (c) log 5 (625) = −4 (d) log 8 4 = 3
(d) 2
3 1 1
4. Find the logarithms to base 10 of (e) log 16 64 = (f) log 81 3 = − 4
2
1 2 1
(a) 1 (g) log 32 (4) = − 5 (h) log 125 5 = 3
(b) 10
2. (a) 𝑦 = 3 (b) 𝑥 = 243
(c) 100
(d) 0.001 (c) INVALID (d) 𝑦 = 0
1
5. Evaluate each of the following (e) 𝑥 = 27
(a) log 4 16 3. (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 3
(b) log 2 16 (d) −1
(c) log 6 216 4. (a) 0 (b) 1 (c)2
1
(d) log 5 (d) −3
125
(e) log 1 81 5. (a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 3
3
27 (d) −3 (e) −4 (f) 3
(f) log 3 𝑎𝑏3
2 8 6. lg 1000
6. Express lg 𝑎 + 3 lg 𝑏 − 3 as a single logarithm.
𝑥2
7. Express each of the following as a single 7. (i) log 𝑎 6 (ii) log 10 𝑦3
logarithm: 9
(i) log 𝑎 2 + log 𝑎 3 8. (i) (ii) −9 (iii) 15
2
(ii) 2 log 10 𝑥 − 3 log 10 𝑦 (iv)
3
8. Given that log 𝑝 𝑋 = 9 and log 𝑝 𝑌 = 6, find 2
1
9. (i) 2 𝑥 + 2𝑦 (ii) 𝑦 − 1
(i) log 𝑝 √𝑋
(ii)
1
log 𝑝 (𝑋), 10. (i) 4𝑢 (ii) 2 − 𝑢
11. 𝑥 = 1
(iii) log 𝑝 (𝑋𝑌) ,
12. 𝑥 = 10
(iv) log 𝑌 𝑋 1
13. (a) 𝑥 = 3 (b) 𝑥 = 2 (c) 𝑥 = 18
9. Given that log 8 𝑝 = 𝑥 and log 8 𝑞 = 𝑦, express 1 1
14. (a) 𝑥 = 2 , 8 (b) 𝑥 = 4 , 4
in terms of 𝑥 and/or 𝑦 1 1
(i) log 8 √𝑝 + log 8 𝑞 2, (c) 𝑥 = 9 , 9 (d) 𝑥 = 2 , 64
(ii)
𝑞
log 8 ( ), 15. 2
8
10. Given that 𝑢 = log 4 𝑥, find, in its simplest form …………………………………………………………………………..
in terms of 𝑢,
(i) 𝑥,
16
THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
(ii) log 4 ( 𝑥 ) INTRODUCTION
11. Solve the equation 4 lg(𝑥 + 2) = lg 81. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1 is
12. Solve the equation 2 log 2(𝑥 − 1) = 4 log 2 3. called an exponential
13. Solve the following equations. function. 2𝑥 , 3𝑥 , 7.56𝑥
(a) log 4 𝑥 + log 4 (2𝑥 − 4) = log 4(𝑥 + 3) are LESSONs of
(b) log 5 (4𝑥) + log 5 (𝑥 + 2) = 1 exponential
(c) lg(8𝑥) − lg(𝑥 − 2) = lg 9 functions. The
14. Solve for 𝑥 function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is
a) log 2 𝑥 − log 𝑥 8 − 2 = 0 known as The
b) log 2 𝑥 = log 𝑥 16 Exponential Function
c) log 3 𝑥 = 4 log 𝑥 3 where 𝑒 =
d) 3 log 8 𝑥 = 2 log 𝑥 8 + 5 2.71828 …. The
log3 𝑥 graph of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 is
15. Find the value of .
log9 𝑥 shown below.
From the graph we see, as for all exponential
functions, that 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 does not cross the 𝑥-axis.

46
 CHAPTER 8: LOGARITHMS

This indicates that exponential functions can 𝑦 > 0 is the range of 𝑓

never be negative. It should also be noted that ALL (iii) when 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 32(0) + 4 = 7
exponential functions cross the 𝑦-axis at 1, i.e.
they all pass through the point (0, 1).

THE NATURAL LOGARITHM

The Natural Logarithm is a logarithm taken of
base 𝑒, log e 𝑥. Generally, logarithms of base 𝑒 are
referred to simply as ln 𝑥. The diagram below
shows the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = ln 𝑥.
What is the relationship between 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 and
𝑦 = ln 𝑥?
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 is the inverse of 𝑦 = ln 𝑥, therefore
𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥 and ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥.
LESSON 13a Solve the equation
𝑒 2𝑥 − 7𝑒 𝑥 − 8 = 0.
SOLUTION
𝑒 2𝑥 − 7𝑒 𝑥 − 8 = 0
(𝑒 𝑥 ) 2 − 7𝑒 𝑥 − 8 = 0
Let 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑦 2 − 7𝑦 − 8 = 0
(𝑦 + 1)(𝑦 − 8) = 0
𝑦 = −1, 8
𝑒 𝑥 = −1 INVALID
𝑒𝑥 = 8
ln 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 8
𝑥 = ln 8

LESSON 13b Solve the equation

LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL 𝑒 3𝑥 + 9𝑒 −3𝑥 = 6
EQUATIONS
SOLUTION
LESSON 12 Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑒 2𝑥 + 4, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. 𝑒 3𝑥 + 9𝑒 −3𝑥 = 6
9
𝑒 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 6 = 0
(i) Determine 𝑓 −1 (𝑥). 𝑒
(ii) State the range of 𝑓. Let 𝑦 = 𝑒 3𝑥
(iii) Sketch the graph of 𝑓. 9
𝑦+ −6=0
𝑦
SOLUTION 𝑦 2 + 9 − 6𝑦 = 0
𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 9 = 0
(i) Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) (𝑦 − 3)2 = 0
𝑦 = 3𝑒 2𝑥 + 4 𝑦=3
𝑦−4 𝑒 3𝑥 = 3
= 𝑒 2𝑥
3 ln 𝑒 3𝑥 = ln 3
𝑦−4 3𝑥 = ln 3
ln ( ) = ln 𝑒 2𝑥
3 ln 3
𝑦−4 𝑥=
ln ( ) = 2𝑥 3
3
1 𝑦−4 LESSON 14 Solve for 𝑥 and 𝑦 the pair of
ln ( )=𝑥
2 3 simultaneous equations
1 𝑥−4
𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) = ln ( ) 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑒5
2 3 ln(2𝑥 + 𝑦) = ln 3 + ln 4
(ii) Since log 𝑎 is defined ONLY when 𝑎 > 0 SOLUTION
𝑦−4
>0 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑒5 →𝑥 +𝑦 = 5
3 ln(2𝑥 + 𝑦) = ln 3 + ln 4 → 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 12

47
 CHAPTER 8: LOGARITHMS

𝑥 +𝑦 = 5 (3) 800
𝑁=
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 12 (4) 1
1 + 𝑘 ( 𝑟𝑡 )
Subtracting (4) from (3) 𝑒
−𝑥 = −7 800
𝑁=
𝑥=7 1
1 + 𝑘 ( ∞)
∴ 𝑦 = −2 𝑒
𝑁 = 800
(ii) when 𝑡 = 0, 𝑁 = 50
LESSON 15 Solve the equation
15 800
2 ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑥 = 11, giving your answers as exact 50 =
1 + 𝑘𝑒 −𝑟(0)
values of 𝑥. 800
50 =
SOLUTION 1+𝑘
15 1 + 𝑘 = 16
2 ln 𝑥 + = 11
ln 𝑥 𝑘 = 15
Let 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 when 𝑡 = 1, 𝑁 = 200
15 800
2𝑦 + = 11 200 =
𝑦 1 + 15𝑒 −𝑟(1)
2
2𝑦 + 15 = 11𝑦 1 + 15𝑒 −𝑟 = 4
2𝑦 2 − 11𝑦 + 15 = 0 15𝑒 −𝑟 = 3
(2𝑦 − 5)(𝑦 − 3) = 0 1
𝑒 −𝑟 =
5 5
𝑦 = ,3 1
2 −𝑟
ln 𝑒 = ln ( )
5 5
ln 𝑥 = 1
2 −𝑟 = ln ( )
5 5
𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑒 2 1 −1
5 𝑟 = ln ( )
𝑥 = 𝑒2 5
𝑟 = ln 5
ln 𝑥 = 3 800
(iii) 𝑁= 1
(ln5 )𝑡
𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑒 3 1+15𝑒
𝑥 = 𝑒3 when 𝑡 = 3
800
𝑁= 1
LESSON 16 The enrolment pattern of 1 + 15𝑒 3 ln5
membership of a country club follows an 800
exponential logistic function 𝑁, 𝑁= 1
1 + 15𝑒 ln125
800 800
𝑁= , 𝑘 ∈ ℝ, 𝑟 ∈ ℝ 𝑁=
1 + 𝑘𝑒 −𝑟𝑡 1
1 + 15 (125)
where 𝑁 is the number of members enrolled 𝑡 𝑁 ≈ 715 members
years after the formation of the club. The initial
membership was 50 persons and after one year,
there are 200 persons enrolled in the club.

(i) What is the LARGEST number reached by the

membership of the club?
(ii) Calculate the exact value of 𝑘 and 𝑟.
(iii) How many members will there be in the club
3 years after its formation?
CAPE 2006

SOLUTION

(i) The largest membership will occur when

time goes on indefinitely. As 𝑡 → ∞

48
 CHAPTER 8: LOGARITHMS

UNKNOWN INDICES (ii) Hence solve the equation

LESSON 17a Solve, correct to 2 decimal places, 3𝑒 𝑥 + 20𝑒 −𝑥 = 19, giving your
the equation 3𝑥 = 7 answers as exact values.
8
SOLUTION 5. Solve the following equation 3 ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑥 = 14.
3𝑥 = 7 6. A curve has equation 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 2 + 5), show
ln 3𝑥 = ln 7 that this equation can be written in the form
𝑥 ln 3 = ln 7 𝑥 2 = 𝑒 𝑦 − 5.
ln 7 7. Express 𝑥 2 = 𝑒 𝑥−2 in the form ln 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏.
𝑥=
ln 3
𝑥 = 1.77 8. Given that 𝑒 −2𝑥 = 3, find the exact value of 𝑥.
LESSON 17b Determine 𝑥 ∈ ℝ such that 9. The functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined with their
2𝑥+1 = 15. respective domains by
SOLUTION 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 − 3, or all values of 𝑥
2𝑥+1 = 15 1 4
𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥+4 , for all real values of 𝑥, 𝑥 ≠ − 3
ln 2𝑥+1 = ln 15
(𝑥 + 1) ln 2 = ln 15 (a) Find the range of 𝑓.
ln 15 (b) The inverse of 𝑓 is 𝑓 −1.
𝑥 +1 = i. Find 𝑓 −1
ln 2
ln 15 ii. Solve the equation 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 0
𝑥= −1 (c) (i) Find an expression for 𝑔𝑓(𝑥).
ln 2
𝑥 = 2.91 (ii) Solve the equation 𝑔𝑓(𝑥) = 1,
giving your answer in an exact form.
LESSON 17c Determine 𝑥 ∈ ℝ such that 10. The graph 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 − 9 cuts the 𝑥-axis at 𝐴 and
4𝑦−2 = 32𝑦+1 . the 𝑦-axis at 𝐵.
SOLUTION (i) Determine the coordinates of 𝐴 and 𝐵.
4𝑦−2 = 32𝑦+1 (ii) Show that 𝑦 2 = 𝑒 4𝑥 − 18𝑒 2𝑥 + 81.
ln 4𝑦−2 = ln 32𝑦+1 11. The curve 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥+1 and 𝑦 = 𝑒 4−2𝑥 meet at 𝑃.
(𝑦 − 2) ln 4 = (2𝑦 + 1) ln 3 Find the coordinates of 𝑃.
𝑦 ln 4 − 2 ln 4 = 2𝑦 ln 3 + ln 3
𝑦 ln 4 − 2𝑦 ln 3 = 2 ln 4 + ln 3 12. Given that 2𝑥 4𝑦 = 128 and that
𝑦(ln 4 − 2 ln 3) = 2 ln 4 + ln 3 ln(4𝑥 − 𝑦) = ln 2 + ln 5, calculate the value of
2 ln 3 + ln 3 𝑥 and of 𝑦.
𝑦=
ln 4 − 2 ln 3
𝑦 = −4.77 13. The temperature of water, 𝑥℃, in an insulated
………………………………………………………………………… tank at time, 𝑡 hours, may be modelled by the
equation
EXERCISE 8.2 𝑥 = 65 + 8𝑒 −0.02𝑡

1. Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 , Determine the

(i) Sketch the graph of 𝑓 and state the
coordinates of the point where the (i) initial temperature of the water in the
graph crosses the 𝑦-axis. tank [2]
(ii) Determine 𝑓 −1. (ii) temperature at which the water in the
2. A function 𝑓 is defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑒 3𝑥 − 1 for tank will eventually stabilize [2]
all real values of 𝑥. (iii) time when the temperature of the water
(a) Find the range of 𝑓 in the tank is 70℃ [4]
(b) Find an expression for 𝑓 −1 (𝑥). 14. Solve correct to 2 decimal places the following
3. By using the substitution 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , find the equations
value of 𝑥 such that 𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 12. (a) 2𝑥 = 5
4. (a) Given that 3𝑒 𝑥 = 4, find the exact value of (b) 5𝑥 = 15
𝑥. (c) 3𝑥+2 = 12
(b) (i) By substituting 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , show that the (d) 2𝑥−3 = 7
equation 3𝑒 𝑥 + 20𝑒 −𝑥 = 19 can be (e) 3𝑥+1 = 22𝑥−5
written as 3𝑦 2 − 19𝑦 + 20 = 0

49
 CHAPTER 8: LOGARITHMS

15. Solve the equation 24𝑥−1 = 35−2𝑥 , giving your (ii) By substituting 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥, or otherwise,
lg 𝑎 solve, for 𝑥, the equation
answer in the form .
lg 𝑏
√log 2 𝑥 = log 2 √𝑥.
16. Solve the equation 7𝑤−3 − 4 = 180, giving [6]
your answer correct to 3 significant figures. CAPE 2011
3. Solve the equation
17. Solve the following equations, giving your log 2 (𝑥 + 3) = 3 − log 2 (𝑥 + 2)
answer correct to 3 significant figures. [5]
(i) 5𝑥−1 = 120 CAPE 2013
(ii) 7𝑥 = 2𝑥+1 4. Solve the equation
(iii) 53𝑤−1 = 4250 log 2(𝑥 + 1) − log 2(3𝑥 + 1) = 2
[4]
SOLUTIONS CAPE 2014
5. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 .
ln 𝑥 (i) Find
1. (i) (0, 1) (ii)
1
2
𝑥+1
a) 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and 𝑔 −1 (𝑥) [4]
2. (a) 𝑦 > −1 (b) ln ( ) b) 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] (or 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥)) [1]
3 2
3. 𝑥 = ln 4 (ii) Show that (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) −1 (𝑥) = 𝑔−1 (𝑥) ∘
4 𝑓 −1 (𝑥). [5]
4. (b) (i) (ii) 𝑥 = ln 5 , ln (3)
2
CAPE 2013
5. 𝑥 = 𝑒 3, 𝑒4 6. Given that 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 = 5𝑎𝑏2 , show that
𝑎+𝑏
6. 3 log ( 2 ) = log 𝑎 + 2 log 𝑏. [5]
1
7. ln 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1 CAPE 2014
2
ln 3
8. − 7. The population growth of bacteria present in
2
ln(𝑥+3) a river after time, 𝑡 hours, is given by
9. (a) 𝑦 > −3 (b) (i) (ii) 𝑥 = −2 𝑁 = 300 + 5𝑡
2
1 2
(c) (i) 3𝑒2𝑥 −5 (ii) 𝑥 = 𝑒2 Determine
10. (i) 𝐴(ln 3 , 0) , 𝐵 (0, −8) (ii) the number of bacteria present at 𝑡 = 0.
11. 𝑃(1, 𝑒 2 ) [1]
12. (3, 2) (ii) the time required to triple the number of
13. (i) 73℃ (ii) 65℃ (iii) 23.5 hours bacteria. [4]
14. (a) 2.32 (b) 1.68 (c) 0.26 CAPE 2015
(d) 5.81 8. Solve the equation
lg 486 4 4
15. 3 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 0.
lg 144 9 81
16. 5.68
17. (i) 3.97 (ii) −0.80 (iii)72.1 SOLUTIONS
1
EXAM QUESTIONS 1. (a) 𝑥 = 9, 27 (b) 𝑥 = ,2
256
2. (i) 𝑥 = 2 (ii) −1
1. (i) Find 𝑥 such that
log 5 (𝑥 + 3) + log 5 (𝑥 − 1) = 1 3. (i) (2, 3) (ii) 𝑥 = 1, 16
[5] 4. 𝑥=
−5+√33
2
(ii) Without the use of calculators, or tables, 3
evaluate 5. 𝑥=−
11
1 2 3 8 9 𝑥−2
log10 ( ) + log10 ( ) + log10 ( ) + ⋯ + log10 ( ) + log10 ( )
2 3 4 9 10
6. (i) (a) (b) 3𝑒 2𝑥 + 2
3
[3] 7.
CAPE 2008 8. (i) 301 (ii) 4 hours
2. (i) Solve, for 𝑥 and 𝑦, the simultaneous 9. 0.315
equations
log(𝑥 − 1) + 2 log 𝑦 = 2 log 3 …………………………………………………………………………
log 𝑥 + log 𝑦 = log 6
[8]

50
 CHAPTER 9: THE MODULUS FUNCTION

CHAPTER 9: MODULUS/ ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION

At the end of this section, students should be able (iii) |2𝑥 − 5| = 11
to:
SOLUTION
 define the modulus function;
 use the properties: (i) It is clear that 4 and −4 both have a
(a) |𝑥| is the positive square root of 𝑥 2 ; distance of 4 units from the origin.
(b) |𝑥| < |𝑦| if, and only if 𝑥 2 < 𝑦 2 Therefore, 𝑥 = 4 or 𝑥 = −4
(c) |𝑥| < |𝑦| iff −𝑦 < 𝑥 < 𝑦 Note: |𝑥| is the positive square root of 𝑥 2 .
(d) |𝑥 + 𝑦| ≤ |𝑥| + |𝑦| (ii) |3𝑥| = 9
 solve equations and inequalities involving 3𝑥 = 9 or 3𝑥 = −9
the modulus function, using algebraic or
graphical methods. 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = −3
 Illustrate by means of graphs, the
relationship between the function Alternatively
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) given in graphical form and |3𝑥|2 = 92
𝑦 = |𝑓(𝑥)|. 9𝑥 2 = 81
𝑥2 = 9
__________________________________________________________ 𝑥 = ±3
Consider a number line, what is the distance from
the origin, 0, to 5 and −5? The answer in both (iii) 2𝑥 − 5 = 11 or 2𝑥 − 5 = −11
instances is 5. If 𝑎 is the ordinate of a point on a 2𝑥 = 16 or 2𝑥 = −6
real number line, then the distance from the origin 𝑥 = 8 or 𝑥 = −3
Alternatively,
|2𝑥 − 5| = 11
|2𝑥 − 5| 2 = 112
4𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 25 = 121
4𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 − 96 = 0
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 24 = 0
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 8) = 0
to 𝑎 is represented by |𝑎| and is referred to as the either 𝑥 + 3 = 0 or 𝑥 − 8 = 0
modulus of 𝑎. Thus, |2| = 2 since the point with 𝑥 = −3 or 𝑥=8
ordinate 2 is two units from the origin,
9 9 9 From the previous examples we see that squaring
|2 | = 2 since the point with ordinate 2 is 4.5 units
both sides of the equation and solving the
from the origin and |−3| = 3, since the point resulting quadratic is an alternative method.
with ordinate −3 is three units from the origin However, linear equations are generally easier to
(Fig 1). Thus, this provides us with a geometric solve than quadratics, thus we will be using this
definition of modulus. method.
Symbolically, and more formally, we define LESSON 2 Solve the equations
modulus as follows:
Modulus (i) |𝑥 − 2| = 3𝑥 + 1
−𝑥; 𝑥 < 0 (ii) |𝑥 − 2| = 𝑥 − 2
|𝑥| = {
𝑥; 𝑥 ≥ 0
|4| = 4 |−7| = −(−7) = 7 SOLUTION
[Note: −𝑥 is positive if 𝑥 is negative]
Both the geometric and non-geometric definitions (i) 𝑥 − 2 = 3𝑥 + 1 or 𝑥 − 2 = −(3𝑥 + 1)
of modulus are useful. = −3𝑥 − 1
NB: The modulus is never negative. −3 = 2𝑥 or 4𝑥 = 1
3 1
𝑥=− or 𝑥=
MODULUS EQUATIONS 2 4
LESSON 1 Solve the equations Caution: We cannot have a negative absolute
value; therefore, we now need to check our
(i) |𝑥| = 4 solutions to verify that the right hand side of the
(ii) |3𝑥| = 9 equation is not negative.

51
 CHAPTER 9: THE MODULUS FUNCTION

3 7 1 7 b. 2|3𝑥| = 4𝑥 + 10
3 (− ) + 1 = − and 3 ( ) + 1 =
2 2 4 4 c. |2𝑥 − 1| − 3 = 𝑥
1
Therefore, 𝑥 = 4 is the only answer. d. |3𝑥 − 9| = 3𝑥 − 9
(ii) |𝑥 − 2| = 𝑥 − 2 e. |2𝑥 − 3| = 3 − 2𝑥
f. |𝑥 + 4| = −(𝑥 + 4)
𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥 − 2 or 𝑥 − 2 = −(𝑥 − 2)
It is quite clear that 𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥 − 2 for all 3. Solve the following equations
values of 𝑥. But since |𝑥 − 2| is positive, a. |3𝑥 + 4| = |2𝑥 − 3|
𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0 → 𝑥 ≥ 2. This solution covers b. |𝑥 − 3| = |𝑥 + 2|
both of the above equations. c. |3𝑥 + 1| = |3 − 2𝑥|
d. |2𝑥 − 3| 2 + 5|2𝑥 − 3| + 6 = 0
LESSON 3 Solve the equations e. 3|5𝑥 − 1|2 − 16|5𝑥 − 1| + 5 = 0
f. 6|𝑥 + 7| 2 − 14|𝑥 + 7| = −4
(i) |2𝑥 − 1| = |4𝑥 + 9| g. 𝑥 2 − 5|𝑥| + 6 = 0
(ii) |𝑥 + 3| 2 − |𝑥 + 3| − 2 = 0 h. 𝑥 2 − 7|𝑥| − 44 = 0
(iii) 𝑥 2 − 4|𝑥| + 3 = 0 i. 3𝑥 2 − 5|𝑥| − 2 = 0

SOLUTION SOLUTIONS
1. (a) 𝑚 = ±7 (b) 𝑥 = ±5
(i) 2𝑥 − 1 = 4𝑥 + 9 or 2𝑥 − 1 = −(4𝑥 + (c) 𝑘 = 7, 13 (d) 𝑥 = ±35
9) = −4𝑥 − 9 (e) 𝑥 = ±21 (f) No Solution
2𝑥 = −10 or 6𝑥 = −8 5
2. (a) 𝑥 = 3 (b) 𝑥 = −1, 5
4
𝑥 = −5 or 𝑥=− 2
3 (c) 𝑥 = − 3 , 4 (d) 𝑥 ≥ 3
Both sides of the equations contain 3
(e) 𝑥 ≤ 2 (f) 𝑥 ≤ −4
absolute values ensuring that both sides 1 1
are positive. Consequently, there is no 3. (a) 𝑥 = − 5 , −7 (b) 𝑥 = 2
2
need to check. But it is still a good (c) 𝑥 = −4, 5 (d) No Solution
practice to do so. 4 2 4 6 22 20
(ii) |𝑥 + 3|2 − |𝑥 + 3| − 2 = 0 (e) 𝑥 = − , , , (f) 𝑥 = −9, − ,− , −5
5 15 15 5 3 3
Let 𝑦 = |𝑥 + 3| (g) 𝑥 = ±2, ±3 (h) 𝑥 = ±11
𝑦2 − 𝑦 − 2 = 0 (i) 𝑥 = ±2
(𝑦 − 2)(𝑦 + 1) = 0 …………………………………………………………………………..
either 𝑦 − 2 = 0 or 𝑦 + 1 = 0
𝑦 = 2 or 𝑦 = −1 MODULUS INEQUALITIES
∴ |𝑥 + 3| = 2 or |𝑥 + 3| = −1 INVALID
𝑥 + 3 = 2 → 𝑥 = −1 Before we examine inequality questions dealing
𝑥 + 3 = −2 → 𝑥 = −5 with absolute value; let’s take a look at the
(iii) 𝑥 2 − 4|𝑥| + 3 = 0 number line to help us understand the concept of
𝑥 2 − 4|𝑥| + 3 = 0 modulus inequalities.
(|𝑥| − 3)(|𝑥| − 1) = 0
either (|𝑥| − 3) = 0 or (|𝑥| − 1) = 0
|𝑥| = 3 |𝑥| = 1
𝑥 = ±3 𝑥 = ±1
………………………………………………………………………….. The red line on the graph above represents the
EXERCISE 9.1 interval (−3, 3). If 𝑥 is any number within this
1. Solve the following equations interval then −3 < 𝑥 < 3. More precisely, |𝑥| < 3.
a. |6𝑚| = 42 In general, if |𝑥| < 𝑝, 𝑝 ∈ ℝ then – 𝑝 < 𝑥 < 𝑝.
b. |−6𝑥| = 30 What if |𝑥| > 3?
c. |𝑘 − 10| = 3
|𝑥|
d. 7 = 5
𝑥
e. | | = 3
7
f. −10|𝑣 + 2| = 70 From the graph our solution would be {𝑥 < −3} ∪
{𝑥 > 3}. Therefore, if |𝑥| > 𝑝, then {𝑥 < −𝑝} ∪
2. Solve the following equations
{𝑥 > 𝑝}
a. |5 − 𝑥| = 2𝑥

52
 CHAPTER 9: THE MODULUS FUNCTION

LESSON 4 Solve the inequalities SOLUTION

(i) |𝑥| < 7

(ii) |2𝑥 − 5| < 9
(iii) |9𝑚 + 2| ≤ 1
(iv) |8𝑥 − 3| > 9
(v) 3 < |𝑥| < 7
(i) At first glance we assume that we have
SOLUTION the following inequality to solve
– (3𝑥 + 2) < 𝑥 − 5 < 3𝑥 + 2 but what
(i) |𝑥| < 7
about the inequality
−7 < 𝑥 < 7
3𝑥 + 2 < 𝑥 − 5 < −(3𝑥 + 2)? If we take
(ii) |2𝑥 − 5| < 9
some time to think about it; since we do
−9 < 2𝑥 − 5 < 9
not know the value of 𝑥 we do not know
−4 < 2𝑥 < 14
whether 3𝑥 + 2 is positive or negative.
−2 < 𝑥 < 7
Hence, we have the before mentioned
(iii) |9𝑚 + 2| ≤ 1
possibilities. To counteract this potential
−1 ≤ 9𝑚 + 2 ≤ 1
problem we proceed as follows:
−3 ≤ 9𝑚 ≤ −1
|𝑥 − 5| < |3𝑥 + 2|
(iv) |8𝑥 − 3| > 9
(𝑥 − 5) 2 < (3𝑥 + 2) 2 We square both
8𝑥 − 3 > 9 8𝑥 − 3 < −9
sides to avoid negativity
8𝑥 > 12 8𝑥 < −6
3 3 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 25 < 9𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 4
{𝑥 > } ∪ {𝑥 < − } 2
−8𝑥 − 22𝑥 + 21 < 0
2 4
(v) 3 < |𝑥| < 7 8𝑥 2 + 22𝑥 − 21 > 0
(4𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 7) > 0
Before we attempt to solve as a double
3 7
inequality we will split up our inequality {𝑥 > } ∪ {𝑥 < − }
into two parts so that we get some 4 2
valuable insight into how to solve this as a
double inequality.
|𝑥| < 7 → {−7 < 𝑥 < 7}
|𝑥 | > 3 → {𝑥 < −3} ∪ {𝑥 > 3}
These intervals are represented on the
number lines below. Combining our
(ii) 𝑥 2 − 7|𝑥| + 10 < 0
intervals we get {−7 < 𝑥 < −3} ∪ (|𝑥| − 5)(|𝑥| − 2) < 0
{3 < 𝑥 < 7}.
Roots are |𝑥 | = 2, 5
If we try the double inequality approach
From graph 𝑥 2 − 7|𝑥| + 10 < 0 when
we should get 3 < 𝑥 < 7 and −3 < 𝑥 <
2 < |𝑥| < 5
−7. But the signs of the second inequality
We thus have the following inequalities
are reversed. How do we correct this? As
(a) 2 < 𝑥 < 5 and
follows:
(b) 2 < −𝑥 < 5
3 < 𝑥 < 7 and 3 < −𝑥 < 7
−2 > 𝑥 > −5
−3 > 𝑥 > −7
−5 < 𝑥 < −2
−7 < 𝑥 < −3
Therefore the solution set is:
With this approach the intervals are more {−5 < 𝑥 < −2} ∪ {2 < 𝑥 < 5}
easily identifiable
When is 𝑥 2 − 7|𝑥| + 10 > 0? Let’s see.
Roots are 𝑥 = 2, 5
LESSON 5 Find the range of values of 𝑥 for 𝑥 2 − 7|𝑥| + 10 > 0 when
which |𝑥| > 5 and |𝑥| < 2
|𝑥| > 5 → {𝑥 < −5} ∪ {𝑥 > 5}
(i) |𝑥 − 5| < |3𝑥 + 2| |𝑥 | < 2 → {−2 < 𝑥 < 2}
(ii) 𝑥 2 − 7|𝑥| + 10 < 0 Therefore, we have
{𝑥 < −5} ∪ {𝑥 > 5} ∪ {−2 < 𝑥 < 2}

53
 CHAPTER 9: THE MODULUS FUNCTION

…………………………………………………………………………..
EXERCISE 9.2
1. Solve the following inequalities.
a. |7𝑥| ≤ 42
b. |1 + 𝑥| < 8
c. 10|10𝑛 − 8| ≤ 80
2. Solve the following inequalities
a. |−5𝑝| > 20
b. |4 + 5𝑏| ≥ 24
𝑥
c. |2 | + 9 > 13 LESSON 7 Draw the graph of
d. (|𝑥| − 4)(|𝑥| + 1) < 0 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 12|.
e. |𝑥|2 − 2|𝑥| − 3 < 0 SOLUTION
f. 2|𝑥|2 + 2 > 5|𝑥| 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 12|
g. |𝑥 − 1| < |2𝑥 + 1|
SOLUTIONS
1. (a) −6 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 6
(b) −9 < 𝑥 < 7
8
(c) 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 5
2. (a) {𝑝 < −4} ∪ {𝑝 > 4}
28
(b) {𝑏 ≤ − 5 } ∪ {𝑏 ≥ 4}
(c) {𝑥 < −8} ∪ {𝑥 > 8}
(d) −4 < 𝑥 < 4
(e) −3 < 𝑥 < 3
1 1
(f) {− < 𝑥 < } ∪ {𝑥 < −2} ∪ {𝑥 > 2}
2 2 …………………………………………………………………………..
(g) {𝑥 < −2} ∪ {𝑥 > 0}
………………………………………………………………………….. EXERCISE 9.3

GRAPHS OF MODULUS FUNCTIONS 1. Draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = |3𝑥 − 1| for

LESSON 6 Draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 + 2| −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.
1
for −7 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3. 2. Draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = |1 − 2 𝑥| for
SOLUTION −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4.
We have the following 3. Draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3| for
𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 + 2| −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4.
4. Draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = |2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 12| for
−7 |−7 + 2| = |−5| = 5 −5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.
−6 |−6 + 2| = |−4| = 4 …………………………………………………………………………..
−5 |−5 + 2| = |−3| = 3
−4 |−4 + 2| = |−2| = 2 EXAM QUESTIONS
−3 |−3 + 2| = |−1| = 1 1. Find the real values of 𝑥 which satisfy the
−2 |−2 + 2| = |0| = 0 equation |2𝑥 + 3| = 5. [3]
−1 |−1 + 2| = |1| = 1 CAPE 2000
0 |0 + 2| = |2| = 2
1 |1 + 2| = |3| = 3 2. Solve, for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, the equation
2 |2 + 2| = |4| = 4 𝑥 2 − 6 |𝑥 | + 8 = 0 [4]
3 |3 + 2| = |5| = 5 CAPE 2004

54
 CHAPTER 9: THE MODULUS FUNCTION

3. Let 𝐴 = {𝑥: 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7} and

𝐵 = {𝑥: |𝑥 − 4| ≤ ℎ}, ℎ ∈ ℝ.
Find the LARGEST value of ℎ for which 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴.
[6]

CAPE 2006

4. Solve |𝑥 − 4| − 6 > 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. [5]

CAPE 2007

5. Solve, for real values of 𝑥, the inequality

𝑥 2 − |𝑥| − 12 < 0. [5]
CAPE 2011

6. Solve the following: |𝑥 + 2| = 3𝑥 + 5. [4]

CAPE 2013

7. On the same axes, sketch the graphs of

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = |2𝑥 + 3|.
Show clearly ALL intercepts that may be
present. [5]

CAPE 2013
SOLUTIONS

1. 𝑥 = −4, 1
2. 𝑥 = ±2, 𝑥 = ±4
3. ℎ=2
4. {𝑥 < −2} ∪ {𝑥 > 10}
5. −4 < 𝑥 < 4
7 3
6. 𝑥 = − ,−
4 2
7.
…………………………………………………………………………

55
 CHAPTER 10: SEQUENCES, SERIES and MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

CHAPTER 10: SEQUENCES, SERIES and MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

At the end of this section, students should be able 3 4 5 6
2, , , , , …
to: 2 3 4 5
1
 define a sequence of terms, 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑛 is (c) 𝑢𝑛 = 2𝑛
a positive integer; 1 1
 write a specific term from the formula for 𝑢1 = =
21 2
the 𝑛th term of a sequence; 1 1
 use the summation (∑) notation; 𝑢2 = 2 =
2 4
 establish simple proofs by using the 1 1
principle of mathematical induction. 𝑢3 = 3 =
2 8
_________________________________________________________ 1 1
𝑢4 = 4 =
2 16
SEQUENCES 1 1
𝑢5 = 5 =
INTRODUCTION 2 32
1 1 1 1 1
A sequence is a list of numbers which obey a , , , , , …
2 4 8 16 32
particular pattern. Each number in the sequence is 𝑛
(d) 𝑢𝑛 = (−1)𝑛+1 (𝑛+1 )
called a term of the sequence. These are usually
1 1
denoted 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , … , 𝑢𝑛−1 , 𝑢𝑛 where 𝑢1 is the first 𝑢1 = (−1) 2 ( )=
term, 𝑢2 is the second term and 𝑢𝑛 is the 𝑛th term. 1+1 2
3
2 2
In some cases the sequence can be defined by a 𝑢2 = (−1) ( )=−
2+1 3
formula – an expression for the 𝑛th term. 3 3
4
𝑢3 = (−1) ( )=
LESSON 1 Write down the first 5 terms of 3+1 4
5
4 4
the following sequences: (
𝑢4 = −1 () )=−
4+1 5
5 5
(a) 𝑢𝑛 = 4𝑛 − 1 6
𝑢5 = (−1) ( )=
𝑛+1 5+1 6
(b) 𝑢𝑛 = 1 2 3 4 5
𝑛
1 , − , , − , , …
(c) 𝑢𝑛 = 2 3 4 5 6
2𝑛 …………………………………………………………………………..
𝑛
(d) 𝑢𝑛 = (−1)𝑛+1 ( ) EXERCISE 10.1
𝑛+1
1. Write down the first 5 terms of the following
SOLUTION sequences:
(a) 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛 + 3
(a) 𝑢𝑛 = 4𝑛 − 1 (b) 𝑢𝑛 = 5 − 𝑛
𝑢1 = 4(1) − 1 = 3 (c) 𝑢𝑛 = 4𝑛 − 1
𝑢2 = 4(2) − 1 = 7
(d) 𝑢𝑛 = 2 − 5𝑛
𝑢3 = 4(3) − 1 = 11
𝑢4 = 4(4) − 1 = 15 (e) 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛2 − 3𝑛
𝑛+1
𝑢5 = 4(5) − 1 = 19 (f) 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛
3, 7, 11, 15, 19, …. 𝑛+1
𝑛+1 (g) 𝑢𝑛 =
(b) 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑛2
1
(h) 𝑢𝑛 =
1+1 2𝑛
𝑢1 = =2 𝑛
1 (i) 𝑢𝑛 = 3𝑛
2+1 3
𝑢2 = = (j) 𝑢𝑛 = (−1)𝑛
2 2
3+1 4 (k) 𝑢𝑛 = (−1)𝑛+1
𝑢3 = = 1
3 3 (l) 𝑢𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 𝑛
4+1 5 𝑛
𝑢4 = = (m) 𝑢𝑛 = (−1)𝑛+1 (𝑛+1)
4 4
5+1 6 SOLUTIONS
𝑢5 = =
5 5 (a) 4, 7, 10, 13, 16
(b) 4, 3, 2, 1, 0

56
 CHAPTER 10: SEQUENCES, SERIES and MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

(c) 3, 7, 11, 15, 19 (f) Each numerator is 1 and the first number of
(d) −3, −8, −13, −18, −23 the denominator is 𝑛 and the second is 𝑛 + 1.
1
(e) −2, −2, 0, 4, 10 Therefore 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛+1)
3 4 5 6
(f) 2, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 (g) The numerators are the natural numbers but
3 4 5 6
(g) 2, 4 , 9 , 16 , 25 they begin with 2, i.e. 𝑛 + 1 and the
1 1 1 1 1 denominators are the square numbers.
(h) 2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , 32 𝑛+1
1 2 3 4 5
Therefore 𝑢𝑛 = 2
𝑛
(i) , , , ,
3 9 27 81 243 …………………………………………………………………………..
(j) −1, 1, −1, 1, −1 EXERCISE 10.2
(k) 1, −1, 1, −1, 1 1. (i) For each of the following sequences
1 1 1 1
(l) −1, 2 , − 3 , 4 , − 5 determine an expression for the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term,
1 1 1 1 𝑢𝑛 .
(m) 1, − 2 , 3 , − 4 , 5
(ii) Determine the 50th term of sequence.
(a) 5, 8, 11, 14, ….
LESSON 2 For each of the following
(b) 8, 6, 4, 2, 0, −2, …
sequences determine an expression for the 𝑛𝑡ℎ 1 2 3 4 5
term, 𝑢𝑛 . (c) , , , , , …
3 4 5 6 7
1 1 1 1
(d) 1, − 2, , − 4, , …
(a) 5, 8, 11, 14, …. 3 5
1 1 1 1
(b) 8, 6, 4, 2, 0, −2, … (e) 1, , , , , …
2 4 8 16
1 2 3 4 5 1 1 1 1 1
(c) , , , , , … (f) , , , , , ….
3 4 5 6 7 1×2 2×3 3×4 4×5 5×6
1 1 1 1 3 4 5
(d) 1, − , , − , , … (g) 2, , , , …
2 3 4 5 4 9 16
1 1 1 1
(e) 1, , , , , … SOLUTIONS
2 4 8 16
1 1 1 1 1
(f) , , , , , …. (a) 𝑢𝑛 = 3𝑛 + 2, 𝑢50 = 77
1×2 2×3 3×4 4×5 5×6
3 4 5 (b) 𝑢𝑛 = 10 − 2𝑛, 𝑢50 = −90
(g) 2, 4
, 9
, 16
, … 𝑛 50
(c) 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛+3 , 𝑢50 = 53
(−1)𝑛+1 1
SOLUTION (d) 𝑢𝑛 = , 𝑢50 = − 50
𝑛
1 1
(a) Consecutive terms differ by 3 therefore we try (e) 𝑢𝑛 = , 𝑢50 =
2𝑛−1 249
1 1
3𝑛. To create the right formula we add 2 i.e. (f) 𝑢𝑛 = , 𝑢50 =
𝑛(𝑛+1) 50(51)
𝑢𝑛 = 3𝑛 + 2 𝑛+1 51
(g) 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛2 , 𝑢50 = 2500
(b) Consecutive terms differ by −2 therefore we
…………………………………………………………………………..
try −2𝑛. To create the correct expression we
need to add 10 i.e. 𝑢𝑛 = 10 − 2𝑛 SERIES
(c) The numerators are the natural numbers 𝑛 INTRODUCTION
and the denominators are two more than the If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 , … is a sequence, then the
𝑛
numerator i.e. 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛+2 expression 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + ⋯ is called a
series. If a sequence is finite, the corresponding
(d) Ignoring the signs, each numerator is 1 and
series is a finite series. If the sequence is infinite,
the denominators are the natural numbers 𝑛. the corresponding series is an infinite series. For
Since the signs alternate between positive and example,
negative, starting with positive, we use 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 Finite sequence
(−1) 𝑛+1 . Therefore 𝑢𝑛 = (−1) 𝑛+1 ( )
𝑛 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 Finite series
𝑛+1 Series are often represented in a compact form
(e) Each numerator is 1 and the denominators called summation notation using the symbol Σ,
1
are powers of 2 i.e. 𝑢𝑛 = which is a stylized version of the Greek letter
2𝑛−1
sigma, meaning ‘the sum of.’ Consider the
following examples:
57
 CHAPTER 10: SEQUENCES, SERIES and MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

∞
4 ∑ 3𝑟 + 2
∑ 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + 𝑎4 𝑟=1
𝑘=1 (ii) Consecutive terms differ by −2 therefore we
7
try −2𝑛. To create the correct expression we
∑ 𝑏𝑘 = 𝑏3 + 𝑏4 + 𝑏5 + 𝑏6 + 𝑏7 need to add 10 i.e. 10 − 2𝑛
𝑘=3 ∞
𝑛
∑ 10 − 2𝑛
∑ 𝑐𝑘 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛
𝑟=1
𝑘=0
(iii) The numerators are the natural numbers 𝑛
The terms on the right are obtained from the and the denominators are two more than the
𝑛
expression on the left by successively replacing numerator i.e. 𝑛+2
the summing index, 𝑘 with integers, starting with ∞
𝑛
the first number indicated below Σ and ending ∑
with the number that appears above Σ. Thus, for 𝑛+2
𝑟=1
example, if we are given the sequence (iv) Ignoring the signs, each numerator is 1 and
1 1 1 1 the denominators are the natural numbers 𝑛.
, , ,… , 𝑛
2 4 8 2 Since the signs alternate between positive and
the corresponding series is
1 1 1 1 negative, starting with positive, we use
+ + + ⋯+ 𝑛 (−1) 𝑛+1 . Therefore
2 4 8 2 ∞
or, more compactly, 𝑛
𝑛
1 ∑(−1) 𝑛+1 ( )
𝑛+1
∑ 𝑘 𝑟=1
2 (v) Each numerator is 1 and the denominators
𝑘=1
The letter 𝑘 as used here is called the index of 1
are powers of 2 i.e. 2𝑛−1
summation. It is a ‘dummy variable,’ so called ∞
because it does not appear in the final result, and 1
∑
this result would be unchanged if some other 2𝑛−1
𝑟=1
letter was used. In fact any other letter can be
(vi) Each numerator is 1 and the first number of
used. For LESSON,
𝑛 the denominator is 𝑛 and the second is 𝑛 + 1.
∑ 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 Therefore
∞
𝑟=1 1
∑
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
LESSON 3 Write each of the following series 𝑟=1
using sigma notation. (vii) The numerators are the natural numbers
but they begin with 2, i.e. 𝑛 + 1 and the
(a) 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + ⋯ denominators are the square numbers.
(b) 8 + 6 + 4 + 2 + 0 + (−2) + ⋯ Therefore
1 2 3 4 5
(c) +4+5+6+7+⋯ ∞
3 𝑛+1
1 1 1 1 ∑
(d) 1 + (− 2) + 3 + (− 4) + 5 + ⋯ 𝑛2
𝑟=1
1 1 1 1
(e) 1 + 2 + 4 + + 16 + ⋯
8
1 1 1 1 1
(f) + 2×3 + 3×4 + 4×5 + 5×6 + ⋯ Some basic rules for manipulating expressions
1×2
3 4 5 involving Σ can be established as follows:
(g) 2 + 4 + 9 + 16 + ⋯ 𝑛

∑ 𝑎 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + ⋯ + 𝑎 = 𝑛𝑎
SOLUTION 𝑟=1
𝑛

(i) Consecutive terms differ by 3 therefore we try ∑(𝑘𝑢𝑟 ) = 𝑘𝑢1 + 𝑘𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑢𝑛
3𝑛. To create the right formula we add 2 i.e. 𝑟=1
= 𝑘(𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 )
3𝑛 + 2
58
 CHAPTER 10: SEQUENCES, SERIES and MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

𝑛
= 40
= 𝑘 ∑ 𝑢𝑟 (b) ∑16
𝑟=10 𝑟
3

𝑟=1 16 9
𝑛

∑(𝑢𝑟 + 𝑣𝑟 ) = (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) + (𝑢2 + 𝑣2 ) + ⋯ + (𝑢𝑛 + 𝑣𝑛 ) = ∑ 𝑟3 − ∑ 𝑟3

𝑟=1 𝑟 =1 𝑟=1
= (𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 ) + (𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑛 ) 162 92
𝑛 𝑛 = (16 + 1) 2 − (9 + 1)
4 4
= ∑ 𝑢𝑟 + ∑ 𝑣𝑟 = 16 471
𝑟=1 𝑟=1
This also holds for subtraction. That is,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 LESSON 6 Express in its simplest form
2𝑛
∑(𝑢𝑟 − 𝑣𝑟) = ∑ 𝑢𝑟 − ∑ 𝑣𝑟
𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1 ∑ 𝑟
𝑟=𝑛+1
SOLUTION
2𝑛 2𝑛 𝑛
LESSON 4 Evaluate 2𝑛 𝑛
4 ∑ 𝑟 = ∑ 𝑟 − ∑𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1) − (𝑛 + 1)
2 2
∑(2𝑟 + 3) 𝑟=𝑛+1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1
𝑛
𝑟 =1 = [2(2𝑛 + 1) − (𝑛 + 1)]
SOLUTION 2
𝑛
= [(4𝑛 + 2) − (𝑛 + 1)]
4 4 4 2
𝑛
∑(2𝑟 + 3) = 2 ∑ 𝑟 + ∑ 3 = (3𝑛 + 1)
2
𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1
= 2[1 + 2 + 3 + 4] + 4(3) LESSON 7 Express each of the following in a
= 32 factorized form.

(a) ∑𝑛𝑟=1(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 − 1)

SPECIAL SUMMATION FORMULAE
(b) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 2 (𝑟 + 2)
The following standard results can be used to find
the sum of various series.
SOLUTION
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 (a) ∑𝑛𝑟=1(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 − 1)
∑𝑟 = (𝑛 + 1), ∑ 𝑟2 = (𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1), 𝑛
2 6
𝑟=1 𝑟=1
= ∑(𝑟 2 − 1)
𝑛
𝑛2 𝑟 =1
𝑛 𝑛
∑ 𝑟3 = (𝑛 + 1) 2
4 = ∑ 𝑟2 − ∑1
𝑟=1
𝑟 =1 𝑟=1
LESSON 5 Find each of the following sums 𝑛
= (𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) − 𝑛
6
(a) ∑4𝑟=1 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) − 6𝑛
=
(b) ∑16
10 𝑟
3 6
𝑛[(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) − 6]
=
SOLUTION 6
𝑛[2𝑛2 + 3𝑛 + 1 − 6]
=
(a) ∑4𝑟=1 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 6
4 𝑛[2𝑛2 + 3𝑛 − 5]
=
= ∑(𝑟 2 + 𝑟) 6
𝑟 =1
𝑛(2𝑛 + 5)(𝑛 − 1)
4 4 =
6
= ∑ 𝑟2 + ∑𝑟 (b) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 2 (𝑟 + 2)
𝑛
𝑟 =1 𝑟=1
4 4 = ∑(𝑟 3 + 2𝑟 2 )
= (4 + 1)(2(4) + 1) + (4 + 1)
6 2 𝑟 =1

59
 CHAPTER 10: SEQUENCES, SERIES and MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

𝑛 𝑛
4. Evaluate
= ∑ 𝑟3 + 2 ∑ 𝑟2 (a) ∑20
𝑟=1 𝑟
𝑟 =1 𝑟=1 (b) ∑40
𝑟=1 3𝑟
𝑛2 𝑛 (c) ∑24
= (𝑛 + 1)2 + 2 [ (𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)] 𝑟=1(𝑟 + 3)
4 6 (d) (d) ∑6𝑟=1(𝑟 2 + 2𝑟 + 7)
3𝑛2 (𝑛 + 1) 2 + 4𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) (e) ∑100
= 𝑟=51 𝑟
12 5. Express each of the following in a factorised
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)[3𝑛(𝑛 + 1) + 4(2𝑛 + 1)]
= form.
12 (c) ∑𝑛𝑟=1(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 − 1)
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)[3𝑛2 + 3𝑛 + 8𝑛 + 4]
= (d) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟(𝑟 2 + 1)
12
(e) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 2 (𝑟 − 1)
………………………………………………………………………….. (f) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 2 (𝑟 + 2)
6. Use standard series formulae to show that
EXERCISE 10.3 1
(a) ∑𝑛𝑟=1[(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 − 2)] = 𝑛(𝑛2 − 7)
3
1. State the first 5 terms, the 𝑛th term and the 1
(b) ∑𝑛𝑟=1(𝑟 + 2)(𝑟 − 3) = 3 𝑛(𝑛2 − 19)
(𝑛 + 1)st of
𝑛 1
(c) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟2 (𝑟 + 1) = 12 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)(3𝑛 + 1)
a. ∑(3𝑟 − 2) 1
(d) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟(𝑟2 − 3) = 4 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 3)(𝑛 − 2)
𝑟=1
𝑛 1
(e) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 2 (3 − 4𝑟) = 2 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(1 − 2𝑛2 )
b. ∑ 2𝑟 2
𝑟=1
𝑛
SOLUTIONS
c. ∑(2𝑟 2 + 5) 1. (a) 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + ⋯ + (3𝑛 − 2) +
𝑟=3 (3𝑛 + 1)
𝑛

d. ∑ 𝑟 3 (b) 2 + 8 + 18 + 32 + 50 + ⋯ + 2𝑛2 + 2(𝑛 + 1) 2

𝑟=2 (c) 23 + 37 + 55 + 77 + 103 + ⋯ + (2𝑛2 + 5) +
(2(𝑛 + 1) 2 + 5)
2. Evaluate each of the following. (d) 8 + 27 + 64 + 125 + 216 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 + (𝑛 + 1) 3
7 73
2. (a) 21 (b) 45 (c) 405 (d) 12
(a) ∑(7 − 𝑟)
3. (a) ∑𝑛𝑟=1(5𝑟 + 3) (b) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 2(3𝑟−1 )
𝑟=1
5 (c) ∑𝑛𝑟=1(27−𝑟 ) (d) ∑𝑛𝑟=1(𝑟 + 1) 2
1 −1 𝑟
(b) ∑(20 − 𝑟 2 ) (e) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 2𝑟 (f) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 ( 2 )
𝑟 =1
4. (a) 210 (b) 2460 (c) 372
8 (d) 5668 (e) 3775
(c) ∑(2𝑟 2 + 5) EXAM QUESTIONS
𝑟=4
5
𝑟 1. Given that
(d) ∑ 𝑛
𝑟 −1 𝑛
𝑟=2 ∑𝑟 = (𝑛 + 1),
3. Write the following series using sigma 2
𝑟=1
notation [assume that there are 𝑛 terms in the show that
series] 𝑛
1
(a) 8 + 13 + 18 + 23 + ⋯ ∑(3𝑟 + 1) = 𝑛(3𝑛 + 5)
(b) 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + 162 + ⋯ 2
𝑟=1
(c) 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + ⋯ [4]
(d) 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + ⋯ CAPE 2006
1 1 1 1
(e) + + + +⋯
2 4 8 16
1 1 1 1
(f) − + − + −⋯
2 4 8 16
60
 CHAPTER 10: SEQUENCES, SERIES and MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

2. Let MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

𝑛
INTRODUCTION
𝑆𝑛 = ∑ 𝑟 for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ
𝑟=1 LESSON 1 – The (𝑘 + 1)st Term
Find the value of 𝑛 for which 3𝑆2𝑛 = 11𝑆𝑛.
[4] PROOF OF SUMMATION
CAPE 2007 LESSON 2 Prove by Mathematical Induction
that the sum of the first 𝑛 odd integers is 𝑛2 .
3. (i) Show that PROOF
𝑛
1 𝑛
∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2), 𝑛 ∈ ℕ Let 𝑃𝑛 : ∑(2𝑟 − 1) = 𝑛2
3
𝑟=1
𝑟=1
[5] 𝑃1 : 2(1) − 1 = 12
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, evaluate 1=1
50
Therefore, 𝑃1 is true
∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) Assume 𝑃𝑛 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘
𝑟=31 𝑘
[3]
𝑃𝑘 : ∑ 2𝑟 − 1 = 𝑘 2
CAPE 2008
𝑟=1
𝑘+1
SOLUTIONS
𝑃𝑘+1 : ∑ 2𝑟 − 1 = (𝑘 + 1) 2
𝑟 =1
1.
Now,
2. 𝑛=5 𝑃𝑘+1 = 𝑃𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1)st term
3. 34 280 𝑘+1 𝑘

∑ 2𝑟 − 1 = ∑ 2𝑟 − 1 + (𝑘 + 1)st term
…………………………………………………………………………..
𝑟=1 𝑟 =1
= 𝑘 2 + 2(𝑘 + 1) − 1
= 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 2 − 1
= 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1
= (𝑘 + 1) 2
Therefore, 𝑃𝑘+1 is true whenever 𝑃𝑘 is true.
Hence, by Mathematical Induction
𝑛

∑ 2𝑟 − 1 = 𝑛2 for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ
𝑟=1

LESSON 3 Prove by Mathematical Induction

that
𝑛

∑(6𝑟 + 5) = 3𝑛2 + 8𝑛
𝑟=1
for all positive integers 𝑛.
PROOF
𝑛

Let 𝑃𝑛 : ∑(6𝑟 + 5) = 3𝑛2 + 8𝑛

𝑟=1
𝑃1 : 6(1) + 5 = 3(1) 2 + 8(1)
6+5 =3+8
11 = 11
Thus, 𝑃1 is true.
Assume 𝑃𝑛 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘

61
 CHAPTER 10: SEQUENCES, SERIES and MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

𝑘 1
𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) + (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
=
𝑃𝑘 : ∑(6𝑟 + 5) = 3𝑘 2 + 8𝑘 3
𝑟=1 1
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)[𝑘 + 3]
3
𝑘+1
Thus, 𝑃𝑘 +1 is true whenever 𝑃𝑘 is true.
𝑃𝑘+1 : ∑(6𝑟 + 5) = 3(𝑘 + 1)2 + 8(𝑘 + 1)
𝑟=1 Hence, by Mathematical Induction
𝑛
= 3(𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1) + 8𝑘 + 8 1
= 3𝑘 2 + 6𝑘 + 3 + 8𝑘 + 8 ∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ
3
= 3𝑘 2 + 14𝑘 + 11 𝑟=1
Now,
𝑃𝑘+1 = 𝑃𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1)st term LESSON 5 Prove by Mathematical Induction
𝑘+1 𝑘 𝑛
1 𝑛
𝑃𝑘+1 : ∑(6𝑟 + 5) = ∑(6𝑟 + 5) + (𝑘 + 1)st term ∑ =
(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 2(𝑛 + 2)
𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1
2
= 3𝑘 + 8𝑘 + 6(𝑘 + 1) + 5 for all positive integers 𝑛.

= 3𝑘 2 + 8𝑘 + 6𝑘 + 6 + 5 PROOF
= 3𝑘 2 + 14𝑘 + 11 𝑛
Thus, 𝑃𝑘 +1 is true whenever 𝑃𝑘 is true. 1 𝑛
Hence, by Mathematical Induction Let 𝑃𝑛 : ∑ =
(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 2(𝑛 + 2)
𝑛 𝑟=1
1 1
∑(6𝑟 + 5) = 3𝑛2 + 8𝑛 for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ 𝑃1 : =
𝑟=1
(1 + 1)(1 + 2) 2(1 + 2)
1 1
=
6 6
LESSON 4 Prove by Mathematical Induction Therefore, 𝑃1 is true.
𝑛
1 Assume 𝑃𝑛 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘.
∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) 𝑘
3 1
𝑟=1 𝑃𝑘 : ∑ =
(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2)
𝑟=1
for all positive integers 𝑛. 𝑘+1
PROOF: 1 𝑘+1
𝑛 𝑃𝑘+1 : ∑ =
(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 2(𝑘 + 3)
1 𝑟=1
Let 𝑃𝑛 : ∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) Now,
3
𝑟=1 𝑃𝑘+1 = 𝑃𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1)st term
1 𝑘+1 1
𝑃1 : 1(1 + 1) = (1)(1 + 1)(1 + 2) 𝑃𝑘+1 = +
3 2(𝑘 + 3) (𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
2=2 𝑘(𝑘 + 3) 1(2)
Therefore, 𝑃1 is true. = +
Assume 𝑃𝑛 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘. 2(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3) 2(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
𝑘
1 𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 2
𝑃𝑘 : ∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) =
3 2(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
𝑟=1
𝑘+1
1 (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
𝑃𝑘+1 : ∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1 + 1)(𝑘 + 1 + 2) =
3 2(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
𝑟=1 𝑘+1
1 =
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3) 2(𝑘 + 3)
3 Thus, 𝑃𝑘 +1 is true whenever 𝑃𝑘 is true.
Now,
𝑃𝑘+1 = 𝑃𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1)st term
𝑘+1 𝑘 Hence, by Mathematical Induction
𝑛
𝑃𝑘+1 : ∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) = ∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)st term 1 𝑛
∑ = for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ
𝑟=1 𝑟=1 (𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 2(𝑛 + 2)
𝑟=1
1
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) + (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1 + 1)
3

62
 CHAPTER 10: SEQUENCES, SERIES and MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

LESSON 6 Prove by mathematical induction Hence by mathematical induction

that
𝑛
1
𝑛
1 ∑ 𝑟 2 (𝑟 − 1) = 𝑛(𝑛2 − 1)(3𝑛 + 2)
12
∑ 𝑟 2 (𝑟 − 1) = 𝑛(𝑛2 − 1)(3𝑛 + 2) 𝑟=1
12
𝑟=1
for all positive integers 𝑛.
for all positive integers 𝑛.

PROOF …………………………………………………………………………..
EXERCISE 10. 4
𝑛
1
𝑃𝑛 : ∑ 𝑟 2 (𝑟 − 1) = 𝑛(𝑛2 − 1)(3𝑛 + 2) 1. (i) Find the 𝑛th term of the series
12
𝑟=1 1(2) + 2(5) + 3(8) + ⋯
(ii) Prove, by Mathematical Induction, that
1
𝑃1 : 12 (1 − 1) = (1)(12 − 1)(3(1) + 2) the sum to 𝑛 terms of the series in (i)
12 above is 𝑛2 (𝑛 + 1).
0=0 2. Prove, by mathematical induction, that
𝑛

Therefore, 𝑃1 is true. ∑(4𝑟 + 1) = 𝑛(2𝑛 + 3)

𝑟=1
Assume 𝑃𝑛 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘
for all positive integers 𝑛.
𝑘
1 3. Prove the following by Mathematical
𝑃𝑘 : ∑ 𝑟 2 (𝑟 − 1) = 𝑘(𝑘 2 − 1)(3𝑘 + 2)
12 Induction for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+
𝑟=1 𝑛
𝑛
𝑘+1 a. ∑ 𝑟 2 = (𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
𝑃𝑘+1 : ∑ 𝑟2 (𝑟 − 1) =
1
(𝑘 + 1)((𝑘 + 1)2 − 1)(3(𝑘 + 1) + 2)
6
𝑟=1
12
𝑟 =1
𝑛
1 𝑛2
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 )(3𝑘 + 5) b. ∑ 𝑟3 = (𝑛 + 1)2
12 4
𝑟=1

1 𝑛
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(3𝑘 + 5) 1 𝑛
12 c. ∑ =
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 𝑛 + 1
𝑟 =1
Now, 𝑃𝑘+1 = 𝑃𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1) term 𝑛
1 𝑛
1 d. ∑ =
𝑃𝑘+1 = 𝑘(𝑘 2 − 1)(3𝑘 + 2) + (𝑘 + 1) 2 (𝑘 + 1 − 1) (𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 2(𝑛 + 2)
𝑟=1
12
𝑛
1 12(𝑘 + 1)2 𝑘 1 𝑛
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 − 1)(3𝑘 + 2) + e. ∑ =
12 12 (𝑟 + 3)(𝑟 + 4) 4(𝑛 + 4)
𝑟=1
1
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)[𝑘 − 1)(3𝑘 + 2) + 12(𝑘 + 1)] …………………………………………………………………………..
12
1 PROOF OF DIVISIBILITY
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(3𝑘 2 − 𝑘 − 2 + 12𝑘 + 12) LESSON 7 Use Mathematical Induction to
12
show that 4𝑛3 − 𝑛 is divisible by 3, whenever 𝑛 is
1 a positive integer.
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(3𝑘 2 + 11𝑘 + 10)
12 PROOF
State the proposition
1 Let 𝑃𝑛 be the proposition that 4𝑛3 − 𝑛 is divisible by
= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(3𝑘 + 5)
12 3.
Using the definition of divisibility we have
Therefore 𝑃𝑘+1 is true whenever 𝑃𝑘 is true.
𝑃𝑛 : 4𝑛3 − 𝑛 = 3𝑟 for some integer 𝑟
63
 CHAPTER 10: SEQUENCES, SERIES and MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

Part 1 Show that 𝑃1 is true …………………………………………………………………………..

𝑃1 : 4(1)3 − 1 = 3 = 3(1) EXERCISE 10.5
Thus, 𝑃1 is true.
Part 2 Assume that 𝑃𝑛 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘. 1. Prove the following by Mathematical Induction
This is called the inductive step. for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+
𝑃𝑘 : 4𝑘 3 − 𝑘 = 3𝑟 (a) 72𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 48
Assume 𝑃𝑘 is true (b) 4𝑛 + 6𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 9 for 𝑛 ≥ 1, 𝑛 ∈
𝑃𝑘+1 : 4(𝑘 + 1)3 − (𝑘 + 1) = 3𝑚 𝑚 ∈ ℤ ℤ+ .
Show that 𝑃𝑘+1 must follow
Part 3 Show that 𝑃𝑘+1 is true given that 𝑃𝑘 is EXAM QUESTIONS
true.
1. Prove, by mathematical induction, that
Now,
𝑛(𝑛2 + 5) is divisible by 6 for all positive
4(𝑘 + 1)3 − 𝑘 + 1
integers 𝑛. [6]
= 4(𝑘 3 + 3𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 1) − (𝑘 + 1)
CAPE 2011
= 4𝑘 3 + 12𝑘 2 + 12𝑘 + 4 − 𝑘 − 1
= 4𝑘 3 + 12𝑘 2 + 11𝑘 + 3 2. Use mathematical induction to prove that
= (4𝑘 3 − 𝑘) + 12𝑘 2 + 12𝑘 + 3 5𝑛 + 3 is divisible by 2 for all values of 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
= (4𝑘 3 − 𝑘) + 3(4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1) [8]
= 3𝑟 + 3(4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1) CAPE 2013
= 3(𝑟 + 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1)
Thus, if 𝑃𝑘 is true, then 𝑃𝑘 +1 is true. 3. Use mathematical induction to prove that
Conclusion: 𝑛
Hence by Mathematical Induction 𝑃𝑛 is true for all 12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1)2 = (4𝑛2 − 1)
3
positive integers 𝑛. for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. [10]
CAPE 2014
LESSON 8 Prove that 42𝑛 − 1 is divisible by
5 for all positive integers 𝑛. 4. Given that 𝑆(𝑛) = 5 + 52 + 53 + 54 + ⋯ + 5𝑛 ,
PROOF use mathematical induction to prove that
Let 𝑃𝑛 : 42𝑛 − 1 = 5𝑟 𝑟 𝜖 ℤ 4𝑆(𝑛) = 5𝑛+1 − 5 for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. [8]
𝑃1 : 42(1) − 1 = 16 − 1 CAPE 2015
= 15 = 5(3)
Therefore, 𝑃1 is true. …………………………………………………………………………..
Assume that 𝑃𝑛 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘.
𝑃𝑘 : 42𝑘 − 1
∴ 42𝑘 = 5𝑟 + 1
𝑃𝑘+1 : 42(𝑘+1) − 1 = 5𝑚 𝑚 𝜖 ℤ
Now,
42(𝑘+1) − 1 = 42𝑘+2 − 1
= 42𝑘 . 42 − 1
= (5𝑟 + 1)16 − 1
= 80𝑟 + 16 − 1
= 80𝑟 + 15
= 5(16𝑟 + 3)
Thus, 42(𝑘+1) − 1 = 5𝑚 where 𝑚 = 16𝑟 + 3 is an
integer. Therefore 𝑃𝑘 +1 is true whenever 𝑃𝑘 is
true.
Hence, by Mathematical Induction, 42𝑛 − 1 is
divisible by 5 for all positive integers 𝑛.

64
 CHAPTER 11: THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

CHAPTER 11: THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

At the end of this section, students should be able be CLOSED on the set, 𝐴, if 𝑎⨁𝑏 is ALWAYS a
to: member of the set, 𝐴.

 perform binary operations LESSON 2a An operation is defined on the set

 use the concepts of identity, closure, 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4} as shown in the table below.
inverse, commutavity, associativity,
distributivity, addition, multiplication and ∗ 1 2 3 4
other binary operations. 1 1 3 5 7
2 2 4 6 8
BINARY OPERATIONS 3 3 5 7 9
The four basic operations are addition, 4 4 6 8 10
subtraction, multiplication and division. Their Determine if the operation is Closed on the set 𝐴.
operators are +, −,×, and ÷ respectively. A
binary operator is any operator other than these SOLUTION Since the table contains elements
four which combines two elements of a set to not found in the set 𝐴 the operation is NOT Closed
produce a third element. on the set 𝐴.

LESSON 2b An operation is defined by

𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 3𝑎 − 𝑎𝑏 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers.
CAYLEY TABLE Show that ∗ is closed on ℝ.

A binary operation on a finite set can be SOLUTION If ∗ is closed on ℝ, then

represented in the form of a table, sometimes 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 3𝑎 − 𝑎𝑏 is ALWAYS a real number.
called a Cayley table.
3𝑎 + (−𝑎𝑏) ∈ ℝ since the sum of two real
LESSON 1 The operation ∗ is defined on the numbers 3𝑎 and −𝑎𝑏 is ALWAYS real.
set 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4} by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 2,
determine the corresponding table. LESSON 2c An operation ⨁ is defined by
𝑥+𝑦
𝑥⨁𝑦 = where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real numbers.
2
SOLUTION The first column represents 𝑎 Determine if ⨁ is closed on ℤ.
and the first row represents 𝑏. Here are the
𝑥+𝑦
calculations for the first column. SOLUTION If ⨁ is closed on ℤ, 𝑥⨁𝑦 = is
2
ALWAYS an Integer. We will use a counter –
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 2
example.
1 ∗ 1 = 1 + 2(1) − 2 = 1 1+ 2 3
1⨁2 = =
2 ∗ 1 = 2 + 2(1) − 2 = 2 2 2
3
3 ∗ 1 = 3 + 2(1) − 2 = 3 Since 2 is NOT an Integer, 𝑥⨁𝑦 is NOT ALWAYS a
member of ℤ. Therefore ⨁ is NOT closed.
4 ∗ 1 = 4 + 2(1) − 2 = 4
LESSON 2d The operation ⊕ is defined on
∗ 1 2 3 4
the set of real numbers by 𝑚 ⊕ 𝑛 = √3𝑚 − 2𝑛.
1 1 3 5 7
Show that ⊕ is not Closed on 𝑅.
2 2 4 6 8
SOLUTION
3 3 5 7 9
⊕ is not closed on 𝑅 since the square root of a
4 4 6 8 10
negative number is not real.

CLOSURE COMMUTATIVITY
Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be members of a set, 𝐴, and ⨁ be a Given that 𝑎 and 𝑏 are members of the set 𝐴 and
binary operation on 𝐴. The operation ⨁ is said to the operation ⨁ is defined on the set 𝐴, then ⨁ is
COMMUTATIVE if 𝑎⨁𝑏 = 𝑏⨁𝑎.
65
 CHAPTER 11: THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

LESSON 3 An operation is defined by State, giving a reason for your answers, which
𝑥 ⋆ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real numbers. tables represent operations which are
State, with a reason, whether commutative.
SOLUTION
i) ⋆ is Closed under the set of Real numbers, A binary operation is commutative if its
ii) ⋆ is Commutative under the set of Real corresponding table is symmetric about the
numbers, leading diagonal. Therefore, ⨁ and ⊠ are
SOLUTION commutative.
(i) 2𝑥 is a real number and −3𝑦 is a real
number. ASSOCIATIVITY
The sum of 2 real numbers is real ∴ ⋆ is Given that 𝑎, 𝑏 and c are members of the set 𝐴 and
closed on ℝ. the operation ⨁ is defined on the set 𝐴, ⨁ is
(ii) If ⋆ is commutative 𝑥 ⋆ 𝑦 = 𝑦 ⋆ 𝑥 associative if 𝑎 ⊕ (𝑏 ⊕ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ⊕ 𝑏) ⊕ 𝑐.
𝑥 ⋆ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3𝑦
𝑦 ⋆ 𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 3𝑥 LESSON 4 An operation is defined by
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 ≠ 2𝑦 − 3𝑥 ∴ ⋆ is not 𝑥 ⋆ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real numbers.
commutative State, with a reason, whether ⋆ is Associative
under the set of Real numbers.
LESSON 3 The following tables represent
binary operations. SOLUTION
(a)
If ⋆ is associative (𝑥 ⋆ 𝑦) ⋆ 𝑧 = 𝑥 ⋆ (𝑦 ⋆ 𝑧) where
⨁ 1 2 3 4
𝑧∈ℝ
1 0 1 2 3 (𝑥 ⋆ 𝑦) ⋆ 𝑧 = (2𝑥 − 3𝑦) ⋆ 𝑧
= 2(2𝑥 − 3𝑦) + 3𝑧
2 1 2 3 4 = 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 3𝑧
𝑥 ⋆ (𝑦 ⋆ 𝑧) = 𝑥 ⋆ (2𝑦 − 3𝑧)
3 2 3 4 5 = 2𝑥 − 3(2𝑦 − 3𝑧)
4 3 4 5 6 = 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 9𝑧
4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 3𝑧 ≠ 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 9𝑧 ∴ ⋆ is not
associative
(b)
∗ 1 2 3 4 LESSON 4 Given that the operation ∗ is
defined on the set of real numbers such that
1 1 3 5 7 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 5 + 𝑎 + 𝑏, prove that ∗ is associative on ℝ.
SOLUTION
2 2 4 6 8 If ∗ is associative on ℝ then
𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ.
3 3 5 7 9

4 4 6 8 10 𝑎∗𝑏 =5+𝑎+𝑏
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)
(5 + 𝑎 + 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (5 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 )
(c) 5+5+𝑎+𝑏 +𝑐 =5+𝑎+5+𝑏 +𝑐
⊠ 𝒂 𝒃 𝒄 𝒅 10 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 10 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐

𝒂 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏
𝒃 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝒄 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝒅 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎

66
 CHAPTER 11: THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

IDENTITY AND INVERSE EXERCISE 11

If 𝑒 is the identity element for an operation ∗ then 1. For all real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, let ⊺ be defined
as 𝑥 ⊺ 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .
𝑎∗𝑒 =𝑒∗𝑎 = 𝑎 (i) Prove that ⊺ is Closed on the set of Real
numbers.
If 𝑦 is the inverse of an element 𝑎, then (ii) Show that ⊺ is not Commutative on the set
of Real numbers.
𝑎∗𝑦 = 𝑦∗𝑎 = 𝑒 2. The operation △ is defined on 𝑅 by
𝑎 △ 𝑏 = 𝑎3 − 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏2 .
LESSON 5 The operation ∗ is defined on the (i) Show that △ is Closed on 𝑅.
set of real numbers by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2. (ii) Show that △ is not Commutative on 𝑅.
Determine
(i) the identity element of ∗. 3. The operation ∗ is defined by
(ii) the inverse of 𝑎, 𝑎−1 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real
SOLUTION numbers and 𝑧 is a real number.
(i) Let 𝑒 be the identity element. State, with a reason, whether
𝑎∗𝑒 = 𝑒∗ 𝑎 =𝑎 (a) ∗ is closed in 𝑅
𝑎+𝑒−2= 𝑎 (b) ∗ is commutative in 𝑅
𝑒−2 =0 (c) ∗ is associative in 𝑅
𝑒=2 4. The operation ∘ on real numbers is defined by
The identity element is 2. 𝑝 ∘ 𝑞 = 𝑝|𝑞|.
(ii) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 −1 = 𝑎 −1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒 (a) Show that ∘ is not commutative.
𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 −1 = 2 (b) Prove that ∘ is associative.
𝑎 + 𝑎 −1 − 2 = 2 5. For all real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, let 𝑥 ∆ 𝑦 be
𝑎 + 𝑎 −1 = 4 defined as 𝑥 ∆ 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 .
𝑎 −1 = 4 − 𝑎 State, with a reason, whether
(a) ∆ is closed in 𝑅
LESSON 5 An operation ⨁ is defined on the (b) ∆ is commutative in 𝑅
set 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4} as shown in the following table. (c) ∆ is associative in 𝑅
⨁ 1 2 3 4 6. The operation 𝑥⨀𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 for all real
1 0 1 2 3 numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦. Determine which of the
2 1 2 3 4 following is/are true
3 2 3 4 5 (a) 𝑥⨀𝑦 = 𝑦⨀𝑥
4 3 4 5 6 (b) (𝑥 − 1)⨀(𝑥 + 1) = (𝑥⨀𝑥) + 1
(c) 𝑥⨀(𝑦 + 𝑧) = (𝑥⨀𝑦) + (𝑥⨀𝑧)
Determine 7. A binary operation ∗ is defined on real
(a) the identity element of ⨁ numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦 by
(b) the inverse of the element 3 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 + 𝑦
You may assume that the operation ∗ is
commutative and associative.
SOLUTION
(i) Explain briefly the meanings of the terms
‘commutative’ and ‘associative’
(a) Since the column headed by the 2 and the row 1 1 1
headed by the 2 correspond exactly to the set (ii) Show that 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 2 (𝑥 + 2) (𝑦 + 2) − 2
𝐴, 2 is the identity element.
𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 = is the remainder when 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 is divided
(b) Let 𝑦 represent the inverse of 3 by 7

(iii) Show that 4 ∘ 6 = 2.

3 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑒 where 𝑒 is the identity element

3∗𝑦 =2

From the table 3 ∗ 1 = 2, therefore the inverse

of 3 is 1.
67
 CHAPTER 11: THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

8. The binary operation ∗ is defined on the set …………………………………………………………………………

{0, 1, 2, 3, 4} as shown in the table below.
* 0 1 2 3 4 DIRECT PROOFS
0 0 1 2 3 4 Other mathematical statements can be proven by
1 1 2 3 4 0 using deduction; this is usually the case. In proof
2 2 3 4 0 1 by deduction, each step is deduced from the
3 3 4 0 1 2 previous one or is justified by quoting an accepted
4 4 0 1 2 3 fact or a result previously proven, to arrive at the
required result.
(a) Is * closed on the set? Give a reason for
your answer. LESSON 1 Prove that for any two positive
(b) Is * commutative? Give a reason for your numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦
𝑥+𝑦
answer. √𝑥𝑦 ≤
(c) State the identity element of *. 2
(d) State the inverse element of 3. SOLUTION
2
(e) Determine if (3 ∗ 1) ∗ 4 = 3 ∗ (1 ∗ 4). (√𝑥 − √𝑦) ≥ 0
Hence, state if * is associative. 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2 √𝑥𝑦 ≥ 0
SOLUTIONS 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≥ 2√𝑥𝑦
2√𝑥𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 + 2
1. 𝑥+𝑦
2. √𝑥𝑦 ≤
2
3. (a) Yes (b) Yes (c) Yes
4. LESSON 2 Prove that for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) is
5. (a) Yes (b) Yes (c) No even.
6. (a) True (b) False (c) True SOLUTION
7. Suppose 𝑛 is even, then 𝑛 + 1 is odd and the
8. (a) Yes (b) Yes (c) 0 (d) 2 (e) Yes product of an even number and an odd number is
even.
EXAM QUESTIONS Suppose 𝑛 is odd, then 𝑛 + 1 is even and the
product of an odd number and an even number is
1. A binary operator ⊕ is defined on a set of
even. Therefore, 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) is even.
positive real numbers by
𝑦 ⊕ 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 + 𝑥 − 5𝑥𝑦
…………………………………………………………………………
Solve the equation 2 ⊕ 𝑥 = 0. [5]
1. Prove that if 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers then
CAPE 2013
𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ≥ 2𝑎𝑏.
2. A binary operator ⊕ is defined on a set of EXAM QUESTIONS
positive real numbers by
𝑦 ⊕ 𝑥 = 𝑦 3 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 5𝑦 − 5𝑥 + 16 1. The smallest of three consecutive integers is
where 𝑎 is a real number. 𝑛.
(i) State, giving a reason for your answer, if Write down the other two integers.
⊕ is commutative in 𝑅. [3] Prove that the sum of any three consecutive
(ii) Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 ⊕ 𝑥 and (𝑥 − 1) is a integers is divisible by 3.
factor of 𝑓(𝑥), 2. Given that 𝑥 > 𝑦, and 𝑘 < 0 for the real
a) find the value of 𝑎 [4] numbers 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑘, show that 𝑘𝑥 < 𝑘𝑦. [4]
b) factorise completely. [3] CAPE 2004

CAPE 2014 3. Prove that the product of any two consecutive

SOLUTIONS integers 𝑘 and 𝑘 + 1 is an even integer. [2]
CAPE 2011
1. 𝑥 = 1, 8
2. (i) Yes, 𝑥 ⊕ 𝑦 = 𝑦 ⊕ 𝑥 …………………………………………………………………………
(i) (a) 𝑎 = −2
(b) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2)
68
 CHAPTER 12: REASONING AND LOGIC

CHAPTER 12: REASONING AND LOGIC

At the end of this section, students should be able (iv) Dogs are lovable and cats are unfriendly.
to: (v) If I study a lot then I will pass my exams.
(vi) If I score more than 80%, I will receive a
 identify simple and compound grade A, and if I receive a grade A, my
propositions; score will be more than 80%.
 establish the truth value of compound
statements using truth tables; SOLUTION
 state the converse, contrapositive and
inverse of a conditional (implication) (i) 𝑝∧𝑞
statement; (ii) 𝑝∨𝑞
(iii) ∼𝑝
 determine whether two statements are
logically equivalent. (iv) 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞
(v) 𝑠→𝑡
__________________________________________________________ (vi) (𝑡 → 𝑣) ∧ (𝑣 → 𝑡) or (𝑡 ↔ 𝑣)

A proposition is a statement which is either true TRUTH TABLES

or false. Propositions are usually denoted by A truth table shows the truth or falsity of a
letters: 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, … Connectors are used to form statement by listing all of the possible outcomes.
compound propositions from two or more A tautology is a statement that is always true.
propositions. Here is a list of connectors A contradiction is a statement that is always false.
∧ conjunction (i.e. and) A contingency is a statement that is sometimes
∨ inclusive (i.e. injunction / or) true and sometimes false.
~ negation (i.e. not)
→ implication (i.e. if…then) LESSON 2 Construct truth tables for
↔ equivalence (i.e. if and only if)
The statement “I brush my teeth and I floss” is a a) ∼ 𝑝
Compound Proposition since it is the combination b) 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑝
of the simple propositions – I brush my teeth and I c) 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑝
floss. With the use of propositional notation, also d) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
known as mathematical logic, this can be written e) 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞
as and state whether the proposition is a tautology,
I brush my teeth ∧ I floss contradiction or a contingency.
Furthermore, if we let
𝑎 = I brush my teeth SOLUTION
𝑏 = I floss
a)
we can then simplify our statement to 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏. Thus,
𝑝 ∼𝑝
we have created a Boolean expression.
0 1
LESSON 1 Given that 1 0
𝑝 = dogs are lovable This is a contingency.
𝑞 = cats are friendly b)
𝑟 = I study a lot 𝑝 ∼𝑝 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑝
𝑠 = I pass my exams 0 1 0
𝑡 = I score more than 80% 1 0 0
𝑣 = I receive a grade 𝐴 This is a contradiction. Furthermore,
use the symbols of propositional notation to write 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑝 = 0
down Boolean expressions to represent the c)
statements: 𝑝 ∼𝑝 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑝
0 1 1
(i) Dogs are lovable and cats are friendly. 1 0 1
(ii) Dogs are lovable or cats are friendly. This is a tautology. Furthermore, 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑝 = 1
(iii) Dogs are not lovable.
69
 CHAPTER 12: REASONING AND LOGIC

d) SOLUTION
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞
0 0 0 (i)
0 1 0 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞
1 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 1
This is a contingency. 1 0 0
e) 1 1 1
𝑝 𝑞 ∼𝑞 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞 (ii)
0 0 1 1 𝑝 𝑞 ∼𝑝 ∼𝑞 ∼ 𝑝 →∼ 𝑞
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
This is a contingency. 1 1 0 0 1

LESSON 3 Construct truth tables for (iii) NB: 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 means (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 → 𝑞 𝑞 → 𝑝 (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)
(i) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 0 0 1 1 1
(ii) (∼ 𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑝) ∧ 𝑟 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
SOLUTION
1 1 1 1 1
(i)
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝∧𝑞 (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 CONVERSE, INVERSE AND
0 0 0 0 0 CONTRAPOSITIVE
0 0 1 0 1 LESSON 5
0 1 0 0 0 Consider the proposition 𝑝 → 𝑞
0 1 1 0 1 Its converse is 𝑞 → 𝑝.
1 0 0 0 0 Interchange propositions.
1 0 1 0 1 Its inverse is ∼ 𝑝 →∼ 𝑞.
1 1 0 1 1 Negate both propositions.
1 1 1 1 1 Its contrapositive is ∼ 𝑞 →∼ 𝑝.
(ii) Interchange propositions and negate.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 ∼𝑝 ∼𝑞 ∼𝑞 (∼ 𝑞
∨ ∨∼ 𝑝) LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
∼𝑝 ∧𝑟 LESSON 6 Construct a single truth table for
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 𝑝 → 𝑞 and ∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞.
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 SOLUTION
0 1 0 1 0 1 0
𝑝 𝑞 ∼𝑝 𝑝→𝑞 ∼ 𝑝∨𝑞
0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Since the two columns for 𝑝 → 𝑞 and ∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 are
identical these two propositions are logically
equivalent.
LESSON 4 Construct truth tables for

(i) 𝑝→𝑞
(ii) ∼ 𝑝 →∼ 𝑞
(iii) 𝑝↔𝑞

70
 CHAPTER 12: REASONING AND LOGIC

LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA = {𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑝) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)} ∨ {𝑞 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞)}

Identity: = {0 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)} ∨ (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑝) ∨ (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑞)}
𝑝∨𝑝 ≡ 𝑝 = (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ {(𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑝) ∨ 0}
𝑝∧𝑝 ≡ 𝑝 = (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑝)
𝑝∨1 ≡1 = (𝑞 ∧ 𝑝) ∨ (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑝)
𝑝∧1 ≡𝑝 = 𝑞 ∧ (𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑝)
𝑝∨0 ≡𝑝 =𝑞∧1
𝑝∧0 ≡0 =𝑞
Commutative: RHS
𝑝∨𝑞 ≡ 𝑞∨𝑝
𝑝∧𝑞 ≡ 𝑞∧𝑝 …………………………………………………………………………

EXERCISE 12
Complement:
1. Given that 𝑝 is the statement, “I will go to the
𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑝 ≡ 1
beach” and 𝑞 is the statement “It is extremely
𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑝 ≡ 0
hot” represent the following as Boolean
expressions.
Double Negation:
(i) I will not go to the beach.
∼ (∼ 𝑝) ≡ 𝑝
(ii) It is extremely hot and I will go to the
Associative:
beach.
𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟
𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟 (iii) If it is extremely hot then I will go to the
beach.
2. Construct truth tables for each of the
Distributive:
𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) following.
𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟) (a) ~𝑎
(b) ~𝑎 ∨ 𝑏
(c) 𝑎 ∨ 𝑏
Absorbtion:
𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 (d) ∼ 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏
𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 and state whether the proposition is a
tautology, contradiction or a contingency.
De Morgan’s:
∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞 3. Construct truth tables for
∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞 (a) (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) ∨ 𝑐
(b) (∼ 𝑎 ∧∼ 𝑏) ∨ 𝑐
4. Construct truth tables for
LESSON 7 Use the laws of algebra of (a) ∼ 𝑎 → 𝑏
propositions to show that (b) (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) → 𝑐
𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞. (c) (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) → (𝑎 ∧ 𝑐)
SOLUTION 5. State the converse, inverse and contrapositive
LHS of (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑝).
𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑞) 6. Show that ∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) and ∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞 are
= 𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
logically equivalent.
Since 𝑝 → 𝑞 and ∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 are logically equivalent.
7. Simplify
= (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑝) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) (a) 𝑎 ∨ (∼ 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏)
= 0 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
(b) 𝑎 ∧ [𝑏 ∨ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏)] ∧ [𝑎 ∨ (∼ 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏)]
=𝑝∧𝑞 8. Prove the following statements, using the
RHS laws of Boolean Algebra
(i) (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) ∨ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑐 ) = 𝑎 ∧ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐 )
LESSON 8 Show that (ii) (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) ∧ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) = (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏)
{𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)} ∨ {𝑞 ∧∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)} ≡ 𝑞.
(iii) (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) ∨ (𝑎 ∧∼ 𝑏) = 𝑎
SOLUTION
(iv) 𝑎 ∧ [(𝑏 ∧ 𝑐 ) ∨ (𝑏 ∧∼ 𝑐 )] = 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏
LHS (v) ∼ 𝑎 ∧ (∼ 𝑏 ∨ 𝑎) =∼ (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏)
{𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)} ∨ {𝑞 ∧∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)} (vi) [𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)] ∨ [𝑞 ∧∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)] = 𝑞
71
 CHAPTER 12: REASONING AND LOGIC

(vii) [(𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞) ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞)] ∨ 𝑞 = 1

(viii) ∼ (𝑝 ∨∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)) = 0

EXAM QUESTIONS

9. Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be two propositions.

(i) State the converse of (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑝).
[1]
(ii) Show that the contrapositive of the
inverse of (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑝) is the
converse of (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑝). [3]
CAPE 2013
10. Let 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟 be three propositions. Construct
a truth table for the statement
(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑟 → 𝑞). [5]
CAPE 2014

11. Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be any two propositions.

(i) State the inverse and the contrapositive of
the statement 𝑝 → 𝑞. [2]
(ii) Copy and complete the table below to
show the truth table for 𝑝 → 𝑞 and
∼ 𝑞 →∼ 𝑝.
𝒑 𝒒 ∼𝒑 ∼𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 ∼𝒒→
∼𝒑
T T
T F
F T
F F
[4]
(iii) Hence, state whether the compound
statement 𝑝 → 𝑞 and ∼ 𝑞 →∼ 𝑝 are
logically equivalent. Justify your response.
[2]
CAPE 2015
12. State the converse, inverse and contrapositive
of 𝑝 →∼ 𝑞. [5]
APPLIED MATHEMATICS 2015

SOLUTIONS
SEE PAGE 166

…………………………………………………………………………

72
 CHAPTER 12: REASONING AND LOGIC

MODULE TWO: VECTORS,

TRIGONOMETRY AND COORDINATE
GEOMETRY
CHAPTER 13: TWO DIMENSIONAL VECTORS
At the end of this section, students should be able  find the equation of the plane, in the form
to: 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 𝑧𝒌 = 𝑑, 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝑑, given a point
in the plane and the normal to the plane.
𝑥
 express a vector in the form (𝑦 ) or _________________________________________________________
𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋; 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ;
 define equal vectors;
𝒊, 𝒋 REPRESENTATION
INTRODUCTION
 add and subtract vectors;
 multiply a vector by a scalar quantity;
 derive and use unit vectors;
 find displacement vectors;
 find the magnitude and direction of a
vector;
 define the scalar product of two vectors:
(i) in terms of their components;
(ii) in terms of their magnitudes and the
angle between them;
 find the angle between two given vectors;
 apply properties of parallel and
perpendicular vectors. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ which is a vector such that
The diagram shows 𝐴𝐵
𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3)
𝐴𝐵
 express a vector in the form (𝑦 ) or 4
1
𝑧 Alternately the base unit vectors 𝒊 = ( ) and
𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 𝑧𝒌 where 𝒊, 𝒋 and 𝒌 are unit 0
0
vectors in the direction of 𝑥−, 𝑦 − and 𝑧 − 𝒋 = ( ) can be used to express vectors.
1
axis respectively;
 define equality of two vectors;
 add and subtract vectors;
 multiply a vector by a scalar quantity;
 derive and use unit vectors, position
vectors and displacement vectors;
 find the magnitude and direction of a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3 (1) + 4 (0) = (3) + (0) = (3)
𝐴𝐵
0 1 0 4 4
vector; ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝒊 + 4𝒋
𝐴𝐵
 find the angle between two vectors using
scalar product;
 find the equation of a line in vector form,
parametric form, Cartesian form, given a
point on the line and a vector parallel to
the line;
 determine whether two lines are parallel,
intersecting or skewed;
73
 CHAPTER 13: VECTORS

𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌 REPRESENTATION LESSON 2 The three points 𝑂, 𝑃 and 𝑄 are

𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( ). Given that
INTRODUCTION such that 𝑂𝑃 = ( ) and 𝑂𝑄
3 2𝑞
In three dimensions, the base vectors are ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is a unit vector, calculate the possible values of
𝑃𝑄
1 0 0 𝑞.
𝒊 = (0) , 𝒋 = (1) , 𝒌 = (0) SOLUTION
0 0 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑂 + 𝑂𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
that are along the 𝑥, 𝑦 and z coordinate directions, 2 𝑞
= − ( ) + (2𝑞 )
respectively, as shown in the figure. 3
−4 −2 + 𝑞
=( )
For example, 𝒗 = ( 3 ) can be written as −3 + 2𝑞
2 Since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 is a unit vector the length of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑃𝑄 is 1,
−4𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 2𝒌. therefore
√(𝑞 − 2) 2 + (2𝑞 − 3)2 = √1
𝑞 2 − 4𝑞 + 4 + 4𝑞 2 − 12𝑞 + 9 = 1
5𝑞 2 − 16𝑞 + 12 = 0
(5𝑞 − 6)(𝑞 − 2) = 0
6
𝑞= , 2
5

LESSON 3 Determine the unit vector in the

−4
direction of the vector 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 3 ).
2
The magnitude of 𝒗: SOLUTION
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(−4) 2 + (3) 2 + (2)2 = √29
|𝑂𝐴
|𝒗| = √(−4)2 + 32 + 22 = √29
−4
1
Unit Vector= (3)
Consequently, √29
−4 3 2 2
𝒗
̂= 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
√29 √29 √29 SCALAR (DOT) PRODUCT
We define the scalar (dot) product of 2 vectors
𝑣 = 𝑎𝒊 + 𝑏𝒋 and 𝑤 = 𝑐𝒊 + 𝑑𝒋 as
UNIT VECTORS 𝑣. 𝑤 = (𝑎𝒊 + 𝑏𝒋 ). (𝑐𝒊 + 𝑑𝒋) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑
LESSON 1 Given the position vectors of the LESSON 4 If 𝒗 = −2𝒊 + 𝒋 and 𝒘 = 3𝒊 − 4𝒋
points 𝐴 and 𝐵 relative to a fixed point 𝑂 are determine 𝒗. 𝒘
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2) and 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−1), determine SOLUTION
5 4 𝒗. 𝒘 = (−2𝒊 + 𝒋). (3𝒊 − 4𝒋)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in the form 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 = (−2)(3) + (1)(−4)
(i) 𝐴𝐵
= −10
(ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝐴𝐵
(iii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
the unit vector in the direction of 𝐴𝐵 Given 3 dimensional vectors we define their dot
product as follows;
SOLUTION If 𝒗 = 𝑎𝒊 + 𝑏𝒋 + 𝑐𝒌 and 𝒘 = 𝑑𝒊 + 𝑒𝒋 + 𝑓𝒌 then
𝒗. 𝒘 = (𝑎𝒊 + 𝑏𝒋 + 𝑐𝒌 ). (𝑑𝒊 + 𝑒𝒋 + 𝑓𝒌)
(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝒊 + 5𝒋 and 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝒊 + 4𝒋 = 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑒 + 𝑐𝑓
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑂
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= −(2𝒊 + 5𝒋) + (−𝒊 + 4𝒋) LESSON 5 If 𝒕 = −𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 2𝒌 and
= −3𝒊 − 𝒋 𝒓 = 2𝒊 − 4𝒌 determine 𝒓. 𝒕
(ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(−3) 3 + ( −1)2 = √10
|𝐴𝐵 SOLUTION
(iii) Unit vector in the direction of 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒓. 𝒕 = (−𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 2𝒌). (2𝒊 − 4𝒌)
1 = ( −1)(2) + (3)(0) + (−2)( −4)
(−3𝒊 − 𝒋) =6
√10
74
 CHAPTER 13: VECTORS

ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS (−𝒊 + 5𝒋). (−2𝒊 − 3𝒋)

= cos 𝜃
We can use the scalar product to find the angle √(−1)2 + 52 √(−2) 2 + (−3)2
between two vectors, thanks to the following (−1)(−2) + (5)(−3)
formula: = cos 𝜃
√26√13
𝒂. 𝒃 = |𝒂||𝒃| cos 𝜃 2 − 15 13
where 𝜃 is the angle between the vectors. =− = cos 𝜃
√26√13 √26√13
13
cos −1 (− )=𝜃
√26√13
135° = 𝜃
2 2
Notice that the vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃 are going away LESSON 8 Given that 𝒂 = ( −2) , 𝒃 = (6)
from the angle, 𝜃. 1 3
An important fact is that two vectors are 𝑝
perpendicular (orthogonal) if and only if their dot and 𝒄 = ( 𝑝 ), find
product is zero. This is because if 𝜃 = 90°, then 𝑝+1
𝒂. 𝒃 = 0 (Recall: cos 90° = 0) (i) The angle between the directions of 𝒂 and 𝒃.
(ii) The value of 𝑝 for which 𝒃 and c are
LESSON 6 The position vectors of points 𝐴 perpendicular
and 𝐵 with respect to the origin 𝑂 are given by SOLUTION
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝒊 + 2𝒋 and 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝒊 − 4𝒋. (i) 𝒂. 𝒃 = |𝒂||𝒃| cos 𝜃
Find 2 2
(−2) . (6)
(a) (i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in terms of 𝒊 and 𝒋
𝐴𝐵 1 3 = cos 𝜃
(ii) The magnitude of 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ √22 + (−2)2 + 1√22 + 62 + 32
(2)(2) + (−2)(6) + (1)(3)
(b) Determine whether 𝑂𝐴 is perpendicular to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐵 = cos 𝜃
√9√49
SOLUTION 5
− = cos 𝜃
21
(a) (i) 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 5
𝜃 = cos −1 (− ) = 103.8°
= (−3𝒊 − 2𝒋) + (2𝒊 − 4𝒋) 21
= −𝒊 − 6𝒋 (ii) If 𝒃 and 𝒄 are perpendicular then 𝒃. 𝒄 = 0
2 𝑝
(ii) |𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(−1) 2 + (−6)2 = √37
(6) . ( 𝑝 ) = 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is perpendicular to 𝑂𝐵
(b) If 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ then 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0 3 𝑝+1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3𝒊 + 2𝒋). (2𝒊 − 4𝒋) 2𝑝 + 6𝑝 + 3(𝑝 + 1) = 0
= (3)(2) + (2)( −4) 2𝑝 + 6𝑝 + 3𝑝 + 3 = 0
= −2 11𝑝 = −3
Therefore, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐴 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 are not perpendicular. 3
𝑝=−
11
LESSON 7 The position vectors of 𝐴 and …………………………………………………………………………
𝐶 relative to an origin O are 𝒊 + 8𝒋 and 2𝒊 + 3𝒋. Use
a vector method to find ∠𝐴𝐶𝑂 EXERCISE 13.1
SOLUTION
1. Three points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 have coordinates
NB: Since we are finding ∠𝐴𝐶𝑂, 𝜃 is located at 𝐶.
(1, 2), (2, 5) and (0, −4) respectively, relative
Thus, we need the 2 vectors which are going away
to the origin 𝑂.
from C i.e. 𝐶𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐶𝑂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(i) Express the position vector of 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐶𝑂
𝐶𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in terms of 𝒊 and 𝒋
= −𝑂𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐶𝐷
(ii) If 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , find the position vector of 𝐷
= −2𝒊 − 3𝒋) + (𝒊 + 8𝒋)
( in terms of 𝒊 and 𝒋.
= −𝒊 + 5𝒋 2. The position vectors of points 𝐴 and 𝐵,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝐶𝑂
𝐶𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ relative to an origin 𝑂, are 6𝑖 − 3𝑗 and
= cos 𝜃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |. |𝐶𝑂
|𝐶𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | 15𝑖 + 9𝑗 respectively.

75
 CHAPTER 13: VECTORS

(i) Find the unit vector parallel to 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 11. The position vectors of three points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶
The point 𝐶 lies on 𝐴𝐵 such that 𝐴𝐶 = 2𝐶𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . with respect to a fixed origin 𝑂 are
(ii) Find the position vector of 𝐶. 2𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 𝑘, 4𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 3𝑘
3. The position vectors of points 𝐴 and 𝐵 relative respectively. Find the unit vectors in the
to an origin 𝑂 are −3𝑖 − 𝑗 and 𝑖 + 2𝑗 directions of 𝐶𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐶𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
respectively. The point 𝐶 lies on 𝐴𝐵 and is Calculate angle 𝐴𝐶𝐵 in degrees, correct to 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3 𝐴𝐵
such that 𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Find the position vector decimal place.
5 12. Relative to an origin 𝑂, the position vectors of
of 𝐶 and show that it is a unit vector. points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 2𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2𝑘 and
−17 4
4. Given that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = ( ) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = ( ), find 3𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 𝑝𝑘 respectively.
25 5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , (i) Find the value of 𝑝 for which 𝑂𝐴 and 𝑂𝐵
(i) the unit vector parallel to 𝐴𝐵
are perpendicular.
(ii) the vector 𝑂𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , such that 𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
(ii) In the case where 𝑝 = 6, use a scalar
5. The position vectors of the points 𝐴 and 𝐵, product to find angle 𝐴𝑂𝐵, correct to the
relative to an origin 𝑂, are 𝑖 − 7𝑗 and 4𝑖 + 𝑘𝑗 nearest degree.
respectively, where 𝑘 is a scalar. The unit ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in terms of 𝑝 and
(iii) Express the vector 𝐴𝐵
vector in the direction of 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is 0.6𝑖 + 0.8𝑗,
hence find the values of 𝑝 for which the
find the value of 𝑘. length of 𝐴𝐵 is 3.5 units.
6. The points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are such that the unit 13. Relative to an origin 𝑂, the position vectors of
vector in the direction of 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is 0.28𝑖 + 𝑝𝑗, the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are given by
where 𝑝 is a positive constant. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = 2𝑖 − 8𝑗 + 4𝑘 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐵 = 7𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘
(i) Find the value of 𝑝.
(i) Find the value of 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and hence
state whether angle 𝐴𝑂𝐵 is acute,
The position vectors of 𝐴 and 𝐵, relative to an
origin 𝑂, are 𝑞𝑖 − 7𝑗 and 12𝑖 + 17𝑗 obtuse or a right angle.
(ii) The point 𝑋 is such that 𝐴𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
respectively. 5
(ii) Find the value of the constant 𝑞. Find the unit vector in the direction
7. The position vectors, relative to an origin 𝑂, of of 𝑂𝑋.
three points 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅 are 𝑖 + 3𝑗, 5𝑖 + 11𝑗 SOLUTIONS
and 9𝑖 + 9𝑗 respectively.
(i) By finding the magnitude of the 1. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑖 + 2𝑗, 𝑂𝐵
(i) 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝑖 + 5𝑗, 𝑂𝐶⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −4𝑗
vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑅 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑄 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑄𝑃, show that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(ii) 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑖 − 𝑗
angle 𝑃𝑄𝑅 is 90°. 1
2. (i) 5 (3𝑖 + 4𝑗) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 12𝑖 + 5𝑗
(ii) 𝑂𝐶
(ii) Find the unit vector parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑃𝑅 .
3. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − 3 𝑖 + 4 𝑗
𝑂𝐶
(iii) Given that 𝑂𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑛𝑂𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , where 5 5
𝑚 and 𝑛 are constants, find the value 1 21 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( 46 )
4. (i) Unit vector: 29 ( ) (ii) 𝑂𝐶
of 𝑚 and 𝑛. −20 −35
8. Given that 𝑶𝑨 = 2𝒊 + 𝒋 and 𝑶𝑩 = 𝒊 + 3𝒋, 5. 𝑘 = −3
24
show that 𝑨𝑩 is perpendicular to 𝑶𝑨. 6. (i) 𝑝 = (ii) 𝑞 = 5
25
9. In a triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶, the position vectors of 𝐴, 𝐵 1 8 2
and 𝐶 are respectively 7. (i) (ii) Unit vector: 10 ( ) (iii) 𝑚 = 3, 𝑛 = 9
6
𝒊 + 𝒋, 3𝒊 + 4𝒋, and 4𝒊 − 𝒋
8.
(i) Find 𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
9. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −2𝑖 − 3𝑗, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 𝐴𝐶 = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗
(ii) Show that ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 90°
10. (a) The position vectors of points 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
10. (a) (i) 𝐴𝐵 = −𝑖 − 6𝑗 (ii) √37
with respect to the origin 𝑂 are given by (b) not perpendicular
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝒊 + 2𝒋 and 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝒊 − 4𝒋. 11. (𝑖 − 3𝑗 − 2𝑘), (3𝑖 + 𝑗 − 2𝑘) 𝜃 = 73.4°
√14 √14
Find 12. (i) 𝑝 = −2 (ii) 𝜃 = 40° (iii) 𝑝 = 0.5, 3.5
(i) 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in terms of 𝒊 and 𝒋 4
1
(ii) The magnitude of 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 13. (i) Obtuse (ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑋 = 6 (−4)
(b) Determine whether 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is perpendicular 2
to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵.
76
 CHAPTER 13: VECTORS

EXAM QUESTIONS (b) 𝑅, where 𝑅 is such that 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑂,

labelled clockwise, forms a
1. In a triangle, the position vectors of 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 parallelogram. [3]
are respectively 𝑖 + 𝑗, 3𝑖 + 4𝑗 and 4𝑖 − 𝑗 CAPE 2009

(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐴𝐶

Find 𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . [2] 7. The vectors 𝑝 and 𝑞 are given by𝑝 = 6𝑖 + 4𝑗
(ii) Show that ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 90°. [2] and 𝑞 = −8𝑖 − 9𝑗
CAPE 2000 (i) Calculate, in degrees, the angle
between 𝑝 and 𝑞. [5]
2. If the position vector of the point 𝐴 is 𝑖 − 3𝑗 (ii) (a) Find a non – zero vector 𝑣 such
and the position vector of the point 𝐵 is that 𝑝. 𝑣 = 0.
2𝑖 + 5𝑗, find (b) State the relationship between 𝑝
(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝐴𝐵 [4] and 𝑣. [5]
(ii) the position vector of the mid – point CAPE 2010
of 𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . [3] SOLUTIONS
CAPE 2002
1. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −2𝑖 − 3𝑗, 𝐴𝐶
(i) 𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗
3. The position vector of a point 𝑃 is 𝑖 + 3𝑗. Find 2. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √65, (ii) 𝑂𝑀
(i) |𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3 𝑖 + 𝑗
2
(a) the unit vector in the direction of 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . [2] 1 √10
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 3. (a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
(𝑖 + 3𝑗) (b) 𝑂𝑄 (𝑖 + 3𝑗)
(b) the position vector of a point 𝑄 on 𝑂𝑃 √10 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
produced such that |𝑂𝑄 | = 5. [2] (c) 𝑡 = −4
(c) the value of 𝑡 such that the vector 3𝑡𝑖 + 4𝑗 4. (a) 𝑥 = −3, 𝑦 = 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
is perpendicular to the vector 𝑂𝑃 [2] 5. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑖 − 6𝑗
(i) 𝐴𝐵
CAPE 2004 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √37 not perpendicular
(ii) |𝐴𝐵
4. Given the vectors 𝑝 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 and 𝑞 = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗, 6. (i) (a) 30.01°, (b) (i) 13 units 2
(a) Find 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ such that (ii) (a) 𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑖 + 7𝑗 (b) 𝑂𝑅⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 4𝑖 + 2𝑗
𝑥𝑝 + 𝑦𝑞 = −3𝑖 − 11𝑗. [7] 7. (i) 165.32°
(b) Show that 𝑝 and 𝑞 are perpendicular. [2] (ii) (a) 𝑣 = 2𝑖 − 3𝑗 (1 possibility)
CAPE 2006 (b)⊥

5. The position vectors of points 𝐴 and 𝐵 with …………………………………………………………………………

respect to an origin 𝑂 are given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝑖 + 2𝑗 and 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝑖 − 4𝑗. Find

(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in terms of 𝑖 and 𝑗

𝐴𝐵 [2]
(ii) the magnitude of 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ [2]
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Determine whether 𝑂𝐴 is perpendicular to
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
𝑂𝐵 [3]
CAPE 2007

6. The points 𝑃 and 𝑄 have position vectors

relative to the origin 𝑂 given respectively by
𝑝 = −𝑖 + 6𝑗 and 𝑞 = 3𝑖 + 8𝑗.
(i) (a) Calculate, in degrees, the size of the
acute angle 𝜃 between 𝑝 and 𝑞. [5]
(b) Hence, calculate the area of triangle
𝑃𝑂𝑄. [2]
(ii) Find, in terms of 𝑖 and 𝑗, the position
vector of
(a) 𝑀, where 𝑀 is the midpoint of 𝑃𝑄
[2]

77
 CHAPTER 13: VECTORS

2 4
THE VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE = − (−3) + ( 0 )
INTRODUCTION 1 −5
2
=( 3 )
−6
2 2
𝑙 = (−3) + 𝜆 ( 3 )
1 −6
NB: 𝐵 could have been used as the needed
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ as the required parallel
position vector and 𝐵𝐴
vector.

LESSON 10 Determine the vector equation of

the line which passes through (2, −3, 1) and is
parallel to the vector 𝒊 − 𝒋 − 2𝒌 in
(i) Vector form
(ii) Parametric form and
The equation of a line can be written in the form (iii) Cartesian form.
𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑏 SOLUTION
where 𝑎 is the position vector of any point on the Vector Form
line and 𝑏 is any vector parallel to the line. 𝑏 is 2 1
referred to as the direction vector. 𝑟 = (−3) + 𝜆 (−1)
1 −2
LESSON 9a Determine the vector equation of Parametric Form
𝑥
the line which passes through the point 𝐴(2, 9) Let 𝑟 = (𝑦 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−1).
and is parallel to the vector 𝐴𝐵 𝑧
−2 𝑥 2 1
SOLUTION (𝑦 ) = (−3) + 𝜆 (−1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 𝑧
𝑂𝐴 = 𝑎 = ( ) 1 −2
9 2+𝜆
−1
𝑏=( ) = (−3 − 𝜆)
−2
2 −1 1 + 2𝜆
𝑟 = ( )+ 𝜆( ) 𝑥 =2+𝜆 (1)
9 −2
𝑟 = 2𝒊 + 9𝒋 + 𝜆(−𝒊 − 2𝒋) 𝑦 = −3 − 𝜆 (2)
𝑧 = 1 − 2𝜆 (3)
LESSON 9b Determine the vector equation of Cartesian Form
the line which is parallel to the vector We need to eliminate the parameter.
3𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 4𝒌 and passes through the point with From (1): 𝑥 − 2 = 𝜆
position vector 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 𝒌. (2): −3 − 𝑦 = 𝜆
𝑧−1
SOLUTION (3): −2 = 𝜆
𝑎 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 𝒌 Since 𝜆 = 𝜆 = 𝜆
𝑏 = 3𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 4𝒌 (𝑧 − 1)
𝑟 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 𝒌 + 𝜆(3𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 4𝒌) 𝑥 − 2 = −3 − 𝑦 =
−2
LESSON 9C The line 𝑙 passes through the LESSON 11 Show that the following pair of
points 𝐴(2, −3, 1) and 𝐵(4, 0, −5). Determine the lines is parallel.
vector equation of 𝑙. 𝐿: 5𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 4𝒌 + 𝜆(−𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 3𝒌)
SOLUTION 𝑁: 𝑟 = 4𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 𝒌 + 𝜇(3𝒊 − 6𝒋 − 9𝒌)
2 SOLUTION We simply need to show that the
𝑎 = (−3) two direction vectors are parallel.
1 Since 3𝒊 − 6𝒋 − 9𝒌 = 3(−𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 3𝒌) the two
𝑏 = 𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
lines are parallel.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑂 + 𝑂𝐵
𝐴𝐵
78
 CHAPTER 13: VECTORS

LESSON 12 Show that the following pair of LESSON 13 Determine the equation of the
lines intersect and determine the point of plane, in vector form and Cartesian form, which
intersection. contains the point (2, −3, 1) with normal
𝐿: 𝑟 = 4𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝒌 + 𝜆(𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 𝒌) 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 3𝒌.
𝑁: 𝑟 = 2𝒊 + 6𝒋 − 𝒌 + 𝜇(−5𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 𝒌) SOLUTION
SOLUTION There must exist 𝜆 and 𝜇 such The equation of a plane can be written in the form
that 𝑟. 𝑛 = 𝑎. 𝑛
4𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝒌 + 𝜆(𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 𝒌) where 𝑛 is a vector perpendicular to the plane and
= 2𝒊 + 6𝒋 − 𝒌 + 𝜇(−5𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 𝒌) 𝑎 is a position vector of a point on the plane.
Equating coefficients of 𝒊: 1 2 1
4 + 𝜆 = 2 − 5𝜇 𝑟. ( −2) = (−3) . (−2)
𝜆 + 5𝜇 = −2 (1) 3 1 3
1
𝑟. ( −2) = 2(1) + (−3)(−2) + 1(3)
Equating coefficients of 𝒋:
3
−3 + 2𝜆 = 6 + 3𝜇 1
2𝜆 − 3𝜇 = 9 (2) 𝑟. ( −2) = 11
Solving (1) and (2) 3
(1) × 2: 2𝜆 + 10𝜇 = −4 Cartesian form
2𝜆 − 3𝜇 = 9 𝑥
13𝜇 = −13 Let 𝑟 = (𝑦 )
𝜇 = −1 𝑧
𝑥 1
𝜆=3
(𝑦 ) . (−2) = 11
We will now equate the coefficients of 𝑘 to 𝑧 3
determine if the values of 𝜆 and 𝜇 are consistent. 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 11
Equating coefficients of 𝒌: …………………………………………………………………………
1 − 𝜆 = −1 + 𝜇
1 − 3 = −1 + (−1) EXERCISE 13.2
−2 = −2
The values are consistent therefore 𝐿 and 𝑁 1. Determine the equation of the line which
intersect. passes through the point
We simply substitute 𝜆 = 3 into 𝐿 or 𝜇 = −1 into
𝑁 to determine the point of intersection. (i) 𝐴(−1, 1, −3) and is parallel to the vector
4𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝒌 + 3(𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 𝒌) = 7𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 2𝒌 2
7 ( 0 ).
Point is ( 3 ) −1
−2 (ii) 𝐵 (4, 3, −2) and is parallel to the vector
NB: If the values for 𝜆 and 𝜇 are inconsistent and −9
the lines are not parallel they are referred to as (−2).
SKEWED. 1
(iii) 𝐶(−3, 4, 3) and is parallel to the vector
8
VECTOR EQUATION OF A PLANE (−3).
−7
(iv) 𝐷(5, 2, −3) and is parallel to the vector
−4
(−5).
7
(v) 𝐸(3, 5, −5) and is parallel to the vector
−8
(−8).
3
The vector equation of a plane can be written as
𝑟 = 𝒂 + 𝜆𝒃 + 𝜇𝒄
where 𝑎 is a position vector of a point on the plane
and 𝑏 and 𝑐 are vectors parallel to the plane.
79
 CHAPTER 13: VECTORS

2. Find the equation of the line which passes (b) The line 𝑀 passes through 𝐷(2, −3, −1)
through the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 with position and 𝐸(4, 1, 1).
vectors (i) Find the vector equation of 𝑀.
(ii) Find the angle between 𝑀 and
5 0 𝐴𝐶.
(i) (−4) and (−3) respectively. 7. The position vectors of the points 𝑃 and 𝑄
3 −4 with respect to an origin 𝑂 are 5𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 9𝒌
and 4𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 6𝒌 respectively.
5 −1
(i) Find a vector equation for the line
(ii) (2) and ( 0 ) respectively.
𝑃𝑄.
2 −4
The position vector of the point 𝑇 is
−3 −2 𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 𝒌.
(iii) ( 0 ) and ( 0 ) respectively. (ii) Write down a vector equation for the
3 −2 line 𝑂𝑇 and show that 𝑂𝑇 is
3 4 perpendicular to 𝑃𝑄.
(iv) ( 0 ) and (3) respectively. It is given that 𝑂𝑇 intersects 𝑃𝑄.
−5 0 (iii) Find the position vector of the point
of intersection of 𝑂𝑇 and 𝑃𝑄.
5 −4 8. Lines 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 and 𝐿3 have vector equations
(v) ( 5 ) and ( 5 ) respectively. 𝐿1 : 𝒓 = (5𝒊 − 𝒋 − 2𝒌) + 𝑠(−6𝒊 + 8𝒋 − 2𝒌)
−5 0 𝐿2 : 𝒓 = (3𝒊 − 8𝒋) + 𝑡(𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 2𝒌)
𝐿3 : 𝒓 = (2𝒊 + 𝒋 + 3𝒌) + 𝜇(3𝒊 + 𝑐𝒋 + 𝒌)
3. The points 𝐴 and 𝐵 have position vectors
(i) Calculate the acute angle between 𝐿1 and
2𝑖 − 9𝑗 − 5𝑘 and 10𝑖 − 3𝑗 − 𝑘 respectively,
𝐿2 .
relative to an origin 𝑂. The line 𝑙 passes
(ii) Given that 𝐿1 and 𝐿3 are parallel, find the
through 𝐴 and 𝐵. Obtain a vector equation of 𝑙.
value of 𝑐.
4. Determine the vector equation of the line (iii) Given instead that 𝐿2 and 𝐿3 intersect,
which passes through (8, −3, 2) and is parallel find the value of 𝑐.
to the vector 𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 2𝒌 in 9. (i) Show that the straight line with equation
2 1
(i) Vector form 𝒓 = (−3) + 𝑡 ( 4 ) meets the line
(ii) Parametric form and 5 −2
passing through (9, 7, 5) and (7, 8, 2), and
(iii) Cartesian form.
find the point of intersection of these
5. The line 𝑙1 has equation lines.
𝑟 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 4𝑘 + 𝜆(𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 𝑘) where 𝜆 is a (ii) Find the acute angle between these lines.
scalar parameter.
10. Find the equation of the plane, in vector form
The line 𝑙2 has equation and Cartesian form, through the point
𝑟 = 9𝑗 − 3𝑘 + 𝜇(5𝑖 + 2𝑘) where 𝜇 is a scalar (−4, 3, 1) that is perpendicular to the vector
parameter. 𝑎 = −4𝑖 + 7𝑗– 2𝑘.
Given that 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 meet at the point 𝐶, find
11. Find an equation of the plane through the
the coordinates of 𝐶.
point (6, 3, 2) and perpendicular to the vector
6. The quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 has vertices
(−2, 1, 5). Check if (2, −1, 0) and (1, −2, 1) are
𝐴(2, 1, 3), 𝐵(6, 5, 3), 𝐶(6, 1, −1) and
in that plane.
𝐷(2, −3, −1). The line 𝐿 has vector equation
6 1 12. Find an equation of the plane through the
𝑟 = ( 1 ) + 𝜆 (1 ). point (4, −2, 3) and parallel to the plane
−1 0 3𝑥 − 7𝑧 = 12.
(a) (i) Find the vector 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 13. Find an equation for the plane through
(ii) Show that the line 𝐴𝐵 is parallel to 𝐿. 𝑃(1, −1, 3) parallel to the plane
(iii) Verify that 𝐷 lies on 𝐿. 3𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 7.
14. Find an equation of the plane through the
points (0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1) and (1, 1, 0).
80
 CHAPTER 13: VECTORS

3
SOLUTIONS 8. (i) 68.5° (ii) 𝑐 = −4 (iii) 𝑐 = 5
−1 2 9. (i) (ii) 62.2°
1. (i) 𝑟 = ( 1 ) + 𝜆 ( 0 ) −4
10. 𝑟. ( 7 ) = 35, −4𝑥 + 7𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 35
3 −1
4 −9 −2
(ii) 𝑟 = ( 3 ) + 𝜆 ( −2) −2
11. 𝑟. ( 1 ) = 1, No, Yes
−2 1
−3 8 5
(iii) 𝑟 = ( 4 ) + 𝜆 (−3) 3
12. 𝑟. ( 0 ) = −9
3 −7
5 −4 −7
3
(iv) 𝑟 = ( 2 ) + 𝜆 (−5)
13. 𝑟. ( 1) = 7
−3 7
3 −8 1
(v) 𝑟 = ( 5 ) + 𝜆 ( −8) 1
14. 𝑟. ( 1) = 2
−5 3
5 −5 1
2. (i) 𝑟 = (−4) + 𝜆 ( 1 )
3 −7 EXAM QUESTIONS
5 −6 1. The points 𝐴(3, −1, 2), 𝐵(1, 2, −4) and
(ii) 𝑟 = (2) + 𝜆 ( −2) 𝐶(−1, 1, −2) are three vertices of a
2 −6 parallelogram 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷.
−3 1
(iii) 𝑟 = ( 0 ) + 𝜆 ( 0 ) (i) Express the vectors 𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in the
3 −5 form 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘. [3]
3 1
(iv) 𝑟 = ( 0 ) + 𝜆 (3) (ii) Show that the vector 𝑟 = −16𝑗 − 8𝑘 is
perpendicular to the plane through 𝐴, 𝐵
−5 5
5 −9 and 𝐶. [5]
(v) 𝑟 = ( 5 ) + 𝜆 ( 0 ) (iii) Hence, find the Cartesian equation
−5 5 through 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶. [4]
3. 𝑙 = 2𝑖 − 9𝑗 − 5𝑘 + 𝜆 (8𝑖 + 6𝑗 + 4𝑘 ) CAPE 2013

8 1 2. The points 𝑃 (3, −2, 1) , 𝑄( −1, 𝜆, 5) and

4. (i) 𝑟 = (−3) + 𝜆 ( 3 ), 𝑅(2, 1, −4) are three vertices of a triangle
2 −2 𝑃𝑄𝑅.

𝑥 = 8+𝜆 (i) Express EACH of the vectors 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑄𝑅

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and
(ii) 𝑦 = −3 + 3𝜆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in the form 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘.
𝑅𝑃 [4]
𝑧 = 2 − 2𝜆 (ii) Hence, find the value of 𝜆, given that
𝑦+3 2−𝑧 𝑃𝑄𝑅 is right – angled with the side 𝑃𝑄 as
(iii) 𝑥 − 8 = = hypotenuse. [6]
3 2
5 CAPE 2014
5. 𝐶 = (9)
5 SOLUTIONS
4 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 6𝑘,
1. (i) 𝐴𝐵
6. (a) (i) ( 4) (ii) (iii)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −2𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘
𝐵𝐶
0
2 2 (ii) (iii) 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
(b) (i) 𝑟 = (−3) + 𝜆 (4) (ii) 90° ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −4𝑖 + (2 + 𝜆)𝑗 + 4𝑘,
2. (i) 𝑃𝑄
−1 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝑖 + (1 − 𝜆) (ii) 𝜆 = 15
𝑄𝑅
7. (i) 𝑟 = 5𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 9𝑘 + 𝜆(−𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 3𝑘)
3 …………………………………………………………………………
(ii) 𝑟 = 𝜇(𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘) (iii) ( 6 )
−3

81
 CHAPTER 14: THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE

CHAPTER 14: THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE

At the end of this section, students should be able Therefore, the equation of a circle with radius 𝑟
to: and centre at (ℎ, 𝑘) is
 find the equations of tangents and normal (𝑥 − ℎ) 2 +(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 𝑟>0
to circles; The equation of a circle with radius 𝑟 and centre at
 find the points of intersection of a curve (0, 0):
with a straight line; 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟 2 𝑟>0
 find the points of intersection of two The equation of a circle can also be written in the
curves; form
 determine the equation of a circle given 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2ℎ𝑥 + 2𝑘𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 where
three points on the circle’s circumference 𝑐 = ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 − 𝑟 2

__________________________________________________________ DETERMINING THE EQUATION OF A

For the line 𝐴𝐵 above we have the following CIRCLE
formulae: LESSON 1 Find the equation of the circle
with radius 4 and centre at:
(a) (−3, 6) (b) (0, 0)
SOLUTION
(a) (ℎ, 𝑘) = (−3, 6) and 𝑟 = 4;
(𝑥 − ℎ) 2 +(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
[𝑥 − (−3)]2 +(𝑦 − 6) 2 = 42
(𝑥 + 3) 2 +(𝑦 − 6) 2 = 16

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 (b) (ℎ, 𝑘) = (0, 0)and 𝑟 = 4

Mid − point of 𝐴𝐵 = ( , )
2 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2
Length of 𝐴𝐵 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 42
𝑦1 − 𝑦2 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16
Gradient of 𝐴𝐵 =
𝑥1 − 𝑥2
Generally, we have the equation of a line is of the FINDING THE CENTRE AND RADIUS
form OF A CIRCLE
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 Standard Form LESSON 2 Find the centre and radius of the
where 𝑚 is the gradient of the line and 𝑐 is the 𝑦-
circle with equation
intercept i.e. where the line cuts the 𝑦-axis.
i. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 23
NEED TO KNOW ii. −3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 21 = 0
Two lines are parallel if they have the same SOLUTION We transform the equation into
gradient. the form (𝑥 − ℎ) 2 +(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 by completing
Two lines are perpendicular if the product of their the square relative to 𝑥 and relative to 𝑦. From
gradients is −1. this standard form we can determine the centre
Let’s find the equation of a and radius.
circle with radius 𝑟(𝑟 > 0) i. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 23
and centre 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) in a (𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 ) + (𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 ) = 23
rectangular coordinate (𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9) + (𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4) = 23 + 9 + 4
system. The point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is (𝑥 + 3) 2 + (𝑦 − 2) 2 = 36
on the circle if and only if [𝑥 − (−3)]2 + (𝑦 − 2) 2 = 62
the distance 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑟; that Centre: 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) = (−3, 2) Radius: 𝑟 = 6
is, if and only if
√(𝑥 − ℎ) 2 +(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 𝑟>0 ii. −3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 21 = 0
or equivalently, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 − 7 = 0
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 +(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 𝑟>0 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 = 7
(𝑥 − 0) 2 + (𝑦 − 0) 2 = 7
82
 CHAPTER 14: THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE

2
(𝑥 − 0) 2 + (𝑦 − 0) 2 = (√7) need to show that there is only one point of
contact.
Centre: 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) = (0, 0)
𝑦 = 𝑥−1 (1)
Radius: 𝑟 = √7
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −19 (2)
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously
𝑥 2 + (𝑥 − 1)2 + 12𝑥 + 2(𝑥 − 1) + 19 = 0
TANGENTS AND NORMALS 2𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 18 = 0
LESSON 3 The circle 𝐶 has equation 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 = 0
(𝑥 − 4) 2 + (𝑦 − 3) 2 = 25.
(𝑥 + 3) 2 = 0
(i) State the radius and the coordinates of the 𝑥 = −3
centre of 𝐶. 𝑦 = −4
(ii) Find the equation of the tangent at the point Since (−3, −4) is the only point of contact, the line
(8, 6) on 𝐶. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1 is a tangent to the curve.
(iii) Calculate the coordinates of the points of
intersection of 𝐶 with the straight line
𝑦 = −𝑥 + 8.
SOLUTION
(i) Centre (4, 3) radius is 5
6−3 3
(ii) Gradient of radius is 8−4 = 4 ∴ gradient of
4
tangent is − 3
4
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 using (8, 6) and 𝑚 = − LESSON 5 A curve 𝐶 is defined by the
3
4 equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 1 = 0.
6 = − (8) + 𝑐 (i) Show that the centre and the radius of the
3
50 circle, 𝐶, are (3, 1) and 3 respectively.
=𝑐 (ii) (a) Find the equation of the normal to the
3
4 50 circle at the point (6, 1).
𝑦=− 𝑥+
3 3 (b) Show that the tangent to the circle at the
(iii) Solving the two equations simultaneously point (6, 1) is parallel to the 𝑦-axis.
(𝑥 − 4) 2 + (𝑦 − 3) 2 = 25 (1) SOLUTION
𝑦 = −𝑥 + 8 (2) (i) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −1
Subbing (2) into (1) 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1 = −1 + 9 + 1
(𝑥 − 4) 2 + (−𝑥 + 8 − 3)2 = 25 (𝑥 − 3) 2 + (𝑦 − 1) 2 = 9
𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 + 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 25 = 25 Centre (3, 1) radius is 3
1−1
2𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 16 = 0 (ii) (a) 𝑚 = =0
3−6
𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 8 = 0
Gradient of normal is undefined
(𝑥 − 8)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
Equation of normal is 𝑥 = 6
𝑥 = 1, 8
(b) Gradient of the 𝑥-axis is 0 and the
𝑦 = 7, 0
gradient of the tangent is 0, therefore,
(1, 7) and (8, 0)
they are parallel.

LESSON 4 Prove that the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1 is a

tangent to the curve 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −19.
SOLUTION A tangent is a straight line that
touches a curve at only one point. Therefore we

83
 CHAPTER 14: THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE

LESSON 6 Find the length of the tangent 4. Prove that the line 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 9 is a tangent to
drawn from the point 𝐴(−4, 2) to the circle the curve 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 13.
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 = −8. 5. A curve 𝐶 is defined by the equation
SOLUTION 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 15 = 0.
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 = −8 (i) Determine the coordinates of the
(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 ) + (𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 ) = −8 centre of 𝐶 and its radius.
(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9) + (𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4) = −8 + 9 + 4 (ii) Find the equation of the normal to the
(𝑥 − 3) 2 + (𝑦 − 2) 2 = 5 circle at the point (2, −5).
Centre (3, 2) and radius is √5 6. The circle 𝐶 has equation
Distance between centre and 𝐴 is 7 and the radius 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 15.
is √5, so by Pythagoras’ Theorem (i) Determine the radius and the
2 coordinates of the centre of 𝐶.
72 = (√5) + 𝑥 2 (ii) Find the equation of the tangent at
49 − 5 = 𝑥 2 the point (−5, 4) on 𝐶.
44 = 𝑥 2 (iii) Calculate the coordinates of the
2√11 = 𝑥 points of intersection of 𝐶 with the
straight line 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3.
7. Find the length of the tangent drawn from the
point 𝐴(−2, 4) to the circle
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 + 4𝑦 = −11.

SOLUTIONS

1. (a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 64 (b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 81
………………………………………………………………………….. 49
(c) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 81
EXERCISE 14.1 (d) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 107 + 20√7
(e) (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3) 2 = 9
1. Find the equations of the circles with the (f) (𝑥 − 1) 2 + (𝑦 + 3) 2 = 25
following radii and centres 2. (ii) 10 (iii) (7, −2)
(a) Centre (0, 0), radius =8 (iv) − 7) + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 25
(𝑥 2
(b) Centre (0, 0), radius = 9 3. (a) 𝐶(0, 0), 𝑟 = 9 (b) 𝐶(0, 0), 𝑟 = 7
7
(c) Centre (0, 0), radius = 9 1
(c) 𝐶(0, 0), 𝑟 = 8 (d) 𝐶(2, −1), 𝑟 = 5
(d) 𝐶(0, 0),radius = 10 + √7 (e) 𝐶 (2, −5) , 𝑟 = 4 (f) 𝐶 (0, −3), 𝑟 = √7
(e) Centre (1, 3), radius = 3 4.
(f) Centre (1, −3), radius = 5
2. The points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 have coordinates 5. (i) 𝐶(−4, −3), 𝑟 = √40
1 13
(3, −5), (4, −6) and (11, 1) respectively. (ii) 𝑦 = − 3 𝑥 − 3
(i) Show that 𝐴𝐵 is perpendicular to 𝐵𝐶. 6. (i) 𝐶(−1, 2), 𝑟 = √20
(ii) Find the length of 𝐴𝐶. (ii) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 14
(iii) Find the coordinates of the mid – (iii) (−3, 6) (3, 0)
point of 𝐴𝐶.
7. √67
(iv) Hence find the equation of the circle
which passes through the points 𝐴, 𝐵
…………………………………………………………………………..
and 𝐶.
3. Find the centre and radius of the circle with
equation
(a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 81
(b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 49
1
(c) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 =
64
(d) (𝑥 − 2) 2 + (𝑦 + 1) 2 = 25
(e) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 10𝑦 + 13 = 0
(f) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + 2 = 0

84
 CHAPTER 14: THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE

THE INTERSECTION OF TWO SOLUTION

The equation of a circle is (𝑥 − ℎ) 2 +(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 ,
CIRCLES but for our purposes we will write it as
LESSON 7 Find the points of intersection of 𝑥 2 − 2ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦𝑘 + 𝑘 2 −𝑟 2 = 0 and let
the circles with equations
ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 − 𝑟 2 = 𝑐
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 8𝑦 = −7 and
𝑥 2 − 2ℎ𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑘𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 12𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −17. Since the points line on the line they must satisfy the
SOLUTION We need to solve both equations equation of the line, therefore
simultaneously.
(−1) 2 − 2(−1)ℎ + ℎ2 + 02 − 2(0)𝑘 + 𝑘 2 = 𝑟 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 8𝑦 = −7 (1)
1 + 2ℎ + ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 = 𝑟 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 12𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −17 (2) 1 + 2ℎ + 𝑐 = 0
(1) – (2) 2ℎ + 𝑐 = −1 (1)
−2𝑥 − (−12𝑥) − 8𝑦 − 2𝑦 = −7 − (−17)
12 − 2(1)(ℎ) + ℎ2 + 22 − 2(2)𝑘 + 𝑘 2 = 𝑟 2
10𝑥 − 10𝑦 = 10
1 − 2ℎ + ℎ2 + 4 − 4𝑘 + 𝑘 2 = 𝑟 2
𝑥 −𝑦 = 1
1 − 2ℎ + 4 − 4𝑘 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑥 =𝑦+1 (3)
−2ℎ − 4𝑘 + 𝑐 = −5 (2)
Sub. (3) into (1) (−5)2 − 2(−5)ℎ + ℎ2 + 42 − 2(4)𝑘 + 𝑘 2 = 𝑟 2
(𝑦 + 1)2 + 𝑦 2 − 2(𝑦 + 1) − 8𝑦 = −7
25 + 10ℎ + ℎ2 + 16 − 8𝑘 + 𝑘 2 = 𝑟 2
𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 2 − 8𝑦 = −7
10ℎ − 8𝑘 + 41 + 𝑐 = 0
2𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 + 6 = 0 10ℎ − 8𝑘 + 𝑐 = −41 (3)
𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 3 = 0 From (1) we get 𝑐 = −1 − 2ℎ
(𝑦 − 1)(𝑦 − 3) = 0 Substituting 𝑐 in (2) we get: −ℎ − 𝑘 = −1 (4)
𝑦 = 1, 3
Substituting 𝑐 in (3)we get: ℎ − 𝑘 = −5 (5)
Solving (4) and (5) simultaneously we get 𝑘 = 3 and
𝑥 =𝑦+1
ℎ = −2 ∴ 𝑐 = 3
𝑥 =1+1 Our equation is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 3 = 0
𝑥=2
(2, 1) …………………………………………………
𝑥 =𝑦+1 EXERCISE 14.2
𝑥 =3+1 1. Find the point(s) of intersection of the circles
𝑥=4 with equations
(4, 3) (i) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 10𝑥 − 4𝑦 = −9 and
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −5
(ii) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 16 and
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 8𝑦 = 0
(iii) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 = 59 and
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 = 9
(iv) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 = 34 and
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 8
2. Find the equation of the circle which passes
through the points
(i) (−1, 2), (−3, 2) and (−3, 4)
(ii) (4, 1), (−4, 1) and (−2, −1)
(iii) (−4, 4), (1, 5) and (−5, 5)
(iv) (−1, −3), (−5, 5) and (−4, −2)

SOLUTIONS
EQUATION OF A CIRCLE GIVEN 3
POINTS 1. (i) (−1, 0) (ii) (0, 8) (−2, 0)
LESSON 8 Find the equation of the circle (iii) (5, 8) ( −5, −2) (iv) (1, −5) (2.08, 3.62)
which passes through the points (−1, 0), (1, 2) and 2. (i) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 11
(−5, 4). (ii) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 = 11
(iii) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 14𝑦 = −40
(iv) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 20

85
 CHAPTER 14: THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE

EXAM QUESTIONS 4. The circle 𝐶 has equation

(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 4) 2 = 25
1. The equation of the circle, 𝑄, with centre 𝑂 is (i) State the radius and the coordinates of
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 23. the centre of 𝐶. [2]
(a) Express the equation of 𝑄 in the form (ii) Find the equation of the tangent at the
(𝑥 − 𝑎) 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑐. [5] point (6, 8) on 𝐶. [4]
(b) Hence, or otherwise, state (iii) Calculate the coordinates of the points of
a. the coordinates of the centre of 𝑄. [2] intersection of 𝐶 with the straight line
b. the radius of 𝑄. [1] 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3. [7]
(c) Show that the point 𝐴(4, 3) lies on 𝑄. [3] CAPE 2009
(d) Find the equation of the tangent to 𝑄 at 5. The circle 𝐶1 has (−3, 4) and (1, 2) as
the point 𝐴. [5] endpoints of a diameter.
(e) The centre of 𝑄 is the midpoint of its Show that the equation of 𝐶1 is
diameter 𝐴𝐵. Find the coordinates of 𝐵. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 5 = 0. [6]
[4] CAPE 2010
CAPE 2005 6. The circle 𝐶1 has (−3, 4) and (1, 2) as
2. The circle shown in the diagram below (not endpoints of a diameter.
drawn to scale) has (i) Show that the equation of 𝐶1 is
centre 𝐶 at (5, −4) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 5 = 0. [6]
and touches the 𝑦 − (ii) The circle 𝐶2 has equation
axis at the point 𝐷. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 0. Calculate the
The circle cuts the coordinates of the points of intersection of
𝑥 −axis at points 𝐴 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 . [9]
and 𝐵. The tangent at CAPE 2010
𝐵 cuts the 𝑦 − axis at
the point 𝑃. SOLUTIONS
(a) Determine
(i) The length of the radius of the circle. 1. (a) (𝑥 − 1) 2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 25
[2] (b) (i) 𝑂(1, −1) (ii) 𝑟 = 5
3
(ii) The equation of the circle. [1] (d) 𝑦 = − 4 𝑥 + 6 (e) (−2, −5)
(iii) The coordinates of the points 𝐴 and 𝐵, 2. (a) (i) 5 (ii) (𝑥 − 5)2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 = 25
at which the circle cuts the 𝑥 − axis. 3
[6] (iii) 𝐴(2, 0), 𝐵(8, 0) (iv) 𝑦 = − 4 𝑥 + 6
(iv) The equation of the tangent at 𝐵. [4] (v)(0, 6)
5 31
(v) The coordinates of 𝑃 [2] 3. (a) (i) 𝑦 = − 𝑥 +
4 4
(b) Show by calculation that 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐵 [5]
CAPE 2007 (ii) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 18𝑦 = 0
3. (a) In the Cartesian plane with origin 𝑂, the (b) (ii) (0, 1)
3 25
coordinates of points 𝑃 and 𝑄 are 4. (i) 𝐶(3, 4) , 𝑟 = 5 (ii) 𝑦 = − 4 𝑥 + 2
(−2, 0) and (8, 8) respectively. The (iii) (−1, 1) (3, 9)
midpoint of 𝑃𝑄 is 𝑀.
(i) Find the equation of the line which 5.
passes through 𝑀 and is
perpendicular to 𝑃𝑄. [8] 6. (i) (ii) (−3, 2) (0, 5)
(b) (i) Prove that the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 is a
tangent to the circle …………………………………………………………………………
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 10𝑥 − 12𝑦 + 11 = 0. [6]
(ii) Find the coordinates of the point of
contact of this tangent to the circle.
[2]
CAPE 2008

86
 CHAPTER 15: THE LOCUS OF A POINT

CHAPTER 15: THE LOCUS OF A POINT

At the end of this section, students should be able √(−2 − 𝑥)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦) 2 = √(𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2
to: √(−2 − 𝑥)2 + 02 = √𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 + 𝑦 2
 determine the loci of points satisfying √𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 = √𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 + 𝑦 2
given properties. 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 = 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 + 𝑦 2
12𝑥 − 12 = 𝑦 2
__________________________________________________________ This is the equation of a PARABOLA.
The locus of a point is the path which the point
follows as it obeys a particular rule.

LESSON 1 Determine the equation of the

curve that is the locus of all points equidistant
from the two points (8, 3) and (2, 1).

SOLUTION The first intuitive point which fits

the conditions would be the midpoint between the
two given points. From the diagram we see that
the locus of this point is the perpendicular
bisector of (8, 3) and (2, 1).
2+8 1+3
Midpoint = ( 2 , 2 ) = (5, 2)
1−3 1
Gradient = 2−8 = 3
⊥ gradient is −3 LESSON 3 Determine the equation of the
General form of equation of a line is curve which is the locus of the points 5 units from
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 (using 𝑚 = −3 and (5, 2)) the point (−2, 1).
2 = −3(5) + 𝑐
17 = 𝑐 SOLUTION This locus is simply a circle with
𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 17
centre (−2, 1) and radius 5.
2
(𝑥 − (−2)) + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 52
(𝑥 + 2) 2 + (𝑦 − 1) 2 = 25

LESSON 2 Find the equation of the curve

which is the locus of the points equidistant from …………………………………………………………………………..
the line 𝑥 = −2 and the point (4, 0). EXERCISE 15

1. Determine the equation of the curve that is

SOLUTION We require the distance of a
the locus of all points equidistant from the
point (−2, 𝑦) on the line 𝑥 = −2 to an arbitrary
two points (3, 0) and (−1, 4).
point (𝑥, 𝑦) to be the same as the distance from
(𝑥, 𝑦) to (4, 0).

87
 CHAPTER 15: THE LOCUS OF A POINT

2. Determine the equation of the curve that is SOLUTIONS

the locus of all points equidistant from the
two points (−4, −4) and (1, −2). 1. (𝑥 − 2) 2 + (𝑦 − 3) 2 = 2
3. Determine the equation of the curve that is 20 2 5 2 104
2. (𝑥 − ) + (𝑦 − 3) =
3 9
the locus of all points equidistant from the
two points (1, −5) and (5, −4).
4. Find the equation of the curve which is the
locus of the points equidistant from the line
𝑥 = −1 and the point (3, 0).
5. Find the equation of the curve which is the
locus of the points equidistant from the line
𝑥 = −7 and the point (5, 0).
6. 𝑃 is the point (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑆 is the point (6, 1).
The point 𝑃 moves in such a way that its
distance from 𝑆 is equal to its distance from
the line 𝑥 = −1. Show that the equation of the
parabola traced out by the point 𝑃 is
𝑦(𝑦 − 2) = 14𝑥 + 𝑘 where 𝑘 is a constant to
be found.
7. Determine the equation of the curve which is
the locus of the points 3 units from the point
(1, 2).
8. Determine the equation of the curve which is
the locus of the points 7 units from the point
(−4, 5).
9. Determine the equation of the curve which is
the locus of the points √10 units from the
point (0, 3).

SOLUTIONS
1. 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1
5 27
2. 𝑦 = − 2 𝑥 − 4
15
3. 𝑦 = −4𝑥 + 2
4. 𝑦 2 = 8𝑥 − 8
5. 𝑦 2 = 24𝑥 + 24
6. 𝑘 = −36
7. (𝑥 − 1) 2 + (𝑦 − 2) 2 = 9
8. (𝑥 + 4) 2 + (𝑦 − 5) 2 = 49
9. 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 3) 2 = 10

EXAM QUESTIONS

1. A point, 𝑝, moves in the 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane such that

its distance from 𝐶(2, 3) is always √2 units.
Determine the locus of 𝑝. [3]
CAPE 2014

2. A point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) moves so that its distance from

the fixed point (0, 3) is two times the distance
from the fixed point (5, 2). Show that the
equation of the locus of the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is a
circle. [12]
CAPE 2015

88
 CHAPTER 16: RADIAN MEASURE

CHAPTER 16: RADIAN MEASURE

At the end of this section, students should be able Below is a list of the common radians and their
to: degree equivalent
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= 30° = 45° = 60°
 define the radian; 6 4 3 2
 convert degrees to radians and radians to 3𝜋
= 90° = 135°
degrees; 4
3𝜋
 use the formulae for arc length 𝑙 = 𝑟𝜃 and 𝜋 = 180° = 270° 2𝜋 = 360°
1 2
sector area, 𝐴 = 2 𝑟 2 𝜃;
ARC LENGTH
________________________________________________________ 𝜃
Recall: Arc Length = 360° × 2𝜋𝑟
INTRODUCTION Replacing 360° with the appropriate radian
measure we have
In the diagram 𝑂𝐴, 𝑂𝐵 𝜃
and 𝐴𝐵 all have lengths, × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑟𝜃
2𝜋
𝑟, where 𝑟 is the radius where 𝜃 is in radians.
𝜋
of the circle. Therefore, LESSON 2a If 𝜃 = and 𝑟 = 2, what is the
2
the angle 𝛼 which is the
length of the arc subtended?
angle subtended by the
SOLUTION
sector 𝐴𝑂𝐵 has a size of
Arc Length = 𝑟𝜃
1 radian. 𝜋
A radian is equivalent to how many degrees? =2( )
2
To answer this question we need to determine how =𝜋
many radii are equivalent to the circumference of a LESSON 2b On a circle whose radius is 3,
circle. what angle subtends an arc length of 4?
Now, we have SOLUTION
Arc Length = 𝑟𝜃
Radians Arc Length 4 = 3𝜃
1 radian 𝑟 4
=𝜃
𝟐𝝅 radians 2𝜋𝑟 3
Radians Degrees
𝟐𝝅 radians 360
𝝅 radians 180 AREA OF SECTOR
𝜃
1 radian 180 Recall: Area of Sector = × 𝜋𝑟 2
≅ 57.3 360
𝜋 By replacing 360° with the appropriate radian
measure we have
CONVERTING RADIANS TO DEGREES 𝜃 1
180 Arc Length = × 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑟 2 𝜃
2𝜋 2
Degrees = Radians ×
𝜋 where 𝜃 is in radians.
LESSON 1a Convert 1.75 radians to degrees.
SOLUTION LESSON 3 Find the area of the sector subtending
180 𝜋
Degrees = 1.75 × = 1.75 × 57.3 = 100.268° an angle of 6 radians with radius 6.
𝜋 SOLUTION
1
Area of Sector = 2 𝑟 2 𝜃
CONVERTING DEGREES TO RADIANS 1 𝜋
= (6) 2 ( )
𝜋 2 6
Radians = Degrees × = 3𝜋
180
LESSON 1b Convert 60° to radians.
SOLUTION
𝜋 𝜋
Radians = 60 × = radians
180 3

89
 CHAPTER 16: RADIAN MEASURE

LESSON 4 The diagram shows part of a

circle centre 𝑂 and radius 5 cm. Given that ∠𝐴𝑂𝐶 1
= (5) 2 (0.64)
is 1.2 radians, calculate 2
i. the length of the arc 𝐴𝐵𝐶 1
− (4)(3)
ii. the area of the shaded segment 2
= 2 cm2
2
= 3.35 cm

LESSON 6

SOLUTION
(i) Arc length = 𝑟𝜃
= 5(1.2)
= 6 cm
(ii) Area of segment = Area of sector 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶 –
Area of triangle 𝑂𝐴𝐶
1 1 The diagram shows a circle with centre 𝑂 and
= 𝑟 2 𝜃 − 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝐶 radius 5 cm. The point 𝑃 lies on the circle, 𝑃𝑇 is a
2 2
1 tangent to the circle and 𝑃𝑇 = 12 cm. The line 𝑂𝑇
2
= (5) (1.2) cuts the circle at the point 𝑄.
2
1 (i) Find the perimeter of the shaded region
− (5)(5) sin 1.2 (ii) Find the area of the shaded region.
2

LESSON 5 The diagram below shows a SOLUTION

sector of a circle centre O, radius 5 cm. 𝐵𝑁 is
perpendicular to 𝑂𝐴. Given that 𝐵𝑁 = 3 cm, (i) By Pythagoras’ Theorem 𝑂𝑇 = 13 cm
12
tan 𝑇𝑂̂𝑃 =
5
12
𝑇𝑂̂𝑃 = tan ( ) = 1.176 radians
−1
5
Perimeter = 𝑃𝑇 + 𝑄𝑇 + arc 𝑂𝑃
calculate = 12 + (13 − 5) + 5(1.176)

= 25.88 cm
(i) angle 𝐵𝑂𝑁 in radians
(ii) the perimeter of the shaded region
(ii) Shaded area = Area of 𝑂𝑃𝑇 – Area of
(iii) the area of the shaded region
sector 𝑂𝑃𝑄
1 1
SOLUTION = (12)(5) − (5)2 (1.176)
2 2
3 = 15.3 cm2
(i) sin 𝐵𝑂̂𝑁 = 5 …………………………………………………………………………
3 EXERCISE 16
𝐵𝑂̂𝑁 = sin−1 (
) = 0.64 radians
5 1. Convert the following angles measured in
(ii) Perimeter = 𝐵𝑁 + 𝐴𝑁 + arc 𝐴𝐵 radians to degrees, stating your answer to 1
decimal place where necessary.
= 3 + (5 − 4) + 5(0.64)
= 7.2 cm 5𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
N.B. The value of 4 cm is obtained by the use of a. b. c. −
12 5 4
Pythagoras’ Theorem d. 1.2 e. − 2
(iii) Area of shaded region = Area of sector 2. Convert the following angles measured in
𝐴𝑂𝐵 – Area of triangle 𝐴𝑂𝐵 degrees to radians correct to 2 decimal places.

90
 CHAPTER 16: RADIAN MEASURE

a. 72° b. 54° c. −45° Calculate

d. −60° e. 202.5° (a) the size, in radians, of the angle 𝛼. [3]
(b) the length of the arc 𝐴𝐶𝐵. [3]
3. Find the length of an arc of a circle with radius CAPE 2004
𝜋
10 m that subtends a central angle of 6 . 3. The diagrams shown below, not drawn below,
4. A central angle 𝜃 of a circle with radius 16 cm represent
subtends an arc of 19.36 cm. Find 𝜃. a. a sector, 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶, of a circle with centre at 𝑂
5. Find the area of a sector of a circle with central and a radius of 7 cm, where angle 𝐴𝑂𝐶
𝜋 𝜋
angle 3 if the radius of the circle is 3 m. measures 3 radians.
b. a right circular cone with vertex 𝑂 and a
SOLUTIONS circular base of radius 𝑟 cm which is
1. (a) 75° (b) 108° (c) −225° formed when the sector 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶 is folded
(d) 68.8° (e) −114.6° so that 𝑂𝐴 coincides with 𝑂𝐶.
2𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
2. (a) 5 (b) 10 (c) − 4
𝜋 9𝜋
(d) − 3 (e) 8
5𝜋
3. 3
4. 1.21 radians
3𝜋
5. 2

EXAM QUESTIONS

1. The diagram, not drawn to scale, is a sketch of

(i) Express the arc length in terms of 𝜋. [1]
a wedge in an electrical appliance in the form (ii) Hence show that
of a sector of a circle, centre 𝑂 and radius 4 7
𝜋 (a) 𝑟 = 6 [3]
cm. Angle 𝐴𝑂𝐵 measures 4 radians.
(b) if ℎ cm is the height of the cone, then
7√35
the exact value of ℎ is . [2]
6
CAPE 2005
4. The circle in the diagram, not drawn to scale,
𝜋
has centre 𝑂 and the acute angle 𝐴𝑂𝐵 = 6
radians. 𝑂𝐴 = 6 cm and 𝐶 and 𝐷 are the
midpoints of 𝑂𝐴 and 𝑂𝐵 respectively.

(i) Show that the area of the shaded region is

2(𝜋 − 2√2). [6]
(ii) Using the cosine rule, show that the
length of the chord 𝐴𝐵 is 4√2 − √2. [4]
CAPE 2003
2. The figure (not drawn to scale) represents a Express in terms of 𝜋.
cross – section through a tunnel. The cross (a) the length of arc 𝐴𝐵 [2]
section is part of a circle with radius 5 metres (b) the area of the shaded region 𝐴𝐵𝐷𝐶. [4]
and centre 𝑂. The width 𝐴𝐵 of the floor of the CAPE 2007
tunnel is 8 metres. SOLUTIONS
1.
2. (a) 𝛼 = 1.85 (b) 22.14
7𝜋
3. (i)
3
9
4. (a) 𝜋 (b) 3𝜋 − 4
…………………………………………………………………………

91
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

At the end of this section, students should be able
to: TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
 evaluate sine, cosine and tangent for INTRODUCTION
angles of any size given either in degrees Recall the following formulae which apply to
or radians; triangles. 1 – 4 apply to right angled triangles only
 evaluate the exact values of sine, cosine whereas 5 – 6 are primarily applicable to non-
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
and tangent for 𝜃 = 0, 6 , 4 , 3 , 2 , … , 2𝜋 right angled triangles.
 graph the functions sin𝑘𝑥 , cos 𝑘𝑥, tan 𝑘𝑥,
where 𝑘 is 1 or 2 and 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋;
 derive the identity cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = 1
 use the formula for sin(𝐴 ± 𝐵) , cos(𝐴 ±
𝐵) and tan(𝐴 ± 𝐵);
 derive the multiple angle identities for
sin 2𝑥 , cos 2𝑥, tan 2𝑥;
 solve simple identities;
 find solutions of simple equations for a 1. Pythagoras’ Theorem: 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2
given range, including those involving the
use of cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = 1 𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑏
2. tan 𝜃 = =
 use compound – angle formulae; 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑐
 use the reciprocal functions of
sec 𝑥 , csc 𝑥 and cot 𝑥; 𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑏
 derive identities for the following: 3. sin 𝜃 = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝 𝑎
(a) sin 𝑘𝐴 , cos 𝑘𝐴 , tan 𝑘𝐴 for 𝑘 ∈ ℚ, 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑐
(b) tan2 𝑥 , cot 2 𝑥 , sec 2 𝑥 and csc 2 𝑥, 4. cos 𝜃 = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝 𝑎
(c) sin 𝐴 ± sin 𝐵 , cos 𝐴 ± cos 𝐵, Quotient Identities
 express 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin𝜃 in the form sin𝜃
𝑟 cos(𝜃 ± 𝛼) and 𝑟 sin(𝜃 ± 𝛼), where 𝑟 is 1. tan 𝜃 =
𝜋 cos 𝜃
positive, 0 < 𝛼 < 2 ; Pythagorean Identities
 find the general solution of equations of 1. 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2
the form: 2. sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1
(a) sin 𝑘𝜃 = 𝑠 Variations of (2)
(b) cos 𝑘𝜃 = 𝑐 sin2 𝜃 = 1 − cos 2 𝜃
(c) tan 𝑘𝜃 = 𝑡 = (1 − cos 𝜃)(1 + cos 𝜃)
(d) 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin𝜃 = 𝑐 cos 2 𝜃 = 1 − sin2 𝜃
for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑘, 𝑠, 𝑡 ∈ ℝ; = (1 − sin 𝜃)(1 + sin 𝜃)
 find the solutions of the equations above
for a given range; Reciprocal Identities
 obtain the maximum or minimum of 1
1. = cot 𝜃
(𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin𝜃) for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 tan 𝜃
1
2. = sec 𝜃
cos𝜃
1
3. = csc 𝜃
sin𝜃

Further Quotient Identities

cos 𝜃
cot 𝜃 =
sin𝜃
Further Pythagorean Identities

1. 1 + cot 2 𝜃 = cosec2 𝜃
2. tan2 𝜃 + 1 = sec 2 𝜃

92
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

PROVING TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃

= + cos 𝜃
Many identities are derived from the fundamental cos 𝜃
identities. In the following LESSONs we will learn sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃
=
how to prove that an equation is an identity, thus cos 𝜃
discovering new identities. 1
=
Hints for Proving Trigonometric Identities cos 𝜃
1. Choose a side (LHS or RHS) and use known = sec 𝜃
identities to transform it into the other side. = RHS
Starting with the more complicated side is
usually the best option. LESSON 2b Prove that
2. When dealing with these proofs it is generally 1 1
+ ≡ 2 csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
useful to rewrite the given functions in terms sec 𝑥 + 1 sec 𝑥 − 1
of sine and cosine. SOLUTION
1 1
LHS: +
LESSON 1a Prove that tan 𝑥 +
1
≡
1 sec 𝑥 + 1 sec 𝑥 − 1
tan 𝑥 sin𝑥 cos 𝑥 sec 𝑥 − 1 + sec 𝑥 + 1
SOLUTION =
sec 2 𝑥 − 1
1 2 sec 𝑥
LHS = tan 𝑥 + =
tan 𝑥 tan2 𝑥
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥
= + = 2 sec 𝑥 ×
cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin2 𝑥
(sin 𝑥)(sin𝑥) + (cos 𝑥)(cos 𝑥) 2 cos 2 𝑥
= = ×
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin2 𝑥
(sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥) 2 cos 𝑥
= = ×
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin𝑥
1 = 2 csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
=
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = RHS
= RHS
LESSON 1b Prove that cos 𝑥
LESSON 2c Prove that = sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥
( sin𝜃 + cos 𝜃 )2 ≡ 1 + 2 sin𝜃 cos 𝜃 1−sin𝑥

SOLUTION SOLUTION
cos 𝑥
LHS: (sin𝜃 + cos 𝜃)(sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃) LHS:
1 − sin 𝑥
= sin2 𝜃 + 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 cos 𝑥 1 + sin 𝑥
= sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 + 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = .
1 − sin 𝑥 1 + sin 𝑥
= 1 + 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos 𝑥 (1 + sin𝑥)
= RHS =
1 − sin2 𝑥
cos 𝑥 (1 + sin𝑥 )
LESSON 1c Prove that =
cos 2 𝑥
tan2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 ≡ tan2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 1 + sin 𝑥
SOLUTION =
cos 𝑥
LHS: tan2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 1 sin 𝑥
sin2 𝜃 = +
= − sin2 𝜃 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
cos 2 𝜃 = sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥
sin2 𝜃 − cos2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 = RHS
=
cos 2 𝜃 …………………………………………………………………………
sin2 𝜃 (1 − cos 2 𝜃) EXERCISE 17.1
=
cos2 𝜃
sin2 𝜃 1. Prove the following identities.
= × sin2 𝜃 (b)
sin 𝑥
+
cos 𝑥−1
=0
cos 2 𝜃 cos 𝑥+1 sin𝑥
= tan2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 cos2 𝜃
(c) = 1 − sin 𝜃
= RHS 1+sin 𝜃
cos2 𝜃
LESSON 2a Prove that (d) sin 𝜃 + =1
1+sin𝜃
sin 𝜃 tan 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = sec 𝜃
(e) tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = sin2 𝜃
SOLUTION 1 cos 𝜃
LHS: sin 𝜃 tan 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 (f) sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin𝜃 = tan 𝜃

93
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

(g)
sin2 𝜃
1+cos 𝜃
= 1 − cos 𝜃 GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC
(h)
1 1
+ sin2 𝑥 ≡
1 FUNCTIONS
cos2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥
sin2 𝜃 INTRODUCTION
(i) cos 𝜃 + 1+cos 𝜃 = 1 Here is a list of the graphs of the trigonometric
cos2 𝑥−sin2 𝑥 functions of 𝑦 = sin𝑥 , 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 and 𝑦 = tan 𝑥.
(j) = cos 2 𝑥
1−tan2 𝑥 NB: For this section ALL angles will be assumed to
1 1
(k) − ≡ tan 𝑥 be in radians unless otherwise stated.
cos 𝑥 sin𝑥 tan 𝑥
cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 1
(l) + =
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥

2. Prove the following identities.

(a) cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = sec 𝑥
csc 𝑥−sin 𝑥
(b) sin𝑥 csc 𝑥 = csc 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
1 sec2 𝛽
(c) tan 𝛽 + tan 𝛽 = tan 𝛽
1+sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 The maximum value of sin 𝑥 is 1
(d) + 1+sin 𝜃 = 2 sec 𝜃 The minimum value of sin 𝑥 is −1
cos 𝜃
cos 𝑦
(e) sec 𝑦 + tan 𝑦 = −1 ≤ sin𝑥 ≤ 1
1−sin𝑦
sin2 𝜃+cos2 𝜃+cot2 𝜃 ……………………………………………………………………….
(f) = cot 2 𝜃
1+tan2 𝜃
(g) sin 𝜃 csc 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜃
(h) cot 𝜃 sin𝜃 cos 𝜃 = cos2 𝜃
(i) csc 𝜃 (sin 𝜃 + tan 𝜃) = 1 + sec 𝜃
sin 𝜃
(j) 1 − csc 𝜃 = cos 2 𝜃
(k) cos 𝜃 (sec 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 ) = sin2 𝜃
cot 𝜃
(l) csc 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 The maximum value of cos 𝑥 is 1
sec 𝜃
The minimum value of cos 𝑥 is −1
(m) csc 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 −1 ≤ cos 𝑥 ≤ 1
(n)
1 sin𝜃
− cos 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 ……………………………………………………………………….
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
tan2 𝜃
(o) − 1 = sec 𝜃
sec2 𝜃−1
csc 𝜃
(p) sin 𝜃 − cot 2 𝜃 = 1
(q) sec 𝜃 (cos 𝜃 − cot 𝜃) = 1 − csc 𝜃
cos 𝜃
(r) 1 − = sin2 𝜃
sec 𝜃
(s) sin 𝜃 (csc 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 ) = cos 2 𝜃
tan 𝜃
(t) = sin𝜃
sec 𝜃
csc 𝜃
(u) = cot 𝜃
sec 𝜃
sin2 𝜃
(v) 1+cos 𝜃 = 1 − cos 𝜃
(w) sec 𝜃 csc 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 + cot 𝜃
sec 𝜃 The maximum value is ∞
(x) cos 𝜃 − tan2 𝜃 = 1
The minimum value is −∞.
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
(y) sec 𝜃 + csc 𝜃 = 1 The graph is undefined at − 2 , − 2 , 2 , 2 .
NB: On most calculators undefined values are
………………………………………………………………………… indicated by MATH ERROR.

94
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

GRAPHS OF RECIPROCAL FUNCTIONS SKETCHING TRIGONOMETRIC GRAPHS

LESSON 3 Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋.

SOLUTION

LESSON 4 Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = cos 2𝑥

for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋.
………………………………………………………………………. SOLUTION We simply need to complete the
following table. When we graph draw the graph
we have to keep in mind that the graph will have
the same basic shape as that of 𝑦 = cos 𝑥.
𝒙 0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 2
𝒚 1 −1 1 −1 1

LESSON 5 Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = tan 2𝑥

………………………………………………………………………. for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
SOLUTION
𝒙 0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 2
𝒚 0 0 0 0 0
This table is clearly not very helpful so we will
include additional values.
𝒙 0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 3𝜋 7𝜋 2𝜋
4 2 4 4 2 4
𝒚 0 und 0 und 0 und 0 und 0
efin efin efin efin
ed ed ed ed

From the table we see that we have vertical

𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
asymptotes at 𝑥 = 4 , 4 , 4 , 4 .

95
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Before we look at how to solve trigonometric
equations we need to develop what is called the
QUADRANT RULE.

The range 0 to 2𝜋 can be divided into quadrants as

seen above.
𝜋
QUADRANT I: 0 →
2
ALL ratios are positive
𝜋
QUADRANT II: 2 → 𝜋
SINE ONLY is positive
3𝜋
QUADRANT III: 𝜋 → 2
TANGENT ONLY is positive
3𝜋
QUADRANT IV: → 2𝜋
2
COSINE ONLY is positive
The acronym
All School Teachers Curse
is commonly used to remember the quadrant rule.

GENERAL SOLUTIONS
LESSON 6 Solve the following equations
1
(a) sin 𝜃 = 2 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
(b) cos 𝜃 = 0.5 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
(c) tan 𝑥 = 0.5 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
Hence state the general solutions.
SOLUTION
(a) We need to find the angle in Quadrant I and
then determine the corresponding angles in
the appropriate quadrant(s) using the
information below. This initial angle we will
refer to as a Reference Angle, 𝑅𝐴.
𝐼: 𝜃 = 𝑅𝐴

96
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

𝐼𝐼: 𝜃 = 𝜋 − 𝑅𝐴 Tangent is positive in I and III

𝐼𝐼𝐼: 𝜃 = 𝜋 + 𝑅𝐴 𝐼: 𝑥 = 0.464𝑐
𝐼𝑉: 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 𝑅𝐴 𝐼𝐼𝐼: 𝑥 = 𝜋 + 0.464𝑐 = 3.606𝑐
1
sin 𝜃 =
2
1 𝜋
𝑅𝐴 = sin−1 ( ) =
2 6
Sine is postitive in I and II
𝜋
𝐼: 𝜃 =
6
𝜋 5𝜋
𝐼𝐼: 𝜃 = 𝜋 − =
6 6

General Solutions:
0.464 + 𝑛𝜋
𝜃={ 𝑛∈ℤ
3.606 + 𝑛𝜋

LESSON 7 Solve the following equations

for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.
(a) 2 cos 𝜃 = √3
(b) 2 sin 𝜃 + 1 = 0
Hence determine the general solutions.
SOLUTION
General Solutions: (a) 2 cos 𝜃 = √3
𝜋 √3
+ 2𝑛𝜋 cos 𝜃 =
6 2
𝜃 = {5𝜋 𝑛∈ℤ
√3 𝜋
+ 2𝑛𝜋 𝑅𝐴 = cos−1 ( ) =
6 2 6
1 Cosine is positive in I and IV
(b) cos 𝜃 = 𝜋
2 𝐼: 𝜃 =
1 𝜋 6
𝑅𝐴 = cos−1 ( ) = 𝜋 11𝜋
2 3 𝐼𝑉: 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − =
Cosine is positive in I and IV 6 6
𝜋
𝐼: 𝜃 =
3
𝜋 5𝜋
𝐼𝑉: 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − =
3 3

General Solutions:
𝜋
+ 2𝑛𝜋
6
𝜃 = {11𝜋 𝑛∈ℤ
+ 2𝑛𝜋
General Solutions: 6
𝜋
+ 2𝑛𝜋 (b) 2 sin 𝜃 + 1 = 0
3
𝜃 = {5𝜋 𝑛∈ℤ 2 sin 𝜃 = −1
+ 2𝑛𝜋 1
3 sin 𝜃 = −
2
−1
1 𝜋
(c) tan 𝑥 = 0.5 𝑅𝐴 = sin ( ) =
1 2 6
𝑅𝐴 = tan−1 ( ) = 0.464𝑐 Sine is negative in 𝐼𝐼𝐼 and 𝐼𝑉.
2

97
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

𝜋 7𝜋 SOLUTION We have 2 trigonometric

𝐼𝐼𝐼: 𝜃 = 𝜋 + =
6 6 functions in the equation therefore we need to
𝜋 11𝜋 rewrite it in terms of a single function.
𝐼𝑉: 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − =
6 6 6 sin2 𝜃 − 5 cos 𝜃 = 0
6(1 − cos 2 𝜃) − 5 cos 𝜃 = 0 Using trig identities
6 − 6 cos 2 𝜃 − 5 cos 𝜃 = 0 × (−1)
6 cos 2 𝜃 + 5 cos 𝜃 − 6 = 0
(2 cos 𝜃 + 3)(3 cos 𝜃 − 2) = 0
either 3 cos 𝜃 − 2 = 0 or 2 cos 𝜃 + 3 = 0
2 3
cos 𝜃 = or cos 𝜃 = −
3 2
2
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
3
General Solutions:
7𝜋 𝜃 = 48.19°
+ 2𝑛𝜋 Cosine is positive in I and IV
6
𝜃 ={ 𝑛∈ℤ 𝐼: 𝜃 = 48.19°
11𝜋
+ 2𝑛𝜋 𝐼𝑉: 𝜃 = 360° − 48.19° = 311.81°
6 3
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
2
SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS Invalid: − 1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1
LESSON 8 Solve the equation
5 tan(𝑥 + 40°) = −6 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°, giving your
answer to 2 decimal places.
SOLUTION
5 tan(𝑥 + 40°) = −6
Let 𝜃 = 𝑥 + 40°
5 tan 𝜃 = −6
6
tan 𝜃 = −
5 General Solutions:
−1
6 48.19° + 360°𝑛
𝑅𝐴 = tan ( ) = 50.19° 𝜃 ={ 𝑛∈ℤ
5 311.81° + 360°𝑛
Tan is negative in Quadrant 𝐼𝐼 and 𝐼𝑉.
𝐼𝐼: 𝜃 = 180° − 50.19° = 129.81° LESSON 10 Solve the following equations
𝜃 = 𝑥 + 40° = 129.81° 5 tan2 𝜃 + 7 = 11 sec 𝜃 for 0 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋.
𝑥 = 89.81° SOLUTION
𝐼𝑉: 𝜃 = 360° − 50.19° = 309.81° 5 tan2 𝜃 + 7 = 11 sec 𝜃
𝜃 = 𝑥 + 40° = 309.81° sin2 𝜃 1
𝑥 = 269.81° 5( ) + 7 = 11 ( )
cos 2 𝜃 cos 𝜃
5 sin2 𝜃 + 7 cos 2 𝜃 = 11 cos 𝜃
5(1 − cos 2 𝜃) + 7 cos2 𝜃 = 11 cos 𝜃
5 − 5 cos 2 𝜃 + 7 cos 2 𝜃 = 11 cos 𝜃
2 cos 2 𝜃 − 11 cos 𝜃 + 5 = 0
(2 cos 𝜃 − 1)(cos 𝜃 − 5) = 0
1
cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = 5 INVALID
2
1 𝜋
𝑅𝐴 = cos−1 ( ) =
2 3
Cosine is positive in I and IV
𝜋
𝐼: 𝜃 =
3
𝜋 5𝜋
LESSON 9 Solve the equation 𝐼𝑉: 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − =
6 sin2 𝜃 − 5 cos 𝜃 = 0 for 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°. 3 3
Hence determine the general solutions.
ALTERNATELY
5 tan2 𝜃 + 7 = 11 sec 𝜃

98
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

5(sec 2 𝜃 − 1) + 7 = 11 sec 𝜃 𝑦 √3
5 sec 2 𝜃 − 5 + 7 = 11 sec 𝜃 cos ( ) =
2 2
5 sec 2 𝜃 − 11 sec 𝜃 + 2 = 0 √3 𝜋
(5 sec 𝜃 − 1)(sec 𝜃 − 2) = 0 𝑅𝐴 = cos−1 ( ) =
2 6
1
sec 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 = 2 Cosine is positive in I and IV but IV is outside the
5 𝑦
1 1 1 range of 2
= =2 𝑦 𝜋
cos 𝜃 5 cos 𝜃 𝐼: =
1 2 6
cos 𝜃 = 5 cos 𝜃 = 𝜋
2 𝑦=
INVALID 3

LESSON 11 Solve the equation

sin2 𝜃 + 2 sin𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°
SOLUTION
sin2 𝜃 + 2 sin𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 0
sin 𝜃 (sin 𝜃 + 2 cos 𝜃) = 0
either sin𝜃 = 0 or sin𝜃 + 2 cos 𝜃 = 0
∴ 𝜃 = 0°, 180°

LESSON 13 Solve the equation

(2 sin2 2𝜃 − 1) cos 2𝜃 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.
SOLUTION
(2 sin2 2𝜃 − 1) cos 2𝜃 = 0
sin 𝜃 + 2 cos 𝜃 = 0 cos 2𝜃 = 0
sin 𝜃 = −2 cos 𝜃
sin 𝜃 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
= tan 𝜃 = −2 (∗) 2𝜃 = , , ,
cos 𝜃 2 2 2 2
𝑅𝐴 = tan−1(2) = 63.43°
From Graph
Tan is negative in II
𝐼𝐼: 𝜃 = 180° − 63.43° = 116.57° 2 sin2 2𝜃 − 1 = 0
𝜃 = 0°, 116.57°, 180°
NB:(∗)We are permitted to divide sin𝜃 by cos 𝜃 1
sin2 2𝜃 =
because it forms a trigonometric identity, thus, we 2
have not divided by zero.
1
sin 2𝜃 = ±
√2
1 𝜋
𝑅. 𝐴 = sin−1 ( )=
√2 4
𝜋
𝐼1 : 2𝜃 =
4
𝜋 3𝜋
𝐼𝐼1 : 2𝜃 = 𝜋 − =
4 4
𝜋 5𝜋
𝐼𝐼𝐼3 : 2𝜃 = 𝜋 + =
4 4
𝜋 7𝜋
𝐼𝑉1 : 2𝜃 = 2𝜋 − =
LESSON 12 Find all the angles 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2𝜋 4 4
𝑦 √3
which satisfy the equation cos ( ) = 𝜋 9𝜋
2 2 𝐼2 : 2𝜃 = + 2𝜋 =
SOLUTION Since 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2𝜋 then 4 4
𝑦 𝑦
0 ≤ 2 ≤ 𝜋. We first solve for 2

99
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

3𝜋 11𝜋 3. Solve the equation sin(𝑥 + 15°) = 0.5 for

𝐼𝐼2 : 2𝜃 = + 2𝜋 =
4 4 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°.
4. Solve the following equations for
5𝜋 13𝜋
𝐼𝐼𝐼2 : 2𝜃 = + 2𝜋 = 0° < 𝜃 < 360°
4 4 (i) 5 cos 𝜃 + 2 sin2 𝜃 = 4
7𝜋 15𝜋 (ii) 3 sin 𝜃 tan 𝜃 = 8
𝐼𝑉2 : 2𝜃 = + 2𝜋 = 5. Find the solutions of the following equations
4 4
for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 360°.
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 9𝜋 11𝜋 13𝜋 15𝜋 (i) 2 cos 𝑦 + 5 sin𝑦 cos 𝑦 = 0
𝜃= , , , , , , , , , , ,
4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 (ii) tan 𝑦 sin 𝑦 + sin 𝑦 = 0
6. Solve the equation 2 cos2 𝜃 + 3 sin2 𝜃 − 3 = 0
for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.
LESSON 14 Find all the angles between
– 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 which satisfy the equation 7. Find all the angles between 0° and 360° which
2(sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥) = 3 sin 𝑥 satisfy the equation
SOLUTION
5 cos2 𝑥 − 8 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = 0
2(sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥) = 3 sin 𝑥
8. Show that the equation sin2 𝜃 +
2 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 = 3 sin𝑥
3 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 4 cos 2 𝜃 can be written as a
2 cos 𝑥 = 3 sin 𝑥 − 2 sin𝑥
quadratic equation in tan 𝜃
2 cos 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 Hence, or otherwise, solve the equation in
sin 𝑥
2= = tan 𝑥 part sin2 𝜃 + 3 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 4 cos 2 𝜃 for
cos 𝑥 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋.
−1
𝑅𝐴 = tan 2 = 1.107 radians
9. Solve the following equations for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
The range – 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 indicates that the required
(i) 2 cos 2𝜃 = 1
values are bounded within I and II
(ii) 1 + 2 sin 2𝜃 = 0
(rotating anti-clockwise) and within III and
10. Solve the following equations for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.
IV (rotating clockwise) 𝜃 1
Tan is positive in I and III (i) sin (2 ) = 2
𝐼: 𝑥 = 1.107 radians 𝜃 1
(ii) cos (2 ) = − 2
(Quadrant I rotating anti-clockwise) 𝑦
𝐼𝐼: 𝑥 = −(𝜋 − 1.107) = −2.03 (iii) tan (2 ) = −√3
(Quadrant III rotating clockwise) 11. Solve the following equations for – 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋,
𝑥 = 1.107 radians, −2.03 radians correct to 2 decimal places where necessary.
a) (sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃) = 2 cos 𝜃
b) (1 + sin 𝑥)(2 + sin𝑥) = cos 2 𝑥

12. Solve the equation

5 tan2 𝜃 = 5 tan 𝜃 + 3 sec 2 𝜃
for 0 < 𝜃 < 360°
2𝜋
13. Solve the equations sec (2𝜃 + 9 ) = 2 for
0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.
14. Solve the following equations for – 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋,
correct to 2 decimal places where necessary.
a) 2 sec 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃 = 7
......................................................................................................... b) 2 cos 𝑥 + 3 sec 𝑥 = 7
EXERCISE 17.2 15. Show that the equation 3 tan 𝜃 = 2 cos 𝜃 can
1. Solve the equation sin 𝜃 =
√3
for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋. be expressed as
2 2 sin2 𝜃 + 3 sin 𝜃 − 2 = 0
2. Solve the following equations for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋. Hence, find the general solutions of the
√3
(i) sin 𝜃 = − equation
2
1 3 tan 𝜃 = 2 cos 𝜃.
(ii) cos 𝜃 = −
2 16. Find the general solutions for the equation
(iii) 2 cos 𝜃 = −√3 4 sin4 𝜃 + 5 = 7 cos 2 𝜃.
Hence state the general solutions. [Hint: Solve as a disguised quadratic]

100
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

17. Find the general solutions of the equation HARMONIC FORM

4 cos 2 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 = 1. INTRODUCTION
18. Solve the equation 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 1, hence In many instances it is essential to find the
find the general solutions of the equation solutions of equations of the form
3 tan3 𝑥 − 3 tan2 𝑥 − tan 𝑥 + 1 = 0 𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑏 cos 𝜃 = 𝑐 or 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin𝜃 = 𝑐
The previous methods for solving a trig equation
SOLUTIONS
𝜋 2𝜋 cannot be applied directly to these equations.
1. 𝜃 = 3 , 3 Therefore, we need to find an alternate form (of a
4𝜋 5𝜋 single trig. ratio) of expressing the equation. This
2. (i) 𝜃 = + 2𝑛𝜋, + 2𝑛𝜋
3 3 form is derived as follows:
2𝜋 4𝜋
(ii) 𝜃 = + 2𝑛𝜋, + 2𝑛𝜋 From the diagram at left we see that
3 3
5𝜋 7𝜋
(iii) 𝜃 = 6 + 2𝑛𝜋, 6 + 2𝑛𝜋
3. 𝑥 = 15°, 135°
4. (i) 𝜃 = 60°, 300° (ii) 𝜃 = 70.5°, 289.5°
5. (i) 𝑦 = 90°, 203.6°, 270°, 336.4°
(ii) 𝑦 = 0°, 135°, 180°, 315°, 360°
𝜋 3𝜋
6. 𝜃= ,
2 2
7. 𝑥 = 32°, 90°, 212°, 270°
𝜋 𝑐 +𝑑
8. 𝜃 = 4 , 1.82 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) =
𝑟
𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 11𝜋 7𝜋 11𝜋 19𝜋 23𝜋 𝑟 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) = 𝑐 + 𝑑
9. (i) 𝜃 = 6 , 6
, 6
, 6
(ii) 𝜃 = 12
, 12
, 12
, 12
𝜋 5𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
10. (i) 𝜃 = 3 , (ii) 𝜃 = (iii) 𝜃 = 𝑐
3 3 3 sin 𝜃 = → 𝑐 = 𝑎 sin𝜃
5𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝑎
11. (a) 𝜃 = −2.11, 1.03 (b) 𝑥 = − , − 2 ,− 6 𝑑
6
cos 𝜃 = → 𝑑 = 𝑏 cos 𝜃
12. 𝜃 = 71.6°, 153.4°, 251.6°, 333.4° 𝑏
𝜋 13𝜋 19𝜋 31𝜋
13. 𝜃 = 18 , 18 , 18 , 18
𝑟 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑏 cos 𝜃
14. (a) 𝜃 = −1.23 (b) 𝑥 = −1.05 Which is the form of our equation.
𝜋 5𝜋
15. 𝜃 = 6 , 6 + 2𝑛𝜋 Also,
𝜋 5𝜋 𝑟 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) = 𝑐 − 𝑑
16. 𝜃 = 6 , + 𝑛𝜋
𝜋 5𝜋
6 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 − 𝑏 cos 𝜃
17. , + 2𝑛𝜋 ∴ 𝑎 sin 𝜃 ± 𝑏 cos 𝜃 = 𝑟 sin(𝜃 ± 𝛼)
6 6
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 11𝜋
18. , ,
6 4 4
, 6
, 6
, 6
+ 𝑛𝜋
Similarly,
………………………………………………………………………….. 𝑐 = 𝑑 −𝑒
𝑐 𝑑 −𝑒
cos(𝜃 + 𝛼) = =
𝑟 𝑟
𝑟 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼) = 𝑑 − 𝑒
𝑑
cos 𝜃 = → 𝑑 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝑎
𝑒
sin 𝜃 = → 𝑒 = 𝑏 sin𝜃
𝑏
cos(𝜃 + 𝛼) = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 − 𝑏 sin 𝜃
Also,
𝑟 cos(𝜃 − 𝛼) = 𝑑 + 𝑒
= 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃
∴ 𝑎 cos 𝜃 ± 𝑏 sin𝜃 = 𝑟 cos(𝜃 ∓ 𝛼)
Furthermore, from the diagrams above we determine
that
𝑏
𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2 and 𝛼 = tan−1 ( )
𝑎

101
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

NB: The absolute values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 are to be used 𝜃 = 168.46° + 36.87° = 205.33°
in the above calculations.
Summarising we have LESSON 17
𝑏
𝑎 sin 𝜃 ± 𝑏 cos 𝜃 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2 sin(𝜃 ± 𝛼) ; 𝛼 = tan−1 ( ) a) Express 𝑓(𝜃) = √2 cos 𝜃 + sin𝜃 in the form
𝑎
−1
𝑏 𝑅 cos(𝜃 − 𝛼) where 𝑅 > 0 and 𝛼 is acute.
2 2
𝑎 cos 𝜃 ± 𝑏 sin𝜃 = √𝑎 + 𝑏 cos(𝜃 ∓ 𝛼) ; 𝛼 = tan ( )
𝑎 b) Hence, find the minimum value of
Thus, we are now equipped to solve the required 𝑓(𝜃), where 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.
equations c) Determine the value of 𝜃, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋, at
which the minimum value of 𝑓(𝜃) occurs.
LESSON 15 SOLUTION

(i) Express 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin𝜃 in the form 2

𝑅 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼) a. √2 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 = √(√2) + 12 cos(𝜃 − 𝛼)
(ii) Hence, solve the equation 1
𝛼 = tan−1 ( ) = 0.615
3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin𝜃 = 1 for 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360° √2
SOLUTION √3 cos(𝜃 − 0.615)
(i) 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin𝜃 = √32 + 42 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼) b. We know that the minimum value of the cosine
4 function is −1
𝛼 = tan−1 ( ) = 53.13°
3 Hence, the minimum value of
5 cos(𝜃 + 53.1°)
𝑓(𝜃) = √3(−1) = −√3
(ii) 5 cos(𝜃 + 53.13°) = 1
1 c. To determine this minimum value we need
cos(𝜃 + 53.13°) =
5 to solve the equation
1 cos(𝜃 − 0.615) = −1
(𝜃 + 53.13°) = cos −1 ( ) = 78.5°
5 cos(𝜃 − 0.615) = −1 when (𝜃 − 0.615) = 𝜋
Reference angle is 78.5° 𝜃 = 𝜋 + 0.615 = 3.76
Cosine is positive in I and IV
𝐼: (𝜃 + 53.13°) = 78.46° LESSON 18
𝜃 = 78.46° − 53.13° = 25.33°
𝐼𝑉: (𝜃 + 53.1°) = 360° − 78.46° = 281.54° (i) Express 𝑓(2𝜃) = 4 sin 2𝜃 + 3 cos 2𝜃 in
𝜃 = 281.54° − 53.13° = 228.41° the form 𝑟 sin(2𝜃 + 𝛼) where 𝑟 > 0 and
𝜋
𝜃 = 25.33°, 228.41° 0 < 𝛼 < 2.
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, find the maximum
LESSON 16
and minimum values of
1
(i) Express 4 sin 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 in the form
𝑅 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼). 6 − 𝑓(𝜃)
(ii) Hence, solve the equation
4 sin 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 = 1 for 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°. SOLUTION
SOLUTION (i) 4 sin 2𝜃 + 3 cos 2𝜃
(i) 4 sin 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 = √42 + 32 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) 𝑟 = √42 + 32 = 5
3 3
𝛼 = tan−1 ( ) = 36.87° 𝛼 = tan−1 ( ) = 0.644𝑐
4 4
5 sin(𝜃 − 36.87°) 𝑓(2𝜃) = 5 sin(2𝜃 + 0.644)
(ii) 4 sin 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 = 1 (ii) The minimum and maximum values of
5 sin(𝜃 − 36.87°) = 1 𝑓(2𝜃) and 𝑓(𝜃) are the same.
sin(𝜃 − 36.87°) = 0.2 Maximum value of 𝑓(𝜃) = 5
𝑅𝐴 = sin−1(0.2) = 11.54° Minimum value of 𝑓(𝜃) = −5
Sine is positive in Quadrants I and II 1 1
𝐼: 𝜃 − 36.87° = 11.54° Maximum value of 6−𝑓(𝜃) = =1
6−5
𝜃 = 36.87° + 11.54° = 48.41° 1 1 1
Minimum value of 6−𝑓(𝜃) = = 11
𝐼𝐼: 𝜃 − 36.87° = 180° − 11.54° = 168.46° 6−(−5)

102
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

………………………………………………………………………… COMPOUND ANGLE FORMULAE

EXERCISE 17.3 INTRODUCTION
1. Express 5 sin 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃 in the form The formulae for compound angles are:
𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) where 𝑅 > 0 and 𝛼 is acute. sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin𝐵
Hence solve the equation cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
5 sin 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃 = 5. sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 sin𝐵
2. Express cos 𝑥 + √3 sin 𝑥 in the form cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
𝑅 cos(𝑥 − 𝛼), giving the exact values of 𝑅 and tan 𝐴 + tan 𝐵
𝛼 such that 𝑅 > 0 and 0° < 𝛼 < 90°. tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
1 − tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵
Hence find the general solution of the tan 𝐴 − tan 𝐵
tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
equation cos 𝑥 + √3 sin 𝑥 = 2, giving your 1 + tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵
answer exactly, in degrees.
3. Express 5 sin 𝜃 + 6 cos 𝜃 in the form LESSON 19 Evaluate
𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼), where 𝑅 is positive and 𝛼 is i. cos(75°) ii. tan(−15°)
acute. SOLUTION
Hence We choose compounds of special angles
(i) find the value of 𝜃, between 0° and 90°, 30°, 45°, 60°
for which 5 sin 𝜃 + 6 cos 𝜃 is a maximum. (i) cos(75°) = cos(30° + 45°)
(ii) solve the equation 5 sin 𝜃 + 6 cos 𝜃 = 4, = cos(30°) cos(45°) − sin(30°) sin(45°)
for 0° < 𝜃 < 360°. √3 1 1 1
4. Given that 3 cos 𝑥 − 4 sin 𝑥 ≡ 𝑅 cos(𝑥 + 𝛼) = . − .
2 √2 2 √2
where 𝑅 > 0 and 0° < 𝛼 < 90°, find the √3 1
values of 𝑅 and 𝛼, giving the value of 𝛼 correct = −
to two decimal places. 2√2 2√2
Hence solve the equation √3 − 1
=
3 cos 2𝜃 − 4 sin 2𝜃 = 2, for 0° < 𝜃 < 360°, 2√2
giving your answers correct to 2 decimal
places. (ii) tan(−15°) = tan(30° − 45°)
tan(30°) − tan(45°)
=
SOLUTIONS 1 + tan(30°) tan(45°)
1. √34 sin(𝜃 + 0.54𝑐 ); 𝜃 = 0.49𝑐 , 1.57𝑐 1
( − 1)
2. 2 cos(𝜃 − 60°); 60° + 360°𝑛
= √3
3. √61 sin(𝜃 + 50.2°) (i) 𝜃 = 39.8° 1
1+ .1
(ii) 𝜃 = 160.6° √3
4. 5 cos(𝜃 + 53.13°), 1 − √3
𝜃 = 6.65°, 120.23°, 186.65°, 300.23° 3
= √
………………………………………………………………………… √3 + 1
√3
1 − √3
=
1 + √3
12
LESSON 20 Given that sin 𝐴 = 13 and
4
cos 𝐵 = 5 find the value of sin(𝐴 + 𝐵), cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)
and hence deduce that 𝐴 + 𝐵 is obtuse.
SOLUTION
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin𝐵

103
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

Therefore, we need to determine the cos 𝐴 and …………………………………………………………………………..

sin 𝐵. To do this we use the ratios given and EXERCISE 17.4
complete the corresponding triangles using 1. Evaluate
Pythagoras' Theorem. (i) sin 75°
5 3 (ii) cos 15°
cos 𝐴 = , sin 𝐵 =
13 5 (iii) tan 105°
12 4 5 3 2. Simplify each of these expressions
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = . + .
13 5 13 5 a. sin 18° cos 27° + cos 18° sin27°
48 15 b. cos 10° cos 80° − sin 10° sin80°
= +
65 65 3𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
63 c. cos cos + sin sin
= 7 21 7 21
65 𝜋 𝜋
tan + tan
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 d. 18 9
𝜋 𝜋
5 4 12 3 1 − tan 18 tan 9
= . − .
13 5 13 5 tan 73° − tan 13°
20 36 e.
= − 1 + tan 73° tan 13°
65 65 13𝜋 𝜋 13𝜋 𝜋
16 f. cos cos (− ) − sin sin(− )
=− 15 5 15 5
65 3. Given that 𝐴 and 𝐵 are acute angles and that
Thus, we have that sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) is positive and 12 3
cos 𝐶 = 13 and that cos 𝐷 = 5, find the value of
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) is negative. This implies that 𝐴 + 𝐵 is
in the Second Quadrant. Hence, 𝐴 + 𝐵 is obtuse. each of the following
a. cos(𝐶 + 𝐷)
LESSON 21 b. cos(𝐶 − 𝐷)
𝜋 √2 4. Using the identity
(i) Given that sin = , where 𝑥 is acute, sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin𝐵,
4 2
show that calculate the value of sin( 12 ).
5𝜋

𝜋 √2
sin (𝑥 − ) = (sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥) 5. i. State the exact value of
4 2 𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 √3 (a) cos 6 and (b) sin 6
(ii) Using the fact that sin 3 = 2 and
𝜋 1 𝜋
ii. Hence, show that
cos = , find the exact value of sin 𝜋 1
3 2 12 cos (𝑥 + ) = (√3 cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥)
showing ALL steps in your working. 6 2
1+tan 𝑥 𝜋
SOLUTION 6. Prove that 1−tan 𝑥 ≡ tan ( 4 + 𝑥)
(i) By the compound angle formula for
sin(𝐴 − 𝐵 ) SOLUTIONS
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 √6+√2 √6+√2
sin (𝑥 − ) = sin𝑥 cos − cos 𝑥 sin 1. (i) 4 (ii) (iii) −2 − √3
4 4 4 4
√2 √2 √2 1 √3 1
= sin 𝑥 ( ) − cos 𝑥 ( ) 2. (a) (b) 0 (c) 2 (d) (e) √3 (f) − 2
2 3
2 2
16 56
√2 3. (a) 65 (b) 65
= (sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥) √6+√2
2 4.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 4
(ii) =3−4
12 √3 1
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 5. (i) (a) (b) 2
∴ sin = sin ( − ) 2
12 3 4 6.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
sin ( − ) = sin cos − cos sin
3 4 3 4 3 4
√3 √2 1 √2 …………………………………………………………………………..
= ( )− ( )
2 2 2 2
√6 √2
= −
4 4
√6 − √2
=
4

104
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

DOUBLE–ANGLE FORMULAE LESSON 24 Prove the identity

INTRODUCTION 1 + cos 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃 1
=
sin 2𝐴 = 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 sin𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 tan 𝜃
cos 2𝐴 = cos 2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴
= cos 2 𝐴 − (1 − cos 2 𝐴) SOLUTION
= 2 cos2 𝐴 − 1 LHS
1 + cos 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃 1
cos 2𝐴 = cos 2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴 =
= (1 − sin2 𝐴) − sin2 𝐴 sin 𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 tan 𝜃
1 + cos 𝜃 + 2 cos2 𝜃 − 1
= 1 − 2 sin2 𝐴 =
2 tan 𝐴 sin𝜃 + 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
tan 2𝐴 = cos 𝜃 (1 + 2 cos 𝜃)
1 − tan2 𝐴 =
sin 𝜃 (1 + 2 cos 𝜃)
3 cos 𝜃
LESSON 22 If sin 𝛼 = 5 and 𝛼 is an acute =
sin 𝜃
angle, use the double angle formulae to find the 1
exact value of sin2𝛼 , cos 2𝛼 and tan 2𝛼 and the =
tan 𝜃
quadrant of angle 2𝛼. = RHS
SOLUTION …………………………………………………………………………..
3 4 3 EXERCISE 17.5
sin 𝛼 = cos 𝛼 = tan 𝛼 =
5 5 4 1. Given that 𝜃 is an acute angle and that
3 4 24 4
sin 2𝛼 = 2 sin𝛼 cos 𝛼 = 2 ( ) ( ) = sin 𝜃 = 5 , find the value of each of
5 5 25
cos 2𝛼 = cos 2 𝛼 − sin2 𝛼 the following:
4 2 3 2 16 9 7 a. sin 2𝜃
= ( ) −( ) = − = b. cos 2𝜃
5 5 25 25 25
3 3 c. tan 2𝜃
2 tan 𝛼 2 (4) 2. Solve each of the following equations for
tan 2𝛼 = = = 2
1 − tan2 𝛼 3 2 1− 9 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋, giving your answers correct to 3
1 − (4) 16 decimal places
3 7 3 16 24 a. sin 2𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = 0
= ÷ = × =
2 16 2 7 7 b. 4 cos 𝜃 = 3 sin 2𝜃
Since 2𝛼 has a positive value for all three ratios it c. 3 cos 2𝜃 − cos 𝜃 + 2 = 0
must be in the first quadrant. 3. (i) Prove the identity
cos 4𝜃 + 4 cos 2𝜃 ≡ 8 cos 4 𝜃 − 3.
LESSON 23 Solve the equation (ii) Hence, solve the equation
3 sin 2𝜃 = sin 𝜃 , for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 cos 4𝜃 + 4 cos 2𝜃 = 2.
SOLUTION 4. Show that ( cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 )2 ≡ 1 − sin 2𝑥
One function is written in 𝜃 and the other in 2𝜃 5. Solve the equation sin 2𝜃 = sin𝜃 for
therefore we cannot solve directly. Hence, we use 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.
the double angle formula for sine. 6. Given that tan 𝐴 = 2 tan 𝐵, show that
3 sin 2𝜃 = sin 𝜃 sin2𝐵
3(2 sin𝜃 cos 𝜃) = sin 𝜃 tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
3 − cos 2𝐵
6 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 .
6 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 = 0 SOLUTIONS
24 7 24
sin 𝜃 (6 cos 𝜃 − 1) = 0 1. (a) 25 (b) − 25 (c) − 7
sin 𝜃 = 0 → 𝜃 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋 3𝜋 11𝜋
6 cos 𝜃 − 1 = 0 2. (a) 𝜃 = 2 , , ,
6 2 6
1 𝜋 3𝜋
cos 𝜃 = (b) 𝜃 = 2 , , 0.0.73𝑐 , 2.41𝑐
2
6 𝜋 5𝜋
−1
1 (c) 𝜃 = , 1.911𝑐 , , 4.373𝑐
𝑅𝐴 = cos ( ) = 1.40 6 6
6 3. (ii) 𝜃 = 0.48, 2.67, 3.62, 5.81
Cosine is positive in I and IV 4.
𝜃 = 1.40 radians 𝜋 5𝜋
𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 1.40 = 4.88 radians 5. 𝜃 = 3 , 𝜋, 3
𝜃 = 0, 1.40, 𝜋, 4.88, 2𝜋 6.

105
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

HALF–ANGLE FORMULAE 2. sin 15°

30° 1 − cos 30°
INTRODUCTION sin =√
2 2
𝜃 𝜃
sin 𝜃 = 2 sin ( ) cos ( ) (1)
2 2
𝜃 √3
2
cos 𝜃 = 2 cos ( ) − 1 (2) √1 − 2
2 =
2
𝜃 1 + cos 𝜃
cos ( ) = ±√ (3) 2 − √3
2 2
√ 2
=
2
𝜃 1 − cos 𝜃
sin ( ) = ±√ (4) 2 − √3 √2 − √3
2 2 =√ =
4 2
𝜃
2 tan (2 ) 3𝜋
tan 𝜃 = (5) 3. tan ( )
𝜃 8
1 − tan2 ( )
2
3𝜋
𝜃 1 − cos 𝜃 3𝜋 2 tan ( 8 )
tan ( ) = ±√ (6) tan ( ) =
2 1 + cos 𝜃 4 3𝜋
1 − tan2 ( )
𝜃 1 − cos 𝜃 8
tan ( ) = (7) 3𝜋
2 sin𝜃 2 tan ( 8 )
−1 =
3𝜋
𝜃 sin𝜃 1 − tan2 ( )
8
tan ( ) = (8) 3𝜋 3𝜋
2 1 + cos 𝜃 tan2 ( ) − 1 = 2 tan ( )
8 8
2
3𝜋 3𝜋
tan ( ) − 2 tan ( ) − 1 = 0
LESSON 25 8 8
Evaluate the following by using the appropriate Using the quadratic formula:
half angle formula. 3𝜋 2 ± √(−2) 2 − 4(1)(−1)
𝜋
i. cos 8 tan ( ) =
8 2(1)
ii. sin 15° 2 ± √4 + 4 2 ± √8 2 ± 2√2
3𝜋 = = =
iii. tan ( ) 2 2 2
8
SOLUTION = 1 ± √2
3𝜋
1. Since 𝜋/8 is half of 𝜋/4, then according to the tan ( ) = 1 + √2
half angle formula 8
𝜋 𝜋 since it is in the first quadrant
cos ( ) = 2 cos2 ( ) − 1
4 8
1 𝜋 LESSON 26 Prove that
= 2 cos2 ( ) − 1 𝑥 𝜋
√2 8 tan ( + ) = sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥
2 4
1 1 + √2 𝜋 SOLUTION
+1 = = 2cos 2 ( )
√2 √2 8 LHS
𝑥 𝜋
1 + √2 𝜋 tan ( + )
= cos 2 ( ) 2 4
2√2 8 𝑥 𝜋
tan ( ) + tan ( )
2 4
1 + √2 𝜋 = 𝑥 𝜋
√ = cos ( ) 1 − tan ( ) tan ( )
2√2 8 2 4
𝑥
NB: We only consider the positive square root tan (2 ) + 1
value because 𝜋/8 is in the first quadrant = 𝑥
1 − tan (2 )

106
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

𝑥 𝑥
(tan (2 ) + 1) (tan (2 ) + 1) FACTOR FORMULAE
= 𝑥 𝑥 INTRODUCTION
(1 − tan (2 )) (1 + tan (2 )) 𝑋+𝑌 𝑋−𝑌
𝑥 𝑥 sin 𝑋 + sin 𝑌 = 2 sin( ) cos ( )
tan2 (2 ) + 2 tan (2 ) + 1 2 2
= 𝑋+𝑌 𝑋−𝑌
𝑥 sin 𝑋 − sin 𝑌 = 2 cos ( ) sin( )
1 − tan2 (2 ) 2 2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑋+𝑌 𝑋−𝑌
tan2 (2 ) + 1 2 tan (2 ) cos 𝑋 + cos 𝑌 = 2 cos ( ) cos ( )
= 2 2
𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑋+𝑌 𝑋−𝑌
1 − tan2 (2 ) 1 − tan2 (2 ) cos 𝑋 − cos 𝑌 = −2 sin ( ) sin ( )
𝑥 2 2
sin2 (2 )
𝑥 +1 LESSON 27 Find the exact value of
cos 2 (2 )
= 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 a) sin 105° − sin 15°
sin2 (2 )
1− b) sin 105° sin15°
𝑥
cos 2 (2 ) SOLUTION
𝑥 𝑥 We rewrite the difference as a product
sin2 (2 ) + cos2 (2 )
sin 105° − sin 15°
𝑥 105° + 15° 105° − 15°
cos2 ( )
2 = 2 cos ( ) sin( )
= 𝑥 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 2 2
cos (2 ) − sin2 (2 )
2
= 2 cos 60° sin 45°
𝑥 1 1
cos2 ( ) = 2( )( )
2 2 √2
1
= 1
𝑥 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 =
cos 2 (2 ) − sin2 (2 ) √2
1 Comparing sin105° sin 15° with
= + tan 𝑥
cos 𝑥
= sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 𝑋+𝑌 𝑋−𝑌
cos 𝑋 − cos 𝑌 = −2 sin ( ) sin ( )
2 2
=RHS
We see that
………………………………………………………………………….. 1 𝑋+𝑌 𝑋−𝑌
− (cos 𝑋 − cos 𝑌) = sin ( ) sin( )
EXERCISE 17.6 2 2 2
1. Use a half-angle formula to find 𝑋+𝑌
𝜋 = 105° → 𝑋 + 𝑌 = 210° (1)
a. sin ( ) b. cos 165° 2
8 𝑋−𝑌
c. sin 75° d. tan 22.5° = 15° → 𝑋 − 𝑌 = 30° (2)
2
𝑎 12 𝜋 Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously we get
2. Find the value ofsin (2 ) if cos 𝑎 = 13
,0< 𝑎 < 2
𝑥
𝑋 = 120°, 𝑌 = 90°
3. Prove that 2 sin2 (2 ) + cos 𝑥 = 1 1
𝜃 sin 105° sin15° = − (cos 120° − cos 90°)
4. Prove that 2 cos2 (2 ) sec 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 + 1 2
1 1
𝜃 𝜃 = − (− − 0)
5. Prove that cos 2 (2 ) − cos θ = sin2 (2 ) 2 2
1
=
SOLUTIONS 4
√2−√2
1. (a) LESSON 28 Simplify
sin 𝐴+sin 𝐵
2
cos 𝐴−cos 𝐵
−√6−√2
(b) SOLUTION
4
√6+√2
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
(c) sin𝐴 + sin 𝐵 2 sin( 2 ) cos ( 2 )
4 =
(d) √2 − 1 cos 𝐴 − cos 𝐵 −2 sin (𝐴 + 𝐵 ) sin (𝐴 − 𝐵 )
√26 2 2
2. 𝐴−𝐵
26 cos ( 2 ) 𝐴−𝐵
3. =− = − cot ( )
𝐴−𝐵 2
4. sin ( 2 )
5.

107
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵 + sin 𝐶

LESSON 29 Solve the equation 𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
= 2 sin ( ) cos ( ) + sin 𝐶
cos 𝑥 + cos 2𝑥 = sin 2𝑥 − sin 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋. 2 2
SOLUTION 𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵 𝐶 𝐶
= 2 sin ( ) cos ( ) + 2 sin cos
cos 𝑥 + cos 2𝑥 = sin 2𝑥 − sin 𝑥 2 2 2 2
We apply the appropriate compound angle 𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵 𝐶 𝐶
= 2 sin ( ) cos ( ) + 2 sin cos
formulae 2 2 2 2
2𝑥 + 𝑥 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2𝑥 − 𝑥 𝐶 𝐴−𝐵 𝐴+𝐵 𝐶
2 cos ( ) cos ( ) = 2 cos ( ) sin ( ) = 2 sin (90° − ) cos ( ) + 2 sin (90° − ( )) cos
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3𝑥 𝑥 3𝑥 𝑥 𝐶 𝐴−𝐵 𝐴+𝐵 𝐶
2 cos cos = 2 cos sin = 2 cos cos ( ) + 2 cos cos
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3𝑥 𝑥 3𝑥 𝑥 𝐶 𝐴−𝐵 𝐴+𝐵
2 cos cos − 2 cos sin = 0 = 2 cos (cos ( ) + cos ( ))
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑋+𝑌 𝑋−𝑌
2 cos (cos − sin ) = 0 Recall: cos 𝑋 + cos 𝑌 = 2 cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2 2 2 2
3𝑥 𝐴 −𝐵 𝐴+𝐵
2 cos =0 Letting 𝑋 = and 𝑌 = we get
2 2 2
3𝑥 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 𝐴 −𝐵 𝐴+𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
= , , cos ( ) + cos ( ) = 2 cos cos
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3𝑥 𝐶 𝐴 𝐵
NB: 0 ≤ ≤ 3𝜋 = 2 cos 2 cos cos
2 2 2 2
𝜋 5𝜋
𝑥= , 𝜋,
3 3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑥 𝑥 = 4 cos cos cos
cos − sin = 0 2 2 2
2 2
𝑥 𝑥
cos = sin …………………………………………………………………………..
2 2 EXERCISE 17.7
𝑥
sin 2 𝑥 1. Write the sum as a product (Apply negative
𝑥 = tan 2 = 1 identities whenever possible)
cos
2 (a) sin 5𝑥 + sin3𝑥
𝑥 𝜋
= (b) sin 𝑥 − sin4𝑥
2 4
𝑥 (c) cos 4𝑥 − cos 6𝑥 cos 9𝑥 + cos 2𝑥
NB: 0 ≤ ≤ 𝜋 (d) sin 2𝑥 − sin7𝑥
2
𝜋 (e) sin 3𝑥 + sin4𝑥
𝑥=
2 2. Simplify
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 (a)
sin 𝐴+sin 𝐵
𝑥= , , 𝜋, cos 𝐴+cos 𝐵
3 2 3 cos 𝐴+cos 𝐵
(b) sin 𝐴−sin 𝐵
LESSON 30 If 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are the angles of a sin 3𝐴−sin 𝐴
(c)
cos 3𝐴−cos 𝐴
triangle prove that sin 2𝐴+sin 3𝐴
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 (d)
cos 2𝐴−cos 3𝐴
sin 𝐴 + sin𝐵 + sin𝐶 = 4 cos cos cos
2 2 2 3. Solve the following equations for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
SOLUTION a. sin 𝑥 + sin 5𝑥 = sin 3𝑥
b. cos 𝑥 + cos 2𝑥 + cos 3𝑥 = 0
c. sin 𝑥 − 2 sin 2𝑥 + sin 3𝑥 = 0
d. cos 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 = cos 5𝑥
4. Prove that
(a) sin 𝐴 + sin 2𝐴 + sin3𝐴 =
sin 2𝐴 (2 cos 𝐴 + 1)
(b) cos 𝐴 + 2 cos 3𝐴 + cos 5𝐴 =
4 cos 2 𝐴 cos 3𝐴
𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 180°
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 (c) cos 𝐴 − 2 cos 3𝐴 + cos 5𝐴 =
+ + = 90° 2 sin 𝐴 (sin2𝐴 − sin 4𝐴)
2 2 2 sin 𝐴−sin 2𝐴+sin 3𝐴
𝐶 𝐴 +𝐵 (d) cos 𝐴−cos 2𝐴+cos 3𝐴 = tan 2𝐴
= 90° − ( )
2 2

108
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

SOLUTIONS c. sin 𝑟 [3]

1. (a) 2 sin 4𝑥 cos 𝑥 d. cos(𝑝 + 𝑡) [4]
5𝑥 3𝑥 CAPE 2007
(b) 2 cos ( 2 ) sin (− 2 )
6. Given that 𝐴 and 𝐵 are acute angles such that
(c) −2 sin 5𝑥 sin(−𝑥)
11𝑥 7𝑥 sin 𝐴 = 3/5 and cos 𝐵 = 5/13 , find, without
(d) 2 cos ( 2 ) cos ( 2 ) using tables or a calculator, the EXACT values
9𝑥
(e) 2 cos ( 2 ) sin(−
5𝑥
) of
2 (i) sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) [3]
7𝑥 𝑥
(f) 2 sin ( ) cos (− ) (ii) cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) [3]
2 2
2. (a) tan (
𝐴+𝐵
) (iii) cos 2𝐴 [2]
2 CAPE 2009
𝐴−𝐵
(b) cot (
2
) 7. (i) Solve cos 2𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 = 1 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.
(c) − cot 2𝐴 [6]
𝐴 (ii) Prove that cos 4 𝐴 − sin4 𝐴 + 1 = 2 cos2 𝐴.
(d) − cot (− 2 )
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 2𝜋 7𝜋
[5]
3. (a) 𝑥 = 0, 9 , 3 , , , ,𝜋 CAPE 2003
9 3 9
𝜋 3𝜋
(b) 𝑥 = 4 , 8. Solve the equation cos 2𝜃 = 3 cos 𝜃 − 2 for
𝜋
4 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋. [4]
(c) 𝑥 = 0, , 𝜋 CAPE 2004
2
𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
(d) 𝑥 = 0, 18 , 18 , 2 , , ,𝜋 9. (i) Show that cos 3𝜃 = 4 cos 3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃.
18 18
[5]
4. (ii) The position vectors of two points 𝐴 and
………………………………………………………………………….. 𝐵 relative to the origin 𝑂 are
EXAM QUESTIONS 𝒂 = 4 cos 2 𝜃 𝒊 + (6 cos 𝜃 − 1)𝒋
1. (a) Copy and complete the following table for 𝒃 = 2 cos 𝜃 𝒊 − 𝒋
the function 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋. By using the identity in (i) above, find the
𝜋
value of 𝜃, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 4 , such that 𝒂 and 𝒃
𝑥 0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋 are perpendicular. [5]
2 2 CAPE 2005
1−cos 2𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) 10. Show that = tan2 𝑥. [3]
1+cos 2𝑥
CAPE 2006
(b) Sketch the graph of 𝑓. [4] 1−tan2 𝜃
2. Solve, for 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°, the equation 11. (i) Prove that cos 2𝜃 ≡ 1+tan2 𝜃. [4]
6 cos 2 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 = 4. [7] (ii) Hence, show, without using calculators,
1
CAPE 2004 that tan 67 2 ° = 1 + √2 [7]
3. Solve the equation 4 cos2 𝜃 − 4 sin𝜃 − 1 = 0 CAPE 2007
for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋. [5] 12. (i) Prove that sin 2𝜃 − tan 𝜃 cos 2𝜃 = tan 𝜃
CAPE 2006
12 4 [3]
4. Given that sin 𝐴 = and sin𝐵 = , where 𝐴 (ii) Express tan 𝜃 in terms ofsin 2𝜃 and
13 5
and 𝐵 are acute angles, find cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) and cos 2𝜃. [2]
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵). [8] (iii) Hence show, without using tables or
CAPE 2003 calculators, that tan 22.5° = √2 − 1. [4]
5. In the triangle below, not drawn to CAPE 2008
3 5
scale, sin 𝑞 = and cos 𝑝 = . 13. Find the general solutions of the equation
5 13
cos 𝜃 = 2 sin2 𝜃 − 1. [7]

CAPE 2006

14. Express 𝑓(𝜃) = √2 cos 𝜃 − sin𝜃 in the form

𝑅 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼). [5]
i. Hence, find the minimum value of 𝑓(𝜃),
Determine the exact values of where 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋. [1]
a. cos 𝑞 [1]
b. sin 𝑝 [1]

109
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

ii. Determine the value of 𝜃, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋, at

which the minimum value of 𝑓(𝜃) occurs.
[2]
CAPE 2005
15. Given that 4 sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 = 𝑅 sin(𝑥 − 𝛼) , 𝑅 >
0 and 0° < 𝛼 < 90°, find the values of 𝑅 and 𝛼
correct to 1 decimal place. [7]
CAPE 2006

16. (a) Express cos 𝜃 − sin𝜃 in the form

𝑅 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼) where 𝑅, 𝛼 ∈ ℝ, 𝑅 > 0 and
𝜋
0<𝛼< . [5] (b) The diagram, not drawn to scale, shows a
2
rectangle 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 with sides 6 cm and 8 cm
(b) Hence, find the general solution of
inscribed in another rectangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷.
cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 = 1. [3]
(i) The angle that 𝑆𝑅 makes with 𝐷𝐶 is 𝜃.
CAPE 2007
Find, in terms of 𝜃, the length of the
17. The diagram, which is
side 𝐵𝐶. [2]
not drawn to scale,
shows a quadrilateral (ii) Find the value of 𝜃 if |𝐵𝐶| =7 cm. [5]
(iii) Is 15 a possible value for |𝐵𝐶|? Give a
𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 in which
reason for your answer. [2]
𝐴𝐵 = 4 cm, 𝐵𝐶 = 9 cm, 1−cos 2𝜃
𝐴𝐷 = 𝑥 cm and (c) (i) Show that sin 2𝜃 = tan 𝜃. [3]
∠𝐵𝐴𝐷 = ∠𝐵𝐶𝐷 = (ii) Hence, show that
𝜃 and ∠𝐶𝐷𝐴 is a right 1−cos 4𝜃
(a) = tan 2𝜃 [3]
sin 4𝜃
angle. 1−cos 6𝜃
(i) Show that 𝑥 = 4 cos 𝜃 + 9 sin 𝜃 [4] (b) sin 6𝜃
= tan 3𝜃
(ii) By expressing 𝑥 in the form 𝑟 cos(𝜃 − 𝛼), [2]
𝜋
where 𝑟 is positive and 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 2, find (iii) Using the results in (c) (i) and (ii) above,
the MAXIMUM possible value of 𝑥. [6] evaluate
𝑛
CAPE 2009
3 𝐴 ∑(tan 𝑟𝜃 sin2𝑟𝜃 + cos 2𝑟𝜃)
18. If cos 𝐴 = 5, find tan 2 . [6] 𝑟=1
CAPE 2003 where 𝑛 is a positive integer. [2]
CAPE 2011
19. Solve, for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋, the equation 22. (a) (i) Given that
sin 𝑥 + sin3𝑥 = 0. [6] cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 and
CAPE 2004 cos 2𝜃 = 2 cos2 𝜃 − 1, prove that
1
cos 3𝜃 ≡ 2 cos 𝜃 [cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 − 2 ].
20. Given that 𝐴, 𝐵 and C are the angles of a
triangle, prove that [7]
𝐴+𝐵
(a) sin 2 = cos 2
𝐶
[3] (ii) Using the appropriate formula, show
𝐴 𝐵−𝐶 that
(b) sin 𝐵 + sin 𝐶 = 2 cos 2 cos [2] 1
2 [sin 6𝜃 − sin2𝜃] = (2 cos 2 2𝜃 − 1) sin 2𝜃
Hence, show that 2
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 [5]
sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵 + sin 𝐶 = 4 cos 2 cos 2 cos 2
(iii) Hence, or otherwise, solve
[5] 𝜋
sin 6𝜃 − sin 2𝜃 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2 .
CAPE 2008
[5]
21. (a) By using 𝑥 = cos2 𝜃, or otherwise, find all (b) Find ALL possible values of cos 𝜃 such
values of the angle 𝜃 such that that 2 cot 2 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = 0. [8]
8 cos 4 𝜃 − 10 cos 2 𝜃 + 3 = 0, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋. CAPE 2012
[6] 23. (a) 𝐴 is an acute angle and 𝐵 is an obtuse
4 3
angle, where sin 𝐴 = 5 and cos 𝐵 = − 5.
Without finding the values of angles 𝐴 and
𝐵, calculate cos 3𝐴. [5]

110
 CHAPTER 17: TRIGONOMETRY

(b) Solve the equation 4 cos 2𝜃 − 14 sin 𝜃 = 7 CAPE 2015

for values of 𝜃 between 0 and 2𝜋 radians.
[8] SOLUTIONS
CAPE 2013
24. (a) (i) Show that sin 2𝜃 =
2 tan 𝜃 1.
2 . [4]
1+tan 𝜃
2. 𝜃 = 41.8°, 138.1°
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, solve equation 𝜋 5𝜋
sin 2𝜃 − tan 𝜃 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋. 3. 𝜃 = 6, 6
[8] 63 56
4. ,
(b) (i) Express 𝑓(𝜃) = 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 in the 65 65
4 12 63 3√3−4
form 𝑟 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼) where 𝑟 > 0 5. (a) 5 (b) 13 (c) 65 (d)
𝜋 10
and0 < 𝛼 < 2. [4] 63 56 7
6. (i) 65 (ii) 65 (iii) 65
(ii) Hence, find
2𝜋 4𝜋
(a) the maximum value of 𝑓(𝜃) [2] 7. (i) 𝜃 = ,
1 3 3
(b) the minimum value of 8+𝑓(𝜃). [2] 𝜋 5𝜋
8. 𝜃 = 0, , , 2𝜋
3 3
(iii) Given that the sum of the angles 𝐴, 𝐵 2𝜋
and 𝐶 of a triangle is 𝜋 radians, show 9. (ii) 9
that 10.
(a) sin 𝐴 = sin(𝐵 + 𝐶) [3] 11.
(b) sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵 + sin 𝐶 sin 2𝜃
= sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐵 + 𝐶) + 12. (ii) tan 𝜃 = 1+cos 2𝜃
𝜋 5𝜋
sin(𝐴 + 𝐶). [2] 13. 𝜃 = + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝜃 = 𝜋 + 2𝑛𝜋, + 2𝑛𝜋
3 3
CAPE 2013
cot 𝑦−cot 𝑥 sin(𝑥−𝑦) 14. (a) 𝑓(𝜃) = √3 cos(𝜃 + 0.615𝑐 )
25. (a) (i) Prove that cot 𝑥+cot 𝑦 = sin(𝑥+𝑦). [4]
(b) −√3 (c) 𝜃 = 2.53𝑐
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, find the possible
values for 𝑦 in the trigonometric 15. √14 sin(𝑥 − 14°)
𝜋 3𝜋
equation 16. (a) √2 cos (𝜃 + 4 ) (b) 2𝑛𝜋, 2 + 2𝑛
cot 𝑦 − cot 𝑥
= 1, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2𝜋 17. (i) (ii) √97
cot 𝑥 + cot 𝑦 1
18. 2
1 𝜋
when sin𝑥 = 2 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 . [8] 𝜋
19. 𝑥 = 0, , 𝜋
2
(b) (i) Express 𝑓(𝜃) = sin 2𝜃 + 4 cos 2𝜃 in
20.
the form 𝑟 sin(2𝜃 + 𝛼) where 𝑟 > 0 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
and 0 < 𝛼 < 2.
𝜋
[4] 21. (a) 𝑥 = 6 , 4 , 4 , 6
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, determine (b) (i) 𝐵𝐶 = 8 sin 𝜃 + 6 cos 𝜃 (ii) 0.131𝑐
(a) the value of 𝜃, between 0 and 2𝜋 (iii) No
radians, at which 𝑓(𝜃) is a (c)(i) (ii) (iii) 𝑛
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
minimum. [4] 22. (a) (i) (ii) (iii) 𝜃 = 0, , ,
4 2 4
1
(b) the minimum and maximum (b) − 2 , 0, 1
1
values of 7−𝑓(𝜃). [5] 117
23. (a) − 125 (b) 3.40𝑐 , 6.03𝑐
CAPE 2014 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
24. (a) (i) (ii) 𝜃 = 0, 4 , 4 , 𝜋, 4 , 4 , 2𝜋
26. (a) (i) Show that cos 3𝑥 = 4 cos 3 𝑥 − 3 cos 𝑥. (b) (i) 5 cos(𝜃 + 0.927𝑐 ) (ii) (a) 5
1
[6] (b) 13
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, solve 25. (a) (i) (ii) 𝑦 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋
cos 6𝑥 − cos 2𝑥 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋.
(b) (i) √17 sin(2𝜃 + 1.33𝑐 )
[9]
(b) (i) Express 𝑓(2𝜃) = 3 sin2𝜃 + 4 cos 2𝜃 in (ii) (a) 𝜃 = 1.69𝑐
1 1
the form 𝑟 sin(2𝜃 + 𝛼) where 𝑟 > 0 (b) min: 7+√17 ; max: 7−√17
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 3𝜋 7𝜋
and 0 < 𝛼 < 2. [6] 26. (a) (i) (ii) 𝑥 = 0, , , , 𝜋, , , , 2𝜋
4 2 4 4 2 4
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, find the 1 1
(b) (i) 5 sin(𝜃 + 0.927𝑐 ) (ii) max: 2; min: 12
maximum and minimum values of
1
( )
. [4]
7−𝑓 𝜃

111
 CHAPTER 18: PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

CHAPTER 18: PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

At the end of this section, students should be able LESSON 4 Find the Cartesian equation for
to: the following
𝑥 = 3 sin𝑡 , 𝑦 = 5 cos 𝑡
 obtain the Cartesian equation of a curve
given its parametric representation; SOLUTION
𝑥 𝑦
 obtain the parametric representation of a sin 𝑡 = cos 𝑡 =
3 5
curve given its Cartesian equation. 𝑥 2 𝑦 2
2 2
sin 𝑡 + cos 𝑡 = ( ) + ( )
3 5
__________________________________________________________ 𝑥 2 𝑦2
If a curve is given by parametric equations, we 1= +
9 25
often are interested in finding an equation for the This is the equation of an ELLIPSE with centre
curve in standard form: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) (0, 0), 𝑥 – intercepts ±3 and 𝑦 – intercepts ±5.
LESSON 1 Find the Cartesian equation for:
𝑥 = 𝑡 2 − 1, 𝑦 = 2𝑡
SOLUTION
Solve the first equation for 𝑡 and plug that value
into the second equation.
𝑥 = 𝑡2 − 1
𝑡2 = 𝑥 + 1
𝑡 = ±√𝑥 + 1
𝑦 = ±2√𝑥 + 1

LESSON 2 Find the Cartesian equation for:

1
𝑥 = √𝑡, 𝑦 = 2 𝑡 + 3. LESSON 5 A point moves so that at time 𝑡
the distances from the coordinate axes are given
SOLUTION by
1
𝑥 = √𝑡, 𝑦= 𝑡+3 𝑥 = 3 + 2 sin𝑡 and 𝑦 = 2 + 3 cos 𝑡
2
𝑥 = √𝑡 (i) Find the maximum and minimum values of 𝑥
𝑡 = 𝑥2 and 𝑦
1
𝑦 = 2 𝑥2 + 3 or 2𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 6 (ii) Find the Cartesian equation of the curve
traced by the point
LESSON 3 Find the Cartesian equation for: SOLUTION
1 3
𝑥= , 𝑦= (i) The maximum value of 𝑥 occurs when
2−𝑡 1 + 2𝑡
SOLUTION sin 𝑡 = 1, therefore 𝑥max = 3 + 2(1) = 5
1 3 The minimum value of 𝑥 occurs when
𝑥= , 𝑦= sin 𝑡 = −1, therefore 𝑥min = 3 + 2(−1) = 1
2−𝑡 1 + 2𝑡
1 Likewise, for 𝑦 we have
𝑥= 𝑦max = 2 + 3(1) = 5 and
2−𝑡
𝑥(2 − 𝑡) = 1 𝑦min = 2 + 3(−1) = −1
2𝑥 − 𝑥𝑡 = 1
2𝑥 − 1 = 𝑥𝑡 (ii) 𝑥 = 3 + 2 sin 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 2 + 3 sin𝑡
2𝑥 − 1
=𝑡
𝑥
3
3 𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 2 3𝑥
𝑦= = =
2(2𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 5𝑥 − 2
1+ 𝑥

112
 CHAPTER 18: PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

𝑥 −3 𝑦−2 Determine the coordinates of the centre of the

sin 𝑡 = , cos 𝑡 =
2 3 circle and the radius of the circle.
2
𝑥 − 3 𝑦−2 2 6. Show that the Cartesian equation represented
sin2 𝑡 = ( ) cos2 𝑡 = ( ) by the parametric equations
2 3
𝑥 = 3 + cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = sin𝜃 − 1
(𝑥 − 3)2 (𝑦 − 2) 2 represents the equation of a circle.
sin2 𝑡 + cos2 𝑡 = + State the coordinates of the centre of the circle
4 9
(𝑥 − 3) 2 (𝑦 − 2) 2 and the radius of the circle.
1= + 7. For each of the following eliminate the
4 9
This is an ELLIPSE with centre (3, 2). The parameter and find the corresponding
horizontal distance from the centre is 2 in either Cartesian equations
direction and the vertical distance from the centre 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 4 sin 𝜃
in either direction is 3. 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 2, 𝑦=𝑡
………………………………………………………………………….. Hence, determine the points of intersection of
the 2 curves.
EXERCISE 18
SOLUTIONS
1. Find the Cartesian equations for each of the
𝑥−4
following pairs of parametric equations. 1. (a) 𝑦 = (b) 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 4
𝑡 4
a) 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 4, 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 3𝑥2
𝑡 (c) 𝑦 = ±√2 + 1 (d) 𝑦 = 𝑥2 +4
b) 𝑥 = 4 , 𝑦 = 𝑡 + 4
1−𝑥 1−𝑥
c) 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑡 + 1 (e) 𝑦 = (f) 𝑦 =
𝑥2 2
2 3 2. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 10
(d) 𝑥 = ,𝑦 = 𝑦2 𝑥2
√𝑡 1 + 𝑡 3. (a) 𝑥 2 + = 1 (b) + 𝑦 2 = 1
1 9 9
(e) 𝑥 = , 𝑦 = 𝑡(1 + 𝑡) (c) (𝑥 + 4) 2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 1
𝑡+1 𝑦2 𝑥2
1 𝑡 (d) (𝑥 − 4) 2 + = 1 (e) + (1 − 𝑦) = 1
(f) 𝑥 = 81 4
,𝑦 =
1 + 2𝑡 1 + 2𝑡 4. (a) 𝑥max = −1, 𝑥min = −5,
2. Obtain the Cartesian equation of the curve 𝑦max = 4, 𝑦min = −2
whose parametric representation is 𝑥+3 2 𝑦−1 2
𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 + 3 𝑦 = 4𝑡 4 + 1 (b) ( ) + ( ) = 1
2 3
5. (𝑥 − 1) 2 + (𝑦 − 2) 2 = 1 𝐶(1, 2); 𝑟 = 1
in the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 where 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 6. (𝑥 − 3) 3 + (𝑦 + 1) 2 = 1 𝐶(3, −1); 𝑟 = 1
are real numbers. 𝑥2 𝑦2
7. + 16 = 1 𝑦 = 𝑥−2
4
3. Find the Cartesian equations for each of the 6 16
(− , − ) ; (2, 0)
following pairs of parametric equations 5 5
a. 𝑥 = cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑡
b. 𝑥 = 3 sin𝑡 , 𝑦 = cos 𝑡
EXAM QUESTIONS
c. 𝑥 = −4 + cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = −1 + sin𝑡
d. 𝑥 = 4 + cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 9 sin𝑡
1. Obtain the Cartesian equation of the curve
e. 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = cos2 𝑡 whose parametric representation is
4. A point moves so that at time 𝑡 the distances 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 + 3, 𝑦 = 3𝑡 4 + 2 in the form
from the coordinate axes are given by 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶, where 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are real
𝑥 = −3 + 2 cos 𝑡 and 𝑦 = 1 + 3 sin𝑡
numbers. [6]
CAPE 2004
a. Find the maximum and minimum values
of 𝑥 and 𝑦.
2. (i) Find the coordinates of the centre and
b. Find the Cartesian equation of the curve
the radius of the circle
traced by the point. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 4. [4]
5. By eliminating the parameter from (ii) By writing 𝑥 + 1 = 3 sin 𝜃, show that the
𝑥 = 1 + cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 2 + sin 𝜃 parametric equations of this circle are
show that the corresponding Cartesian 𝑥 = −1 + 3 sin𝜃, 𝑦 = 2 + 3 cos 𝜃. [5]
equation represents the equation of a circle.

113
 CHAPTER 18: PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

(iii) Show that the 𝑥 – coordinate of the points 3. (i) (ii) (2√2, 1 + 2√2); (−2√2, 1 − 2√2)
of intersection of this circle with the line (iii) 𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = 0, 𝑐 = 1
3 2 2
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 are 𝑥 = −1 ± 2 √2. [4] (iv) (𝑥 − 2√2) + (𝑦 − (1 − 2√2) = 16
CAPE 2006 𝑥2
4. (i) 𝑦 2 − =1
3. The line 𝐿 has equation 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 1 = 0 and the 9
circle 𝐶 has equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 15 = 0. (ii) (45 + 12√14, 29.98); (45 − 12√14, 1)
(i) Show that 𝐿 passes through the centre of 5.
𝑥(1−𝑥)
𝐶. [2] 6. 𝑦=
2𝑥−1
(ii) If 𝐿 intersects 𝐶 at 𝑃 and 𝑄, determine the 7. (i) 𝐶1 :(𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 10,
coordinates of 𝑃 and 𝑄. [3]
𝐶2 : (𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 16
(iii) Find the constants 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 such that 1 √15 1 √15
𝑥 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑐 + 𝑎 sin𝜃 are (ii) (− 2 , 2 + ) ; (− 2 , 2 − )
2 2
parametric equations of 𝐶. [3]
(iv) Another circle 𝐶2 , with the same radius as …………………………………………………………………………..
𝐶, touches 𝐿 at the centre of 𝐶. Find the
possible equations of 𝐶2 . [7]
CAPE 2011
4. (i) Determine the Cartesian equation of the
curve, 𝐶, defined by the parametric
equations 𝑦 = sec 𝜃 and 𝑥 = 3 tan 𝜃. [5]
(ii) Find the points of intersection of the curve
𝑦 = √10𝑥 with 𝐶. [9]
CAPE 2012

5. Show that the Cartesian equation of the

curve that has the parametric equations
𝑥 = 𝑡 2 + 𝑡, 𝑦 = 2𝑡 − 4 is 4𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 + 24.
[4]
CAPE 2013

6. The parametric equations of a curve, 𝑆, are

given by
1 𝑡
𝑥= and 𝑦 =
1+𝑡 1 − 𝑡2
Determine the Cartesian equation of the
curve,𝑆. [6]
CAPE 2014

7. The circles 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are defined by th

eparametric equations as follows:
𝐶1 : 𝑥 = √10 cos 𝜃 − 3; 𝑦 = √10 sin𝜃 + 2
𝐶2 : 𝑥 = 4 cos 𝜃 + 3; 𝑦 = 4 sin𝜃 + 2

(i) Determine the Cartesian equations of 𝐶1

and 𝐶2 in the form
(𝑥 − 𝑎) 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 . [4]
(ii) Hence or otherwise, find the points of
intersection of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 . [9]
CAPE 2015

SOLUTIONS
3 9 17
1. 𝑦 = 4 𝑥2 − 2 𝑥 + 2
2. (i) 𝐶(−1, 2); 𝑟 = 3

114
 CHAPTER 19: LIMITS

MODULE THREE: CALCULUS

CHAPTER 19: LIMITS
At the end of this section, students should be able If we refer to the polygon as an 𝑛-gon, where 𝑛 is
to: the number of sides, we can make some
 use graphs to determine the equivalent mathematical statements.
continuity and discontinuity of
functions;
 describe the behaviour of a function,  As 𝑛 gets larger, the 𝑛-gon gets closer to
𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 gets arbitrarily close to being the circle.
some given fixed number, using a  As 𝑛 approaches infinity, the 𝑛-gon
descriptive approach; approaches the circle.
 use the limit notation lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿,  The limit of the 𝑛-gon, as 𝑛 goes to
𝑥→𝑎 infinity, is the circle!
𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 as 𝑥 → 𝑎; lim (𝑛 − gon) = circle
 use the simple limit theorems: 𝑛→∞
if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹, lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐺 and 𝑘 is The 𝑛-gon never really gets to be the circle, but it
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 will get very close! So close, in fact, that, for all
a constant, then lim 𝑘𝑓(𝑥) 𝑘𝐹, practical purposes, it may as well be the circle.
𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 𝐹𝐺, lim {𝑓 (𝑥 ) + That's what limits are all about!
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑔 (𝑥 )} = 𝐹 + 𝐺 and, provided
𝑓 (𝑥) 𝐹 TABULAR APPROACH
𝐺 ≠ 0, lim = ;
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐺 Now let’s look at a numerical example.
 use the limit theorems in simple Find the limit as 𝑥 approaches 10 of the function
problems: 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5. Firstly we need to note that 𝑥 can
sin 𝑥
 use the fact that lim = 1, approach 10 from the left or the right. This idea
𝑥→0 𝑥
will be demonstrated using a table of values and
demonstrated by a geometric
the graph of the function.
approach;
Approaching 10 from the left
 identify the point(s) for which a
𝑥 9 9.5 9.9 9.99 9.999 9.9999
function is (un)defined;
𝑓(𝑥) 32 33.5 34.7 34.97 34.997 34.9997
 identify the points for which a
function is continuous;
 identify the point(s) where a function It appears that as 𝑥 gets closer and closer to 10
from the left that 𝑓(𝑥) gets closer and closer to 35.
is discontinuous;
 use the concept of left – handed or
right – handed
__________________________________________________________ Approaching 10 from the right
𝑥 10.0001 10.001 10.01 10.1 10.5 11
INTRODUCTION
To understand what is really going on in 𝑓(𝑥) 35.0003 35.003 35.03 35.3 36.5 38
differential calculus, we need to have an
understanding of limits. In the study of calculus, As 𝑥 gets closer and closer to 10 from the right
what happens to the value of a function as the 𝑓(𝑥) approaches 35. Hence, is seems reasonable to
independent variable gets very close to a conclude that as 𝑥 gets closer and closer to 10,
particular value is very important. 𝑓(𝑥) approaches 35.

Consider the following in order to develop an GRAPHICAL APPROACH

understanding of what is a limit: We will now to take a look at the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) to
If we increase the number of sides of a polygon, in help verify our answer.
relation to a circle what can we say about the
polygon?
As the number of sides increases the polygon
becomes closer and closer to being a circle.

115
 CHAPTER 19: LIMITS

LESSON 2 Evaluate the following limits.

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
1. lim
𝑥→3 𝑥 −3
𝑥2 − 4
2. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2
√𝑥 − 2
3. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 4

SOLUTION
𝑥2 −2𝑥−3
Thus, we have the following limit as 𝑥 approaches 1. lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
10 from the left (left-hand limit) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)
lim− 3𝑥 + 5 = 35 (∗) = lim
𝑥→10 𝑥→3 𝑥 −3
and from the right (right-hand limit) = lim 𝑥 + 1
𝑥→3
lim+ 3𝑥 + 5 = 35 (∗∗)
𝑥→10 =3+1
Therefore, since 𝑥 converges to 10 from both the =4
left and right, 𝑓(𝑥) approaches 35 we conclude Substituting 𝑥 = 3 immediately will lead directly
lim 3𝑥 + 5 = 35 (∗∗∗) to division by zero. Therefore, we factor and
𝑥→10
cancel before substituting.
(∗) and (∗∗) are one – sided limits, whereas, (∗∗∗)
is a two sided limit. 𝑥2 − 4
2. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
LIMITS BY DIRECT SUBSTITUTION = lim
LESSON 1 Determine 𝑥→2 𝑥 −2
= lim 𝑥 + 2
𝑥→2
(i) lim 3𝑥 + 5 =2+2
𝑥→10
(ii) lim 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 =4
𝑥→3
𝑥2 +3𝑥+1
(iii) lim √𝑥 − 2
𝑥→−1 𝑥2 +1
3. lim
SOLUTION 𝑥→2 𝑥−4
√𝑥 − 2
(i) lim 3𝑥 + 5 = lim
𝑥→2 (√𝑥 − 2)(√𝑥 + 2)
𝑥→10
= 3(10) + 5 1
= 35 = lim
𝑥→2 (√𝑥 + 2)
(ii) lim 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 1
𝑥→3
=
= 3 (3)3 − 32 + 2(3) − 1 √4 + 2
= 77 1
𝑥2 +3𝑥+1 =
(iii) lim 4
𝑥→−1 𝑥2 +1
(−1)2 + 3(−1) + 1
=
(−1)2 + 1
1
=
2
In general, if 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous then:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
It is important to note that all polynomial
functions are continuous.

116
 CHAPTER 19: LIMITS

LIMIT PROPERTIES small? Yup, the graph is again getting closer and
1. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 or 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 closer to the 𝑥-axis
𝑥→𝑎 (which is 0.) It's
as 𝑥 → 𝑎 iff lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and just coming in from
𝑥→𝑎−
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 below this time.
𝑥→𝑎+
2. 𝑘. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑘. 𝑓(𝑥) 1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 lim ( ) = 0
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥

3. lim[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

4. lim[𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) × lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

5−3𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) LESSON 3 Find lim (6𝑥+1)
𝑥→∞
5. lim = 𝑥→𝑐
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥) SOLUTION In solving these questions please
𝑥→𝑐 5−3(∞)
APPLICATIONS OF LIMIT LAWS do not write 6(∞)+1 , this does not make
lim 5𝑥 = 5. lim 𝑥 = 5 . 4 = 20 mathematical sense. Instead we use the fact
𝑥→4 𝑥→4 1
thatlim = 0. Therefore, we divide throughout by
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
lim(3𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1)
𝑥→2 𝑥 to get an expression that can be evaluated
= lim (3𝑥 + 1) × lim(2𝑥 − 1) 5 − 3𝑥
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 lim ( )
= (3 (2) + 1)(2(2) − 1) 𝑥→∞ 6𝑥 + 1

=7×3 5
−3
= 21 = lim (𝑥 )
𝑥→∞ 1
6+
𝑥
𝑥−1 0−3
lim =
𝑥→3 𝑥 2 + 1 6+0
lim 𝑥 − 1 3
= 𝑥→3 2 =−
lim 𝑥 + 1 6
𝑥→3 1
3−1 =−
= 2
9−1 3𝑥2 −𝑥−2
LESSON 4 Evaluate lim 5𝑥2 +4𝑥+1
1 𝑥→∞
= SOLUTION Divide throughout by the highest
4
power of 𝑥
3𝑥 2 𝑥 2
𝑥 2 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥2
LIMITS AS 𝒙 APPROACHES INFINITY lim
𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 2 4𝑥 1
+ 2+ 2
𝑥2 𝑥 𝑥
INTRODUCTION 1 2
3−𝑥 − 2
1
Now let’s look at the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 from = lim 𝑥
𝑥→∞ 4 1
another perspective. We are now going to examine 5+ + 2
𝑥 𝑥
the limit as 𝑥 approaches infinity (both positive 3−0−0
=
and negative infinity). 5+0+0
1
Now, let's look at the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and see 3
=
5
what happens!
As 𝑥 gets really, really big, the graph gets closer
and closer to the 𝑥-axis which has a height of 0. So,
as 𝑥 approaches +∞, 𝑓(𝑥) is approaching 0. This is
called a limit at infinity.
1
lim ( ) = 0
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥
Now let's look at the green line... What is
happening to the graph as 𝑥 gets really, really

117
 CHAPTER 19: LIMITS

LIMITS AS 𝒙 APPROACHES 0

INTRODUCTION
Although we cannot divide by 0 there are some
interesting, and important, limits where there is a
limiting value as 𝑥 approaches 0 and where it
would appear that we have a 0 denominator.

sin 3𝑥
LESSON 5 Evaluate lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
SOLUTION
The same graphical process can be used to derive
that
sin3𝑥
lim =3
𝑥→0 𝑥

To illustrate we take a look at the graph of

1
𝑓(𝑥) = to see what happens as 𝑥 approaches 0.
𝑥
We need to look at two separate cases:
(1) the left – hand limit as 𝑥 approaches 0 and
(2) the right – hand limit as 𝑥 approaches 0
1 1
lim ( ) = −∞ and lim ( ) = +∞
𝑥→0− 𝑥 𝑥→0+ 𝑥
Since the left – hand limit does not equal the right
– hand limit
1
lim ( ) = DOES NOT EXIST However, we are these limits can also be derived
𝑥→0 𝑥
In this case the 𝑦-axis is a vertical asymptote. algebraically as follows.
sin3𝑥
lim
INTRODUCTION 𝑥→0 𝑥
sin 3𝑥 3𝑥
= lim ×
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝑥→0 3𝑥 𝑥
Limit of 𝒙
sin 3𝑥 3𝑥
= lim × lim
𝑥→0 3𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
sin𝑥 =1×3
We now look at the limit as 𝑥 approaches 0 of . =3
𝑥
We can use a table of values sufficiently close to 0
in order to evaluate the limit. This process reveals LESSON 6 Determine
that sin 4𝑥
sin 𝑥 lim
𝑥→0 3𝑥
lim =1 SOLUTION
𝑥→0 𝑥
This is supported by the graph below. sin4𝑥
lim
𝑥→0 3𝑥
sin 4𝑥 4𝑥
= lim ×
𝑥→0 4𝑥 3𝑥
sin 4𝑥 4𝑥
= lim × lim
𝑥→0 4𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥
4
=1×
3
4
=
3

118
 CHAPTER 19: LIMITS

LESSON 7 Evaluate 7. Evaluate

sin 5𝑥
lim 6 5
𝑥→0 sin 2𝑥
a. lim b. lim
SOLUTION 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 4
sin5𝑥 2𝑥 + 1 4𝑥 2 + 1
lim c. lim d. lim
𝑥→0 sin2𝑥 𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 − 1 𝑥→∞ 2 + 3𝑥 2
5𝑥 sin5𝑥 2𝑥 𝑥2 + 2
= lim × × e. lim 3
𝑥→0 2𝑥 5𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1
5
= ×1×1
2 SOLUTIONS
5
=
2
………………………………………………………………………….. 1. (a) 17 (b) −17 (c) 0
1 1
EXERCISE 19.1 2. (a) 4 (b) −7 (c) 12 (d) DOES NOT EXIST
1
3. (a) 39 (b) − 11
1. Determine the limits of each function 3
4. −
(a) lim (3𝑥 2 + 5) 4
𝑥→2 5. (a) Does not exist (b) does not exist
3
(c) 5 (d) 3 (e)
(b) lim (−2𝑥 2 + 1) 4
𝑥→−3
𝑥2 + 3𝑥 + 2
(c) lim 6.
𝑥→−1 𝑥2 + 1 2 4
7. (a) 0 (b) 0 (c) (d) (e) 0
5 3
2. Find
𝑥 −2
a. lim …………………………………………………………………………..
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6
b. lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥 +1 LIMITS AND PIECEWISE FUNCTIONS
𝑥 +2 LESSON 8 The function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined as
c. lim 3 follows:
𝑥→−2 𝑥 + 8
𝑥−2 𝑥2 𝑥<0
d. lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {
𝑥→2 |𝑥 − 2| 𝑥 +2 𝑥≥0
Find lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→0
3. Evaluate each of the following by applying the SOLUTION
appropriate law of limits.
a. lim(2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4)
𝑥→5
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 1
b. lim
𝑥→−2 5 − 3𝑥
1
4. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = − 2 and
𝑥→𝑐
2 𝑓(𝑥)
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = , find lim
𝑥→𝑐 3 𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥)
5. Evaluate each limit
1 4
a. lim 5 b. lim 11
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 We will use the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) to help us solve the
sin 5𝑥 sin6𝑥
c. lim d. lim question
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 2𝑥
3𝑥
e. lim Firstly, we note that the graph is discontinuous,
𝑥→0 sin 4𝑥
with a break, at 𝑥 = 0.
6. Show that
sin 𝑥 2 Since 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 for 𝑥 < 0, we have
lim𝜋 = lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑥 2 = 02 = 0
𝑥→ 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
2
Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 for 𝑥 ≥ 0, we have
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑥 + 2 = 0 + 2 = 2
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
So we have 2 different limiting values for 𝑓(𝑥)as

119
 CHAPTER 19: LIMITS

𝑥 → 0. As a result we are left to conclude that lim 𝑓(𝑥) LESSON 11 The function 𝑓 on ℝ is defined by
𝑥→0
does not exist. 𝑥2 + 1 𝑥 ≥ 3
𝑓(𝑥) = {
1 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑥 < 3
Determine
LESSON 9 Use the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) to find
lim 𝑓(𝑥) if (a) 𝑓(3)
𝑥→1
3 − 𝑥, 𝑥≠1 (b) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥→3
1, 𝑥=1
(c) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) in terms of the constant 𝑏
𝑥→3
(d) the value of 𝑏 such that 𝑓 is continuous at
𝑥 = 3.
SOLUTION

(a) 𝑓(3) = 32 + 1 = 10
(b) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑥 2 + 1 = 32 + 1 = 10
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
(c) lim− 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = lim− 1 + 𝑏𝑥 = 1 + 3𝑏
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
(d) If 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 3 then
SOLUTION From the graph we see that lim+ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = lim− 𝑓 (𝑥 )
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 𝑥→3 𝑥→3
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 10 = 1 + 3𝑏
Therefore, 3=𝑏
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑥→1

LESSON 12 Determine the values of 𝑥 for

2𝑥+1
PIECEWISE FUNCTIONS AND CONTINUITY which the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 is continuous.
𝑥 +𝑥−2
LESSON 10 The function 𝑓 on ℝ is defined by
SOLUTION 𝑓(𝑥) will be discontinuous at
4 − 𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 1
𝑓(𝑥) = { those values of 𝑥 for which the denominator
2 + 𝑥 if 𝑥 < 1
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0. Therefore for all other values of
(i) Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) for the domain 𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous.
−1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2. 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0
(ii) Find → (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
(a) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑥 = −2, 1
𝑥→1
𝑓(𝑥) is continuous for all real values of 𝑥 except
(b) lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1 −2 and 1
(iii) Deduce that 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 1.
…………………………………………………………………………..
SOLUTION
EXERCISE 19.2
(i)
1. Determine whether or not each of the
following functions are continuous.
2
a. 𝑓(𝑥) =
1+𝑥
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5
4 − 𝑥2
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥 +8
2. Let 𝑓 be the function defined by
(ii) (a) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 4 − 𝑥 = 4 − 1 = 3 2
𝑓(𝑥) = {2𝑥
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 if 𝑥 < 1
(b) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 2 + 𝑥 = 2 + 1 = 3 4 − 𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 1
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
(iii) 𝑓(1) = 4 − 1 = 3 Graph 𝑓, and use the graph to find the
Since lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(1) = 3, 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 following
is continuous. a. lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1
b. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1+
c. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1

120
 CHAPTER 19: LIMITS

3. Determine the values of 𝑥 for which the 2. (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) DOES NOT EXIST
𝑥−1
function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 is continuous. 3. 𝑥 ≠ −3, 1
𝑥 +2𝑥−3 81
4. Determine the values of 𝑥 for which the 4. 𝑥= 4
1 2 1 3
function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2√𝑥−9 is discontinuous. 5. (i) 3 (ii) −3 (iii) 2 (iv) 5 (v) 2 (vi) 1
1
5. Find (vii) DOES NOT EXIST (viii) 2
11
𝑥2 − 9 6. −4
(i) lim 2 7. −72
𝑥→3 3𝑥 − 9𝑥
5
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 8.
(ii) lim 2 2
2
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2
9. 2, 5
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
(iii) lim 2 10. 𝑎 = −2, 𝑏 = 1
𝑥→3 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 7 7
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 11. (i) 𝑥 ≠ ± 2 (ii) 𝑥 = ± 2 (iii) 𝑥 = −3, 6
(iv) lim 2
𝑥→−2 𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 6 (iv) 𝑥 = ±3
𝑥3 + 8
(v) lim 3 EXAM QUESTIONS
𝑥→−2 𝑥 − 4𝑥
𝑥+4
(vi) lim 1. Given that lim {4𝑓(𝑥)} = 5, evaluate
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 + 2 𝑥→−2
1 lim {𝑓(𝑥) + 2𝑥}. [5]
(vii) lim 2 𝑥→−2
𝑥→0 𝑥
CAPE 2004
3 + 𝑥2
(viii) lim
𝑥→∞ 1 + 2𝑥 2 𝑥2 −2𝑥−3
2. (a) Evaluate lim 𝑥2 −4𝑥+3. [4]
𝑥→3
6. Given that lim {4𝑓(𝑥)} = 5, evaluate (b) Determine the values of 𝑥 ∈ ℝ for which
𝑥→−2
𝑥+2
lim {𝑓(𝑥) + 2𝑥} the function 𝑥(𝑥+1) is NOT continuous.
𝑥→−2
7. Given that lim {𝑓(𝑥) + 3𝑥} = 1, [3]
𝑥→3
evaluate lim 9𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→3 CAPE 2004
8. Given that lim(𝑎√𝑥 + 𝑥) = 9, calculate the
𝑥→4
value of 𝑎. 3. (a) Find the real values of 𝑥 for which the
sin 𝑥 function
9. Given that lim 𝑥 = 1,
𝑥→0
sin2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑥
evaluate lim and lim sin 5𝑥 . 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8
10. The function 𝑓 is defined by is discontinuous. [3]
1
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥2 +𝑥−2
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) (b) Find lim 𝑥2 −3𝑥+2 [3]
𝑥→1
and is continuous for all values of 𝑥 except 𝑎
(c) Find the values of 𝑥 ∈ ℝ such that the
and 𝑏, where 𝑎 < 𝑏. Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏. 9−𝑥2
function 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥2 −3)(|𝑥|−3) is
11. Determine the real values of 𝑥 for which the discontinuous. [4]
following functions are continuous.
𝑥 CAPE 2006
i. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥3 +8
2|𝑥| − 7 4. (a) Determine lim . [4]
𝑥→−2 𝑥3 −4𝑥
𝑥
ii. 𝑓(𝑥) = (b) Obtain the real values of 𝑥 such that the
|2𝑥| − 7 𝑥2 +1
𝑥2 + 1 function 𝑓(𝑥) = |2𝑥−3|−9 is continuous.
iii. 𝑓(𝑥) = [4]
|2𝑥 − 3| − 9
|𝑥 |
iv. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 CAPE 2007
|𝑥| − 9
SOLUTIONS 𝑥3 −27
5. Find lim 𝑥2 +𝑥−12 . [4]
𝑥→3
1. (a) Discontinuous (b) Continuous CAPE 2008
(c) Discontinuous

121
 CHAPTER 19: LIMITS

𝑥3 −8 (i) Find
6. (a) Find lim 𝑥3 −6𝑥+8. [5]
𝑥→2 (a) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) [2]
(b) The function 𝑓 on ℝ is defined by 𝑥→1
3−𝑥 𝑥 ≥1 (b) the value of the constant 𝑝 such
𝑓(𝑥) = { that lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists. [4]
1+𝑥 𝑥 <1 𝑥→1
(i) Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) for the (ii) Hence, determine the value of 𝑓(𝑥)
domain −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2. [2] for 𝑓 to be continuous at the point
(ii) Find 𝑥 = 1. [1]
(a) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) [2]
𝑥→1
(b) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) [2] CAPE 2012
𝑥→1
(iii) Deduce that 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 10. A function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined as
𝑥 = 1. [3] 𝑥+2 𝑥 <2
CAPE 2009 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2
𝑥 𝑥>2
(i) Find lim 𝑓(𝑥). [4]
𝑥→2
7. (a) Find
𝑥2 −9
(ii) Determine whether 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at
(i) lim 𝑥3 −27 [4] 𝑥 = 2. Give a reason for your answer. [2]
𝑥→3
tan 𝑥−5𝑥
(ii) lim sin2𝑥−4𝑥 . [5] CAPE 2013
𝑥→0 11. Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined as
(b) The function 𝑓 on ℝ is defined by 𝑎𝑥 + 2 𝑥 < 3
3𝑥 − 7 𝑥 > 4 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑎𝑥 𝑥≥3
1 + 2𝑥 𝑥 ≤ 4 (i) Find the value of 𝑎 if 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at
(i) Find 𝑥 = 3. [4]
(a) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) [2] 𝑥2 +2
𝑥→4 (ii) Let 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑏𝑥2 +𝑥+4.
(b) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) [2]
𝑥→4 Given that lim 2𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔 (𝑥 ), find the
𝑥→1 𝑥→0
(ii) Deduce that 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at
value of 𝑏. [5]
𝑥 = 4. [2]
CAPE 2014
CAPE 2010
𝑥2 +5𝑥+6 12. Let 𝑓 be the function defined as
8. (a) Find lim [4] sin(𝑎𝑥)
𝑥→−2 𝑥2 −𝑥−6
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑎 ≠0
(b) The function 𝑓on ℝ is defined by
2 4 𝑥=0
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 ≥ 2 If 𝑓 continuous at 𝑥 = 0, determine the value
1 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑥 < 2
of 𝑎. [4]
Determine CAPE 2015
SOLUTIONS
(i) 𝑓(2) [2]
(ii) lim+ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) [2] 1. −4
11
𝑥→2
(iii) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) in terms of the constant 𝑏. 2. (a) 2 (b) 𝑥 = −1, 0
𝑥→2
[2] 3. (a) 𝑥 = −2, 4 (b) −3 (c) 𝑥 = ±√3, ±3
3
(iv) the value of 𝑏 such that 𝑓 is 4. (a) 2 (b) 𝑥 ≠ −3, 6
continuous at 𝑥 = 2. [4] 27
5.
CAPE 2011 7
6. (a) 0 (b) (i) (ii) (a) 2 (b) 2 (iii)
𝑥3 +8 2
9. (a) (i) Find the values of 𝑥 for which 𝑥2 −4 is 7. (a) (i) 9 (ii) 2 (b) (i) (a) 5 (b) 9 (ii)
1
discontinuous. [2] 8. (a) − 5 (b) (i) 5 (ii) 5 (iii) 1 + 2𝑏
𝑥3 +8
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, find lim . (iv) 𝑏 = 2
𝑥→−2 𝑥2 −4
[3] 9. (a) (i) 𝑥 = ±2 (ii) −3 (iii) 2
sin𝑥 (b) (i) (a) 5 (b) 1 (ii) 5
(iii) By using the fact that lim = 1, or
𝑥→0 𝑥 10. (i) 4 (ii) Yes
2𝑥3 +4𝑥 1
otherwise, find, lim . [5] 11. (i) (ii) 7
𝑥→0 sin2𝑥 3
(b) The function 𝑓 on ℝ is defined by 12. 4
𝑥2 + 1 𝑥 > 1
𝑓(𝑥) = { …………………………………………………………………………..
4 + 𝑝𝑥 𝑥 < 1

122
 CHAPTER 19: LIMITS

DIFFERENTIATION FROM FIRST Therefore, 2𝑥 is the first derivative of

𝑦. At this stage we now introduce notation used
PRINCIPLES 𝑑
for derivatives. 𝑑𝑥 is the operator for
INTRODUCTION
𝑑
In this section, we will differentiate a function differentiation. 𝑑𝑥 means that we are
from "first principles". This means we will start differentiating with respect to 𝑥, consequently
from scratch and use algebra to find a general 𝑑𝑦
means that we are differentiating 𝑦 with
expression for the slope of a curve, at any value 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥
respect to 𝑥. Since 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) the first derivative
We wish to find an algebraic method to find the can also be denoted as 𝑓 ′ (𝑥). Therefore,
slope of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑃. 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦= = lim
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
′
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
or 𝑓 (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

LESSON 14 Differentiate from first principles

1
𝑦=
𝑥
SOLUTION
1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥
1
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) =
𝑥+ℎ
1 1
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) = −
𝑥 +ℎ 𝑥
𝑥 − (𝑥 + ℎ)
=
𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ)
We choose an arbitrary point close to 𝑃 say ℎ
=−
𝑄 (𝑥 + ℎ, 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)) and then move this point ℎ𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ)
closer and closer to 𝑃. Eventually the line 𝑃𝑄 will 1
=−
become the tangent of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑃. As 𝑄 gets closer 𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ)
and closer to 𝑃, ℎ, the distance between 𝑥 and 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
ℎ gets closer and closer to 0. Remember, we are = lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
interested in determining the rate of change of a −ℎ 1
variable, 𝑦, compared to another 𝑥. Hence, we = lim 2 ×
ℎ→0 𝑥 + ℎ𝑥 ℎ
need to determine −1
= lim 2
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) ℎ→0 𝑥 + ℎ𝑥
lim 1
ℎ→0 ℎ =− 2
where [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)] is the change in 𝑦 and ℎ 𝑥
is the change in 𝑥
LESSON 13 Differentiate 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 from first LESSON 15 Differentiate from first principles
principles.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = (𝑥 + ℎ) 2
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = (𝑥 + ℎ) 3 + 2(𝑥 + ℎ)
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + ℎ) 2 − 𝑥 2
= 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 ℎ + 3𝑥ℎ2 + ℎ3 + 2𝑥 + 2ℎ
= 𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2 − 𝑥 2
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= 2ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2
= 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 ℎ + 3𝑥ℎ2 + ℎ3 + 2𝑥 + 2ℎ − 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥
= ℎ(2𝑥 + ℎ)
= 3𝑥 2 ℎ + 3𝑥ℎ2 + ℎ3 + 2ℎ
ℎ(2𝑥 + ℎ) = ℎ(3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 + 2)
lim ℎ(3𝑥 2 + 3ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2 + 2)
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
= lim 2𝑥 + ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ→0 = lim 3𝑥 2 + 3ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2 + 2
= 2𝑥 ℎ→0
= 3𝑥 2 + 2

123
 CHAPTER 19: LIMITS

LESSON 16 Differentiate from first principles (f) 𝑦 = cos 𝑥

𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 SOLUTIONS
6 1
SOLUTION (a) 0 (b) −2 (c) − 𝑥4 (d) (e) 2 cos 2𝑥
√𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥
(f) − sin 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = √𝑥 + ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥 EXAM QUESTIONS
1. (a) Use the result that
√𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥 (√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥)(√𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥) = ℎ to
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ show that
(√𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥)(√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥) √𝑥+ℎ−√𝑥 1
= lim lim = . [5]
ℎ→0 ℎ 2√𝑥
ℎ→0 ℎ(√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥) (b) Deduce, from first principles, the
𝑥 +ℎ−𝑥
= lim derivative with respect to 𝑥 of 𝑦 = √𝑥.
ℎ→0 ℎ(√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥) [1]
ℎ CAPE 2005
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ(√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥) 2. Differentiate from first principles, with
1
1 respect to 𝑥, the function 𝑦 = 2 . [6]
= lim 𝑥
ℎ→0 (√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥)
1 CAPE 2009
= …………………………………………………………………………..
2√𝑥

LESSON 17 Differentiate from first principles

𝑓(𝑥) = sin 2𝑥

SOLUTION
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 2𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = sin2(𝑥 + ℎ)
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥 )
= sin(2𝑥 + 2ℎ) − sin 2𝑥
2𝑥 + 2ℎ + 2𝑥 2𝑥 + 2ℎ − 2𝑥
= 2 cos ( ) sin ( )
2 2
= 2 cos(2𝑥 + ℎ) sin ℎ

2 cos(2𝑥 + ℎ) sin(ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
2 cos(2𝑥 + ℎ) sin(ℎ)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
sin ℎ
= lim 2 cos(2𝑥 + ℎ) × lim
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ
= 2 cos 2𝑥 × 1
= 2 cos 2𝑥

…………………………………………………………………………..

EXERCISE 19.3
1. Differentiate each of the following from first
principles.
(a) 𝑦 = 3
(b) 𝑦 = −2𝑥
2
(c) 𝑦 = 𝑥3
(d) 𝑦 = 2√𝑥
(e) 𝑦 = sin2𝑥

124
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

At the end of this section, students should be able  use the sign of the derivatives to investigate
to: where a function is increasing or decreasing;
 use the concept of the derivative at a point  apply the concept of stationary (critical)
𝑥 = 𝑐 as the gradient of the tangent to the points;
graph at 𝑥 = 𝑐;  calculate second derivatives;
𝑑𝑦
 use the 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) and 𝑑𝑥 notation for the first  interpret the significance of the sign of the
derivative of 𝑓(𝑥); second derivative;
𝑑  use the sign of the second derivative to
 use 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 where 𝑛 is any real determine the nature of stationary points;
𝑑𝑥
number;  sketch graphs of polynomials, rational
𝑑 𝑑
 use 𝑑𝑥 sin𝑥 = cos 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥 functions and trigonometric functions using
 use simple rules of derivatives to find the features of the function and its first and
derivatives of sums and multiples of second derivative (including horizontal and
functions; vertical asymptotes);
 calculate derivatives of polynomials and  describe the behaviour of such graphs for
trigonometric functions; large values of the independent variable;
 apply the chain rule in the differentiation of  obtain equations of tangents and normal to
composite functions; curves.
 differentiate products and quotients of simple
polynomials and trigonometric functions; HOW TO DIFFERENTIATE
 use the concept of the derivative as a rate of INTRODUCTION
change; 𝑑
 use the concept of stationary points; is the differential operator which indicates that
𝑑𝑥
 locate stationary points, maxima and minima, we are differentiating with respect to 𝑥.
by considering sign changes of the derivative; 𝑑𝑦
means that we are differentiating 𝑦 with
 calculate the second derivative, 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥); 𝑑𝑥
respect to 𝑥.
 interpret the significance of the sign of the 𝑑𝐴
second derivatives; means that we are differentiating 𝐴 with
𝑑𝑡
 use the sign of the second derivative to respect to 𝑡.
𝑑𝑦
determine the nature of stationary points; Alternately, for functions of the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑑𝑥
 obtain equations of tangents and normal to can be written as 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) or 𝑦′.
curves. 𝑑
𝑎𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑛−1
 derive the derivative of a function at a point as 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
a limit; LESSON 1 Determine for each of the
𝑑𝑥
 differentiate, from first principles, functions following
such as: 1. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 where 𝑘 ∈ ℝ, 2. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 5
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , where 𝑛 ∈
1 1 3. 𝑦 = √𝑥
{−3, −2, −, 1−, − 2 , 2 , 1, 2, 3} 4. 𝑦 = 2𝑥3
1

(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥, 4

5. 𝑦=
(d) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥; 5
√𝑥3
 use the sum, product and quotient rules for SOLUTION
differentiation; 1. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
 differentiate sums, products and quotients of: 𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥
(b) polynomials, 𝑑𝑥
(c) trigonometric functions; 2. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 5
 apply the chain rule in the differentiation of 𝑑𝑦
= 15𝑥 4
(b) composite functions (substitution), 𝑑𝑥
(c) functions given by parametric equations;
 solve problems involving rates of change;

125
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

1
3. 𝑦 = √𝑥 = 𝑥 2 4. 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9 − 5 cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 −(1) 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥 2 = 8𝑥 − 12 − 5(− sin 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1 1 = 8𝑥 − 12 + 5 sin 𝑥
4. 𝑦 = 2𝑥3 = 2 𝑥 −3
𝑑𝑦 3 3 4𝑥2 −12𝑥+9
= − 𝑥 −4 = − 4 5. 𝑦=
𝑑𝑥 2 2𝑥 𝑥
9
3 = 4𝑥 − 12 + = 4𝑥 − 12 + 9𝑥 −1
4 − 𝑥
5. 𝑦= 5 = 4𝑥 5
𝑑𝑦 9
√𝑥3
= 4 − 9𝑥 −2 = 4 − 2
𝑑𝑦 12 8 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
= − 𝑥 −5
𝑑𝑥 5
DIFFERENTIATION RULES
THE DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS The Chain Rule
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
𝑦 = sin𝑥 = cos 𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = 𝑛[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛−1 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
𝑦 = cos 𝑥 = − sin𝑥 [𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))] = 𝑓′(𝑔(𝑥)). 𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 LESSON 3 Differentiate each of the
𝑦 = tan 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 following.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1. 𝑦 = (3𝑥 + 5)5
𝑦 = sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 1
𝑑𝑥 2. 𝑦 = (4𝑥 + 𝑥 −5 )3
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = csc 𝑥 = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 3. 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 8
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = cot 𝑥 = − csc 2 𝑥 SOLUTION
𝑑𝑥 1. 𝑦 = (3𝑥 + 5)5
PROPERTIES OF DERIVATIVES 𝑑𝑦
= 5(3𝑥 + 5)4 (3) = 15(3𝑥 + 5) 4
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
1. [𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐 [ 𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 1
2. [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) 2. 𝑦 = (4𝑥 + 𝑥 −5 )3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 2
𝑑𝑦 = (4𝑥 + 𝑥 −5 ) −3 (4 − 5𝑥 −6 )
LESSON 2 Find 𝑑𝑥 in each of the following 𝑑𝑥 3
cases. 1
1 3. 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 8 = (𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 8) 2
1. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 5
+ 𝑥2 𝑑𝑦 1 2 1
2 = (𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 8)− 2 (2𝑥 + 5)
2. 𝑦 = 5𝑥 3 − √𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
12 2
3. 𝑦 = 7𝑥 4 + −5 2
𝑥 √𝑥 2 LESSON 4 Differentiate
√5𝑥−7
2
4. 𝑦 = (2𝑥 − 3) − 5 cos 𝑥 SOLUTION
(2𝑥 − 3) 2 2 1
5. 𝑦 = 𝑦= = 2(5𝑥 − 7)−2
𝑥 √5𝑥 − 7
SOLUTION 𝑑𝑦 3
1 = −(5𝑥 − 7)−2 (5)
1. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 5 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 5
4
= 15𝑥 + 𝑥 =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 √(5𝑥 − 7)3
1
2. 𝑦 = 5𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2 sin 𝑥 LESSON 5 Determine the derivative of each
𝑑𝑦 1 1 of the following
= 15𝑥 2 − 𝑥 −2 + 2 cos 𝑥 1. 𝑦 = sin2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
2 2. 𝑦 = −3 sin(4𝑥 − 1)
3. 𝑦 = 7𝑥 4 + 12𝑥 −1 − 2𝑥 −5
3. 𝑦 = 5 cos(𝑥 2 + 4)
𝑑𝑦 4 7
= 28𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 −2 + 𝑥 −5
𝑑𝑥 5

126
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

SOLUTION 2. 𝑦 = (𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 − 1)(5𝑥 + 2)
1. 𝑦 = sin2𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 = (3𝑥 2 + 7)(5𝑥 + 2) + (𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 − 1)(5)
𝑑𝑥
= 2 cos 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = (3𝑥 2 + 7)(5𝑥 + 2) + 5(𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 − 1)
1
2. 𝑦 = −3 sin(4𝑥 − 1) 3. 𝑦 = 𝑥√𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 3)2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 1 1
= −3 cos(4𝑥 − 1) × 4 = 1(𝑥 + 3)2 + 𝑥 [ (𝑥 + 3)−2 (1)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 1
= −12 cos(4𝑥 − 1) = (𝑥 + 3) 2 + (𝑥 + 3) −2
𝑑𝑥 2
3. 𝑦 = 5 cos(𝑥 2 + 4) 1 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = (𝑥 + 3) 2 [1 + (𝑥 + 3)−1 ]
= 5(− sin(𝑥 2 + 4) × 2𝑥) 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 4. 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5) sin 𝑥
= −10𝑥 sin(𝑥 2 + 4)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= (2𝑥 + 3) sin 𝑥 + (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5) cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
LESSON 6 Differentiate each of the
following 5. 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 sin𝑥
1. 𝑦 = sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2. 𝑦 = −3 cos 2 2𝑥 = (− sin𝑥) sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 (cos 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
3. 𝑦 = 2 cos 3(4𝑥 3 + 2) = cos 2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥
SOLUTION
1. 𝑦 = sin2 𝑥 = ( sin𝑥 )2
𝑑𝑦 LESSON 8 Differentiate 𝑦 = −2(𝑥 + 3) cos 𝑥
= 2 sin𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
SOLUTION
2. 𝑦 = −3 cos 2 2𝑥 = −3(cos 2𝑥)2
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 = −2(𝑥 + 3) cos 𝑥
= −6(cos 2𝑥)(−2 sin 2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
12 sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 = −2[1( cos 𝑥 ) + (𝑥 + 3)(− sin𝑥 )]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
3. 𝑦 = 2 cos 3(4𝑥 3 + 2) = 2[cos(4𝑥 3 + 2)]3 = −2[cos 𝑥 − (𝑥 + 3) sin𝑥]
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= 6[cos(4𝑥 3 + 2)]2 (− sin(4𝑥 3 + 2) × (12𝑥 2)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= −72𝑥 2 sin(4𝑥 3 + 2) cos 2(4𝑥 3 + 2)
𝑑𝑥
The Quotient Rule
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)
[ ]=
The Product Rule 𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) [𝑔(𝑥)]2
𝑑
𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 LESSON 9 Find the derivatives of the
following functions
LESSON 7 Find the derivative of the 2𝑥3 (𝑥−4)2
1. 2. (𝑥+3)2
following functions 4−𝑥
sin 𝑥 𝑥2
1. (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 6) 3. 2+cos 𝑥 4. sin2 𝑥
2. (𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 − 1)(5𝑥 + 2) SOLUTION
3. 𝑥√𝑥 + 3 2𝑥3
1. 𝑦 = 4−𝑥
4. (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5) sin𝑥
5. cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 6𝑥 2 (4 − 𝑥) − 2𝑥 3 (−1)
=
SOLUTION 𝑑𝑥 (4 − 𝑥)2
1. 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 6) 24𝑥 − 6𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 3
2

𝑑𝑦 =
= 1(𝑥 − 6) + (𝑥 + 5)(1) = 2𝑥 − 1 (4 − 𝑥)2
𝑑𝑥 24𝑥 − 4𝑥 3
2
=
(4 − 𝑥)2

127
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

4𝑥 2 (6 − 𝑥) THE SECOND DERIVATIVE

=
(4 − 𝑥)2 The second derivative is the derivative of the first
derivative.
(𝑥−4)2
2. 𝑦= (𝑥+3)2 Notation
𝑑𝑦 [2(𝑥 − 4)(1)](𝑥 + 3)2 − (𝑥 − 4)2 [2(𝑥 + 3)(1)]
=
𝑑𝑥 [(𝑥 + 3)2 ]2 Function First Second
2(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 3) 2 − 2(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 4) 2
= Derivative Derivative
(𝑥 + 3)4
2(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 3)[(𝑥 + 3) − (𝑥 − 4)] 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 2𝑦
=
(𝑥 + 3) 4 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
2(𝑥 − 4)(7)
= 𝑦 𝑦′ 𝑦′′
(𝑥 + 3) 3
14(𝑥 − 4) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥)
=
(𝑥 + 3)3

sin𝑥
3. 𝑦 = 2+cos 𝑥 LESSON 11 Determine the second derivative
𝑑𝑦 cos 𝑥 (2 + cos 𝑥) − sin 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥) for each of the following.
=
𝑑𝑥 (2 + cos 𝑥)2 2
2 cos 𝑥 + cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 (a) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 4 − 𝑥 + 3
=
(2 + cos 𝑥)2
2 cos 𝑥 + 1 (b) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 3 cos 2 𝑥
=
(2 + cos 𝑥)2
SOLUTION
𝑥2 2
4. 𝑦 = sin2 𝑥 (a) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 4 − 𝑥 + 3 = 3𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 −1 + 3
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥(sin2 𝑥) − 𝑥 2 (2(sin 𝑥) cos 𝑥)
= 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 (sin2 𝑥 )2 = 12𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 −2
2𝑥 sin2 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=
sin4 𝑥
2𝑥 sin𝑥 (sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 cos 𝑥 ) 𝑑 2𝑦 4
= 2 = 36𝑥 2 − −3
sin4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
2𝑥(sin𝑥 − 𝑥 cos 𝑥)
= (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 cos 2 𝑥 = 3(cos 𝑥)2
sin3 𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6 cos 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥) = −6 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
LESSON 10 Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) for the function
𝑥3 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −6 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 6 sin 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 +2
SOLUTION = −6 cos 2 𝑥 + 6 sin2 𝑥
𝑥3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 +2
= 6(sin2 𝑥 − cos2 𝑥)
3𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 + 2) − 𝑥 3 (2𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
(𝑥 2 + 2)2 LESSON 12 Given that 𝑦 = √7𝑥 2 + 3,
3𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 4
4
= 𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 2 + 2) 2 (i) obtain 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 2 (ii) show that 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 7𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 2
(𝑥 + 2) 2 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 + 6) (iii) hence show that 𝑦 𝑑𝑥2 + (𝑑𝑥 ) = 7.
=
(𝑥 2 + 2) 2
SOLUTION
1
(i) 𝑦 = (7𝑥 2 + 3) 2
𝑑𝑦 1 1
= (7𝑥 2 + 3) −2 (14𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2

128
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

1 𝑑𝑦 3
= 7𝑥(7𝑥 2 + 3)−2 (ii) = 2(1 + 𝑥 2 )− 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
(ii) 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 2𝑦 5
7𝑥 = −3(1 + 𝑥 2 )−2 (2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2
= √7𝑥 2 + 3 ( ) 6𝑥
√7𝑥 2 + 3 =− 5
= 7𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 2 )2
𝑑𝑦 1
(iii) = 7𝑥(7𝑥 2 + 3) −2 𝑑2 𝑦 3𝑦
𝑑𝑥 +
𝑑 2𝑦 1 1 3 𝑑𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑥 2 )2
= 7(7𝑥 2 + 3)−2 + 7𝑥 [− (7𝑥 2 + 3)− 2 (14𝑥)] 6𝑥 2𝑥 1
𝑑𝑥 2 2 =− 5+ 3( 1 ) ((1 )
7 49𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 + 𝑥 2)2
= − (1 + 𝑥 2 )2
√7𝑥 2 + 3 (√7𝑥 2 + 3)3 6𝑥 6𝑥
=− +
𝑑𝑦 2 2
𝑑2 𝑦 7 49𝑥 2 7𝑥 5 5
𝑦 2 + ( ) = √7𝑥 2 + 3 ( − 3 )+ ( ) (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 (1 + 𝑥 2 )2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 √7𝑥 2 + 3 (√7𝑥 2 + 3) √7𝑥 2 + 3

49𝑥 2 49𝑥 2 =0
=7− 2 + 2
7𝑥 + 3 7𝑥 + 3
=7
PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION
2𝑥
LESSON 13 If 𝑦 = 2
show that LESSON 14 A curve is represented
√1+𝑥
parametrically by
(i)
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1+𝑥2
𝑦 2
𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 𝑡 3 − 2𝑡
𝑑2 𝑦 3𝑦 𝑡
(ii) + (1+𝑥2 )2 = 0 𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝑡.
𝑑𝑥2
SOLUTION SOLUTION
2𝑥 2
(i) 𝑦= 𝑥 = 𝑡2 = 2𝑡 −2
√1+𝑥2
1 1 1
2 2 − 𝑑𝑥 4
𝑑𝑦 2(1 + 𝑥 )2 − 2𝑥 [2 (1 + 𝑥 ) 2 (2𝑥)] =− 3
= 𝑑𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 1 2
[(1 + 𝑥 2 )2 ] 𝑦 = 𝑡 3 − 2𝑡
1 1 𝑑𝑦
2(1 + 𝑥 2 )2
− 2𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑥 2 )−2 = 3𝑡 2 − 2
= 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑥2
1 2𝑥 2 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= (2(1 + 𝑥 2 )2 − 1 ) (1 + 𝑥 2 ) = ×
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
2 2𝑥 2 𝑡3
= − = (3𝑡 2 − 2) × (− )
1 3 4
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2 (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑡 3 (3𝑡 2 − 2)
2(1 + 𝑥 2 ) − 2𝑥 2 =−
= 4
3
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2
2 LESSON 15 The parametric equations of a
= 3 curve are given by
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 = sin 𝜃 , 𝑦 = cos 𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 2 Find 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝜃.
𝑥 = 𝑥( 3
)
𝑑𝑥 Simplify the answer as far as possible.
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2
2𝑥
= 3 SOLUTION
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥 = sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 2𝑥 1 = cos 𝜃
=( 𝑑𝜃
1 + 𝑥2 1 ) (1 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝑦 = cos 𝜃
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 = − sin𝜃
= 3 𝑑𝜃
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2

129
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃 f. 𝑦 = (6𝑥 − 1)3
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥 g. 𝑦 = (3𝑥 2 + 1) 4
1 4. Differentiate, with respect to, 𝑥,
= − sin 𝜃 ×
cos 𝜃 (i) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin2 𝑥
= − tan 𝜃 (ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin2 𝑥 2
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin2 (2𝑥 + 3)
………………………………………………………………………… (iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 2 𝑥
1
5. Given that 𝑦 = 3 cos 3 𝑥 − cos 𝑥, show that
EXERCISE 20.1 𝑑𝑦
= sin3 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
1. Determine 𝑑𝑥 for each of the following. 6. Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 + sin 2𝑥, show that for
−1+√33
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 7 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0, 𝑥 = 8 .
(b) 𝑦 = 𝑥 8 7. Use the product rule to differentiate the

(c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 0 following functions with respect to 𝑥.

(d) 𝑦 = 1 (a) (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 4)

(e) 𝑦 = 𝑥 −4 (b) (3𝑥 − 4)(2𝑥 + 5)

(f) 𝑦 = 𝑥 −7 (c) (6 + 𝑥)(5 − 𝑥)

1 (d) (3 − 2𝑥)(7 + 3𝑥)
(g) 𝑦 = 𝑥 −4
1
(e) 𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 3)4
(h) 𝑦 = 𝑥 −7 (f) 𝑥 4 (3𝑥 − 1)3
3
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 (g) 3𝑥 2 (2𝑥 + 5) 2

(j) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
1
(h) 𝑥 3 (4𝑥 2 − 1)3
2 (i) (𝑥 + 2) 2 (𝑥 − 5)3
(k) 𝑦 = 𝑥 −5
(j) (2𝑥 − 1) 3 (𝑥 + 4) 2
(l) 𝑦 = √𝑥
(k) (5𝑥 + 2) 4 (4𝑥 − 3) 3
(m) 𝑦 = √𝑥 3
(l) (2 − 𝑥)6 (5 + 2𝑥)4
1
(n) 𝑦 = 3 (m) (3 + 5𝑥)2 (4 − 7𝑥)7
√𝑥2
𝑑𝑦
2. Find 𝑑𝑥 in each of the following cases. (n) 𝑥 3 √7 − 2𝑥
2
(a) 𝑥 + 𝑥2 (o) (2𝑥 − 1) √𝑥 + 3

(b)𝑥 2 +
16 (p) (1 − 3𝑥)√2𝑥 + 5
𝑥
6 (q) √𝑥(5𝑥 − 4)3
(c) 4𝑥 +
𝑥2
(r) (3𝑥 + 5) 2 √𝑥 − 2
27
(d)10𝑥 + 𝑥2
(s) √2𝑥 − 3√4𝑥 + 1
16𝑥3 +4𝑥2 +1
(e) (t) √6 + 𝑥√3 − 2𝑥
2𝑥2
54
(f) + 8𝑥 2 (u) √(𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 + 1)
𝑥

3. Differentiate each of the following. 8. Show that, if 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 then

a. 𝑦 = (4𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 + 5)4 𝑑𝑦
= 2 cos2 𝑥 − 1
b. 𝑦 = sin4𝑥 𝑑𝑥

c. 𝑦 = 4 cos(3𝑥 − 1) 9. Use the quotient rule to differentiate the given

d. 𝑦 = (1 − 𝑥 2 )10 function with respect to 𝑥
𝑥
e. 𝑦 = sin √𝑥 (a) 𝑥−2

130
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

𝑥+3
(b) (c) 25 + 4 sec 𝑥
𝑥−1
(d) csc 6𝑥 2
3−𝑥
(c) (e) 𝑥 tan 𝑥
4+𝑥
(f) 𝑥 2 tan 3𝑥
4𝑥−3
(d) (g) (6 − sec 2𝑥)3
𝑥+2
2𝑥−5 12. Differentiate √5𝑥 3 − 4, with respect to 𝑥.
(e) 13. Given that 𝑦 = √2𝑥 2 + 3,
𝑥+4
𝑑𝑦
5𝑥 (i) obtain 𝑑𝑥
(f) 𝑥+2 𝑑𝑦
(ii) show that 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥
1+3𝑥
(g) 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
2−5𝑥
(iii) hence show that 𝑦 𝑑𝑥2 + (𝑑𝑥 ) = 2
4𝑥+3
(h) 14. Find the value of 𝑘 for which
2𝑥−1
𝑑 2𝑥 + 3 𝑘
𝑥2 ( )=
(i) 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 − 4 (𝑥 − 4) 2
𝑥+3
2
𝑥(𝑥−3)3
𝑥2 15. Given that 𝑦 = ((𝑥+3)(𝑥+5)2 ) , show that
(j) 𝑥−4
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥(𝑥 − 3)5 (𝑥 3 + 27𝑥 2 + 69𝑥 − 45)
𝑥3 =
(k) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 3) 3 (𝑥 + 5)5
2𝑥−3
𝑥5 𝑑𝑦
(l) 16. Determine 𝑑𝑥 for each of the following
3−𝑥
𝑡
(3𝑥−2)2 (a) 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 4, 𝑦 =
(m) 𝑡
4
√𝑥
(b) 𝑥 = , 𝑦 = 𝑡 + 4
4
(5𝑥+1)3
(n) (c) 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑡 + 1
√𝑥 𝑑𝑦
5 17. Determine 𝑑𝑥 for each of the following
(𝑥2 −4)
(o) a. 𝑥 = cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝜃
√𝑥
b. 𝑥 = 3 sin𝜃 , 𝑦 = cos 𝜃
√𝑥
(p) c. 𝑥 = −4 + cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = −1 + sin 𝜃
2𝑥−1
d. 𝑥 = 4 + cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 9 sin 𝜃
3−√𝑥
(q) e. 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = cos 2 𝜃
(2+𝑥) 2
f. 𝑥 = 2 sec 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 3 + 2 tan 𝜃
5+2√𝑥 g. 𝑥 = csc 𝜃 − cot 𝜃 , 𝑦 = csc 𝜃 − 2 cot 𝜃
(r) (5−4𝑥) 3 18. A curve has parametric equations
(3𝑥2 +2)
4 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃
(s) where 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2 .
𝜋
√2𝑥−1
𝑑𝑦 1
(2−3𝑥) 2 Show that = − (cot 𝜃 − 1)
(t) 𝑑𝜃 2
√1−𝑥2

10. Differentiate each of the following with respect SOLUTIONS

to 𝑥 1. (a) 7𝑥 6 (b) 8𝑥 7 (c) 0 (d) 0 (e) −4𝑥 −5

𝑥(𝑥−1)3 3 1
(a) (f) −7𝑥 −8 (g) 4𝑥 3 (h) 7𝑥 6 (i) 2 𝑥 2
𝑥−3
1 2 2 7 1 1 3 1
𝑥 √5−𝑥2 (j) 3 𝑥 −3 (k) − 5 𝑥 −5 (l) 2 𝑥 −2 (m) 2 𝑥 2
(b) 5
6−𝑥 2
(n) − 3 𝑥 −3
𝑥3 √4−𝑥2
(c) 2. (a) 1 −
4
(b) 2𝑥 −
16
(c) 4 −
12
5−√𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥3
sin 2𝑥 54 1 54
(d) (d) 10 − 𝑥3 (e) 8 − 𝑥3 (f) − 𝑥2 + 16𝑥
𝑥2 +1
3. (a) 8(4𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 + 5)3 (10𝑥 4 − 1)
𝑑𝑦
11. Find 𝑑𝑥 in each of the following cases. (b) 4 cos 4𝑥 (c) −12 sin(3𝑥 − 1)
(a) 6𝑥 −3 + 2 tan 𝑥 (d) −20𝑥(1 − 𝑥 2 )9 (e)
cos √𝑥
2√𝑥
(b) −3 cot 𝑥 + 2√𝑥

131
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

(f) 18(6𝑥 − 1)2 (g) 24𝑥(3𝑥 2 + 1) 3 15𝑥2

12.
4. (i) sin2𝑥 (ii) 4 sin 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 2 2√5𝑥3 −4
2𝑥
(iii) 4 sin(2𝑥 + 3) cos(2𝑥 + 3) (iv) − sin2𝑥 13. (i) √ (ii) (iii)
2𝑥2 +3
5. 14. 𝑘 = −11
6. 15.
1 1
7. (a) 2𝑥 − 1 (b) 12𝑥 + 7 16. (a) 4 (b) 4 (c) 4𝑡
(c) −2𝑥 − 1 (d) −12𝑥 − 5 17. (a) −3 cot 𝜃
1
(b) − 3 tan 𝜃
(e) 6𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3) 3
(f) 𝑥 3 (3𝑥 − 1)2 (21𝑥 − 4) (c) − cot 𝜃 (d) −9 cot 𝜃
(g) 6𝑥(8𝑥 2 + 30𝑥 + 25) (e) cos 𝜃 (f) csc 𝜃
2 csc2 𝜃−cot 𝜃 csc 𝜃
(h) 3𝑥 2 (4𝑥 2 − 1)2 (12𝑥 2 − 1) (g) csc2 𝜃−cot 𝜃 csc 𝜃
(i) (𝑥 − 5)2 (𝑥 + 2)(5𝑥 − 4) 18.
(j) 2(𝑥 + 4)(2𝑥 − 1)2 (5𝑥 + 11)
(k) 4(4𝑥 − 3)2 (5𝑥 + 2)3 (35𝑥 − 9) …………………………………………………………………………..
(l) −2(2 − 𝑥)5 (2𝑥 + 5)3 (10𝑥 + 7)
(m) −(4 − 7𝑥)6 (5𝑥 + 3)(315𝑥 + 107)
7(𝑥−3)𝑥2 6𝑥+11 −9𝑥−14
(n) − (o) 2√𝑥+3 (p)
√7−2𝑥 √2𝑥+5
(5𝑥−4)2 (35𝑥−4) (3𝑥+5)(15𝑥−19)
(q) (r)
2√𝑥 2√𝑥−2
8𝑥−5 −4𝑥−9
(s) (t) 2√3−2𝑥√𝑥+6
√2𝑥−3√4𝑥+1
4𝑥−1
(u)
2√2𝑥2 −𝑥−1
8.
2 4
9. (a) − (𝑥−2)2 (b) − (𝑥−1)2
7 11
(c) − (𝑥+4)2 (d) (𝑥+2)2
13 10
(e)(𝑥+4)2 (f) (𝑥+2)2
11 10
(g) (2−5𝑥) 2 (h) − (2𝑥−1)2
𝑥(𝑥+6) 𝑥(𝑥−8)
(i) (𝑥+3)2 (j) (𝑥−4)2
𝑥2 (4𝑥−9) 𝑥4 (15−4𝑥)
(k) (2𝑥−3)2
(l) (3−𝑥) 2
(3𝑥−2)(9𝑥+2) (5𝑥+1)2 (25𝑥−1)
(m) 3 (n) 3
2𝑥 2 2𝑥 2
4
(𝑥2 −4) (19𝑥2 +4) −2𝑥−1
(o) 3 (p) 2√𝑥(2𝑥−1)2
2𝑥 2
3𝑥−12√𝑥−2 5(4𝑥+12√𝑥+1)
(q) (r)
2√𝑥(𝑥+2)3 √𝑥 (5−4𝑥) 4
3
(3𝑥2 +2) (45𝑥2 −24𝑥−2) −9𝑥3 +22𝑥−12
(s) 3 (t) 3
(2𝑥−1)2 (1−𝑥2 )2
2 2
3(𝑥−1) (𝑥 −4𝑥+1) 𝑥3 −12𝑥2 +30
10. (a) (𝑥−3)2
(b)
(6−𝑥) 2 √5−𝑥2
5
𝑥2 (7𝑥 2 −40𝑥2 −20√𝑥+120)
(c) 2
2(5−√𝑥) √4−𝑥2
2[(𝑥2 +1) cos 2𝑥−𝑥 sin2𝑥]
(d) (𝑥2 +1)2
18 1
11. (a) − 𝑥4 + 2 sec 2 𝑥 (b) 3 csc 𝑥 +
√𝑥
(c) 4 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 (d) −12𝑥 csc 6𝑥 2 cot 6𝑥 2
2
(e) tan 𝑥 + 𝑥 sec 𝑥
(f) 𝑥(2 tan 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 sec 2 3𝑥)
(g) 6(6 − sec 2𝑥)2 (sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥)

132
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
GRADIENTS AND DIFFERENTIATION
𝑑𝑦
When you find 𝑑𝑥 , we get a formula for the
gradient of the tangent to the curve any point, 𝑥. If
you want to find the gradient at a specific point we
then substitute the 𝑥 value of that point.

LESSON 1 Find the gradient of the tangent

to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at the point (3, 9).
SOLUTION
𝑦 = 𝑥2
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
when 𝑥 = 3
𝑑𝑦
= 2(3) = 6
𝑑𝑥
LESSON 3 Find the equation of the normal
6
to the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 𝑥 at the point (3, 11).
LESSON 2 The gradient of the curve
𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 12 is 23 at the point 𝑃. SOLUTION
(i) Calculate the coordinates of 𝑃. 6
𝑦 = 3𝑥 + = 3𝑥 + 6𝑥 −1
The curve cuts the 𝑥-axis at 𝑄 and 𝑅. 𝑥
(ii) Find the gradient of the curve at 𝑄 and 𝑅. 𝑑𝑦 6
= 3 − 6𝑥 −2 = 3 − 2
SOLUTION 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
i. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 12 when 𝑥 = 3
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 6 7
= 6𝑥 + 5 =3− 2 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3 3
3
At 𝑃 we have Gradient of normal is − 7
6𝑥 + 5 = 23 3
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 using 𝑚 = − and (3, 11)
𝑥=3 7
3
when 𝑥 = 3 11 = − (3) + 𝑐
𝑦 = 3(3)2 + 5(3) − 12 7
86
= 30 =𝑐
7
∴ 𝑃(3, 30) 3 86
ii. At 𝑄 and 𝑅 𝑦 = 0 𝑦=− 𝑥+ → 7𝑦 + 3𝑥 = 86
7 7
3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 12 = 0
(3𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 3) = 0
4
𝑥= 𝑥 = −3
3
4
When 𝑥 =
3
𝑑𝑦 4
= 6 ( ) + 5 = 13
𝑑𝑥 3
When 𝑥 = −3
𝑑𝑦
= 6(−3) + 5 = −13
𝑑𝑥

133
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

INTRODUCTION

The above graph shows the path of a tennis ball

after it is dropped. Below are some of the
observations from the graph.
1. The height of the ball decreases after it is
LESSON 4 If the gradient of the point (3, 16) released. Therefore, for 𝑥 < 𝑎 the graph is
on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 13 is 7, find decreasing
𝑎 and 𝑏. 2. The height of the ball then increases to
SOLUTION Since (3, 16) is a point on the the point 𝐵 as indicated on the graph.
curve it must satisfy the equation of the curve. Therefore, for 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 the graph is
16 = 𝑎(3) 2 + 𝑏(3) + 13 increasing.
3 = 9𝑎 + 3𝑏 3. Between the points 𝑥 = 𝑏 and 𝑥 = 𝑐 the
1 = 3𝑎 + 𝑏 (1) ball’s height is again decreasing. Thus for
Also, this section the graph is decreasing.
𝑑𝑦
=7 4. Finally, after the point 𝐶, that is for 𝑥 > 𝑐,
𝑑𝑥 the graph is increasing as the height of the
2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 7
ball is increasing.
when 𝑥 = 3 5. At the points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 the ball
2𝑎(3) + 𝑏 = 7 instantaneously stops as it changes
6𝑎 + 𝑏 = 7 (2) direction from decreasing to increasing
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously
and vice versa.
3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1
The points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 due to their nature are
6𝑎 + 𝑏 = 7
called stationary points, since the ball stops at
𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −5
these points. Alternatively, they are also referred
to as turning points as the ball’s direction turns
from decreasing to increasing and from increasing
to decreasing.

The points 𝐴 and 𝐶 look like the bottom of a valley

and as such are termed minimum points, or
minima. It should be noted that to the left of these
points the graph is decreasing and increasing to
the right.
The point 𝐶, on the other hand, appears to be the
top of a hill, and as a result is termed a maximum
point, or maxima. In contrast to the points 𝐴 and
𝐶, to the left of 𝐵 the graph is increasing and
decreasing to the right.
We can conclude that:

134
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
> 0 indicates that the graph is increasing is the derivative of 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
= 0 indicates a stationary point If for a stationary point 𝑑𝑥2 < 0 then the point is a
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
< 0 indicates that the graph is decreasing 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 maximum point and a minimum point if 𝑑𝑥2 > 0.
Hence for the LESSON above
LESSON 5 For 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑦
determine the stationary points and their nature. = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 15
𝑑𝑥
SOLUTION 𝑑 2𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 + 1 = 6𝑥 − 12
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2
= 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 15 when 𝑥 = 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑 2𝑦
𝑑𝑦
At stationary points 𝑑𝑥 = 0 = 6(5) − 12 = 18 → minimum point
𝑑𝑥 2
∴ 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 15 = 0 when 𝑥 = −1
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5 = 0 𝑑 2𝑦
(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 1) = 0 = 6(−1) − 12 = −18 → maximum point
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑥 = 5 and 𝑥 = −1 And these results coincide with the results for the
when 𝑥 = 5 sign change method used previously.
𝑦 = 53 − 6(5) 2 − 15(5) + 1
= −99 LESSON 7 A rectangular garden 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 is to
(5, −99) be laid out as shown in the diagram. The garden
when 𝑥 = −1 consists of a rectangular lawn 𝑇𝑈𝑉𝑊 surrounded
𝑦 = (−1)3 − 6(−1) 2 − 15 (−1) + 1
by flower beds. The lawn has an area of 240 m2 .
=9
(−1, 9) The flower beds are 3 m wide along the sides 𝑈𝑉
and 𝑇𝑊. Given that the distance 𝑇𝑊 is 𝑥 m, show
that the total area, 𝐴 m2 , of the garden 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 is
given by
1440
𝐴 = 10𝑥 + 300 +
𝑥
𝑑𝐴
Given that 𝑥 varies, find an expression for .
𝑑𝑥
Hence, determine the dimensions of the garden
for which 𝐴 is a minimum.

To determine the nature of the stationary points

we examine the sign of the derivative on either
side of each stationary point.

Therefore, (−1, 9) is a maximum point and

(5, −99) is a minimum point. SOLUTION
Let 𝑦 be the length of 𝑉𝑊: ∴ 𝑥𝑦 = 240
LESSON 6 – The Second Derivative Test 240
𝑦=
Alternately, the Second Derivative Test can be 𝑥
used to determine the nature of stationary points. 𝐴 = (6 + 𝑥)(10 + 𝑦)
The second derivative is simply the derivative of = 60 + 10𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦
the first derivative.

135
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

240 Concave Downwards

= 60 + 240 + 10𝑥 + 6 ( )
𝑥
1440
= 300 + 10𝑥 +
𝑥
𝑑𝐴 1440
= 10 − 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
1440
0 = 10 − 2
𝑥
1440
10 = 2
𝑥 LESSON 9 Determine the coordinates of the
𝑥 = ±12 point(s) of inflection on the curve
Since 𝑥 cannot be negative 𝑥 = 12 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 3.
Dimensions: 𝑥 = 18, 𝑦 = 30
SOLUTION
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 3
POINTS OF INFLECTION 𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥
LESSON 8 Determine the nature of the 𝑑𝑥
stationary points on the curve 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1) 3. 𝑑 2𝑦
= 6𝑥 + 6
SOLUTION 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)3 For inflection point, 𝑑𝑥2 = 0
𝑑𝑦 6𝑥 + 6 = 0
= 3(𝑥 − 1)2
𝑑𝑥 6𝑥 = −6
𝑑𝑦
For stationary points 𝑑𝑥 = 0 𝑥 = −1
3(𝑥 − 1) 2 = 0
𝑥=1 𝑦 = (−1)3 + 3(−1) 2 + 3
𝑦=0 =5
(1, 0) (−1, 5)

𝑑 2𝑦
= 6(𝑥 − 1)
𝑑𝑥 2
when 𝑥 = 1
𝑑 2𝑦
= 6(1 − 1) = 0
𝑑𝑥 2

This value for the second derivative implies that

the stationary point is a point of inflection.
𝑑2 𝑦
While an inflection point occurs when 𝑑𝑥2 = 0 it
𝑑𝑦
does not have to occur when 𝑑𝑥 = 0. An inflection
point occurs when the concavity of the curve
changes.
LESSON 10 The point 𝑃(−1, 3) is an
Concave Upwards inflection point on the curve
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐. Determine

(a) the values of 𝑏 and 𝑐.

(b) the equation of the normal to the curve at 𝑃.

SOLUTION

(a) Since 𝑃(−1, 3) lies on the curve it must satisfy

the equation of the curve
3 = (−1) 3 + 𝑏(−1)2 + 𝑐
4 =𝑏+𝑐 (1)

136
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

𝑑2 𝑦
(iii) 𝑑𝑥2 = 2(𝑥 + 3) + 2(𝑥 + 3) + 2𝑥(1)
𝑦= 𝑥3 + 𝑏𝑥 2
+𝑐
𝑑𝑦 = 6𝑥 + 12
= 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 when 𝑥 = −1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑 2𝑦
= 6𝑥 + 2𝑏 = 6(−1) + 12 = 6 Minimum
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2
6𝑥 + 2𝑏 = 0 at 𝑃(−1, 3) when 𝑥 = −3
6(−1) + 2𝑏 = 0 𝑑 2𝑦
= 6(−3) + 12 = −6 Maximum
𝑏=3 𝑑𝑥 2
Sub 𝑏 = 3 into equation (1) (iv) We need to determine where the graph
4 =𝑏 +𝑐 crosses the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes.
4 =3+𝑐 When 𝑦 = 0
1=𝑐 𝑥(𝑥 + 3)2 = 0
(b) Gradient at 𝑃(−1, 3): 𝑥 = −3, 0
𝑑𝑦 (0, 0) and (−3, 0)
= 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥
3(−1) 2 + 6(−1) = −3 When 𝑥 = 0
0(0 + 3) 2 = 0
1 (0, 0)
Gradient of normal: 3
1
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 using 𝑚 = 3 and (−1, 3)
1
3 = (−1) + 𝑐
3
10
=𝑐
3
1 10
𝑦= 𝑥+
3 3

CURVE SKETCHING
LESSON 11 The equation of a curve is given
by NB: To sketch polynomial functions we need to
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 + 3)2 know

(i) Obtain an expression for 𝑓 ′ (𝑥). - the roots of the polynomial

(ii) Find the stationary point(s) of 𝑓. - the 𝑦 – intercept
(iii) Determine the nature of the stationary - the stationary points and their nature
point(s) of 𝑓.
(iv) Sketch the curve.
LESSON 12 Draw a sketch for the function
SOLUTION 3𝑥 − 1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+2
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 + 3)2 SOLUTION To draw our sketch we need to
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1(𝑥 + 3) 2 + 𝑥[2(𝑥 + 3)(1)] determine
= (𝑥 + 3) 2 + 2𝑥(𝑥 + 3)
(ii) For stationary points 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0  the intercepts
(𝑥 + 3) 2 + 2𝑥(𝑥 + 3) = 0  asymptotes
(𝑥 + 3)[(𝑥 + 3) + 2𝑥] = 0
(𝑥 + 3)(3𝑥 + 3) = 0 The Intercepts
𝑥 = −1, −3 When 𝑥 = 0
when 𝑥 = −1 3(0) − 1 1
𝑦= =−
𝑦 = (−1)(−1 + 3) 2 = −4 0+2 2
1
(−1, −4) (0, − )
when 𝑥 = −3 2
𝑦 = −3(−3 + 3)2 = 0
(−3, 0) When 𝑦 = 0

137
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

3𝑥 − 1 = 2𝑥(5)
0=
𝑥+2 When 𝑥 = 6
0 = 3𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝐴
1 = 2(6)(5) = 60 cms2
=𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3
1 LESSON 14 A sector of a circle of radius 𝑟 has
( , 0) 𝜋
3 an angle of 6 radians. Given that 𝑟 is increasing at a
constant rate of 5 cms−1, calculate, correct to two
Asymptotes
decimal places, the rate of increase, when 𝑟 = 6
Vertical asymptotes occur when the denominator
cm, of
is equal to zero.
(i) the area of the sector,
𝑥 +2 =0
(ii) the perimeter of the sector.
𝑥 = −2
SOLUTION
(i) Since 𝑟 is increasing at a rate of 5 cms −1,
Horizontal asymptotes investigate the limit as 𝑥 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝐴
tends to infinity = 5. We are therefore trying to determine ,
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
3𝑥 1 the rate of increase of 𝐴 (the area of the sector)
3𝑥 − 1 −𝑥 3−0
lim = 𝑥 = =3 when 𝑟 = 6. Hence we begin with the formula for
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 1+0 the area of a sector.
+
𝑥 𝑥 1
𝑦=3 𝐴 = 𝑟 2𝜃
2
𝑑𝐴
= 𝑟𝜃 Differentiating 𝐴 with
𝑑𝑟
respect to 𝑟. 𝜃 is a constant.
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟𝜃 𝑑𝑟 Treating like a
𝑑𝑟
fraction and cross multiplying
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
= 𝑟𝜃 𝑑𝑡 Dividing throughout by
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐴 𝜋
= 6 ( ) (5)
𝑑𝑡 6
= 5𝜋
= 15.71 cm2 𝑠 −1
(ii) The perimeter of a sector is 2𝑟 + 𝑟𝜃. We
𝑑𝑃
need to determine 𝑑𝑡 .
𝑃 = 2𝑟 + 𝑟𝜃
𝑑𝑃
= 2+𝜃
𝑑𝑟
RATE OF CHANGE 𝑑𝑃 = (2 + 𝜃)𝑑𝑟
change in 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑟
The rate of change of 𝑥 = = = (2 + 𝜃)
change in time 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑃 𝜋
= (2 + ) (5)
LESSON 13 The length of the side of a square 𝑑𝑡 6
is increasing at the rate of 5 cms −1. Find the rate 5𝜋
= 10 +
of increase of the area when the length is 6 cm. 6
SOLUTION = 12.62 cms−1
𝑑𝑥
=5
𝑑𝑡 LESSON 15 A spherical balloon is released
from rest and expands as it rises. After rising for 𝑡
𝐴 = 𝑥 2 where 𝑥 is the length of the side of the seconds its radius is 𝑟 cm, and its surface area is
square 𝐴 cm2 , where 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 . The initial radius of the
𝑑𝐴 balloon is 16 cm. Given that the rate of increase of
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 the radius is constant and has value 0.8 cms−1,
find the rate of increase of 𝐴 when 𝑡 = 5.
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑥
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡

138
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

𝑑𝑟
SOLUTION We know that = 0.8 and we are …………………………………………………………………………..
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐴
trying to determine 𝑑𝑡 when 𝑡 = 5. EXERCISE 20.2
𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 1. Find the gradient of the curve 𝑦 = 8√𝑥 + 𝑥 at
𝑑𝐴 the point whose 𝑥 coordinate is 9.
= 8𝜋𝑟 5
𝑑𝑟 2. Find the gradient of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at the
𝑑𝐴 = 8𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟 point where 𝑥 = 4.
= 8𝜋𝑟 3. A curve has the equation 𝑦 = 5(1 − cos 2𝑥)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜋
𝑑𝑟 and is defined for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 radians. Find
At this stage we know the value for but not for
𝑑𝑡
(i) the value of 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 1
𝑟. To determine 𝑟 we use the fact that the initial
(ii) the value of 𝑥 when 𝑦 = 3
value for 𝑟 is 16 cm and 𝑟 increases 0.8 cms −1. 𝜋
Therefore, when 𝑡 = 5, 𝑟 = 16 + (0.8)5 = 20 cm. (iii) the gradient of the curve when 𝑥 = 4
𝑑𝐴 4. Find the coordinates of the points on the
= 8𝜋(20)(0.8) = 128𝜋 cm2 𝑠 −1 1 9
𝑑𝑡 curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + at which the tangent is
3 𝑥
parallel to the line 𝑦 = 8𝑥 + 3.
LESSON 16 Suppose a water tank has the 5. Find the equation of the normal to the curve
shape of an inverted cone with base radius 2 m
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 7 at the point (2, −1).
and height 4 m. If the water is being pumped into
the tank at a rate of 2 m3 /min, find the rate at 6. A curve has equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥.
which the water level is rising when the water is 3 (i) Find the gradient of the curve at the
m deep. point for which 𝑥 = 2.
1
SOLUTION Volume of Cone = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ (ii) Find the equation of the normal at the
3
𝑑𝑉 point for which 𝑥 = 2.
=2
𝑑𝑡 7. Find the equation of the normal to the curve
1 6
𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 5 at the point on the curve where
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3 𝑥 = 2.
8. Find the equation of the normal to the curve
2𝑥+4
𝑦 = 𝑥−2 at the point where 𝑥 = 4.
9. The equation of a curve is 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 8. Find the
equation of the normal to the curve at the
point where the curve crosses the 𝑥 axis.
𝑘
10. The curve 𝑦 = ℎ𝑥 2 + 𝑥 passes through point
𝑃(1, 1)and has a gradient of 5 at 𝑃.
We have a slight problem since we do not know Find
the rate of change of 𝑟. The truth is, we are not i. the values of the constants ℎ and 𝑘
interested in it. From the diagram we see that ii. the equation of the tangent to the curve at
𝑟 2 ℎ 1
= ∴ 𝑟= the point where 𝑥 = 2.
ℎ 4 2
1 ℎ 2 11. (i) Find the coordinates of the stationary
𝑉 = 𝜋( ) ℎ points on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3.
3 2
𝜋 3 (ii) Determine whether each stationary point
= ℎ
12 is a maximum or minimum point.
𝑑𝑉 𝜋 2
= ℎ (iii) For what values of 𝑥 does 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3
𝑑ℎ 4
𝜋 decrease as 𝑥 increases?
𝑑𝑉 = ℎ2 𝑑ℎ
4 12. (i) Find the coordinates of the stationary
𝑑𝑉 𝜋 2 𝑑ℎ points of the curve 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥.
= ℎ
𝑑𝑡 4 𝑑𝑡 (ii) State the set of values for 𝑥 for which
𝜋 𝑑ℎ
2 = (3)2 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 is a decreasing function,
4 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ 8
= m3 /min
𝑑𝑡 9𝜋

139
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

(iii) Show that the equation of the tangent to (f) 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 − 5

1
the curve at the point where 𝑥 = is
2
20. For the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 12), determine
10𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 7 = 0.
(i) the coordinates of the stationary points,
13. (i) Find the coordinates of the stationary (ii) the coordinates of the inflection point
6
point on the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2. (iii) the equation of the normal to the curve at
the origin.
(ii) Determine whether the stationary point is
21. The equation of a curve is given by
a maximum or a minimum point.
9
14. A curve has the equation 𝑦 = √𝑥 + . 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 4
√𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
(i) Find expression for and . (i) Obtain an expression for 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥2
(ii) Find the stationary point(s) of 𝑓.
(ii) Show that the curve has a stationary
(iii) Determine the nature of the stationary
value when 𝑥 = 9. point(s) of 𝑓.
(iii) Find the nature of this stationary value. (iv) Sketch the curve.
2 𝑥
15. A curve has equation 𝑦 = 3𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 + 𝑥 . 22. Draw a sketch of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2.
(i) Verify that the curve has a stationary 23.
point when 𝑥 = 1.
(ii) Determine the nature of this stationary
point.
(iii) The tangent to the curve at this stationary
point meets the 𝑦 axis at the point 𝑄. Find
the coordinates of 𝑄.
16. The curve 𝑦 = (1 − 𝑥)(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑘) has a
stationary point when 𝑥 = −3.
(i) Find the value of the constant 𝑘.
(ii) Determine whether the stationary point is
a maximum or minimum point.
(iii) Given that 𝑦 = 9𝑥 − 9 is the equation of
The diagram shows the curve with equation
the tangent to the curve at the point 𝐴, 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
find the coordinates of 𝐴. 𝑦=
𝑥+𝑐
17. (i) Find the coordinates of the stationary where 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are constants.
point on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 32𝑥. Given that the asymptotes of the curve are
(ii) Determine whether this stationary point 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑦 = −2 and that the curve
passes through (3, 0), find the values of 𝑎, 𝑏
is a maximum or a minimum.
and 𝑐.
(iii) For what values of 𝑥 does 𝑥 4 + 32𝑥
increase as 𝑥 increases? 24. The diagram shows a rectangular field 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷
18. The curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 2 has a stationary with 𝐴𝐵 = 50 m and 𝐴𝐷 = 80 m. The field is
point when 𝑥 = 4. Find the value of the partitioned by three fences 𝐴𝑃, 𝐴𝑄 and 𝑃𝑄.
constant 𝑝 and determine whether the The distance of 𝑃 from 𝐶 is twice the distance
stationary point is a maximum or minimum of 𝑄 from 𝐷.
point.
19. Find the point(s) of inflection on the following
curves.
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3
(b) 𝑦 = 𝑥(15 − 4𝑥 2 )
(c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1
(d) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4
(e) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 1

140
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

Given that 𝐷𝑄 = 𝑥 m, show that the area,

𝐴 m2 , of triangle 𝐴𝑃𝑄 is given by
𝐴 = 𝑥 2 − 40𝑥 + 2000.
Given that 𝑥 varies, find the stationary value
of 𝐴 and determine whether this is a
maximum or a minimum.
25. The circumference of a circle is increasing at
the rate of 3 cms −1. Find
i. the rate of increase of the radius
ii. the rate of increase of the area, at the The trough is being filled with water, 𝑋𝑌
instant when the radius is 100 cm indicating the level reached. At time 𝑡 seconds
26. At the instant when the radius is 5 cm. The after filling starts, the depth of water is 𝑥 cm
radius, 𝑟 cm, of a circle is increasing in such a and 𝑋𝑌 is 𝑦 cm, as shown.
way that the rate of increase of the area of the
circle is 𝜋𝑟 cm2 s−1 . Calculate the rate of
increase of the radius. By using similar triangles, express 𝑦 in terms of
27. The surface area of a sphere is increasing at a 𝑥 and hence show that the volume, 𝑉 cm3 , of
constant rate of 6 cm2 s−1. Given that the water in the tank at time 𝑡 seconds is given by
surface area of a sphere of radius 𝑟 is 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑉 = 12𝑥 2 .
4
and that the volume is 3 𝜋𝑟 3 , find the rate of Given that the water is flowing into the trough
increase of at the rate of 60 cm3 s −1, find the rate at which
i. the radius 𝑥 is increasing when 𝑥 = 10.
ii. the volume
28. The radius 𝑟 cm of a sphere is increasing at a 32. The parametric equations of a curve are
constant of 2 cms−1. Given that the volume of 𝑥 = 3 + 2 sin 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 4 − 2 cos 𝜃
4 where 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 2𝜋.
a sphere of radius 𝑟 is 3 𝜋𝑟 3, find, in terms of 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
(i) Write down and , and hence express
𝜋, the rate at which the volume is increasing 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑦
at the instant when the volume is 36𝜋 cm3. 𝑑𝑥
in terms of 𝜃.
29. A spherical balloon is released from rest and (ii) It is given that the curve is a circle. Use
expands as it rises. After rising for 𝑡 seconds the identity sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1 to find the
its radius is 𝑟 cm, and its surface area is 𝐴 cm2 , Cartesian equation of this circle, and state
where 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 . the centre and radius.
The initial radius of the balloon is 16 cm. 33. A curve is represented parametrically by
Given that the rate of increase of the radius is 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 + 3𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡
constant and has value 0.8 cms −1, find the Find
𝑑𝑦
rate of increase of 𝐴 when 𝑡 = 5. (i) an expression for 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝑡
2𝑥
30. A curve has equation 𝑦 = 2 . (ii) the coordinates of the stationary point of
𝑥 +9
(i) Find the 𝑥 coordinate of each of the the curve.
stationary points of the curve. SOLUTIONS
(ii) Given that 𝑥 is increasing at the rate of 2 7
1.
units per second, find the rate of 3

increase of 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 1. 2. 20
31. A trough has the shape of the prism shown in 3. (i) 7.08 (ii) 0.58 (iii) 5
the diagram. The vertical ends 𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝐷𝐸𝐹 4. (3, 12) (−3, −12)
1 3
are identical isosceles triangles of height 20 5. 𝑦= 𝑥−
4 2
cm with 𝐴𝐵 = 16 cm and 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶. The open 6.
1
(i) 5 (ii) 𝑦 = − 5 𝑥 +
32
5
top 𝐴𝐵𝐸𝐷 is horizontal and rectangular in 2 29
7. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 −
shape with 𝐴𝐷 = 30 cm. 6
1
8. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 4

141
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

1 1 𝑥2 −1
9. 𝑦= 𝑥 +6 2. (a) Given that 𝑦 = ,
12 𝑥2 +1
𝑑𝑦
10. (i) ℎ = 2, 𝑘 = −1 (ii) 6 (i) find 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝑥 [5]
1 76 𝑑𝑦 4
11. (i) 𝐴(−1, 4), 𝐵 (3 , 27) (ii) show that 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 𝑥2 +1 .
1
(ii) 𝐴 − max,𝐵 − min (iii) −1 < 𝑥 < [5]
3
1 19 (b) By investigating the sign of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥),
12. (i) (−2, 12), (3 , − 27) determine the range of real values of 𝑥 for
1
(ii) −2 < 𝑥 < (iii) which 𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 + 3 is decreasing. [8]
3
CAPE 2004
13. (i) (−1, 7) (ii) minimum
𝑑𝑦 𝑥−9 𝑑2 𝑦 27−𝑥
3. 𝑃 is the point on the curve 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑘𝑥 − 5
14. (i) 𝑑𝑥 = 3 , 𝑑𝑥2
= 5 (iii) minimum where 𝑥 = 1 and the gradient is −2. Find
2𝑥 2 4𝑥 2
(a) the value of the constant 𝑘 [3]
15. (ii) minimum (iii) 𝑄(0, −2) 𝑑2 𝑦
(b) the value of 𝑑𝑥2 at 𝑃 [2]
16. (i) 𝑘 = −5 (ii) minimum (iii) (−2, −27)
17. (i) (−2, −48) (ii) minimum (iii) 𝑥 > −2 (c) the equation of the normal to the curve at
𝑃. [4]
18. 𝑝 = −6, minimum
CAPE 2005
19. (a) (0, 0), (1, −1) (b) (0, 0) (c) (1, 0) 4. (a) Find the coordinates of the stationary
3 11
(d) (1, −3) (e) ( , ) (f) (0, −5)
2 2
points of the function
20. (i) (−2, 16), (2, 16) (ii) (0, 0) (iii) 𝑦 =
1
𝑥 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 6. [6]
12 (b) Determine the nature of the stationary
21. (i) 3𝑥 2
− 6𝑥 (ii) 𝐴(0, 4), 𝐵(2, 0) points of 𝑓. [3]
(iii) 𝐴 − max, 𝐵 − min (iv) CAPE 2005
22. 5. (a) The function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined by
23. 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −2, 𝑐 = 1 2−𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 2 for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 0.
24. 1600, minimum 𝑥
3 Determine the nature of the critical
25. (i) 2𝜋 (ii) 300
value(s) of 𝑓(𝑥). [6]
1
26. (b) Differentiate, with respect to 𝑥,
2
3 𝑓(𝑥) = sin2 (𝑥 2 ) [3]
27. (i) (ii) 3𝑟 CAPE 2006
4𝜋𝑟
28. 72𝜋 6. The curve 𝑦 = 𝑝𝑥 3 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 passes through
29. 128𝜋 the origin 𝑂 and the point 𝑃(1, 2). The
8 gradient of the curve at 𝑃 is equal to 8.
30. (i) 𝑥 = ±3 (ii) 25 (a) Calculate the values of the constants 𝑝, 𝑞
4 1
31. 𝑦 = 5 𝑥, cms −1 and 𝑟. [6]
4
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 (b) Obtain the equation of the normal to the
32. (i) = 2 cos 𝜃 , = 2 sin 𝜃 (ii) 𝐶(3, 4), 𝑟 = 2 curve at 𝑃. [3]
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝑡−2
33. (i) 2𝑡+3 (ii) (4, −1) CAPE 2007
7. For the function 𝑓: 𝑥 → 12𝑥 − 𝑥 3 , determine
(a) the stationary points [4]
EXAM QUESTIONS
(b) the nature of EACH of the stationary
points. [3]
1. (a) Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥, find
CAPE 2007
(i) the coordinates of the stationary
points of 𝑓(𝑥). [6] 8. A chemical process is controlled by the
(ii) the second derivative of 𝑓(𝑥), and 𝑢
function 𝑃 = 𝑡 + 𝑣𝑡 2 , where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are
hence, determine which stationary
point is a local maximum and which constants. Given that 𝑃 = −1 when 𝑡 = 1 and
is a local minimum. [5] the rate of change of 𝑃 with respect to 𝑡 is −5
1 𝑑2 𝑦
(b)If 𝑦 = 𝑥2 +2 , show that 𝑑𝑥2 = 2(3𝑥 − 2)𝑦 3 .
2 1
when 𝑡 = 2 , find the values of 𝑢 and 𝑣. [6]
[7] CAPE 2008
CAPE 2003 9. Given that 𝑦 = sin2𝑥 + cos 2𝑥, show that
𝑑2𝑦
+ 4𝑦 = 0. [6]
𝑑𝑥2

142
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

CAPE 2009 14. (a) Given that 𝑦 = √5𝑥 2 + 3,

10. The diagram represents a piece of thin 𝑑𝑦
(i) obtain 𝑑𝑥 [4]
cardboard 16 cm by 10 cm. Shaded squares, 𝑑𝑦
(ii) show that 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 5𝑥 [2]
each of side 𝑥 cm, are removed from each
(iii) hence, or otherwise, show that
corner. The remainder is folded to form a tray. 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑦 𝑑𝑥2 + (𝑑𝑥 ) = 5. [4]
(b) At a certain port, high tides and low tides
occur daily. Suppose 𝑡 minutes after high
tide, the height, ℎ metres, of the tide
above a fixed point is given by
𝜋𝑡
ℎ = 2 (1 + cos ),0 ≤ 𝑡
450
[Note: High tide occurs when 𝒉 has its
maximum value and low tide when 𝒉 has
its minimum value.]
(i) Show that the volume, 𝑉 cm3, Determine
of the tray is given by (i) the height of the tide when high tide
𝑉 = 4(𝑥 3 − 13𝑥 2 + 40𝑥). [5] occurs for the first time [2]
(ii) Hence, find a possible value of 𝑥 such that (ii) the length of time which elapses
𝑉 is a maximum. [8] between the first high tide and the
CAPE 2009 first low tide. [3]
(iii) the rate, in metres per minute, at
11. The curve 𝑦 = 𝑝𝑥 3 + 𝑞𝑥 2 + 2 passes through
which the tide is falling 75 minutes
the point 𝑇(1, 2) and its gradient at 𝑇 is 7. The
after high tide. [5]
line 𝑥 = 1 cuts the 𝑥 −axis at 𝑀, and the
CAPE 2007
normal to the curve at 𝑇 cuts the 𝑥 −axis at 𝑁.
15. Differentiate with respect to 𝑥
Find
(i) 𝑦 = sin(3𝑥 + 2) + tan 5𝑥 [3]
(i) the values of the constants 𝑝 and 𝑞. [6] 𝑥2 +1
(ii) the equation of the normal to the curve at (ii) 𝑦 = [4]
𝑥3 −1
𝑇. [3] CAPE 2010
(iii) the length of 𝑀𝑁. [2] 16. (i) Given that 𝑦 = √4𝑥 2 + 7, show that
CAPE 2011 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑥. [3]
12. A chemical process in a manufacturing plant is
controlled by the function 𝑀 = 𝑢𝑡 2 + 𝑡2
𝑣 (ii) Hence, or otherwise, show that
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are constants. 𝑦 +( ) =4
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Given that 𝑀 = −1 when 𝑡 = 1 and that the
35 [3]
rate of change of 𝑀 with respect to 𝑡 is 4 CAPE 2012
when 𝑡 = 2, find the values of 𝑢 and 𝑣. [8] 𝑥2 +2𝑥+3
17. (a) Let 𝑦 = (𝑥2 +2)3
. Show that
CAPE 2012
13. (i) Differentiate from first principles the 𝑑𝑦 −4𝑥 − 10𝑥 2 − 14𝑥
3 +4
=
function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 with respect to 𝑥. [6] 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 2)4
(ii) Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑟𝑥 2 + 𝑠𝑥 + 𝑡, 𝑟 ≠ 0,
(a) find [5]
(i) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) (b) The equation of an ellipse is given by
(ii) 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) [2] 𝑥 = 1 − cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
𝑑𝑦
(b) find, in terms of 𝑟 and 𝑠, the Find 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝜃. [5]
conditions under which 𝑓(𝑥) will
have a maximum. [3] CAPE 2013
(c) find the maximum. [3]
(iii) The curve 𝑦 = 𝑝𝑥 3 + 𝑞𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 passes 18. (a) (i) Let 𝑦 =
1
. Using first principles, find
√𝑥
through the point 𝑇(1, 2) and its gradient 𝑑𝑦
at 𝑇 is 7. Find the values of the constants . [8]
𝑑𝑥
𝑝 and 𝑞. [5]
CAPE 2004

143
 CHAPTER 20: DIFFERENTIATION

𝑥 1 𝑥+2
(ii) If 𝑦 = , determine an expression 18. (a) (i) − 3 (ii) 3 (b) − cot 𝜃
√1+𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥 2 2(𝑥+1)2
for 𝑑𝑥 . Simplify your answer FULLY. 19. (a) 2 cos(2𝑥) (b) (i) (ii)
[4]
(b) The parametric equations of a curve are …………………………………………………………………………..
given by 𝑥 = cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = sin 𝜃,
𝑑𝑦
0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋. Find 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝜃. Simplify
your answer as far as possible. [4]
CAPE 2014
19. (a) Using first principles, determine the
derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(2𝑥). [6]
2𝑥
(b) If 𝑦 = √ 2 , show that
1+𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
(i) 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [7]
1+𝑥2
𝑑2𝑦 3𝑦
(ii) + (1+𝑥2 )2 = 0 [8]
𝑑𝑥2
CAPE 2015

SOLUTIONS

1 13
1. (a) (i) 𝐴 (3 , 27) , 𝐵(3, −9)
(ii) 𝐴-maximum, 𝐵- minimum
4𝑥
2. (a) (i) (𝑥2 +1)2
(b) −1 < 𝑥 < 1
1 23
3. (a) 𝑘 = −8 (b) 12 (c) 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 − 2
4. (a) 𝐴(−1, 11), 𝐵(3, −21)
(b) 𝐴-maximum, 𝐵-minimum
5. (a) minimum
(b) 2𝑥 sin(2𝑥 2 )
6. (a) 𝑝 = 3, 𝑞 = −1, 𝑟 = 0
1 17
(b) 𝑦 = − 8 𝑥 + 8
7. (a) 𝐴(−2, −16), 𝐵(2, 16)
(b) 𝐴-minimum, 𝐵-maximum
4 9
8. 𝑢 = 5, 𝑣 = − 5
9.
10. (ii) 𝑥 = 2
1 15
11. (i) 𝑝 = 7, 𝑞 = −7 (ii) 𝑦 = − 7 𝑥 + 7
(iii) 14
12. 𝑢 = 2, 𝑣 = −3
13. (i) 3𝑥 2 (ii) (a) (i) 2𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠 (ii) 2𝑟
𝑠2
(b) 2𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠 = 0 and 𝑟 < 0 (c) 𝑡 − 4𝑟
(iii) 𝑝 = 10, 𝑞 = −13
5𝑥
14. (a) (i) 2
(ii) (iii)
√5𝑥 +3
𝜋
(b)(i) 4 (ii) 450
(iii) −
450
15. (i) 3 cos(3𝑥 + 2) + 5 sec 2(5𝑥)
𝑥(𝑥3 +3𝑥+2)
(ii) − (𝑥3 −1)2
16. (i) (ii)
17. (a) (b) 2 cot 𝜃

144
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

At the end of this section, students should be able
to: HOW TO INTEGRATE
 recognise integration as the reverse INTRODUCTION
process of differentiation; Integration is referred to as anti – differentiation.
 use the notation ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥; Therefore, the process of integration is the reverse
 show that the indefinite integral of differentiation.
represents a family of functions which Before we look at integration let’s review
differ by constants; differentiation by differentiating each of the
 use simple integration rules; following
 integrate functions of the form (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 1. 𝑦 = 5𝑥 3 + 2𝑥
where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑛 are real numbers and 𝑛 ≠ 2. 𝑦 = 5𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 7
−1; 3. 𝑦 = 5𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 99
 find the indefinite integrals using The derivative of each of the above functions is
formulae and integration theorems; 15𝑥 2 + 2 though each function is differs in the
 integrate simple trigonometric functions; value of their constant.
 compute definite integrals;
 formulate the equation of a curve given INTEGRATION NOTATION
its gradient function and a point on the ∫ is the symbol for integration
curve; ∫ 2𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥 means that we are integrating 2𝑥 5 with
 demonstrate use of the following respect to 𝑥. This is read “the integral of 2𝑥 5 with
integration theorems; respect to 𝑥.”
(a) ∫ 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, where 𝑐 is a In general,
constant, 𝑎𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
(b) ∫{𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)} 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± 𝑛 +1
∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥; where 𝑐 is known as the constant of integration.
 integrate using substitution; The constant of integration (arbitrary constant)
 use the results: compensates for the fact that the integral could
𝑏 𝑏 have an unknown constant.
(a) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑎
(b) ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑑𝑥 for PROPERTIES OF INTEGRALS
𝑎 > 0, ∫ 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑘 is a constant
𝑏
(c) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎), where ∫[𝑓 (𝑥 ) ± 𝑔 (𝑥 )] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥);
 apply integration to: LESSON 1 Evaluate each of the following.
(a) finding areas under the curve; 1. ∫ 4 𝑑𝑥
3
(b) finding areas between two curves; 2. ∫ 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
(c) finding volumes of revolution by 4
3. ∫ (5√𝑥 − 2𝑥 3 + 3 ) 𝑑𝑥
rotating regions about both the 𝑥- √𝑥5
and 𝑦- axes; 4. ∫𝑥 2 (3
− 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
 given a rate of change with or without 5. ∫(2𝑥 − 1) 3 𝑑𝑥
initial boundary conditions:
(a) formulate a differential equation of SOLUTION
the form 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥) or 𝑦 ′′ = 𝑓(𝑥) 1. ∫ 4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 4𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥
where 𝑓 is a polynomial or a 4𝑥 0+1
trigonometric function, = +𝑐
0+1
(b) solve the resulting differential = 4𝑥 + 𝑐
equation in (a) above and interpret
the solution where applicable. 2.
3
∫ 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
__________________________________________________________ 3𝑥 −2+1
= +𝑐
−2 + 1

145
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

3𝑥 −1 1
= +𝑐 ∫ cos 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
−1 𝑎
3
=− +𝑐
𝑥 ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝑐
ALTERNATELY, 1
∫ sec 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
∫ 3𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫ 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥 𝑎
𝑥 −2+1 ∫ csc 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝑐
= 3[ ]+𝑐
−2 + 1 1
𝑥 −1 ∫ csc 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
= 3[ ]+𝑐 𝑎
−1
∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝑐
3
=− +𝑐 1
𝑥 ∫ sec 𝑎𝑥 tan 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎
4 1
3. ∫ (5√𝑥 − 2𝑥 3 + 3 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 3 + ∫ csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = csc 𝑥 + 𝑐
√𝑥5
5
−
4𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
3
1
∫ csc 𝑎𝑥 cot 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = csc 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1 5 𝑎
5𝑥 2+1 2𝑥 3+1 4𝑥 −3+1
= − + +𝑐
1 3+1 5
+ 1 − + 1 LESSON 2 Evaluate each of the following.
2 3
3 2
5𝑥 2 2𝑥 4 4𝑥 −3 1. ∫(1 + sin 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
= − +𝑐 + 3
3 2 4 1−
− 2. ∫ (2 sec 2(−5𝑥) + 2 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
2 3
10 3 1 4 2
= 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6𝑥 −3 + 𝑐 SOLUTION
3 2
1. ∫(1 + sin 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4. ∫ 𝑥 2 (3 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 ) 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ sin2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3𝑥 2+1 𝑥 3+1
= − +𝑐 𝑥 0+1 1
2+1 3+1 =1( ) + (− cos 2𝑥) + 𝑐
𝑥4 0+1 2
= 𝑥3 − + 𝑐
4 1
= 𝑥 − cos 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2
5. ∫(2𝑥 − 1) 3 𝑑𝑥 1 3

1 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) 𝑛+1
2. ∫ (2 sec 2(−5𝑥) + 2 𝑥 −2 ) 𝑑𝑥
N.B ∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 [ (𝑛+1) ] + 𝑐 1 3
= 2 ∫ sec 2(−5𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
1 (2𝑥 − 1)3+1 2
= [ ]+𝑐 3
2 (3 + 1) 1 1 𝑥 −2+1
(2𝑥 − 1)4 = 2 [− tan(−5𝑥)] + ( )+𝑐
= +𝑐 5 2 −3 + 1
8 2
These are referred to as Indefinite Integrals since −1
2 1 𝑥2
they contain the arbitrary constant 𝑐. = − tan(−5𝑥) + ( )+𝑐
5 2 −1
2
2 −1
TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRATION = − tan(−5𝑥) − 𝑥 + 𝑐
2
5
∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐

1
∫ sin 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎

∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin𝑥 + 𝑐

146
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 𝑏

A Differential Equation contains derivatives or ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

differentials 𝑎
To determine the definite integral we
LESSON 3 Solve the differential equation a. integrate the function, excluding 𝑐
b. substitute the upper limit, 𝑥 = 𝑏, into the
𝑑𝑦
1. = 6𝑥 2 − 5 integral
𝑑𝑥
c. substitute the lower limit, 𝑥 = 𝑎, into the
2. 𝑦′ = 𝑥 3 − 5 integral
d. subtract the value from step (3) from the
𝑑2 𝑦 1
3. = 6𝑥 3 + 𝑥3 value from step (2)
𝑑𝑥2
The answer which will be a number is the definite
SOLUTION integral.

1. 𝑦′ = 𝑥 3 − 5 LESSON 4a Evaluate the following

3

∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 3 − 5 𝑑𝑥
0
SOLUTION
𝑥4 a. We integrate the function, excluding the
= − 5𝑥 + 𝑐
4 constant 𝑐
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 3+1 3 𝑥4 3
2. = 6𝑥 2 − 5 = [( )] = [ ]
𝑑𝑥 3+1 0 4 0
b. Substituting the upper limit into the integral we
𝑑𝑦 = (6𝑥 2 − 5) 𝑑𝑥 34 81
get [ 4 ] = 4
∫ 1 𝑑𝑦 = ∫(6𝑥 2 − 5) 𝑑𝑥 c. Substituting the lower limit into the integral we
𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 𝑐 04
get =0
4
𝑑2 𝑦 1 d. Subtracting the value from (c) from the value
3. = 6𝑥 3 + 𝑥3 81 81
from (b) 4 − 0 = 4 which is the definite
𝑑𝑥2
𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 integral
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 The next LESSON illustrates the general way in
= ∫ 6𝑥 3 + 𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥 which a question involving definite integrals is
solved.
3𝑥 4 𝑥 −2
= − +𝐴
2 2 LESSON 4b Evaluate
3𝑥 4 𝑥 −2 4
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ − + 𝐴 𝑑𝑥
2 2 ∫(𝑥 2 − 4 + 4𝑥 −2 )𝑑𝑥
5
3𝑥 1 1
𝑦= + + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝑐
10 2𝑥 SOLUTION
4
DEFINITE INTEGRALS ∫(𝑥 2 − 4 + 4𝑥 −2 )𝑑𝑥
If 𝐹(𝑥) is the integral of 𝑓(𝑥) then the definite 1
integral is defined as 𝑥 2+1 𝑥 0+1 𝑥 −2+1 4
𝑥=𝑏
𝑏 =[ − 4( )+4( )]
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑥)] = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) 2+1 0+ 1 −2 + 1 1
𝑥=𝑎 𝑎 𝑥3 4 𝑥3 4 4
where 𝑏 ∈ ℝ and 𝑏 is called the upper limit of 𝑓(𝑥) = [ − 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 −1 ] = [ − 4𝑥 − ]
3 1 3 𝑥 1
𝑎 ∈ ℝ is the lower limit of 𝑓(𝑥)
43 4 13 4
𝐹(𝑏) is the value of the integral at the upper limit = [ − 4(4) − ] − [ − 4(1) − ]
𝑥=𝑏 3 4 3 1
𝐹(𝑎) is the value of the integral at the lower limit 64 1
= [ − 16 − 1] − [ − 4 − 4]
𝑥=𝑎 3 3
It is accepted to simply write = 12
147
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

LESSON 4c Find LESSON 6 Determine ∫ 𝑥 3 (1 − 5𝑥 4 )2 𝑑𝑥

2
1 SOLUTION
∫ 𝑑𝑥 Let 𝑢 = 1 − 5𝑥 4
√3𝑥 − 2 𝑑𝑢
1 = −20𝑥 3
SOLUTION 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑢
1 = 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 −20𝑥 3
√3𝑥 − 2
1 ∫ 𝑥 3 (1 − 5𝑥 4 )2 𝑑𝑥
2
1)
= ∫(3𝑥 − 2)−(2 𝑑𝑢
= ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑢2 ( )
1
−20𝑥 3
1 1 1
1 (3𝑥 − 2)2 2 2(3𝑥 − 2) 2 2 =− ∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
= [ ] =[ ] 20
3 1⁄2 1 3 1 1 𝑢3
=− ( )+𝑐
1 1 20 3
2(3(2) − 2)2 2(3(1) − 2)2
=[ ]−[ ]
3 3 1
− (1 − 5𝑥 4 )3 + 𝑐
4 2 60
= −
3 3
2 LESSON 7 Find ∫ sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= SOLUTION
3
Let 𝑢 = sin2𝑥
𝑑𝑢
LESSON 4d Find = 2 cos 2𝑥
𝜋 𝑑𝑥
∫ 1 + sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑑𝑥
–𝜋
2 cos 2𝑥
SOLUTION ∫ sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
𝑑𝑢
∫ 1 + sin𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 cos 2𝑥 ( )
2 cos 2𝑥
–𝜋
𝜋 1
= [𝑥 − cos 𝑥] = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
−𝜋 2
= [𝜋 − cos(𝜋)] − [−𝜋 − cos(−𝜋)] 1 𝑢2
= [𝜋 − (−1)] − [−𝜋 − (−1)] = ( )+𝑐
2 2
= 2𝜋 𝑢2
= +𝑐
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION 4
sin2 2𝑥
LESSON 5 = +𝑐
4
Find ∫(2𝑥 3 + 5) 4 (6𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
0
SOLUTION LESSON 8 Find ∫−1 𝑥 2 (1 − 2𝑥 3 )4 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 SOLUTION
𝑢 = 2𝑥 3 + 5 then = 6𝑥 2 → 2 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 6𝑥 Let 𝑢 = 1 − 2𝑥 3 then = −6𝑥 2 → − 2 = 𝑑𝑥
So our integral can be rewritten as 𝑑𝑥 6𝑥
𝑑𝑢 Since the limits are in terms of 𝑥 an we will be
∫(𝑢4 )(6𝑥 2 ) 2 = ∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑢 integrating in terms of 𝑢 we need to determine the
6𝑥
𝑢 4+1 limits in terms of 𝑢, as follows
∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑢 = +𝑐 When 𝑥 = 0; 𝑢 = 1 − 2(0)3 = 1 (Upper Limit)
4+1
𝑢 5 When 𝑥 = −1; 𝑢 = 1 − 2(−1)3 = 3 (Lower Limit)
= +𝑐 Therefore,
5 0
Resubstituting we get that ∫ 𝑥 2 (1 − 2𝑥 3 )4 𝑑𝑥
(2𝑥 3 + 5)5 −1
∫(2𝑥 3 + 5)4 (6𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
5
148
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

1 1 6
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 (e) ∫ 𝑥3 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑥 2 (𝑢4 ) = ∫ 𝑢4
3 −6𝑥 2 3 −6 (f) ∫(5𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= − ∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑢 (g) ∫(𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 − 5) 𝑑𝑥
6 3
(h) ∫(𝑥 2 + 4)(𝑥 − 6) 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑢4+1 1 6
=− [ ] (i) ∫ (4𝑥 + 𝑥2 ) 𝑑𝑥
6 4+ 1 3
1 𝑢5 1 (j) ∫(2 − 6√𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
=− [ ]
6 5 3 (k) ∫ 12√𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 15 35 (l) ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 4) 𝑑𝑥
= − ([ ] − [ ])
6 5 5 (m) ∫ 𝑥 3 (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 5) 𝑑𝑥
1 1 243
=− ( − ) (n) ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)2 𝑑𝑥
6 5 5 1
121 𝑥3 +3𝑥 2
= (o) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
15
(p) ∫(2𝑥 − 1) 7 𝑑𝑥
1
LESSON 9 Using the substitution 𝑢 = sin 4𝑥 (q) ∫(3𝑥 + 1) −2 𝑑𝑥
evaluate
𝜋
8
2. Evaluate
∫ sin4𝑥 cos 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (a) ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 (b) ∫ 𝑥 + 2 sin(−3𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
SOLUTION Instead of adjusting the limits we 3. Find the general solution of each differential
will integrate firstly and then use the original equation.
limits. 𝑑𝑦
(a) = 2𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = sin 4𝑥 ′
(b) 𝑦 = 1 − 3𝑥
𝑑𝑢 1
= 4 cos 4𝑥 (c) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − 𝑥3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 (d) 𝑦 ′′ = cos 2𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
4 cos 4𝑥 4. Evaluate each of the following.
6
∫ sin 4𝑥 cos 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (a) ∫1 𝑥( 𝑥 2 − 4) 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑢 (b) ∫0 √3𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑢 cos 4𝑥 ( ) 4
4 cos 4𝑥 (c) ∫2 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 𝑑𝑥
1 3
= ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 (d) ∫0 5𝑥 2 − 9 𝑑𝑥
4
1 0 𝑥3 +2𝑥2
= 𝑢2 (e) ∫−2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
8
𝜋 4 10
8 (f) ∫2 (𝑥 3 − 𝑥2 ) 𝑑𝑥
1 𝜋/8 8
∫ sin 4𝑥 cos 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ sin2 4𝑥] 5.
2
Express ∫1 (3√𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥 in the form
8 0 √𝑥
0
1 𝜋 1 𝑎 + 𝑏√2, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are integers.
= [ sin2 (4 × )] − [ sin2(4 × 0)]
8 8 8 6. The positive constant 𝑎 is such that
1 2𝑎 2𝑥3 −5𝑥2 +4
= ∫𝑎 ( 𝑥2
) 𝑑𝑥 = 0.
8
………………………………………………………………………… (i) Show that 3𝑎3 − 5𝑎2 + 2 = 0.
(ii) Show that 𝑎 = 1 is a root of
EXERCISE 21.1
3𝑎3 − 5𝑎2 + 2 = 0, and hence find the
1. Evaluate each of the following
(a) ∫ 6𝑥 −4 𝑑𝑥 other possible value of 𝑎, giving your
(b) ∫ 24𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥 answer in simplified surd form.
1
(c) ∫ 18𝑥 −4 𝑑𝑥 7. (i) Prove that sin2 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃 = 8 (1 − cos 4𝜃).
8
(d) ∫ 𝑥3 𝑑𝑥
149
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

(ii) Hence, find the exact value of 3. (a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑐

𝜋
3𝑥2
∫0 sin2 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3
(b) 𝑥 − +𝑐
2
8. Evaluate 1
(c) 2𝑥2 + 𝑐
(a) ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
(b) ∫ sec(−3𝑥)tan(−3𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 (d) − 4 cos(2𝑥 ) + 𝑐
(c) ∫ csc 5𝑥 cot 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1015
4. (a)
(d) ∫ csc 2(−𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 4
14
(b)
9
9. Evaluate each of the following (c) 98
(i) ∫ 3𝑥 2 (𝑥 3 + 4)5 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 + 4 (d) 18
(ii) ∫ √𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 (3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 4
(e) − 3
√𝑥−1 115
(iii) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 = √𝑥 − 1 (f)
√𝑥 2
7
(iv) ∫ sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 = sin 𝑥
sin𝑥 5. −6 + 40√2
(v) ∫ cos5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 = cos 𝑥 1 √7
6. (ii) 3 ±
sin √𝑥 3
(vi) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 = √𝑥 1
1
√𝑥 7. (ii) 192 (3√3 + 8𝜋)
(vii) ∫−1 𝑥 2 √𝑥 3
+ 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1 3
1 1
8. (a) 2 sin 2𝑥 + 𝑐 (b) − 3 sec(−3𝑥) + 𝑐
10. Using the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 2, determine
3 1
3
(a) ∫2 (𝑥 − 2) 2 𝑑𝑥 (c) − 5 csc 5𝑥 + 𝑐 (d) − cot 𝑥 + 𝑐
6 3
3 (𝑥3 +4) 2
(b) ∫2 𝑥√𝑥 − 2 𝑑𝑥 9. (i) + 𝑐 (ii) (𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 1))2 + 𝑐
6 3
SOLUTIONS sin8 𝑥
2 (iii) 𝑥 − 2√𝑥 + 𝑐 (iv) 8
+𝑐
1. (a) − 3 + 𝑐 sec4 𝑥
𝑥
12 (v) + 𝑐 (vi) −2 cos √𝑥 + 𝑐
4
(b) − 𝑥2 + 𝑐 4√2
6 (vii)
(c) − +𝑐 9
𝑥3 2 26
4 10. (a) (b)
(d) − 2 + 𝑐
5 15
𝑥 11.
3
(e) − 𝑥2 + 𝑐 …………………………………………………………………………
5𝑥4
(f) − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑐
4
𝑥4
(g) + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 𝑐
4
𝑥4
(h) 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 + 𝑐
2(𝑥3 −3)
(i) +𝑐
𝑥
3
(j) 2𝑥 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝑐
3
(k) 8𝑥 2 + 𝑐
𝑥4
(l) − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑐
4
𝑥6 𝑥5 5𝑥4
(m) − + +𝑐
6 5 4
𝑥4 2𝑥3 𝑥2
(n) − + +𝑐
4 3 2
𝑥3
(o) + 6√𝑥 + 𝑐
3
1
(p) 16 (2𝑥 − 1)8 + 𝑐
1
2(3𝑥+1)2
(q) +𝑐
3
1
2. (a) sin 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2
𝑥2 2
(b) − 3 cos(3𝑥) + 𝑐
2

150
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION
−2 + 𝑎 = 0
THE EQUATION OF A CURVE 𝑎=2
𝑑𝑦
Thus, for the curve 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 + 2
LESSON 1 The gradient of a particular curve
is given by the formula 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥. Given that this 𝑦 = ∫(−𝑥 + 2)𝑑𝑥
curve passes through the point (2, 5), find the 𝑥 1+1 𝑥 0+1
equation of the curve. = −( )+2( )+𝑐
1+1 0+1
SOLUTION
𝑑𝑦 𝑥2 𝑥1
= 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = −( ) + 2( )+ 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 2 1
𝑑𝑦 𝑥2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 = − + 2𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 2
3𝑥 2+1 2𝑥 2 Curve passes through (2, 3) so
𝑦= − +𝑐 22
2+1 2
3
𝑦 = 𝑥 −𝑥 +𝑐 2 3 = − + 2(2) + 𝑐
2
Since the curve passes through (2, 5), this point 3 = −2 + 4 + 𝑐
must satisfy the equation of the curve. 1=𝑐
5 = 23 − 22 + 𝑐 𝑥2
1=𝑐 𝑦 = − + 2𝑥 + 1
2
𝑦 = 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 + 1

LESSON 2 The gradient of the normal to a THE AREA UNDER A GRAPH

1
curve at the point (𝑥, 𝑦) is . Given that the In general,
3−4𝑥 𝑏
curve passes through the point (1, 3), find the
equation of the curve. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
SOLUTION Since the normal to a curve is ⊥ 𝑎
to the tangent of the curve, the gradient of the is the area of the region bounded by the curve
curve is 4𝑥 − 3 because 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the 𝑥-axis and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏.
1
(4𝑥 − 3) × = −1 LESSON 4a Determine the area under the
3 − 4𝑥
curve 𝑓(𝑥) = 1, bounded by the 𝑥-axis and the
𝑦 = ∫(4𝑥 − 3) 𝑑𝑥 lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2.
𝑥 1+1 𝑥 0+1 SOLUTION We need to determine
= 4( )− 3 ( )+𝑐 2
1+1 0+1
∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥1
= 4( ) −3( )+ 𝑐 0
2 1 2
𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 𝑐 = [𝑥]
0
The point (1, 3) must satisfy the equation of the = [2] − [0]
curve. = 2 units 2
3 = 2(1) 2 − 3(1) + 𝑐
3 =2−3+𝑐
4=𝑐
So, 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4

𝑑𝑦
LESSON 3 The curve for which 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 + 𝑎,
where 𝑎 is a constant, has a stationary point at
(2, 3). Find the equation of the curve.
SOLUTION (2, 3) is a stationary point
therefore this point LESSON 4b What is the area region bounded
𝑑𝑦 by the curve 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1, the 𝑥-axis and the
=0 lines 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 3?
𝑑𝑥
−𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0

151
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

SOLUTION SOLUTION
3

∫ 2𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
1
2𝑥 1+1 3
=[ + 𝑥]
1+1 1
3
= [𝑥 2 + 𝑥]
1
= [32 + 3] − [11 + 1]
= 10 units 2 The graph cuts the 𝑥-axis when 𝑦 = 0
9 − 𝑥2 = 0
𝑥2 = 9
𝑥 = ±3
3

∫(9 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
−3
𝑥3 3
= [9𝑥 − ]
3 −3
33 (−3)3
= [9(3) − ] − [9(−3) − ]
3 3
LESSON 5 Find the area of the region = [27 − 9] − [−27 + 9]
6
bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥2 , the 𝑥 −axis and the = 18 − (−18)
lines 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 2. = 36 units 2
SOLUTION
2 2
6
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 6𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥 SUM FORMULA FOR THE AREA UNDER
𝑥
1 1 A GRAPH
𝑥 −2+1 2 𝑥 −1 2 INTRODUCTION
= [6 ( )] = [6 ( )]
−2 + 1 1 −1 1 While we have alreadu looked at how to
2 6 2 determine the area under a curve bounded by the
= [−6𝑥 −1 ] = [− ] 𝑥 – axis and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 we now
1 𝑥 1
6 6 look at it from a more theoretical aspect to see
= [− ] — = (−3)— 6 how the formula wich you already know was
2 1
= −3 + 6 developed.
= 3 units 2

To determine the area under a curve we could

LESSON 6 Find the area bounded by the proceed as follows.
curve 𝑦 = 9 − 𝑥 2 and the 𝑥-axis and the points  Divide the shape into rectangles each of
where the graph cuts the 𝑥-axis equal width, (𝑥1 − 𝑥0 ) i.e. (𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 )
 Determine the area of each individual
rectangle; 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 )(𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 )

152
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

 Sum these areas to obtain an estimate of 3

the area under the curve = ∫(−2𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 12) 𝑑𝑥

2
Area under curve :
𝑥=𝑥𝑛
2𝑥 3 10𝑥 2 3
∑ 𝑓(𝑥)(𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 ) = [− + − 12𝑥]
3 2 2
𝑥=𝑥0
This procedure is not very efficient. As we can see 2(3)3 2(2)3
= [− + 5(3)2 − 12(3)] − [− + 5(2)2 − 12(2)]
from the graph this approximation of the area 3 3
under the curve is well off of the actual value. To
1
improve the accuracy of our approximation we = units 2
can reduce the width of each rectangle until we 3
have an almost accurate approximation. LESSON 8 Find the area of the shaded
Therefore, we can say that as the width of the region
rectangle gets closer and closer to zero our
approximation gets closer and closer to the
required area. If we denote the width (𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 )
as 𝑑𝑥 and let 𝑥0 = 𝑎 and 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏 we have
Area under a curve
𝑥=𝑏

lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥→0
𝑥=𝑎
The standard notation for this area is
𝑏

∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 where ∫ is an elongated 𝑆 for sum

𝑎 SOLUTION
In general, To determine the limits of integration, along the 𝑥-
𝑏
axis, we need to find, 𝑥-ordinates of the points of
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 intersection of the two curves. These will be the
𝑎 limits of integration
is the area of the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the 𝑥-axis and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏. 𝑦 2 = 6𝑥
∴ (2𝑥)2 = 6𝑥
4𝑥 2 = 6𝑥
AREA BETWEEN 2 CURVES 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 = 0
LESSON 7 Find the area of the shaded 2𝑥(2𝑥 − 3) = 0
region. 3
𝑥=0 𝑥=
2
Limits of integration are 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 3/2
Area of the area region:
3/2 3/2

∫ √6𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
3/2
3/2 1
=∫ (6𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
0
3 3 3
1 (6𝑥)2 2𝑥 2
=[ ]2 − [ ]2
6 3⁄ 0 2 0
SOLUTION 2
3 3 3
3 3
AREA = ∫2 (6𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 5) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫2 (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7) 𝑑𝑥 1(6𝑥)2
=[ ] − [𝑥 ] 2
2 2
9 0 0

153
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

3
15 (−2)5
3 2 = ([ − 20(1)] − [ − 20(−2)])
(6 ( )) 3 5 5
2 6(0) 2 3 2
= − − [( ) − 02 ] 99 32
9 9 2 = ([− ] − [− + 40])
5 5
267
[ ] =−
9 5
= [3 − 0] − [ ] 267
4 = |− |
3 5
2 267
= units
4 = units 2
5

LESSON 11 Find the area of the shaded

AREA BELOW THE 𝒙 −AXIS
region
If the required area of 𝑓(𝑥) is below the 𝑥 −axis
then
𝑏 𝑏

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = |∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 |
𝑎 𝑎
LESSON 9 Determine the area under the
curve 𝑦 = − sin 𝑥 between the 𝑥-axis and the lines
𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝜋.
SOLUTION
𝜋

∫ − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋 SOLUTION
= [(−1)(− cos 𝑥)]
0 We have to separate the graphs into sections: (1)
= [cos 𝜋] − [cos 0]
above the 𝑥-axis and (2) below the 𝑥-axis.
= (−1) − 1 1 0
= −2
∫ 𝑥3 𝑑𝑥 + | ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 |
= | −2|
= 2 units 2 0 −1
𝑥4 1 𝑥4 0
= [ ] + |[ ] |
4 0 4 −1
4 4
LESSON 10 Find the area of the shaded 1 0 04 (−1)4
region. = [ − ] + |[ − ]|
4 4 4 4
1 1
= + |− |
4 4
1
=
2

SOLUTION Since area is below the 𝑥-axis we

have to evaluate
1

| ∫(𝑥 4 − 20) 𝑑𝑥 |
−2
𝑥5 1
=[ − 20𝑥]
5 −2

154
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

AREA BETWEEN A CURVE AND THE 𝒚- SOLUTION First of all we need to determine
the limits of integration. One limit is 𝑦 = 3 and the
AXIS
other occurs when along the cuve 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 2 at
In general, the area bounded by the curve
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and the 𝑦-axis between the lines the point where 𝑥 = 0.
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑏) is determined by when 𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 4
𝑓(𝑏) Therefore, we need to evaluate
4
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 ∫ 𝑓(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
𝑓(𝑎)
3
To find 𝑓(𝑦), we make 𝑥 the subject 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 2
LESSON 12 Determine the area of the shaded ∴ 𝑓(𝑦) = √4 − 𝑦
region 𝐴 4 4
1
∫ √4 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫(4 − 𝑦) 2 𝑑𝑦
3 3
3
(4 − 𝑦) 2 4
= [− ]
3⁄ 3
2
3 3
2(4 − 4) 2 2(4 − 3) 2
= [− ] − [− ]
3 3
2
SOLUTION = 0 − (− )
3
Area of 𝐴: 2
= 3 units 2
Since 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1
𝑥 = √𝑦 + 1
where 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦)
1 1
1
∫ √𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑦 = ∫(𝑦 + 1)2 𝑑𝑦
0 0
3
(𝑦 + 1) 2 1
=[ ]
3⁄ 0
2
3 3
2(1 + 1)2 2(0 + 1) 2
= −
3 3
4√2 2
= −
3 3
4√2 − 2
= units 2
3

LESSON 13 The diagram shows part of the

curve 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 2. The line 𝑦 = 3 meets this part of
the curve at the point (1, 3). Calculate the area of
the shaded region.

155
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

VOLUME OF REVOLUTION ABOUT THE 𝒙 AXIS VOLUMES OF REVOLUTION ABOUT THE 𝒚 AXIS
The volume when the area bounded by the curve, When the shaded region is rotated 360° about the
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the 𝑥-axis and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 – axis, the volume that is generated by the
is rotated 360° about the 𝑥-axis is determined by formula
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

𝜋 ∫[𝑓(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥 OR 𝜋 ∫ 𝑦2 𝑑𝑥 𝑉= 𝜋 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 or 𝜋 ∫[𝑓(𝑦)]2 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
LESSON 14 Find the volume obtained when where
the region bounded by the line
𝑦 = 3𝑥, the 𝑥-axis and the lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2 is  𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) is the equation of the curve
rotated 360° about the 𝑥-axis. expressed in terms of 𝑦
SOLUTION  𝑎 and 𝑏 are the upper and lower limits 𝑦 of the
2 area being rotated
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫(3𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥  𝑑𝑦 indicates that the area is being rotated
0 about the 𝑦 – axis
2

= 𝜋 ∫ 9𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 LESSON 16 Find the volume of the solid of

revolution when the area bounded between the
0
𝑥3 2 curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3, the 𝑦 − axis and the lines 𝑦 = 0 and
= 9𝜋 [ ] 𝑦 = 4 is rotated 360° about the 𝑦 −axis.
3 0
SOLUTION
23 03 1
= 9𝜋 [ − ] 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 → 𝑥 = 𝑦3
3 3 4
= 24𝜋 units 3 1 2
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ (𝑦 3 ) 𝑑𝑦
LESSON 15 Find the volume obtained when 0
4
the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = √𝑥 , the 𝑥- 2
= 𝜋 ∫ 𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦
axis and the lines 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥 = 9 is rotated 360°
about the 𝑥-axis. 0
5
SOLUTION 𝑦3 4
𝑦 = √𝑥 → 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 =𝜋[ ]
5⁄ 0
9 3
5
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3𝑦 3 4
3
=𝜋[ ]
5 0
𝑥2 9
=𝜋[ ] 5 5
2 3 3(4) 3 3(0)3
92 32 =𝜋[ − ]
=𝜋[ − ] 5 5
2 2
= 𝜋[6.05 − 0]
= 36𝜋 units 3
= 6.05𝜋 units 3

156
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

………………………………………………………………………….. 10. (i) Find the area of the region enclosed by the
12
EXERCISE 21.2 curve 𝑦 = 2 , the 𝑥 −axis and the
𝑥
1 lines 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 3.
1. (i) Find ∫ (6𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥.
2

(ii) Hence find the equation of the curve for

𝑑𝑦 1
which 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑥 2 − 1 and which passes
through the point (4, 17).
𝑑𝑦
2. The gradient of a curve is given by 𝑑𝑥 = 12 √𝑥.
The curve passes through the point (4, 50).
Find the equation of the curve.
3. A curve has an equation which satisfies (ii) The area of the region enclosed by
𝑑𝑦 12
= 𝑘𝑥(2𝑥 − 1) for all values of 𝑥. The point the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥2 , the 𝑥 −axis and the
𝑑𝑥
𝑃(2, 7) lies on the curve and the gradient of lines 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 𝑎, where 𝑎 > 2, is
the curve at 𝑃 is 9. 3 units 2. Find the value of 𝑎.
(i) Find the value of the constant 𝑘. 11. The diagram shows the curve 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2,
(ii) Find the equation of the curve. which crosses the 𝑥 axis at the origin 𝑂 and
the point 𝐴. The tangent to the curve at the
4. The gradient of a curve is given by point (1, 3) crosses the 𝑥 axis at the point 𝐵.
𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 + 𝑎, where 𝑎 is a constant. The curve (i) Find the coordinates of 𝐴 and 𝐵.
𝑑𝑥
(ii) Find the area of the shaded region.
passes through the points (−1, 2) and (2, 17).
12. The graph shows part of the curve
Find the equation of the curve. 𝜋
𝑑𝑦 𝜋 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑥 + 4 cos 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ .
2
5. A curve is such that 𝑑𝑥 = 2 cos (2𝑥 − 2 ). The
𝜋
curve passes through the point ( 2 , 3).
(i) Find the equation of the curve.
(ii) Find the equation of the normal to the
3𝜋
curve at the point where 𝑥 = .
4
𝜋
NB: cos (𝜃 ± 2 ) = sin𝜃
𝑑𝑦 𝜋
6. A curve is such that 𝑑𝑥 = 6 cos (2𝑥 + 2 ) for
𝜋 5𝜋
− ≤𝑥≤ . The curve passes through the
4 4
𝜋
point ( , 5). Find
4 (i) Find the coordinates of the maximum
(i) the equation of the curve, point of the curve.
(ii) the 𝑥 coordinate of the stationary (ii) Find the area of the shaded region.
points of the curve, 13. Find the volume generated when the region
(iii) the equation of the normal to the 1
bounded by the curve 𝑦 = , the 𝑥-axis, the
curve at the point on the curve where 2𝑥+1
𝑥= 4.
3𝜋 line 𝑥 = 2 and the line 𝑥 = 7 is rotated
through 360° about the 𝑥-axis
7. Find the area enclosed between the curve 14. Find the volume generated when the region
𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6, the 𝑥 – axis from 9
bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 𝑥, the 𝑥-axis
𝑥 = 1 to 𝑥 = 3
8. Find the area enclosed between the curve and the lines 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 3 is rotated
𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2, the 𝑥 – axis from 𝑥 = 2 to 𝑥 = 4 through 360° about the 𝑥-axis
9. Find the area enclosed between the curve 15. Show that (cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥)2 ≡ 1 + sin 2𝑥.
𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)2 + 3, the 𝑥 – axis from 𝑥 = −5 to Hence find the volume generated when the
𝑥 = −2. region bounded by the curve
𝑦 = cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥, the 𝑥-axis and the lines
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 = 4 , 𝑥 = 2, is rotated through a complete
revolution about the 𝑥-axis.

157
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

16. Find the areas of the shaded regions. 18. Determine the areas of the shaded regions.
(a) (a)

(b)
(b)

(c)

(c)

17. The diagram shows part of the curve

𝑦 = 7 + 6𝑥 − 𝑥 2

(d)

Find
(i) the coordinates of the points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 and 𝑆
(ii) the area of the three shaded regions.

158
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

19. The diagram shows the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 3 and

the line 𝑦 = 19 which intersect at (−2, 19)
and (2, 19). Find the exact area of the shaded
region enclosed by the curve and the line.

20. The diagram shows part of the curve 𝑦 = 23. The diagram shows part of the curve
(𝑥 − 3) 2 intersected by a straight line at 3𝑦 = 5(𝑥 2 − 1). Calculate the volume
𝐴(0, 9) and 𝐵(4, 1). Evaluate the area of the generated when the shaded region is rotated
shaded region. through 360° about the 𝑦-axis.

24. The diagram shows part of the curve

𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 2 . The line 𝑦 = 3 meets this part of
the curve at the point (1, 3).
Calculate the volume obtained when the
shaded region is rotated through 360° about
21. The diagram shows part of the curve the 𝑦-axis.
𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 2 . The line 𝑦 = 3 meets this part of
the curve at the point (1, 3). Calculate the
area of the shaded region.

25. The diagram shows part of the curves

𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 5 and 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 1, intersecting at
22. The diagram shows part of the curves (2, 13). Find the volume generated when the
𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 5 and shaded region is rotated through 360° about
𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 1, intersecting at (2, 13). Find the the 𝑦-axis.
area of the shaded region.

159
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

EXAM QUESTIONS
𝑥 4−𝑥2
1. (i) Show that for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 +4, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (𝑥2 +4)2
.
[4]
2 12−3𝑥2
(ii) Hence, evaluate ∫0 (𝑥2 +4)2
𝑑𝑥 [4]
CAPE 2003
2. In the diagram (not drawn to scale), the line
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 cuts the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at the points
𝑃 and 𝑄.

SOLUTIONS
3 𝑥2 3 𝑥2
1. (i) 4𝑥 2 − + 𝑐 (ii) 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2 − −7
2 2
3
2. 𝑦 = 8𝑥 − 14 2

3 3𝑥2
3. (i) 𝑘 = 2 (ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − +2
4
4. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 5
5. (i) 𝑦 = − cos(2𝑥) + 2 (a) Determine the coordinates of 𝑃 and 𝑄.
1 16−3𝜋
(ii) 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 8 [4]
6. (i) 𝑦 = 3 cos 2𝑥 + 5 (ii) 𝑥 = 0, 𝜋 (b) Calculate the area of the shaded portion
1 40+𝜋 𝑃𝑂𝑄 shown in the diagram. [5]
(iii) 𝑦 = − 6 𝑥 + CAPE 2007
8
7. 2
16 3. The curve 𝐶 passes through the point (−1, 0)
8.
3
116
and its gradient at any point (𝑥, 𝑦) is given by
9. 𝑑𝑦
3 = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
10. (i) 8 (ii) 𝑎 = 4 (i) Find the equation of 𝐶. [3]
1 2
11. (i) 𝐴(4, 0), 𝐵 (− , 0) (ii) 10 (ii) Find the coordinates of the stationary
2 3
12. (i) (0.64, 5) (ii) 7 points of 𝐶 and determine the nature of
𝜋
13. 15 EACH point. [7]
482𝜋 (iii) Sketch the graph of 𝐶 and label the
14.
3 𝑥 −intercepts. [5]
𝜋+2
15. 𝜋 ( ) CAPE 2008
4
4 3 4. The function 𝑓(𝑥) is such that
16. (a) 3 (b) 15 4 (c) 2
2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 𝑘 where 𝑘 is a constant.
17. (i) 𝑃(7, 0), 𝑄(−1, 0), 𝑅(0, 7), 𝑆(6, 7) (ii) 44 3 Given that 𝑓(0) = −6 and 𝑓(1) = −3, find the
18. (a)
125
(b) 3 (c)
4 11
(d) 0.29 function 𝑓(𝑥). [5]
3 6 CAPE 2009
256
19. 5
2
20. 10
3
2
21.
3
16
22. 3
23. 35𝜋
𝜋
24. 2
25. 8𝜋

160
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

5. In the diagram m (not drawn to scale), the 7. The diagram (not drawn to scale) shows the
line 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2 intersects the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 3 and the line 𝑦 = 4𝑥.
the points 𝑃 and 𝑄.

(i) Find the coordinates of the point 𝑃 and 𝑄. (i) Determine the coordinates of the points 𝑃
[5] and 𝑄 at which the curve and the line
(ii) Calculate the area of the shaded region of intersect. [4]
the diagram bounded by the curve and (ii) Calculate the area of the shaded region.
the straight line. [5] [5]
CAPE 2010 CAPE 2013
6. The curve, 𝐶, passes through the point (−1, 0) 8. The gradient of a curve which passes through
and its gradient at the point (𝑥, 𝑦)is given by the point (−1, −4) is given by
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥. = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(i) Find the equation of 𝐶. [4] (i) Find

(ii) Find the coordinates of the stationary (a) the equation of the curve [4]
points of 𝐶. [3] (b) the coordinates of the stationary
(iii) Determine the nature of EACH stationary points and determine their
point. [3] nature. [8]
(iv) Find the coordinates of the points 𝑃 and 𝑄 (ii) Sketch the curve in (a) (i) (a) above,
at which the curve 𝐶 meets the 𝑥 −axis. clearly making ALL stationary points
[5] and intercepts. [4]
(v) Hence, sketch the curve 𝐶, showing CAPE 2014
(a) the stationary points
(b) the points 𝑃 and 𝑄 [4]
CAPE 2012

161
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

9. (a) In the diagram given, not drawn to scale, (c) Show that the curve 𝑓(𝑥) touches the
the area under the curve 𝑥 −axis at 𝑥 = 1. [4]
𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥)−1, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, is (d) Sketch the curve, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 2,
approximated by a set of 𝑛 rectangular −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2. [6]
1
strips of width 𝑛 units. (e) Find the area bounded by this curve and
the 𝑥 −axis for −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1. [6]
CAPE 2004
12. The three points 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅, on the curve
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 are shown in the diagram (not
drawn to scale).

Show that the sum, 𝑆𝑛 , of the areas of the

1 1 1
rectangular strips is 𝑛+1 + 𝑛+2 + ⋯ + 2𝑛.
[7]
(a) (i) Sketch the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1. [3]
(ii) Find the volume obtained by rotating (a) Find the coordinates of EACH of the
the portion of the curve between points 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅. [4]
𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1 through 2𝜋 radians (b) Find the TOTAL area bounded by the
about the 𝑦 axis. [7] curve shown, the 𝑥 −axis and the lines
CAPE 2003 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 2. [4]
CAPE 2005
10. The diagram below is a rough diagram of
𝑦 = |𝑥 − 2| for real values of 𝑥 from 13. The diagram (not drawn to scale) shows the
16
𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 4. shaded area, 𝐴, bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥2
1
and lines 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 3.

(a) Find the coordinates of the points 𝐴 and

𝐵. [2]
(b) Find the volume generated by rotating the
triangle 𝑂𝐴𝐵 shown above through
360° about the 𝑥 −axis. [4] (a) Express the shaded area, 𝐴, as the
CAPE 2004 difference of two definite integrals. [1]
11. (a) Find the stationary point(s) of the curve, (b) Hence, show that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 2, [6] 3 1 3 3
𝐴 = 16 ∫2 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∫2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫2 𝑑𝑥.
(b) Determine the nature of the stationary
point(s). [3] [2]
(c) Find the value of 𝐴. [3]

162
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

CAPE 2006
14. Use the result
𝑎 𝑎
∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 > 0, to show
that
𝜋 𝜋
(a) ∫0 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 sin𝑥 𝑑𝑥 −
𝜋
∫0 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 [2]
𝜋
(b) ∫0 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 [5]
CAPE 2006

15. (a) Differentiate, with respect to 𝑥, the (i) Taking 𝑟 units as the radius of the
𝑥2 −4 cylinder and ℎ units as its height,
function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥3 +1. [4]
show that
(b) Using the substitution 𝑢 = sin 2𝑥, or 45 2𝑟
𝜋 (a) ℎ = 𝑟2 − 3 [3]
otherwise, evaluate ∫04 sin2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥. 5𝜋𝑟2 90𝜋
(b) 𝐴 = + , where 𝐴 units is
[4] 3 𝑟
the external surface area of the
CAPE 2007 can. [3]
(ii) Hence, find the value of 𝑟 for which 𝐴
16. (a) (i) Use the result is a minimum and the corresponding
𝑎 𝑎
∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 > 0, to minimum value of 𝐴. [5]
𝜋 4 3
show that if 𝐼 = ∫02 sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, then Volume of a sphere = 𝜋𝑟 ,
𝜋 [ 3 ]
𝐼 = ∫02 cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. Surface area of a sphere = 4𝜋𝑟 2
[2] Volume of a cylinder = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ,
𝜋 [ ]
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, show that 𝐼 = 4. Curved surface area of a cylinder = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
[6] CAPE 2008
(b) (i) Sketch the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 4. [4]
(ii) Calculate the volume created by 𝑎 𝑎
18. Given that ∫0 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫0 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥,
rotating the plane figure bounded by
𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 4, 𝑦 = 5 and the curve 𝑎 > 0, find the value of the constant 𝑎.
[6]
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 4 through about the
𝑦 −axis. CAPE 2009
1 1 2
[8] 19. (i) Evaluate ∫−1 (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥. [6]
CAPE 2007 (ii) Using the substitution 𝑢 = + 4, or 𝑥2
17. (a) Differentiate with respect to 𝑥 otherwise, find ∫ 𝑥√𝑥 2 + 4 𝑑𝑥. [4]
(i) 𝑥√2𝑥 − 1 [3] CAPE 2010
(ii) sin2(𝑥 3 + 4) [4] 4
6 20. The function 𝑓(𝑥) satisfies ∫1 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 7.
(b) (i) Given that ∫1 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 7, 4
6 (i) Find ∫1 [3𝑓(𝑥) + 4] 𝑑𝑥 [4]
evaluate ∫1 [2 − 𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
(ii) Using the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1, evaluate
(ii) The area under the curve 3
∫0 2𝑓(𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥. [4]
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 5, above the 𝑥-axis and
bounded by the lines 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 3 CAPE 2010
2 21. (a) The diagram (not drawn to scale) is a
is 14 3 units 2.
sketch of the section of the function
Find the value of the constant 𝑘. [4] 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 12) which passes through
(c) The diagram below not drawn to scale the origin 𝑂. 𝐴 and 𝐵 are the
represents a can in the shape of a closed stationary points on the curve.
cylinder with a hemisphere at one end.
The can has volume of 45𝜋 units 3

163
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

The perimeter of the track must be 600

metres.
600−2𝑥
(i) Show that 𝑟 = 2+𝜋 . [2]
(ii) Hence, determine the length, 𝑥, that
Find maximises the area enclosed by the
track. [6]
(i) the coordinates of each of the (c) (i) Let 𝑦 = −𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 2 cos 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵,
stationary points, 𝐴 and 𝐵 [8] where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are constants. Show
(ii) the equation of the normal to the that 𝑦 ′′ = 𝑥 sin𝑥. [4]
curve 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 12) at the (ii) Hence, determine the specific
origin. [2] solution of the differential equation
(iii) the area between the curve and the 𝑦 ′′ = 𝑥 sin𝑥, given that when 𝑥 = 0,
positive 𝑥 −axis. [6] 𝑦 = 1 and when 𝑥 = 𝜋, 𝑦 = 6. [4]
(b) (i) Use the result CAPE 2013
𝑎 𝑎
23. The equation of a curve is given by
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 > 0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥√1 + 𝑥 2 .
0 0 3
(i) Evaluate ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 [5]
to show that
𝜋 𝜋 (ii) Find the volume generated by rotating the
∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝜋 − 𝑥) sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 area bounded by the curve in (i) above,
0 0
the 𝑥 −axis, and the lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2
[2] about the 𝑥 −axis. [4]
(ii) Hence show that CAPE 2014
𝜋 24. (a) The diagram (not drawn to scale) shows
(a) ∫0 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝜋 𝜋 the region bounded by the lines
𝜋 ∫0 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫0 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 7, 𝑦 + 𝑥 = 9 and 3𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3.
[2]
𝜋
(b) ∫0 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 [5]
CAPE 2011
22. (a) (i) By using the substitution 𝑢 = 1 − 𝑥,
2
find ∫ 𝑥(1 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥. [5]
(ii) Given that 𝑓(𝑡) = 2 cos 𝑡,
𝑔(𝑡) = 4 sin 5𝑡 + 3 cos 𝑡, show that
∫[𝑓(𝑡) + 𝑔(𝑡)] 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
[4]
(b) A sports association is planning to
construct a running track in the shape of a (i) Show that the coordinates of 𝐴, 𝐵 and
rectangle surmounted by a semicircle, as 𝐶 are (4, 5), (3, 2) and (6, 3)
shown in the diagram. The letter 𝑥 respectively. [5]
represents the length of the rectangular (ii) Hence, use integration to determine
section and 𝑟 represents the radius of the the area bounded by the lines. [6]
semicircle. (b) The gradient function of a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
which passes through the point (0, −6) is
given by 3𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 − 3.
(i) Determine the equation of the curve.
[3]

164
 CHAPTER 21: INTEGRATION

(ii) Find the coordinates and natures of

the stationary points of the curve in
(b) (i) above. [8]
(iii) Sketch the curve in (b)(i) by clearly
labelling the stationary points. [3]
CAPE 2015

SOLUTIONS
3
1. (ii) 4
22
2. (a) 𝑃(−1, 1), 𝑄(3, 9) (b) 3
3. (i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 4
(ii) (0, 4) max, (2, 0) min
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6
9
5. (i) 𝑃(−2, 4), 𝑄(1, 1) (ii) 2
6. (i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 4 (ii) 𝐴(0, 4), 𝐵(2, 0)
(iii) 𝐴 – max, 𝐵 – min
4
7. (i) 𝑃(1, 4), 𝑄(3, 12) (ii) 3
1 4
8. (i) (a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 (b) ( , ) max,
3 27
5𝜋
9. (a) (b) (i) (ii) 3
4𝜋
10. (a) 𝐴(0, 2) , 𝐵 (2, 0) (b)
3
11. (a) 𝐴(−1, 4), 𝐵(1, 0)
(b) 𝐴-maximum, 𝐵-minimum (c)
3
(d) (e) 6
4
8
12. (a) 𝑃 (−1, 3) , 𝑄(1, −1), 𝑅(2, 0) (b) 3
3 16 3 1 29
13. (a) ∫2 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 − ∫2 (2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 (b) (c) 12
14. (a) (b)
𝑥(𝑥3 −12𝑥−2) 1
15. (a) − (𝑥3 +1)2
(b) 4
16. (a) (i) (ii) (b) (i) (ii)
3𝑥 −1
17. (a) (i) (ii) 3𝑥 2 sin(2(𝑥 3 + 4))
√2𝑥−1
(b) (i) 3 (ii) 𝑘 = 4
(c) (i) (a) (b) (ii)𝑟 = 3, 𝐴 = 45𝜋
18. 𝑎 = 4
16 1 3
19. (i) − (ii) 3 (𝑥 2 + 4) 2 + 𝑐
3
20. (i) 33 (ii) 14
1
21. (a) (i) (−2, 16), (2, −16) (ii) 𝑦 = 12 𝑥 (iii) 36
(b) (i) (ii) (a) (b)
(1−𝑥) 4 (1−𝑥)3
22. (a) (i) − +𝑐 (ii)
4 3
2400
(b) (i) (ii) 𝑥 = 16+4𝜋
𝑥
(c) (i) (ii) 𝑦 = −𝑥 sin𝑥 − 2 cos 𝑥 + 11 + 3
2 544𝜋
23. (i) 3 (10√10 − 1) (ii) 15
24. (a) (ii) 4 (b) (i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6
1 176
(ii) (−3, 12) max, (3 , − 27 ) min (iii)

165
ANSWERS FOR REASONING AND LOGIC

1. (i) ~𝑝 (b)
(ii) 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝
(iii) 𝑞 → 𝑝 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ∼𝑎 ∼𝑏 ∼𝑎 (∼ 𝑎
2. (a) ∧ ∧∼ 𝑏)
𝑎 ∼𝑎 ∼𝑏 ∨𝑐
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
This is a contingency. 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
(b) 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
𝑎 𝑏 ∼𝑎 ~𝑎 ∨ 𝑏 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1
This is a contingency. 4. (a)
(c) 𝑎 𝑏 ∼𝑎 ∼𝑎→𝑏
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎∨𝑏 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1
This is a contingency.
(b)
(d) 𝑎 𝑏 c 𝑎∧𝑏 (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏)
→𝑐
𝑎 𝑏 ~𝑎 ~𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
This is a contingency. 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
3. (a) 1 1 1 1 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎∧𝑏 (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) ∨ 𝑐
0 0 0 0 0 (c)
0 0 1 0 1 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑎 (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏)
0 1 0 0 0 ∨𝑏 ∧𝑐 → (𝑎 ∧ 𝑐)
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1

5. Converse: (𝑞 ∧ 𝑝) → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
Inverse: ∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑝)
Contrapositive: ∼ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑝) →∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
6.
7. (a) 𝑎 ∨ 𝑏 (b) 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏

166
8.
9. (i) (𝑞 ∨ ~𝑝) → (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) (ii)
10.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝 𝑟→𝑞 (𝑝 → 𝑞)
→𝑞 ∧ (𝑟 → 𝑞)
0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

11. (i) ∼ 𝑝 →∼ 𝑞 ∼ 𝑞 →∼ 𝑝
(ii)
𝒑 𝒒 ∼𝒑 ∼𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 ∼𝒒→
∼𝒑
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

(iii) They are logically equivalent since they

have the same truth table values.
12. Converse: ~𝑞 → 𝑝
Inverse: ~𝑝 → 𝑞
Contrapositive: 𝑞 → ~𝑝

167
 CAPE 2012 PAST PAPER

CAPE 2012
SECTION A

1. (a) The expression 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 − 10 is divisible by 𝑥 − 1 and has a remainder −6 when

divided by 𝑥 + 1.

Find

(i) the values of the constants 𝑝 and 𝑞. [7]

(ii) the factors of 𝑓(𝑥) [3]

2
(b) Find positive integers 𝑥 and 𝑦 such that (√𝑥 + √𝑦) = 16 + √240. [8]

(c) (i) Solve, for real values of 𝑥, the inequality |3𝑥 − 7| ≤ 5. [5]

(ii) Show that no real solution, 𝑥, exists for the inequality |3𝑥 − 7| + 5 ≤ 0. [2]

Total 25 marks

2. (a) The function 𝑓 on ℝ is defined by 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑥 2 − 3.

(i) Find, in terms of 𝑥, 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)). [3]

(ii) Determine the values of 𝑥 for which 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 3). [6]

(b) The roots of the equation 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽.

Without solving the equation

(i) write down the values of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽 [2]

(ii) find the value of 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 [2]

2 2
(iii) obtain a quadratic equation whose roots are 𝛼2 and 𝛽2 . [5]

(c) Without the use of calculators or tables, evaluate

1 3 5 7 9
(i) log 10 (3) + log 10 (5) + log 10 (7) + log 10 (9) + log 10 (10) [3]

𝑟
(ii) ∑99
𝑟=1 log 10 (𝑟+1) [4]

Total 25 marks

168
 CAPE 2012 PAST PAPER

SECTION B

3. (a) (i) Given that cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin𝐴 sin 𝐵 and cos 2𝜃 = 2 cos 2 𝜃 − 1, prove that

1
cos 3𝜃 ≡ 2 cos 𝜃 [cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 − ]
2

[7]

(ii) Using the appropriate formula, show that

1
[sin 6𝜃 − sin2𝜃] ≡ (2 cos 2 2𝜃 − 1) sin 2𝜃
2

[5]
𝜋
(iii) Hence, or otherwise, solve sin 6𝜃 − sin2𝜃 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ . [5]
2

(b) Find ALL possible values of cos 𝜃 such that 2 cot 2 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = 0. [8]

Total 25 marks

4. (a) (i) Determine the Cartesian equation of the curve, 𝐶, defined by the parametric equations 𝑦 = 3 sec 𝜃

and 𝑥 = 3 tan 𝜃. [5]

(ii) Find the points of intersection of the curve 𝑦 = √10𝑥 with 𝐶. [9]

(b) Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be two position vectors with endpoints (−3, 4) and (−1, 6) respectively.

(i) Express 𝑝 and 𝑞 in the form 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗. [2]

(ii) Obtain the vector 𝑝 − 𝑞. [2]

(iii) Calculate 𝑝. 𝑞. [2]

(iv) Let the angle between 𝑝 and 𝑞 be 𝜃. Use the result of (iii) above to calculate 𝜃 in degrees. [5]

Total 25 marks

169
 CAPE 2012 PAST PAPER

SECTION C
𝑥3 +8
5. (a) (i) Find the values of 𝑥 for which 𝑥2 −4 is discontinuous. [2]

𝑥3 +8
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, find lim [3]
𝑥→−2 𝑥2 −4

sin𝑥 2𝑥3 +4𝑥

(iii) By using the fact that lim = 1, or otherwise, find, lim [5]
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 sin2𝑥

(b) The function 𝑓 on ℝ is defined by

𝑥 2 + 1, 𝑥>1
𝑓(𝑥) = {
4 + 𝑝𝑥, 𝑥<1

(i) Find

a) lim 𝑓(𝑥) [2]

𝑥→1+

b) the value of the constant 𝑝 such that lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists. [4]
𝑥→1

(ii) Hence, determine the value of 𝑓(1) for 𝑓 to be continuous at the point 𝑥 = 1. [1]
𝑣
(c) A chemical process in a manufacturing plant is controlled by the function 𝑀 = 𝑢𝑡 2 + 𝑡2 where 𝑢 and
35
𝑣 are constants. Given that 𝑀 = −1 when 𝑡 = 1 and that the rate of change of 𝑀 with respect to 𝑡 is
4
when 𝑡 = 2, find the values of 𝑢 and 𝑣. [8]

Total 25 marks
𝑑𝑦
6. (a) (i) Given that 𝑦 = √4𝑥 2 − 7, show that 𝑦 = 4𝑥. [3]
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, show that 𝑦 𝑑𝑥2 + (𝑑𝑥 ) = 4. [3]

(b) The curve, 𝐶, passes through the point (−1, 0) and its gradient at the point (𝑥, 𝑦) is given by
𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

(i) Find the equation of 𝐶. [4]

(ii) Find the coordinates of the stationary points of 𝐶. [3]

(iii) Determine the nature of EACH stationary point. [3]

(iv) Find the coordinates of the points 𝑃 and 𝑄 at which the curve 𝐶 meets the 𝑥-axis. [5]

(v) Hence, sketch the curve 𝐶, showing

a) the stationary points

b) the points 𝑃 and 𝑄 [4]

Total 25 marks

170
 CAPE 2013 PAST PAPER

CAPE 2013
SECTION A

1. (a) Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be two propositions. Construct a truth table for the statements

(i) 𝑝 → 𝑞 [1]

(ii) ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) [2]

(b) A binary operator ⨁ is defined on a set of positive real numbers by 𝑦⨁𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 + 𝑥 − 5𝑥𝑦.

Solve the equation 2⨁𝑥 = 0. [5]

(c) Use mathematical induction to prove that 5𝑛 + 3 is divisible by 2 for all values of 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁. [8]

(d) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 16.

(i) Given that (𝑥 + 1) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), show that 𝑝 = 6. [2]

(ii) Factorise 𝑓(𝑥) completely. [4]

(iii) Hence, or otherwise, solve 𝑓(𝑥) = 0. [3]

Total 25 marks

2. (a) Let 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≥ 1}.

A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → ℝ is defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥. Show that 𝑓 is one to one. [7]

(b) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 .

(i) Find

a) 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and 𝑔 −1 (𝑥) [4]

b) 𝑓 [𝑔(𝑥 )] (or 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 (𝑥 )). [1]

(ii) Show that (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) −1 (𝑥) = 𝑔−1 (𝑥) ∘ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥). [5]

(c) Solve the following:

(i) 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 ≤ 5 [4]

(ii) |𝑥 + 2| = 3𝑥 + 5 [4]

Total 25 marks

171
 CAPE 2013 PAST PAPER

SECTION B
2 tan 𝜃
3. (a) (i) Show that sin 2𝜃 = . [4]
1+tan2 𝜃

(ii) Hence, or otherwise, solve sin 2𝜃 − tan 𝜃 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜃. [8]

𝜋
(b) (i) Express 𝑓(𝜃) = 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 in the form 𝑟 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼) where 𝑟 > 0 and 0° ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 2 . [4]

(ii) Hence, find

a) the maximum value of 𝑓(𝜃) [2]

1
b) the minimum value of 8+𝑓(𝜃) [2]

(iii) Given that the sum of the angles 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 of a triangle is 𝜋 radians, show that

a) sin 𝐴 = sin(𝐵 + 𝐶) [3]

b) sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵 + sin 𝐶 = sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐵 + 𝐶) + sin(𝐴 + 𝐶) [2]

Total 25 marks

4. (a) A circle 𝐶 is defined by the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 4 = 0.

(i) Show that the centre and the radius of the circle, 𝐶, are (3, 2) and 3, respectively. [3]

(ii) a) Find the equation of the normal to the circle 𝐶 at the point (6, 2). [3]

b) Show that the tangent to the circle at the point (6, 2) is parallel to the 𝑦 – axis. [3]

(b) Show that the Cartesian equation of the curve that has the parametric equations 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 + 𝑡,
𝑦 = 2𝑡 − 4 is 4𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 + 24. [4]

(c) The points 𝐴(3, −1, 2), 𝐵(1, 2, −4) and 𝐶(−1, 1, −2) are three vertices of a parallelogram 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

(i) Express the vectors 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 in the form 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘. [3]

(ii) Show that the vector 𝑟 = −16𝑗 − 8𝑘 is perpendicular to the plane through 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶. [5]

(iii) Hence, find the Cartesian equation of the plane through 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶. [4]

Total 25 marks

172
 CAPE 2013 PAST PAPER

SECTION C
𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 < 2
5. (a) A function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2
𝑥 , 𝑥>2

(i) Find lim 𝑓(𝑥) [4]

𝑥→2

(ii) Determine whether 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 2. Give a reason for your answer. [2]

𝑥2 +2𝑥+3 𝑑𝑦 −4𝑥3 −10𝑥2 −14𝑥+4

(b) Let 𝑦 = (𝑥2 +2)3
. Show that 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥2 +2)6
. [5]

(c) The equation of an ellipse is given by 𝑥 = 1 − 3 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.

𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝜃. [5]

(d) The diagram below (not drawn to scale) shows the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 3 and the line 𝑦 = 4𝑥.

(i) Determine the coordinates of the points 𝑃 and 𝑄 at which the curve and the line intersect. [4]

(ii) Calculate the area of the shaded region. [5]

Total 25 marks

173
 CAPE 2013 PAST PAPER

6. (a) (i) By using the substitution 𝑢 = 1 − 𝑥, find ∫ 𝑥(1 − 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥. [5]

(ii) Given that 𝑓(𝑡) = 2 cos 𝑡 , 𝑔(𝑡) = 4 sin 5𝑡 + 3 cos 𝑡, show that

∫[𝑓(𝑡) + 𝑔(𝑡)] 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡. [4]

(b) A sports association is planning to construct a running track in the shape of a rectangle surmounted
by a semicircle, as shown in the diagram blow. The letter 𝑥 represents the length of the rectangular
section and 𝑟 represents the radius of the semicircle.

The perimeter of the track must be 600 metres.

600−2𝑥
(i) Show that 𝑟 = 2+𝜋
. [2]

(ii) Hence, determine the length, 𝑥, that maximises the area enclosed by the track. [6]

(c) (i) Let 𝑦 = −𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 2 cos 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵, where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are constants. Show that 𝑦 ′′ = 𝑥 sin 𝑥. [4]

(ii) Hence, determine the specific solution of the differential equation 𝑦 ′′ = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 given that 𝑥 = 0,
𝑦 = 1 and when 𝑥 = 𝜋, 𝑦 = 6. [4]

Total 25 marks

174
 CAPE 2014 PAST PAPER

CAPE 2014
SECTION A
1. (a) Let 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟 be three propositions. Construct a truth table for the statement
(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑟 → 𝑞)
[5]
(b) A binary operator ⊕ is defined on a set of positive real numbers by
𝑦 ⊕ 𝑥 = 𝑦 3 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 5𝑦 − 5𝑥 + 16 where 𝑎 is a real number.
(i) State, giving a reason for your answer, if ⊕ is commutative in ℝ. [3]
(ii) Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 ⊕ 𝑥 and (𝑥 − 1) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥),
a) find the value of 𝑎 [4]
b) factorize 𝑓(𝑥) completely. [3]
(c) Use mathematical induction to prove that
𝑛
12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) 2 = 3 (4𝑛2 − 1) for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
[10]
Total 25 marks

2. (a) The functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined as follows:

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 1
𝑥−1
𝑔(𝑥) = √ where 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
2
(i) Determine, in terms of 𝑥,
(a) 𝑓 2 (𝑥) [3]
(b) 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] [3]
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, state the relationship between 𝑓 and 𝑔. [1]
𝑎+𝑏
(b) Given that 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 = 5𝑎𝑏2 , show that 3 log ( ) = log 𝑎 + 2 log 𝑏. [5]
2
(c) Solve EACH of the following equations
1
(i) 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒𝑥 − 2 = 0 [4]
(ii) log 2 (𝑥 + 1) − log 2 (3𝑥 + 1) = 2 [4]
(d) Without the use of a calculator, show that
√3 − 1 √3 + 1 √2 − 1 √2 + 1
+ + + = 10
√3 + 1 √3 − 1 √2 + 1 √2 − 1
[5]
Total 25 marks

175
 CAPE 2014 PAST PAPER

SECTION B
cot 𝑦−cot 𝑥 sin(𝑥−𝑦)
3. (a) (i) Prove that cot 𝑥+cot 𝑦 = . [4]
sin(𝑥+𝑦)
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, find the possible values of 𝑦 in the trigonometric equation
cot 𝑦 − cot 𝑥
= 1, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2𝜋,
cot 𝑥 + cot 𝑦
1 𝜋
when sin𝑥 = 2 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 . [8]
𝜋
(b) (i) Express 𝑓(𝜃) = 3 sin 2𝜃 + 4 cos 2𝜃 in the form 𝑟 sin(2𝜃 + 𝛼) where 𝑟 > 0 and 0 < 𝛼 < 2 .
[4]
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, determine
(a) the value of 𝜃, between 0 and 2𝜋 radians, at which 𝑓(𝜃) is a minimum [4]
1
(b) the minimum and maximum values of 7−𝑓(𝜃). [5]
Total 25 marks

4. (a) Let 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 be two diameters of a circle 𝐶. The equations of 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 1 = 0 and
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5, respectively.
(i) Show that the coordinates of the centre of the circle, 𝐶, where 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 intersect are (2, 3).
[3]
(ii) 𝐴 and 𝐵 are endpoints of the diameter 𝐿1. Given that the coordinates of 𝐴 are (1, 2) and that
the diameters of a circle bisect each other, determine the coordinates of 𝐵. [3]
(iii) A point, 𝑝, moves in the 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane such that its distance from 𝐶(2, 3) is always √2 units.
Determine the locus of 𝑝. [3]
(b) The parametric equations of a curve, 𝑆, are given by
1 𝑡
𝑥= and 𝑦 =
1+ 𝑡 1 − 𝑡2
Determine the Cartesian equation of the curve, 𝑆. [6]
(c) The points 𝑃(3, −2, 1), 𝑄(−1, 𝜆, 5) and 𝑅(2, 1, 4) are three vertices of a triangle 𝑃𝑄𝑅.
(i) Express EACH of the vectors 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑄𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑅𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in the form 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 𝑧𝒌. [4]
(ii) Hence, find the value of 𝜆, given that 𝑃𝑄𝑅 is right – angled with the side 𝑃𝑄 as hypotenuse.
[6]
Total 25 marks

176
 CAPE 2014 PAST PAPER

SECTION C

5. (a) Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined as

𝑎𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 < 3
𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑎𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 3
(i) Find the value of 𝑎 if 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 3. [4]
𝑥2 +2
(ii) Let 𝑔(𝑥) = .
𝑏𝑥2 +𝑥+4
Given that lim 2𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥), find the value of 𝑏. [5]
𝑥→1 𝑥→0
1 𝑑𝑦
(b) (i) Let 𝑦 = . Using first principles, find 𝑑𝑥 . [8]
√𝑥
𝑥 𝑑𝑦
(ii) If 𝑦 = , determine an expression for 𝑑𝑥 .
√1+𝑥
Simplify the answer FULLY. [4]
(c) The parametric equations of a curve are given by
𝑥 = cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = sin𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 in terms in 𝜃.
Simplify the answer as far as possible. [4]
Total 25 marks
𝑑𝑦
6. (a) The gradient of a curve which passes through the point (−1, −4) is given by 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1.
(i) Find
(a) the equation of the curve [4]
(b) the coordinates of the stationary points and determine their nature. [8]
(ii) sketch the curve in (a) (i) (a) above, clearly making ALL stationary points and intercepts. [4]
(b) The equation of a curve is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥√1 + 𝑥 2 .
3
(i) Evaluate ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥. [5]
(ii) Find the volume generated by rotating the area bounded by the curve in (b) (i) above, the
𝑥 −axis, and the lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2 about the 𝑥 − axis. [4]
Total 25 marks

177
 CAPE 2015 PAST PAPER

CAPE 2015
SECTION A
1. (a) Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be any two propositions.
(i) State the inverse and the contrapositive of the statement 𝑝 → 𝑞. [2]
(ii) Copy and complete the table below to show the truth table for 𝑝 → 𝑞 and ~𝑞 → ~𝑝.
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 ~𝒒 → ~𝒑
T T
T F
F T
F F
[4]
(iii) Hence, state whether the compound statements 𝑝 → 𝑞 and ~𝑞 → ~𝑝 are logically equivalent.
Justify your response. [2]
(b) The polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑞 has a factor (𝑥 − 5) and a remainder of 24 when divided by
(𝑥 − 1).
(i) Find the values of 𝑝 and 𝑞. [4]
(ii) Hence, factorize 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑞 completely. [5]
2 3 4 𝑛
(c) Given that 𝑆(𝑛) = 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + ⋯ + 5 , use mathematical induction to prove that
4𝑆(𝑛) = 5𝑛+1 − 5 for 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁. [8]
Total 25 marks
2. (a) The relations 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 are functions which are both one-to-one and onto.
Show that (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) is
(i) one – to – one [4]
(ii) onto [4]
(b) Solve EACH of the following equations:
4 4
(i) 3 − 9𝑥 − (81)𝑥 = 0 [7]

(ii) |5𝑥 − 6| = 𝑥 + 5 [5]

(c) The population growth of bacteria present in a river after time, 𝑡 hours, is given by 𝑁 = 300 + 5𝑡 .
Determine
(i) the number of bacteria present at 𝑡 = 0. [1]
(ii) the time required to triple the number of bacteria. [4]
Total 25 marks

178
 CAPE 2015 PAST PAPER

SECTION B
3
3. (a) (i) Show that cos 3𝑥 = 4 cos 𝑥 − 3 cos 𝑥. [6]
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, solve
cos 6𝑥 − cos 2𝑥 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋 [9]
𝜋
(b) (i) Express𝑓(2𝜃) = 3 sin 2𝜃 + 4 cos 2𝜃 in the form 𝑟 sin(2𝜃 + 𝛼) where 𝑟 > 0 and 0 < 𝛼 < 2 .

[6]
1
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, find the maximum and minimum values of 7−𝑓(𝜃). [4]

Total 25 marks
4. (a) The circles 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are defined by the parametric equations as follows:

𝐶1 : 𝑥 = √10 cos 𝜃 − 3; 𝑦 = √10 sin𝜃 + 2

𝐶2 : 𝑥 = 4 cos 𝜃 + 3 ; 𝑦 = 4 sin 𝜃 + 2
(i) Determine the Cartesian equations of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 in the form (𝑥 − 𝑎) 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏) 2 = 𝑟 2.
[4]
(ii) Hence or otherwise, find the points of intersection of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 . [9]
(b) A point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) moves so that its distance from the fixed point (0, 3) is two times the distance from the
fixed point (5, 2). Show that the equation of the locus of the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is a circle.
[12]
Total 25 marks

179
 CAPE 2015 PAST PAPER

SECTION C
5. (a) Let 𝑓 be a function defined as
sin(𝑎𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = { if 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑥
4 if 𝑥 = 0
If 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 0, determine the value of 𝑎. [4]
(b) Using first principles, determine the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(2𝑥). [6]
2𝑥
(c) If 𝑦 = show that
√1+𝑥2
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
(i) 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [7]
1+𝑥2
𝑑2 𝑦 3𝑦
(ii) + (1+𝑥2 )2 = 0 [8]
𝑑𝑥2

Total 25 marks
6. (a) The diagram below (not drawn to scale) shows the region bounded by the lines
𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 7, 𝑦 + 𝑥 = 9 and 3𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3.

(i) Show that the coordinates of 𝐴, 𝐵 and C are (4, 5), (3, 2), and (6, 3) respectively. [5]
(ii) Hence, use integration to determine the area bounded by the lines. [6]
(b) The gradient function of a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) which passes through the point (0, −6) is given by
3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 3.
(i) Determine the equation of the curve. [3]
(ii) Find the coordinates and nature of the stationary points of the curve in (b) (i) above. [8]
(iii) Sketch the curve in (b) (i) by clearly labelling the stationary points. [3]
Total 25 marks

180
 CAPE 2016 PAST PAPER

CAPE 2016
SECTION A

1. (a) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞.

(i) Given that 𝑥 + 3 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) and that there is a remainder of 10, when 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by
𝑥 + 1 show that 𝑝 = −25 and 𝑞 = −12. [7]

(ii) Hence, solve the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0. [6]

(b) Use mathematical induction to prove that 6𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 5 for all natural numbers 𝑛. [6]

(c) (i) Given that 𝑝 and 𝑞 are two propositions, complete the truth table below:

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒 (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) → (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒)

T T

T F

F T

F F

[4]

(ii) State, giving a reason for your response, whether the following statements are logically
equivalent:

- 𝑝→𝑞

- (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) → (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) [2]

Total 25 marks

2. (a) Solve the following equation for 𝑥:

log 2(10 − 𝑥 ) + log 2 𝑥 = 4

[6]
𝑥+3
(b) A function 𝑓 is defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 1. Determine whether 𝑓 is bijective, that is, both one – to –
𝑥−1
one and onto. [8]

(c) Let the roots of the equation 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6 = 0 be 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾.

(i) State the values of 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾, 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛽𝛾 and 𝛼𝛽𝛾. [3]

1 1
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, determine an equation with integer coefficients which has roots 𝛼2 , 𝛽2
1
and 𝛾2 . [8]

NOTE: (𝛼𝛽 )2 + (𝛼𝛾 )2 + (𝛽𝛾 )2 = (𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛽𝛾 )2 − 2𝛼𝛽𝛾(𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 )

𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛾 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)2 − 2(𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛽𝛾)

Total 25 marks

181
 CAPE 2016 PAST PAPER

SECTION B

3. (a) (i) Show that

csc 𝜃
sec 2 𝜃 = .
csc 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
[4]

(ii) Hence, or otherwise, solve the equation

csc 𝜃 4
=
csc 𝜃 − sin𝜃 3
for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋. [5]
𝜋
(b) (i) Express the function 𝑓(𝜃) = sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 in the form 𝑟 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼), where 𝑟 > 0 and 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ .
2

[5]

(ii) Hence, find the maximum value of 𝑓 and the smallest non – negative value of 𝜃 at which it occurs.

[5]

(c) Prove that

tan 𝐴 + tan 𝐵 + tan 𝐶 − tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵 tan 𝐶
tan(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶) =
1 − tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵 − tan 𝐴 tan 𝐶 − tan 𝐵 tan 𝐶
[6]

Total 25 marks
𝑥 𝜋
4. (a) (i) Given that sin 𝜃 = 𝑥, show that tan 𝜃 = √ , where 0 < 𝜃 < 2 . [3]
1−𝑥2

(ii) Hence, or otherwise, determine the Cartesian equation of the curve defined parametrically
𝜋
by 𝑦 = tan 2𝑡 and 𝑥 = sin𝑡 for 0 < 𝑡 < 2. [5]

1 2
(b) Let 𝑢 = (−3) and 𝑣 = ( 1) be two position vectors in ℝ3 .
2 5
(i) Calculate the lengths of 𝑢 and 𝑣 respectively. [3]

(ii) Find cos 𝜃 where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑢 and 𝑣 in ℝ3 . [4]

(c) A point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) moves such that its distance from the 𝑥 − axis is half its distance from the origin.

Determine the Cartesian equation of the locus of 𝑃. [5]

(d) The line 𝐿 has the equation 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3 = 0 and the circle 𝐶 has the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9. Determine
the points of intersection of the circle 𝐶 and the line 𝐿. [5]

Total 25 marks

182
 CAPE 2016 PAST PAPER

SECTION C
1
5. (a) Use an appropriate substitution to find ∫(𝑥 + 1)3 𝑑𝑥. [4]

(b) The diagram below represents the finite region 𝑅 which is enclosed by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 1 and the
lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 0.

Calculate the volume of the solid that results from rotating 𝑅 about the 𝑦 − axis. [5]
𝑎 𝑎
(c) Given that ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 > 0, show that
1
𝑒𝑥 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 1−𝑥 2
0

[6]

Total 15 marks

Question 6d is NOT on C.A.P.E Unit 1 Pure Mathematics Syllabus

6. (a) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 12 at the point where 𝑥 = 3.

[4]

(b) A function 𝑓 is defined on ℝ as

2
𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 3 𝑥≤0
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑥>0
(i) Calculate the lim− 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑓(𝑥). [4]
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

(ii) Hence, determine the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 0. [5]

(iii) If the value of 𝑏 = 3, determine 𝑎 such that

𝑓(0 + 𝑡) − 𝑓(0)
𝑓 ′ (0) = lim .
𝑡→0 𝑡
[6]

(c) Use first principles to differentiate 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 with respect to 𝑥. [6]

Total 25 marks

183
 CAPE 2017 PAST PAPER

CAPE 2017
SECTION A

1. (a) Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be two propositions

𝑝: It is raining

𝑞: John is sick

Write EACH of the statements below in terms of 𝑝 and 𝑞.

(i) It is not raining or John is sick. [1]

(ii) If it is raining then John is sick. [1]

(b) An operation * is defined on the set {1, 2, 3, 4} as shown in the following table.

* 1 2 3 4
1 2 4 1 3
2 4 3 2 1
3 1 2 3 4
4 3 1 4 2
(i) Prove that * is commutative. [1]

(ii) Show that the identity element of * is 3. [2]

(c) The polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 𝑏 has a factor of (𝑥 − 2) and a remainder of 12 when
divided by (𝑥 + 2).

(i) Show that 𝑎 = 2 and 𝑏 = −30. [4]

(ii) Hence, solve 𝑎𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0. [9]

(d) Use mathematical induction to prove that

8 + 16 + 24 + 32 + ⋯ + 8𝑛 = 4𝑛(𝑛 + 1) for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. [7]

Total 25 marks

184
 CAPE 2017 PAST PAPER

𝑎+𝑏 1
2. (a) (i) Given that 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 14𝑎𝑏, prove that ln ( ) = 2 (ln 𝑎 + ln 𝑏) . [5]
4

(ii) Solve the equation 2−𝑥 + 3(2𝑥 ) = 4. [6]

[Your response may be expressed in terms of logarithms.]

3𝑥−4
(b) The following diagram shows the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥+4

On the diagram,

(i) insert the asymptotes for the function 𝑓 [2]

(ii) sketch the graph of 𝑓 −1, the inverse of 𝑓 showing the asymptotes for 𝑓 −1. [4]

(c) Given that 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 + 2 = 0, form an equation whose roots are
𝛽𝛾, 𝛼𝛾 and 𝛼𝛽. [8]

Total 25 marks

185
 CAPE 2017 PAST PAPER

SECTION B

3. (a) (i) Prove the identity

tan 𝐴 + tan 𝐵
tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
1 − tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵

[4]
3 1
(ii) Given that sin 𝐴 = 5 and cos 𝐵 = − 2 where angle 𝐴 is acute and angle 𝐵 is obtuse, express
tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏√3, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers. [6]

(b) Solve the equation sin2 𝜃 − 2 cos2 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃 + 5 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 4𝜋. [6]

(c) (i) Express 𝑓(𝜃) = 6 cos 𝜃 + 8 sin𝜃 in the form 𝑟 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) where 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 90°. [3]

(ii) Hence, or otherwise, find the general solution of 𝑓(𝜃) = 2. [6]

Total 25 marks

4. (a) (i) The circle 𝐶1 with equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2 = 0 and the circle 𝐶2 have a common

centre. Given that 𝐶2 passes through the point (−1, −2), express the equation of 𝐶2 in the
form (𝑥 − ℎ) 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘 )2 = 𝑘. [3]

(ii) The equation of the line 𝐿 is 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 3. Determine whether 𝐿1 is a tangent to the circle 𝐶1.

[7]

(b) Let 𝑃(3, 1, 2) and 𝑄(1, −2, 4)

(i) Express the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃𝑄 in the form 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘. [2]

(ii) Determine the Cartesian equation of the plane which passes through the point 𝑄 and is
perpendicular to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 . [6]

(c) The vector equations of two lines, 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are:

𝐿1 = −𝑖 + 𝑗 − 2𝑘 + 𝛼(−2𝑖 + 𝑗 − 3𝑘)

𝐿2 = −2𝑖 + 𝑗 − 4𝑘 + 𝛽(𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘)

(i) Show that 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 intersect. [5]

(ii) Hence, determine the coordinates of the point of intersection of the two lines. [2]

Total 25 marks

186
 CAPE 2017 PAST PAPER

SECTION C
𝑥5 −1
, 𝑥 ≠ 1 is continuous for all values of 𝑥.
5. (a) Determine the value of 𝑘 for which 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥−1 [4]
𝑘, 𝑥=1

(b) A curve, 𝐶, is described parametrically by the equations 𝑥 = 5𝑡 + 3 and 𝑦 = 𝑡 3 − 𝑡 2 + 2.

𝑑𝑦
(i) Find 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝑡. [3]

𝑑𝑦
(ii) Hence, determine all points of 𝐶 such that 𝑑𝑥 = 0. [6]

(c) (i) Given that 𝑦 = √2 + 2𝑥 2, show that

𝑑𝑦
(a) 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥 = 0

𝑑2 𝑦 4
(b) − 𝑦3 = 0 [9]
𝑑𝑥2

𝑑2 𝑦
(ii) Hence, find the value of 𝑑𝑥2 when 𝑥 = 0. [3]

Total 25 marks

6. (a) Triangle 𝑃𝑄𝑅 has vertices 𝑃(0, 1), 𝑄(3, 3) and 𝑅(4, 2).

(i) On the axes below, sketch triangle 𝑃𝑄𝑅.

[1]

(ii) Determine the equations of EACH of the following:

- 𝑃𝑄
- 𝑄𝑅
- 𝑃𝑅 [7]
(iii) Hence use integration to determine the area of triangle 𝑃𝑄𝑅. [7]
3 3
(c) Given that ∫−1[3𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = 5 and ∫−1[5𝑓(𝑥) − 2𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = 1, determine
3
- ∫−1 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
3
- ∫−1 𝑔 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 [5]

Total 20 marks

Question 6b is NOT on C.A.P.E Unit 1 Pure Mathematics Syllabus

187
 ANSWERS TO CAPE PAST PAPERS

ANSWERS FOR CAPE PAST PAPERS

CAPE 2012
2
1. (a) (i) 𝑝 = −7, 𝑞 = 1 (ii) (𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 + 2) (b) (10, 6)or (6, 10) (c) (i) 3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4
3 1 1
2. (a) (i) 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 6 (ii) 𝑥 = −3, 0, 1, 2 (b) (i) 4 , 4 (ii) 16 (iii) 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 64 = 0 (c) (i) 1 (ii) −2
𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
3. (a) (iii) 𝜃 = 0, 8 , ,2 (b) 0, 1 ± √3
8

4. (a) (i) 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 9 (ii) (1, √10) (9, 3√10) (b) (i) 𝑝 = −3𝑖 + 4𝑗, 𝑞 = −𝑖 + 6𝑗 (ii) −2𝑖 − 2𝑗 (iii) 27
(iv) 27.41°

5. (a) (i) ±2 (ii) −3 (iii) 2 (b) (i) a) 2 b) 𝑝 = −2 (ii) 2 (c) 𝑢 = 2, 𝑣 = −3

6. (b) (i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 4 (ii) (0, 4) and (2, 0) (iii) (0, 4) Max (2, 0) Min (iv) (−1, 0) (2, 0)

(v) (a)

CAPE 2013

1. (a) (i)
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0

(b) 𝑥 = 1, 8 (d) (ii) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 8) (iii) 𝑥 = −1, 2, 8

𝑥−2 ln 𝑥 2 3
2. (b) (i) 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = , 𝑔 −1 (𝑥) = (c) (i) {−2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3} (ii) − 2 = 𝑥
3 2

𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 1
3. (a) (ii) 𝜃 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋, 4 , , , (b) (i) 𝑓(𝜃) = 5 cos(𝜃 + 0.927) (ii) a) 5 b) 13
4 4 4

4. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 6𝑘 𝐵𝐶
(ii) a) 𝑦 = 2 (c) (i) 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −2𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘 (iii) 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
2 4
5. (a) (i) 4 (ii) Continuous (c) cot 𝜃 (d) (i) (3, 12) (1, 4) (ii)
3 3

(1−𝑥) 4 (1−𝑥)3 600 1

6. (a) (i) − + 𝑐 (b) (ii) 4+𝜋 = 𝑥 (c) (ii) 𝑦 = −𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 2 cos 𝑥 + 𝜋 𝑥 + 3
4 3

188
 ANSWERS TO CAPE PAST PAPERS

CAPE 2014
1. (a)
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝→𝑞 𝑟→𝑞 (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑟 → 𝑞)
0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

(b) (i) Commutative (ii) a) 𝑎 = −2 b) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2)

3
2. (a) (i) (a) 8𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 2 + 3 (b) 𝑥 (ii) Inverse of each other (c) (i) 𝑥 = 0 (ii) 𝑥 = − 11
1 1
3. (ii) 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋 (b) (i) 𝑓(𝜃) = 5 sin(2𝜃 + 0.927) (ii) (a) 𝜃 = 1.89 (b) 2 , 12
𝑥(1−𝑥)
4. (a) (ii) (3, 4) (iii) (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 2 (b) 𝑦 = (c) (i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = −4𝒊 + (2 + 𝜆)𝒋 + 4𝒌,
2𝑥−1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝒊 + (1 − 𝜆)𝒋 − 𝒌, 𝑅𝑃
𝑄𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒊 − 3𝒋 − 3𝒌 (ii) −1

1 1 3 𝑥+2
5. (a) (i) 𝑎 = 3 (ii) 7 (b)(i) − 2 𝑥 −2 (ii) 3 (c) − cot 𝜃
2(1+𝑥)2
1 4 20√10−2 544𝜋
6. (a) (i) (a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 (b) Max (1, 0) Min ( , ) (b) (i) (ii)
3 27 3 15

CAPE 2015
1. (a) (i) Inverse ~𝑝 → ~𝑞 Contrapositive ~𝑞 → ~𝑝

(ii)

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 ~𝒒 → ~𝒑
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
(iii) Logically Equivalent (b) (i) 𝑝 = −6, 𝑞 = 30 (ii) (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2)
ln 2 11 1
2. (b) (i) (ii) , (c) (i) 301 (ii) 4 hours
ln 9 4 6
𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 1 1
3. (a) (ii) 𝑥 = 2 , ,4, , , (b) (i) 𝑓(2𝜃) = 5 sin(2𝜃 + 0.927) (ii) 2 , 12
2 4 4 4
1 4+√15 1 4−√15
4. (a) (i) 𝐶1 : (𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 − 2) 2 = 10 𝐶2 : (𝑥 − 3) 2 + (𝑦 − 2) 2 = 16 (ii) (− 2 , ) , (− 2 , )
2 2
5. (a) 4 (b) 2 cos 2𝑥
1 176
6. (a) (ii) 4 (b) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6 (ii) Min (3 , − ) Max (−3, 12)
27

189
 ANSWERS TO CAPE PAST PAPERS

CAPE 2016
1
1. (a) (ii) 𝑥 = −3, − , 4 (c) (i)
2

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒 (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) → (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒)

T T T T T T

T F F T F T

F T T T F T

F F T F F T

(ii) Not Logically Equivalent

5
2. (a) 2, 8 (b) Not Bijective (c) (i) , 2, −3 (ii) 36𝑥 3 − 76𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 − 4 = 0
2

𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 11𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
3. (a) (ii) 6 , 6
, 6 6
, (b) (i) 𝑓(𝜃) = √2 sin (𝜃 + 4 ) (ii) 4
2𝑥 √1−𝑥2 2𝑥√1−𝑥2 12 9
4. (a) (ii) 𝑦 = (b) (i) √14, √30 (ii) 𝑦 = (c) 3𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 (d) (0, −3) (− , )
1−2𝑥2 1−2𝑥2 5 5
4
3(𝑥+1)3 3𝜋
5. (a) + 𝑐 (b)
4 5
1
6. (a) 𝑦 = 83𝑥 − 141 (b) (i) 3, 𝑏 (ii) 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, 𝑏 = 3 (iii) 2 (c) 2
√𝑥

CAPE 2017
3
1. (a) (i) ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 (ii) 𝑝 → ~𝑞 (c) (ii) 𝑥 = −5, − 2 , 2
ln 3
2. (a) (ii) 0, − (c) 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4 = 0
ln 2
48 25√3 𝜃 = −25.33 + 360°𝑛
3. (a) (ii) 11 + (b) 𝜋, 3𝜋 (c) (i) 𝑓(𝜃) = 10 sin(𝜃 + 36.87°) (ii) { 𝑛∈ℤ
11 𝜃 = 131.69° + 360°𝑛
4. (a) (i) (𝑥 − 2)2 2
+ (𝑦 + 1) = 10 (ii) Not a tangent (b) (i) −2𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 2𝑘 (ii) −2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 12
(c) (ii) −3𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 5𝑘
3𝑡2 −2𝑡 19 50
5. (a) 5 (b) (i) (ii) (3, 2) ( 3 , 27) (c) (ii) √2
5
2 1 5
6. (a) (ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 6 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 (iii) (c) 1, 2
3 4 2

190