8 Chapter 1   Background and 

Vision

Science and Engineering. NIST is working on the measurements and standards associated with CPS through its internal
research programs and the Smart America Challenge (SAC). SAC is promoting interconnection of CPS test beds and inter-
operability through shared data and associated data analytics.

1.4.1  The Evolution from Fire Fighting to Smart Fire Fighting

CPS combine the cyber world and the physical worlds with technologies that can respond with their surroundings in real
time. The miniaturization of sensors and the power of computers coupled with wireless communication technologies have
given rise to a range of commercial products that are being used in many application areas. These technology developments
provide a sense of the types of previously unimaginable opportunities that are becoming available to improve the safety and
effectiveness of fire fighting and fire protection. They enable the creation of fire-related products that talk to each other,
and equipment and controls are integrated into meaningful subsystems involving fire fighter vehicles, building systems,
fire fighter equipment and personal protective equipment (PPE), and community resources. Connecting the subsystems into
an “enterprise system of systems” (or federated systems) is the ultimate goal, providing comprehensive access to available
information.
When integrated, these technologies will facilitate the development of what we are calling Smart Fire Fighting, that
is, a CPS for fire fighting and fire protection. The following enabling technologies are emerging or are already available:
• Autonomous vehicles and collision avoidance, addressing the 10 percent of fire fatalities associated with vehicle
fires
• Mobile robots such as those in the most recent DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) Robotics
Challenge, which in 2014, for the first time, focused on fire-fighting activities, including identifying a standpipe,
transporting a bulky nonrigid fire hose, attaching the hose to the standpipe, and opening the spigot
• Smart clothing: shirts that measure heart rate, breathing rate, skin surface temperature, and triaxial accelerometry;
boots that measure speed, distance, steps, and stride rates, with data wirelessly sent to a smartphone for analysis;
and socks infused with textile sensors and paired with an electronic anklet that tracks steps, speed, altitude, and
distance and that can detect jumping
• Augmented reality glasses that display enriched information over and above visible operations
• Mobile computing with millions of smartphone applications
• Global Positioning System (GPS) and enhanced mapping capabilities
• Big data, representing a new frontier in fire protection and emergency response, including data from real-time dis-
tributed sensors and databases distributed over the cloud
• The rise of multimedia, social media, and the Internet of Things, leading to the exponential growth of information
with a large fraction of the population linked by cell phones
• BACnet®, the ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers) data com-
munication protocol for building automation and control networks, which will encourage technology integration,
thereby increasing effectiveness and efficiency of individual equipment items such as building sensors [8]
• Smart Home fire alarm systems, which provide enhanced control over key building functions, including safety,
security, entertainment, energy, and ambient environment
• FirstNet, the nationwide, interoperable, broadband network that will provide police, fire fighters, and emergency
medical service professionals the ability to transmit and receive voice communications in seven ways, including
push-to-talk functionality, group-call (one-to-many) capability, direct-mode (i.e., peer-to-peer or talk-around), full-
duplex voice (like a traditional phone call), and with caller identification (ID)
Fire fighters operate in an ever increasing sensor-rich environment that is creating vast amounts of potentially
useful data. The Smart Fire Fighting and smart fire protection of tomorrow are envisioned as using these technologies
with a wide range of sensors and software tools to fully capture and exploit select data to perform work tasks in a
highly effective and efficient manner. Behind the advances of the new sensors and tools are profound questions of how
to best enable effective use of the deluge of valuable information. To address this problem, a new Smart Fire Fighting
framework is needed.

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 1.4  Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) 9

Figure 1.3  Key concepts of the Smart Fire Fighting

framework.

Smart
Fire Fighting

Processing
Gathering Delivering
the data
the data the data

1.4.2  Smart Fire Fighting Framework

Smart Fire Fighting provides a framework to (1) collect and combine large quantities of information from a range of sources;
(2) process, analyze, and predict using that information; and (3) disseminate the results and provide targeted decisions,
based on those predictions, to communities, fire departments, ICs, and fire fighters, as appropriate. Figure 1.3 illustrates
this concept in its simplest form.
This framework will need to address many measurement science and standards challenges, technical and implementation
barriers, and environmental hazards on the fireground. The solutions will facilitate a paradigm shift from tradition-based
fire protection and fire fighting to what is referred to here as smart fire protection and fire fighting. That shift will involve
many changes and will transform fire protection and fire fighting from the current state of information-limited decision
making to a sensor-rich environment with ubiquitous data collection, analysis, and communication, ultimately leading to
data-driven and physics-based decision making (see Table 1.1). This shift will likely occur as CPS is developed and tested
for various applications and employed for fire protection and fire fighting.

Table 1.1 Transformation from tradition-based fire fighting to Smart Fire Fighting.

Current State Future State

Tradition-based tactics Data-driven science-based tactics

Local information Global information

Data-poor decision making Information-rich decision making

Lack of awareness Situational awareness

Untapped or unavailable data Comprehensive data collection, analysis, and communication

Isolated equipment and building elements Interconnected equipment and building monitoring, data, and control
systems

Human operations Human controlled, collaborative, and automated operations with

inanimate objects (buildings, machines, etc.)

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 10 Chapter 1   Background and Vision

1.4.3  Gathering Information

Acquiring actionable information is critical for effective fire-fighting operations. The value of the information depends on
its accuracy, completeness, and accessibility. While each information repository might have its own semantics, structure,
and format, there need to be common protocols for information exchange if the data are to be shared and fully exploited.
The value of information from a particular repository or source will depend on the scenario. At least four major types of
information sources support Smart Fire Fighting: community-based information, building occupant information, building
information, and information related to fire fighters and their tools (apparatus, equipment, PPE, etc.).
Communities manage several data repositories that house up-to-date information about traffic, weather, police, hospi-
tals, and structures. Building repositories, for example, will have information — annotated computer-aided design models
or blueprints — about the architecture, materials, utilities, and fire-related sensors and equipment. The occupants often can
provide information about the number, age, condition, and health problems of people trapped in the building. At the first
indication of a fire incident, the IC could use information from those repositories to plan an initial strategy for suppression
and rescue and alert the necessary community services. That strategy would include the number and types of equipment
and personnel needed at the fireground and the tactics that should be executed once they arrive.
Table 1.2  lists some of the existing and emerging sources of information that would be useful for Smart Fire Fighting.
Today, data from these sources are independently collected and separately processed. Fire-fighting electronic equipment,
such as self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), thermal imagers, and radios, do not communicate with each other;
nor does fire fighting equipment communicate with building sensors, the fire apparatus, or community sources except in
deliberate and essentially human-initiated serial activities. In effect, a vast amount of fireground data is untapped. To fully
optimize the safety and effectiveness of fire fighting and fire protection, this situation needs to change and the systems
need to become interoperable. As the trend for development of new electronic technologies continues, more and more data
will become available for fire fighting and fire protection — information on fire fighter and building occupant location, fire
fighter physiology, the state of a building, and fire conditions.

1.4.4  Processing and Targeting Information

Although the importance of information gathering in emergency response is apparent, the task of compiling, processing, and
integrating the information into actionable knowledge is difficult. Examples of such information include fire loss records,
fire inspection records, fire-fighting resource information, building information modeling, and building supporting infra-
structure. Much of this information is stored in community resource databases and repositories.
At the first indication of a fire incident, the IC would use information from those repositories to plan an initial strategy
for suppression and rescue and to alert the necessary community services. That strategy would include the number and types
of equipment and personnel to send to the fireground and tactics they should execute once they arrive.
Others with important fire-fighting roles would also benefit from forecasts of the evolving incident. Examples of the
types of processed information that could be useful in Smart Fire Fighting are listed in Table 1.3. To be meaningful, dynamic
information needs updating as an incident evolves. Using real-time information to project the current and projected likely
future states of the incident would allow identification of potential problems and provide a powerful tool to aid in decision
making. The IC would use the display to monitor the evolution of the fire incident and to analyze potential effects of deci-
sions and actions before issuing commands to the personnel.

1.4.5  Example Application Areas

The effort to develop the research roadmap for Smart Fire Fighting is based on the vision of enabling CPS to sup-
port and enhance fire protection and fire service activities. Table 1.4 describes emergency/safety scenarios typically
encountered by emergency responders. These tangible case study scenarios are offered as examples for application
of CPS to enable the Smart Fire Fighting of the future. The scenarios are based on actual events with similar charac-
teristics. Their purpose is to stimulate consideration of possible data and information and to clarify both near-term
and long-term deliverables.

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 1.4  Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) 11

Table 1.2 Example of existing and emerging fire-related information sources.

Source Information Type

Fire Fighter • Radio

• PASS alarm
• Thermal imaging cameras
• SCBA cylinder pressure
• Physiological monitoring
• Fire hose water flow
• Fire fighter location

Building • Floor plans, firewall ratings, locations of standpipes, building entrances, interior stairwells,
elevators, hazardous materials
• Annunciator panel
• Carbon monoxide alarm
• Fire alarm
• Activity/motion sensors
• Fire sprinklers
• Building information models
• Surveillance cameras
• Local temperatures
• Occupant location

Fire Apparatus • GPS routing, maps

• Building pre-plans
• Nearest hospital
• Nearest hydrant
• Apparatus water pressure
• Accountability systems
• Apparatus resource use

Community • Community and regional resources

• Computer aided dispatch
• Detailed building plans (e.g., stairs, exits, utilities, standpipes, construction)
• Weather information
• Traffic information
• Ambulance information
• Hospital status/information
• Community utilities (water pressure, power)
• Fire loss records; fire inspection records

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 12 Chapter 1   Background and Vision

Table 1.3  Fire service dynamic information and knowledge needs.

Fire Service Role Information Needed During an Emergency Event

Incident • Real-time forecast of fire location(s), size, and environmental conditions (tenability)
Commander (IC) • Crew and victim locations
• Existing ventilation
• Building status/forecast of time to significant failure in structural and situational tenability
• Self-reporting by occupants of status (evacuated, still in the building)
• Suggested situational tactics
• Risk factors based on incident (locations of fire, fire fighters, occupants and conditions)
• On-scene personnel, equipment, and resource assignments and locations
• Health status of crew, victims, occupants
• Available/en-route community resources (other departments, ambulance/hospital, police)
• Hazard/injury forecasting from building and fire information based on risk associated with
conditions such as gas species, thermal conditions, building collapse
• Current and projected weather
• City utility status and building utility control
• Status of community-based emergency responders not on the scene (other fire
departments, police, ambulance, etc.)
• Hospital status (occupancy, resources, etc.)

Safety Officer • Real-time forecast of fire location(s), size, and environmental conditions (tenability)
• Injury forecast for crew members: risks based on physiological data and rate of change
• Injury forecast from building and fire information: risk based on conditions such as gas
species, thermal conditions, building collapse

Search and Rescue • Real-time forecast of fire location(s), size, and environmental conditions (tenability)
Team • Crew and victim locations
• Prioritized search location list
• Backdraft forecast
• Projected nearest and alternate exit

Suppression Team • Real-time forecast of fire location(s), size, and environmental conditions (tenability)
• Crew and victim locations
• Water pressure, flowrate, line length, line errors
• Change in fire over time based on cleared area
• Predictions of likely extensions from modeling
• Suggested strategy for optimal output
• Projected exit path

Ventilation Team • Real-time forecast of fire location(s), size, environmental conditions (tenability)
• Crew and victim locations
• Existing ventilation
• Expected ventilation results
• Suggested location and type of ventilation
• Projected exit paths for crew inside building
• Structural tenability (especially roof)

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 1.4  Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) 13

In general, the scenarios in Table 1.4 are low-probability high-severity events. Their express intent is to maximize
consideration of possible extreme events that fully test the available emergency responder resources. Fortunately, these
events do not occur often for any particular fire service professional, but when they do, the proper execution of job tasks
can literally make the difference between life and death. The knowledge delivered by CPS — and which enables Smart
Fire Fighting — provides significant potential for enhanced fire fighting. That, in turn, equates with improving the health
and safety of not only fire fighters but also the populations they protect.

Table 1.4 Case Study Smart Fire Fighting scenarios.

Events That Scenarios Were Based On

Type of Emergency/
Safety Scenarios Historical Case Study Event Damage and Fatalities

WUI Waldo Canyon Fire, June 2012 in CO 2 civilian fatalities and

(with evacuation of 346 buildings destroyed
retirement community)
Yarnell Hill Fire, June 2013 in AZ 19 FF LODDs and
129 buildings destroyed

Residential Structure Fire Based on Marsh Overlook Drive structure fire, April 1 FF LODD
(wind-driven fire) 2007 in Prince William County, VA
Houston residential fire, April 2009 in Houston, TX 2 FF LODDs
House fire, February 1995 in Pittsburgh, PA 3 FF LODDs

High-Rise Apartment Fire Based on Vandelia Avenue 10-story apartment fire, 3 FF LODDs
(wind-driven fire) December 1998 in New York City

Vehicle Crash Based on NFPA statistics of U.S.: 17 vehicle fires

(ICEV and EV with per hour and 287,000 vehicle fires per year
entrapment)

Train Derailment Based on Lac-Mégantic train derailment, June 47 civilian fatalities and
(with fire and toxic hazmat) 2012 in Quebec 30 buildings destroyed

High-Challenge Warehouse Based on food product warehouse, December 2-day fire and warehouse
2007 in Hemingway, SC destroyed

Night Club Code Compliance Based on Happyland Social Club fire, March 1990 87 civilian fatalities
in New York City

Station Nightclub fire, February 2003 in West 100 civilian fatalities

Warwick, RI

Tornado Based on tornado, May 2011 in Joplin, MO 158 civilian fatalities and
~$2.8 billion loss

tornado, May 2013 in Moore, OK (25 civilian

fatalities and ~$2.0 billion loss)

Terrorist Bombing Based on Boston Marathon bombing, April 2013 3 civilian fatalities, 260+
(large-scale EMS event) in Boston, MA injuries

Elevator Rescue Based on substation fire causing widespread city Hundreds of elevator rescue
(metro city power failure) center power failure, 2012 in Boston, MA calls
Key to abbreviations: EV, electric vehicle; FF LODD, fire fighter line-of-duty death; ICEV, internal combustion engine vehicle; WUI, wildland-
urban interface

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 14 Chapter 1   Background and Vision

1.5  Technical Challenges

The idea of Smart Fire Fighting is based on creating, storing, exchanging, analyzing, and integrating information from a
wide range of databases and sensor networks. There are challenges associated with each of these areas. Among the key
challenges is the ability to reliably design complex systems at an appropriate scale, which involves innovative design strat-
egies, new control theory, systems integration, intelligent sensing and control, as well as automation. Another key challenge
is the ability to develop usable performance metrics for experimentation, evaluation, and validation. These performance
metrics are essential to enable the design, control, and efficient operation of advanced CPS. Another challenge is to enable
interoperability among different CPS. This is essential to allow cities to connect their air quality, transportation management,
emergency response, and other systems for safer and more resilient communities. The key to achieving interoperability is
the development of consensus standards and protocols for interfaces within and between those complex systems.

1.5.1  Data Needs

Organizing the data needed for Smart Fire Fighting is a huge undertaking. Preparation for effectively managing a fire,
whether in the urban, the wildland-urban interface (WUI), or the wildland environment, begins long before the actual
incident. Effective management of fire events requires access to and processing of information collected prior to and after
an event. Fire-service, data-user applications require information from inspectors and enforcers, pre-planning activities,
training and education, and fire investigations. When preparing for and traveling to and from fire incidents, first responders
must make many decisions quickly. That requires detailed and up-to-date information about the incident, including location,
threats to resources and people, the emergency resources available, and the surrounding environmental conditions. Systems
that provide this information can assist responders in determining the best of available actions to protect human life and
to reduce threat and damage to resources. The required information can be obtained only from data collected prior to the
event or after other previous, similar events. Similarly, accurate assessment of the effectiveness of equipment, tactics, and
resources is best evaluated when complete information about incident characteristics, resource capabilities, and location
characteristics are observed, recorded, and archived.
Data come in two forms, static and dynamic. Static data usually are stored in a number of different repositories, includ-
ing fire loss records, fire-fighting resources, building information modeling, and building supporting infrastructure. The
trend is to house those repositories in the cloud. While the cloud has several well-known benefits, it also presents several
technical challenges, most notably cyber security [10].
Dynamic data come from sensors and radio communications. Those data are needed for real-time data analytics soft-
ware applications to assess situational awareness. The results of the analyses are needed to assess risk (e.g., NFPA 1500,
Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program [11]) and improve decision-making by fire fighters
and by ICs. New computational software tools and virtual reality gaming engines are being developed to support both the
risks and the decisions. Adequate metrics and testing tools have yet to be developed to determine the effectiveness of these
new capabilities.

1.5.2 Sensors
The complex process of information gathering begins with sensors, which are becoming cheaper and more powerful. Sen-
sors convert the characteristics of the physical environment involved in a fire emergency into raw data, thereby initiating
the process of transforming what is perceived into actionable information. Today, the most common — and in some ways,
most important —electronic sensor technologies associated with fire safety in residential buildings are smoke detectors [12].
The trend of new electronic technologies can provide an ever increasing, sensor-rich environment from which vast
amounts of potentially useful data can be derived. Two areas where this trend is expected to continue are buildings and fire
fighters. Buildings will see an increase in sensors that will track both environmental conditions and occupants’ status. Fire
fighters will be equipped with sensors that track the fire fighters’ location, monitor their health, and sense their environment.
The key to widespread use and acceptance of these new sensors is standardization. Leveraging emerging sensor tech-
nologies and installed systems in buildings provides opportunities for Smart Fire Fighting. Continuing advances provide
the possibility of integrating sensors into fire fighters’ personal PPE, as well as equipment and apparatus (land vehicles,

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 1.5  Technical Challenges 15

watercraft, aircraft, satellite, and robotic systems). The data from these sensors, which are often time critical [13], provide
the capability to detect and characterize exposure hazards and to monitor the fire fighters’ physiological status and location.
The combination of these sensory inputs allows both individual personnel and ICs to assess environmental conditions
in real time and to take effective actions to minimize the associated risks. The ability to provide integrated sensors is
interdependent on other features such as data logging and communication systems. Further, in order to integrate sensors,
standards must be developed to support the necessary hardware and software interoperability.
These sensors will generate a wealth of new data. The availability of the data and the ability to analyze the data open new
possibilities for the fire service. These possibilities will affect all their job duties, including those in the pre-fire, trans-fire
and post-fire stages. NIST, NFPA, and many other organizations in the fire protection community are working to develop a
roadmap to clarify the research needed to realize those possibilities. The roadmap includes the most effective ways to collect
the immense quantity of available data, new computational tools to analyze the data, algorithms to convert that analysis into
significant knowledge, heuristics to combine the knowledge with experience to enable better decision making, and wireless
communication networks to transfer the information to those who need it on the fireground and elsewhere.

1.5.3 Architectures

A CPS architecture defines a system’s components and their functions and interactions across temporal and spatial levels.
There currently is no universal CPS reference architecture that enables collaboration and sharing of ideas and solutions
within and across sectors and domains [14]. To make progress, Smart Fire Fighting systems and technologies require an
integrated architectural design. Many CPS deployments are sector specific and fragmented and have not demonstrated
their true potential of broad impact. The CPS research community is in the process of developing a framework to identify
universal and cross-cutting elements of CPS architectures. In developing a CPS architecture for fire fighting, there is a
need to be mindful of the architectures being developed for other CPS. This will help identify both common problems and
common solutions.

1.5.4 Integration

Integrating sensor data with software analytics tools within and across architectural levels will require (1) standardized net-
working protocols to cover the wireless communications and (2) standardized syntax and semantics to cover the conceptual
content. A number of wireless standards exist already, but there are issues regarding their effectiveness on the fireground. In
other domains, ontologies and database standards have been successfully used to capture concepts in a way that provides the
basis for modeling, programming, control, and communications. Often those concepts come from engineering, information
technology, physics, and materials science. In fire fighting, concepts come from a number of other disciplines. To date, the
use of ontologies in those disciplines has been virtually nonexistent. Such ontologies must be developed and tested before
advanced diagnostics and prognostics can be used on the fireground. Expert understanding of fire protection engineering,
fire science, and fire service will be needed to address realistic, challenging, and typical problems.

1.5.5 Standards
Standards are critical for the efficient development of Smart Fire Fighting. There has been some activity within traditional
standards-development organizations to address the broad topic of CPS, although work on application-oriented subjects
like Smart Fire Fighting has been relatively limited. Standardization will come in two forms: performance and protocols.
Performance standards govern how sensors should function and the data they should provide. Protocols govern the integration
of sensors with other physical or electronic equipment and related software applications. There will be many measurement
issues associated with these standards, and it is important that the standards and measurements be developed and tested to
ensure that the sensors work properly.
One arena in which the specific topic of Smart Fire Fighting is being addressed is the NFPA family of codes and
standards. The NFPA Technical Committee on Data Exchange of the Fire Service is responsible for two proposed relevant
documents: NFPA 950, Standard for Data Development and Exchange for the Fire Service, and NFPA 951, Guide to
Building and Utilizing Digital Information. NFPA 950 is a new standard that describes the digital information structure

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 16 Chapter 1   Background and Vision

and associated requirements and workflows common to fire and emergency services delivery, along with its management
for emergency response and administrative use [15]. The standard provides a standardized framework for the development,
management, and sharing of data for all-hazards response agencies and organizations. NFPA 951 will provide guidance on
the development and integration of information and communications systems to facilitate information sharing for emergency
response and national preparedness [16].
Another standard of direct interest to Smart Fire Fighting is ISO 37120, Sustainable Development of Communities —
Indicators for City Services and Quality of Life [17]. The indicators are used to track and monitor a city’s progress on
city service performance and quality of life and to assist jurisdictions in setting targets and monitoring achievements. Fire
fighting and emergency response are just two of a wide range of topics that ISO 37120 addresses.
Within the IEEE family of standards, there has been a focus on smart grid and some cross-cutting areas but not on Smart
Fire Fighting. As interest in CPS evolves, integrated and coordinated standards efforts on CPS can be expected.
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) standard SB 30, Fire Service Annunciator and Interface,
provides similarity across manufacturers’ platforms to enable easy operation without the need for specialized training on
each individual system. NEMA SB 30 was included in the 2013 edition of NFPA 72®, National Fire Alarm and Signaling
Code, but since then has been rescinded, suggesting that work on standards development needs continuous maintenance
and follow-up.
Connecting buildings to public safety networks will require careful consideration as the complexity of the issues
involved in connecting a number of different networks using different protocols becomes more and more apparent [18, 19].
A large number of standards associated with Smart Fire Fighting remain to be resolved [20], including the following
cross-cutting issues that affect all CPS:
• Secure standard methods of transmitting a standard set of data in a standardized format
• Standardized information for first responders and standard building data models
• Ownership and maintenance of and data schemas and queries for databases
• Choice of standard communication protocols and user interfaces
• Establishment of criteria to automatically route 9-1-1 calls based on message content
• Implementation of appropriate authorization, authentication, and security protocols
• Development of multi-hazard scenarios for system design and compliance
• Interoperability standards for both software and hardware
• Standards for accessing and using cloud-based services
• Plug-and-play architectures that facilitate integration of cyber and physical components

1.5.6  Early Demonstrations of Smart Fire Fighting

An early demonstration of Smart Fire Fighting was conducted in 2005 by researchers at NIST and the Wilson, North Car-
olina, Fire Department in that city [21, 22]. The goal of the demonstration was to relay information to first responders on
their way to a simulated incident, thereby improving decision making. Some of that information came from three sensors
in the target building: smoke sensors, heat sensors, and CO detectors. The data from those sensors was used to by a zone
fire model to infer probable future conditions. Other information, transmitted to first responders via a laptop computer en
route (see Figure 1.4), included the following:
• Locations of fire hydrants, building entrances, interior stairwells, elevators, and hazardous materials
• Building construction and occupancy
• Real-time simulated fire size and location
• Locations or absence of sprinklers
• Locations of interior standpipes, fire wall ratings, and location of fire fighting and emergency medical services
equipment
• Floor plans with fire hazards deduced from sensor signals using a zone fire model with indication of flashover,
toxic/thermal hazard, significant smoke, or fire hazard

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 1.5  Technical Challenges 17

Figure 1.4 Screen-shot of en-route information displayed by emergency

responder’s laptop of the Wilson Hospital floor plan from [23]. Yellow
indicates real-time toxic/thermal hazard areas based on a zone fire
model calculation using simulated fire alarm data. (Source: Davis, W. D.,
“Intelligent Building Response,” Fire Protection Engineering, No. 33,
26 Winter 2007.)

In 2009, an analogous system was implemented in the city of Frisco, Texas, 25 miles north of Dallas. Frisco invested
significant resources to develop the SAFER project (Situational Awareness for Emergency Response). SAFER is an infor-
mation-based system for first responders and community resources such as the Frisco emergency operations center, police
dispatch, and a mobile command center. (See http://video.esri.com/watch/45/presidents-award-city-of-frisco_comma_-
texas#sthash.Gb5pH9Lj.dpuf.) On the way to a fire scene, a variety of information is provided to first responders, including
maps, arrangement of the fire lanes, the location of fire hydrants, and pre-plan information with site details. Specific details
include information on the location of standpipes, how the building was constructed, the building layout and room functions,
annotations on any recent problems, a list of hazardous materials in the building, up-to-date emergency contact information,
real-time video camera information from within the target building, as well as available water lines and capacity. This type
of system provides a model on how information can be tapped for fire fighter and civilian safety.
A popular descriptive phrase used in today’s common lexicon is “big data,” which is indicative of the systematic use
of the information being leveraged in ways that were unimaginable a short time ago. Before 2013, fire inspections in New
York City were paper based. All that changed when FDNY’s Analytics Unit got rolling. There are about 330,000 buildings
in the inspection portfolio in New York City, with about 10 percent inspected annually. To address the question as to which
buildings ought to be inspected, Jeff Chen and Jeff Roth put together “FireCast,” a data-driven predictive risk engine [24].
Dispensing with a reliance on causation in favor of correlation, data on every aspect of life in New York City were
accessed. This was possible because the city had invested in digitizing and harmonizing whatever data were available,
including everything from 3-1-1 noise complaints to sewage back-ups, power outages, building age, sprinkler presence,
whether the building was guarded, building permit information, and so on; thousands of independent streams of data were
collected. FireCast Version 1.0 was deployed in March 2013 and included about a dozen risk factors; the latest version
relates thousands of types of data to determine the relationship with key fire incident indicators.
The risk profile is updated daily and provided to fire inspection teams, who can then decide which properties ought to
be inspected. Infraction rates significantly increased with the deployment of FireCast 2.0. The impact of this work is being
tracked and is expected to lead to reduced fire losses.

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