Interatomic Force: The force between two atoms to form a molecule is

called interatomic force.

Intermolecular force: The force between two molecules to form a

substance is called intermolecular force.

 Interatomic and Intermolecular forces are electrostatic in nature

due to charge.

Deforming force: The force which change the shape and size of body is
called deforming force.

Equilibrium distance (normal distance)

The distance between two atoms or molecules when there is no

deforming force is called normal distance or equilibrium distance. At
this condition, the net force between atoms or molecule is zero i.e.
attractive force is equal to repulsive force.
The interatomic force is both attractive and repulsive force. When the
distance between two atoms or molecules is less than normal distance
then there is repulsive force. When the distance between two atoms or
molecules is more than normal distance then there is attractive force.

Restoring force:
The force within the body which acts opposite of deforming force and is
responsible for regaining its original configuration is called restoring
 force. At equilibrium condition, the restoring force is equal to
deforming force.

The variation of interatomic force with distance is as shown in the

figure.
F

r0 = equilibrium distance

Repulsive force

r0

distance

attractive

Fig: Variation of interatomic force with distance

Elastic body and elasticity:

The property of body by virtue of which it regains its original shape
after deforming force is removed is called elasticity. Such body is called
elastic body.

For example: Steel, iron, rubber, etc.

Plastic body and plasticity:

Those bodies which do not regain its original configuration after the
removal of deforming force is called plastic body. The property is called
plasticity. For example: mud, polyethene, wax, etc.
Rigid body and rigidity:
The body whose configuration does not change even when large
deforming force is applied is called rigid body and the property is called
rigidity. For example: stone, concrete, etc.

Stress
The restoring force per unit area is called stress.
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴
Unit : SI unit : 𝑁⁄𝑚2

Dimensional formula is [ M L-1 T-2]

Types of stress:
There are two types of stress:

1) Normal Stress
2) Tangential Stress

1)Normal Stress: If the forming force is acting normally on the surface

then the stress produced in the body is called normal stress.
𝐹⊥
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑁𝑆) =
𝐴
Types of normal stress:
a) Compressive stress
b) Tensile Stress

a)Compressive Stress: In compressive stress length is decreased in the

direction of force applied.

F F

Fig: Compressive stress

b)Tensile stress: In tensile stress, length is increased in the direction of

force applied.

F F

Fig: Tensile stress

 2) Tangential Stress:
If the deforming force is acting parallel to the surface as shown in figure
below then the stress produced in the body is known as tangential
stress. Due to tangential stress, change of shape of body occurs.

𝐹∥
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ( 𝑇𝑠 ) =
𝐴
A A’ B B’

θ θ

D C

Strain
It is defined as the ratio of change in configuration to the original
configuration.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

It has no unit and no dimensional formula as it is the ratio of same

physical quantity.

Types of Strain:
1) Longitudinal Strain
2) Volumetric (bulk) Strain
3) Shear/ Tangential Strain
 1)Longitudinal Strain: It is defined as the ratio of change in length to the
∆𝑙 𝑒
original length.𝐿𝑠 = = [ 𝑒 → 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]
𝑙 𝑙
𝑙 +e
𝑙

𝐹⃖ 𝐹⃗

Fig: Longitudinal strain

2)Volumetric / Bulk Strain: It is defined as the ration of change in

volume to original volume.
∆𝑉
𝑉𝑠 = V-ΔV
𝑉
V

Fig: Volumetric strain

3)Shear/ Tangential Strain: Shear strain is the measurement of shear

angle. It is defined as the tangent angle of shear.
A n A’ B n B’
A
𝜏𝑠 = tan 𝜃 𝐹⃗
h

θ
θ

D
C
If the shear strain is more, then the body is less rigid
Fig: Shear strain
and vice-versa.
Θ = Shear angle
Hooke’s Law
Within proportional limit, extension is directly proportional to force
applied.𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐹 ∝ 𝑒 [ 𝑒 → 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛]

𝑜𝑟, 𝐹 = 𝐾𝑒 where K is the proportionality constant.

𝐹 𝐾𝑒
𝑜𝑟, = [ A = Cross sectional area ]
𝐴 𝐴

𝐹 𝐾𝑒 𝑒
𝑜𝑟, = ( ) ( )
𝐴 𝐴 𝑙

𝑒 𝐾𝑒
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 [ = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 & = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ]
𝑙 𝐴
∴ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
This is another form of Hooke’s Law. i.e. within proportional limit,
stress is directly proportional to strain.

Experimental verification of Hooke’s Law

Fig: Experimental Verification of Hooke’s Law

 The experimental arrangement for the experimental verification of
Hooke’s Law is as shown in the figure. It consist of a metallic spring, AB
whose one end is fixed to a rigid and at the other end , a pan is
attached, A pointer is also attached at the end B which slides over the
scale. With the help of pointer and scale, we can get extension for
different loads. To perform this experiment, the reading of pointer is
noted without keeping any load on the pan which is let us say e0. After
that different loads are kept on the pan and corresponding lengths are
loaded. These readings are said to be e1, e2, e3, e4 ….en for masses m1
,m2 , m3 , m4 ….mn respectively. Therefore extension are e1- e0, e2- e0,
e3- e0, ….en- e0 and for loads m1g, m2g , m3g, ….mng. Now graph is
plotted between loads and extensions.

The graph is obtained as shown below:

The graph obtained is a straight line passing through the origin which verifies
Hooke’s Law.
Moduli of elasticity
From Hooke’s Law, we have.

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜀 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 [ Where 𝜀 is the proportionality constant which is
called modulus of elasticity]

The value of 𝜀 depends on the nature of material. It is different for

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
different materials. 𝜀 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Hence, the modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of stress to

strain.

Unit of stress is 𝑁⁄𝑚2 and dimensional formula is [ M L-1 T-2]

Types of Modulus of Elasticity

1) Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (ϒ)
2) Bulk’s Modulus of Elasticity (β)
3) Shear Modulus/ Modulus of Rigidity (η)

1)Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (ϒ)

The Young’s Modulus of Elasticity is defined as the ratio of normal

stress to longitudinal strain.
Normal Stress
𝑖. 𝑒. ϒ =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹⁄
= 𝑒𝐴
⁄𝑙
𝐹𝑙
∴ϒ=
𝑒𝐴

2
The unit of ϒ is 𝑁⁄𝑚 .
2)Bulk’s Modulus of Elasticity (β)

The Bulk’s Modulus of Elasticity is defined as the ratio of normal stress

to Volumetric (Bulk) strain.
Normal Stress
𝑖. 𝑒. β =
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹⁄
=( 𝐴)
𝛥𝑉⁄
𝑉
𝑃
= [ 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝 = 𝐹⁄𝐴 , 𝑝 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒]
𝛥𝑉⁄
𝑉
β∆V
𝑜𝑟, − =𝑃
𝑉

Negative sign shows that when pressure is increased, Volume is

decreased.
2
Unit of β is 𝑁⁄𝑚 .

3)Shear Modulus (Modulus of rigidity (η)):

It is defined as the ratio of tangential stress to the shear strain.

Tangential Stress
𝑖. 𝑒. η =
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑇
=
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
For small θ, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
𝑇
η= [ Where θ = Shear angle] [ θ is in radian ]
𝜃

2
The unit of η is 𝑁⁄𝑚 .
Energy Stored in a stretched wire.
1
𝑊= 𝐹𝑒
2

When an elastic wire is stretched then energy is stored in it in the form

of potential energy which is called elastic potential energy.

The energy stored in the unit volume of the body is called energy
density. It is denoted by U.
𝑊 1
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑈 = = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑉 2
The unit of U is 𝐽⁄𝑚3 .

Rigid support

Fig : Energy stored in a stretched wire

Proof:

Let us consider a metallic wire having initial length 𝑙̔ ,̓ cross sectional

area ̔a ̓ and Young’s modulus of elasticity ϒ is stretched by n ̔ ̓ by
applying deforming force ̔ F a̓ s shown in the figure.

Then we can write,

 𝐹𝑙
𝛾=
𝑛𝐴
𝐴𝛾𝑛
𝐹= … … . (𝑖)
𝑙
The small work done for the small displacement 𝑑𝑛 is given by

𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹𝑑𝑛
𝐴𝛾𝑛
𝑑𝑤 = × 𝑑𝑛 … … (𝑖𝑖 )
𝑙
∴Total work done from extension 0 to e is:
𝑒
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑤
0

𝑛
𝑛𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑛 =
𝑛+1
𝑒
𝐴𝛾𝑛
=∫ 𝑑𝑛
0 𝑙
𝐴𝛾 𝑒
= ∫ 𝑛 𝑑𝑛
𝑙 0
𝑒
𝐴𝛾 𝑛2
= [ ]
𝑙 2 0
𝐴𝛾 𝑒 2 0
= [ − ]
𝑙 2 2
𝐴𝛾𝑒 2
=
2𝑙
1 𝐴𝛾𝑒𝑒
=
2 2𝑙
1 𝐴𝛾𝑒
𝑊= 𝐼 𝑒 [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 = ]
2 𝑙
This is the required expression for energy stored.

𝑊
Energy density 𝑈 =
𝑉

1
𝐹𝑒
= 2
𝐴×𝑙
1 𝐹 𝑒
= ( )( )
2 𝐴 𝑙

1
Energy density 𝑈 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
2

Determination of Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (𝛾 ):

Rigid Support

Reference wire
Experimental wire

M → Main Scale

M V→ Vernier Scale
V

Dead Loads
Let us consider two wires are taken with one side fixed to rigid support
and dead loads taken on both wires. The wires carrying mainscale is
called reference wire and the wire having vernier scaler is called
experimental wire.

Experimental process: Different loads are taken in experimental wire

and the extension graph is plotted and it is found that the graph is a
straight line. The slope of the graph is used to calculate Young’s
Modulus of Elasticity.

The graph obtained is as shown below.

F

F1
ΔF
θ
F2

Δe

e1 e2
Fig: Load vs extension

𝐹2 −𝐹1 ∆𝐹
The slope is, 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = … … . (𝑖)
𝑒2 −𝑒1 ∆𝑒
If ϒ be the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity then,
𝐴𝛾
ϒ=( ) 𝑒 … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑙
Comparing eqn (ii) with y = mx, we get:
𝐴𝛾
𝑚=
𝑙
𝑚𝑙
𝛾=
𝐴
𝑚𝑙 𝜋
𝛾=𝜋 [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐴 = 𝑑2 ]
𝑑2 4
4
4𝑚𝑙
𝛾=
𝜋𝑑 2
This is the required expression.

Hence, knowing the values of m, 𝑙 and d, we can determine 𝛾.

The diameter of wire is measured by using micrometer screw gauge.

Poisson ratio (𝜎)

F← d d-Δd →F

𝑙
𝑙+ Δ𝑙
It is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain.
∆𝑑
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑙∆𝑑
𝜎= = 𝑑 =
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑙 𝑑∆𝑙
𝑙
The value of Poisson’s ratio is always taken negative because two strain
are working in opposite way. Also, it is pure number because it is the
ratio of dimensionless quantity.

Q. A rubber cord has A = 1.0 mm2, 𝑙 = 10 cm, e =12-10 =2 cm, m =5g,

V=?

Soln

A = 1.0 mm2= 1 × 10-6 m2

𝑙 = 10 cm = 0.1

e = 12-10= 2 cm = 0.02 m

m=5 g = 0.005 Kg

V=? ϒ = 5 × 108
𝐴𝛾𝑒
Now, 𝐹 =
𝑙

1
𝑊= 𝐹𝑒
2
1 𝐴𝛾𝑒
= 𝑒
2 𝑙
1 1 × 10−6 × 5 × 108 × 0.022
=
2 0.1
 = 1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
According to principle of conservation of energy

𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸
1
𝑊= 𝑚𝑣 2
2

2𝑊 2×1
𝑉=√ =√ = √400 = 20 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑚 0.005

𝐹 = 24000 𝑁
𝑚𝑎 = 24000
𝑎 = 20 𝑚⁄𝑠 2

Stress – Strain Curve

The graph plotted between stress and strain of a wire or spring is called
stress-strain curve. The nature of the curve obtained is shown below.

Fig: Stress vs Strain curve

Elastic Fatigue
Elastic fatigue is defined as the property of an elastic object by virtue of
which it becomes less elastic when subjected to alternating deforming
forces.

Elastic after effect

Elastic after effect is the delay in the time taken by a body to regain its
original configuration after the removal of deforming force. They are
noticeable in polymers. Glass passes maximum elastic after effect.
Quartz and phosphor Bronze have negligible elastic after effect.

Q. A 1 m length of brass wire is joined end to end to a 1 m length of

steel wore of the same diameter. The total extension of the wire is 1.5
mm. What are the extension produced in each wire?

𝛾𝑏 = 1 × 1011 𝛾𝑠 = 2 × 1011
Soln

For brass For Steel

𝑙 =1𝑚 𝛾𝑏 = 1 × 1011 𝑙 =1𝑚 𝛾𝑠 = 2 × 1011

𝑒1 = ? 𝑒2 = ?
𝐹𝑙 𝐹𝑙
Now, 𝛾𝑏 = 𝛾𝑠 =
𝑒1 𝐴 𝑒2 𝐴

𝐹 𝐹𝑙
𝑒1 = 𝑒2 =
1×1011 2 ×1011

Now,
1.5
𝑒1 + 𝑒2 =
10 × 100
 𝑒1 + 𝑒2 = 1.5 × 10−3 … . . (𝑖)
𝑒1 𝐹 2 × 1011
= ×
𝑒2 1 × 1011 𝐹
𝑒1 2
=
𝑒2 1
𝑒1 = 2𝑒2 … … … (𝑖𝑖)

From (i) and (ii)

2𝑒2 + 𝑒2 = 1.5 × 10−3

3𝑒2 = 1.5 × 10−3

𝑒2 = 5 × 10−4 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚
𝑒1 = 2𝑒2
= 2 × 5 × 10−4 = 1 × 10−3 = 1𝑚𝑚

Q. Find the increase in pressure requires to decrease the volume of

water sample by 0.01 % [ β = 2.1 × 109 𝑁⁄𝑚2

Soln
∆𝑉
𝑃= 𝛽
𝑉
0.01
= 2.1 × 109 ×
100
𝑃 = 2.1 × 105
Q. The bulk modulus of rubber is 9.8 × 108 𝑁⁄𝑚2 . To what depth
should rubber ball be taken to in a lake so that its volume is decreased
by 0.1 %. g = 9.8 m/s.

Soln

V = 100 %

∆𝑉 = 0.1%
β = 5.8 × 108 𝑁⁄𝑚2

g = 9.8 m/s
∆𝑉
𝑃= 𝛽
𝑉
0.1
𝜌ℎ𝑔 = 9.8 × 108 ×
100
0.1
1000 × ℎ × 9.8 = 9.8 × 108 ×
100

ℎ = 100 𝑚.

Q. A spring is stretched by the application of a force. If 10N force is

required to stretch the spring to 1mm. Calculate the work done in
stretching the spring, through 40 mm.

Soln

F1= 10 N
e1= 1mm e2 = 40 mm F2=?

Now, From Hooke’s Law:

𝐹1 𝑒1
=
𝐹2 𝑒2
10 1
𝑜𝑟, =
𝐹2 40
𝐹2 = 400 𝑁.
1
Work done = 𝐹2 𝑒2
2

1
= × 400 × 40
2
1
= × 400 × 40 × 10−6
2
= 8 × 10−3 𝑁
Q. A 50 m Nylon rope used by mountaineers elongates 1.5 m under the
weight of an 80 Kg climb. If the rope is 0.64 cm2 in cross section,
calculate 𝛾.

Soln

𝑙 = 50 𝑚
𝑒 = 1.5 𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 = 80 × 10 = 800 𝑁
𝐴 = 0.64 𝑐𝑚2 = 0.64 × 10−4 𝑚2
Now,
 𝐹𝑙
𝛾=
𝑒𝐴
800 × 50
=
1.5 × 0.64 × 10−4
= 4.16 × 108 𝑁⁄𝑚2

Relation between 𝛾, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎.

𝛾 = 3𝛽 (1 − 2𝜎)
𝛾 = 2𝜂(1 + 𝜎)

Q. The ratio of the value of Young’s modulus to the value of rigidity

modulus of gold is 2.85. Determine the value of Poisson’s ratio of gold.

Soln
𝛾
= 2.85
𝜂
Now,

𝛾 = 2𝜂(1 + 𝜎)
𝛾
= 2 + 2𝜎
𝜂
2.85 = 2 + 2𝜎
2𝜎 = 0.858
𝜎 = 0.429
Force set up due to expansion or contraction.
 𝐹 = 𝐴𝛾 ∝ ∆𝜃

Q.

Soln

d= 0.5 mm = 0.5× 10−3

∆𝜃 = 25 ℃
T (or F) =?

𝛾 = 1.2 × 1011 𝑁⁄𝑚2

∝ = 1.8 × 10−6 /℃
𝐹 = 𝐴𝛾 ∝ ∆𝜃
= 2𝜋𝑟 2 × 1.2 × 1011 × 18 × 10−6 × 25
22
= × (0.35 × 10−3 )2 × 54000000
7
= 10.6 𝑁

Centripetal force.
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹=
𝑟
m = mass

v = velocity

r= radius
 1) Why steel is more elastic than rubber?
2) Why bridges are declared unsafe after long use?
3) Why rubber is used as vibration absorber?
4) Soldiers are allowed to break their steps while passing through
bridge.
5) Why phosphor bronze wire is used in making moving coil
galvanometer?

Q. Find the greatest length of steel wire that can hang vertically without
breaking. 𝜌 = 7800 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 . Stress = 4.5 × 108 𝑁⁄𝑚2 .

Soln:

𝜌 = 7800 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
Stress = 4.5 × 108 𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴
𝑚𝑔
or 4.5 × 108 =
𝐴

𝑉×𝜌×𝑔
4.5 × 108 =
𝐴
𝐴×𝑙×𝜌×𝑔
4.5 × 108 =
𝐴
4.5 × 108
𝑙=
10 × 7800
𝑙 = 5769.23
𝑙 = 5.77 𝐾𝑚