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MAT214A
Wednesday 3/6 Spring 2019 10:50 – 12:05 pm Take Home Quiz on Section 3-3 Due today Questions on Section 6-1, 6-2 Homework? Quiz on 6-1,6-2 Friday *Test#2 on 3.1-3.3, 6.1-6.3, 6.8, 7.1-7.2 Approximate date is Wednesday 3/27 Recall: B) Section 6.1 Counting – Basic Principles, Section 6.2 Permutations and Combinations Number of elements or selections: Rule of Sum X and Y are disjoint finite sets, then there are |X| + |Y| possible elements or selections. Inclusion-Exclusion Rule X and Y are finite sets that are not disjoint, then there are |X∪Y| = |X| + |Y| - |X ∩ Y| possible elements or selections.
Number of sequences, order matters:
With or without replacement- Rule of Product (Multiplication Rule, Fundamental Counting Rule) There are m*n*p*… possible sequences if there are m selections, then n selections, then p selections, etc.
There are n distinct items, selecting without replacement-
Factorial Rule n! possible sequences of n items
r-Permutations P(n,r) or nPr
n! n Pr= (n−r )! possible sequences of r items chosen from n total items
Number of sets, order does not matter:
n r-Combinations C(n,r) or nCr or r() The number of possible sets of r items chosen from n different items without replacement.
start count of number of arrangements
n! nCr= The number of combinations of r items selected from n items is (n−r)!r ! end count of number of arrangements delete duplications of same items with different order Example: How many sets of 3 elements can be made from S = {1, 2, 3, 4}?
If we did this by hand: {1, 2, 3} {2, 3, 4} {3, 4, 1}, {4, 1, 2} {3, 2, 1} nope, already have this set. I think done.
Example: Find the number of ways to select 3 people from a committee* of 7 people. 7! 7 C3 = =35 (7−3)!3 ! *think “how many SETS of 3 people are possible”?
Example: The Virginia lottery requires that you select the correct 6 numbers between 1 and 42. Find the number of possible combinations. 42! 42 C 6 = =5, 245 , 786 (42−6)!6! *think “how many SETS of 6 numbers are possible”?
A) Section 6-3 Generalized Permutations and Combinations
From 6-2: Permutation is ordering of r selections from n total distinct items Combination is a set of r selections from n total distinct items
Now we consider number of sequences or sets from groups of like items (duplicates exist)
Adjust Permutation Rule (some items are identical)
n! If there are n1 alike, n2 alike, n3 alike, etc., then the number of permutations is: n1 !n2 !...n k !
Example: How many ways can the letters in the word “foot” be arranged in a sequence? n= 4 nf=1 no=2 nt=1
We don’t consider f o1 o2 t to be a different arrangement than f o2 o1 t. We need to reduce total sequences
by all combinations of o1 o2 which is (2 choices)(1 choice) or 2! 4! 4! = =12 1!*2!*1! 2! ways
Remove duplications of o1 o2 and o2 o1
Example: How many ways can the letters in the word “Mississippi” be arranged?
Adjusted Combination Rule (some items identical)
In general, if X is a set containing n elements, the number of unordered r element selections from X, repetitions allowed, is C(n-1 + r, r) = C(n – 1 + r, n - 1)
Example How many ways can I assign 3 tasks to a class of 10 students if people can be assigned more than one task? I cannot use 10P3 or 10C3 because I am allowing repetition, that is I could assign one person all the tasks. Suppose the people are different slots and let indicate who a task was assigned to.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | | | | | | | | |
Or maybe: etc…..
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | | | | | | | | |
What we are trying to figure out is how many ways we can arrange the 9 (n -1) dividers and 3 (r) tasks.
Does order matter? i.e. Can you tell the difference between different dividers? Between the different stars? No – order does not matter.
So we are looking to arrange n - 1 + r objects where order doesn’t matter. In this case: n – 1 + r = 9 + 3 = 12 objects. We are arranging the dividers and the stars. So the idea is that we are randomly placing 12 objects without regard for which type is which, but we do need to take into account how many there are of each type. So for our example, we would have 12C3 = 220 how many ways to arrange the 3 stars out of 12 items OR 12 C9 = 220 how many ways to arrange the 9 bars out of 12 items.
Example: How many solutions does the equation x1 + x2 + x3 = 11 have, where x1, x2 and x3 are nonnegative integers?
We are choosing 11 “ones” to distribute among 3 variables with repetition allowed.
x1 x2 x3 | 1111 | 1111 | 111 | is one possible combination. x 1 = 4, x2 = 4 and x3 = 3 Removing the end bars, we have n – 1 bars to arrange and 11 ones to arrange. C(3 – 1 +11, 11) = C(13, 11) = 78 possible solutions
Section 6-8 The Pigeonhole Principle
The Pigeonhole Principle is a really simple concept, discovered all the way back in the 1800s. Theorem Pigeonhole Principle: If k is a positive integer and n objects are placed into k boxes where n > k, then at least one of the boxes will contain two or more objects
Proof: Suppose each box contains at most one object. Then at most k objects have been placed. But since we have n objects and n>k, we have not placed all objects, contradicting that each box has at most one object. Therefore there must exist at least one box with at least two objects.
Example: There are 12 children, mother and father in a family.
(a) Prove that at least two of the children were born on the same day of the week; Solution: There are 12 children (pigeons) which we are placing into 7 days of the week (pigeonholes), so by the PHP, some day of the week has two children. (b) Prove that at least two family members (including mother and father) are born in the same month; Solution: There are 14 family members (pigeons) and only 12 months they can be born in (holes), so some two family members must be born in the same month by the PHP.
Example: Pigeonhole Elementary School has 500 students. Show that at least two of them were born on the same day of the year. Solution: There are 500 students, and only 366 days they could have been born on, so by the PHP some two students were born on the same day.
Example: Show that among any 4 numbers one can find 2 numbers so that their difference is divisible by 3. (Avoid considering the cases separately. Solution: There are 3 possible remainders when we divide a number by 3 (0, 1, or 2). Thus by PHP, since we have 4 numbers, some two of them must have the same remainder on division by 3—so we can write these two as n1 = 3k1 + r and n2 = 3k2 + r, where r is the remainder on division by 3. Then the difference is n1 − n2 = (3k1 + r) − (3k2 + r) = 3k1 + r − 3k2 – r = 3k1 − 3k2 = 3(k1 − k2), which is divisible by 3.
Generalized Pigeonhole Principle: If k is a positive integer and n objects are placed into k boxes and n > k, then at least one of the boxes will contain at least n/k objects.
Proof: Assume there were not any boxes with at least n/k objects. Then every hole has < n/k objects, so the total number of objects is < (n/k) × (k boxes) = (n/k) × k = n. But this says the number of objects is strictly less than n, and in fact there are exactly n objects, so our assumption that there was no box with at least n/k objects must have been incorrect, and this means the Generalized Pigeonhole Principle is true. Example: If you have 5 pigeons sitting in 2 pigeonholes, then one of the pigeonholes must have at least 5/2 = 2.5 pigeons—but since (hopefully) the boxes can’t have half-pigeons, then one of them must in fact contain 3 pigeons.
