INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS

Power Electronics is a field which combines Power (electric power), Electronics

and Control systems.
Power engineering deals with the static and rotating power equipment for the
generation, transmission and distribution of electric power.
Electronics deals with the study of solid state semiconductor power devices and
circuits for Power conversion to meet the desired control objectives (to control the output
voltage and output power).
Power electronics may be defined as the subject of applications of solid state
power semiconductor devices (Thyristors) for the control and conversion of electric
power.
Power electronics deals with the study and design of Thyristorised power
controllers for variety of application like Heat control, Light/Illumination control, Motor
control – AC/DC motor drives used in industries, High voltage power supplies, Vehicle
propulsion systems, High voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission.

BRIEF HISTORY OF POWER ELECTRONICS

The first Power Electronic Device developed was the Mercury Arc Rectifier
during the year 1900. Then the other Power devices like metal tank rectifier, grid
controlled vacuum tube rectifier, ignitron, phanotron, thyratron and magnetic amplifier,
were developed & used gradually for power control applications until 1950.
The first SCR (silicon controlled rectifier) or Thyristor was invented and
developed by Bell Lab’s in 1956 which was the first PNPN triggering transistor.
The second electronic revolution began in the year 1958 with the development of
the commercial grade Thyristor by the General Electric Company (GE). Thus the new era
of power electronics was born. After that many different types of power semiconductor
devices & power conversion techniques have been introduced.The power electronics
revolution is giving us the ability to convert, shape and control large amounts of power.

SOME APPLICATIONS OF POWER ELECTRONICS

Advertising, air conditioning, aircraft power supplies, alarms, appliances –
(domestic and industrial), audio amplifiers, battery chargers, blenders, blowers, boilers,
burglar alarms, cement kiln, chemical processing, clothes dryers, computers, conveyors,
cranes and hoists, dimmers (light dimmers), displays, electric door openers, electric
dryers, electric fans, electric vehicles, electromagnets, electro mechanical electro plating,
electronic ignition, electrostatic precipitators, elevators, fans, flashers, food mixers, food
warmer trays, fork lift trucks, furnaces, games, garage door openers, gas turbine starting,
generator exciters, grinders, hand power tools, heat controls, high frequency lighting,
HVDC transmission, induction heating, laser power supplies, latching relays, light
flashers, linear induction motor controls, locomotives, machine tools, magnetic recording,
magnets, mass transit railway system, mercury arc lamp ballasts, mining, model trains,
motor controls, motor drives, movie projectors, nuclear reactor control rod, oil well
drilling, oven controls, paper mills, particle accelerators, phonographs, photo copiers,
power suppliers, printing press, pumps and compressors, radar/sonar power supplies,
refrigerators, regulators, RF amplifiers, security systems, servo systems, sewing
machines, solar power supplies, solid-state contactors, solid-state relays, static circuit
breakers, static relays, steel mills, synchronous motor starting, TV circuits, temperature
controls, timers and toys, traffic signal controls, trains, TV deflection circuits, ultrasonic

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generators, UPS, vacuum cleaners, VAR compensation, vending machines, VLF
transmitters, voltage regulators, washing machines, welding equipment.

POWER ELECTRONIC APPLICATIONS

COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS
Heating Systems Ventilating, Air Conditioners, Central Refrigeration, Lighting,
Computers and Office equipments, Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), Elevators, and
Emergency Lamps.

DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS
Cooking Equipments, Lighting, Heating, Air Conditioners, Refrigerators &
Freezers, Personal Computers, Entertainment Equipments, UPS.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Pumps, compressors, blowers and fans. Machine tools, arc furnaces, induction
furnaces, lighting control circuits, industrial lasers, induction heating, welding
equipments.

AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
Space shuttle power supply systems, satellite power systems, aircraft power
systems.

TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Battery chargers, power supplies (DC and UPS), mobile cell phone battery
chargers.

TRANSPORTATION
Traction control of electric vehicles, battery chargers for electric vehicles, electric
locomotives, street cars, trolley buses, automobile electronics including engine controls.

UTILITY SYSTEMS
High voltage DC transmission (HVDC), static VAR compensation (SVC),
Alternative energy sources (wind, photovoltaic), fuel cells, energy storage systems,
induced draft fans and boiler feed water pumps.

POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

 Power Diodes.
 Power Transistors (BJT’s).
 Power MOSFETS.
 IGBT’s.
 Thyristors
Thyristors are a family of p-n-p-n structured power semiconductor
switching devices
 SCR’s (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)
The silicon controlled rectifier is the most commonly and widely used
member of the thyristor family. The family of thyristor devices include SCR’s,
Diacs, Triacs, SCS, SUS, LASCR’s and so on.

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POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES USED IN POWER ELECTRONICS
The first thyristor or the SCR was developed in 1957. The conventional Thyristors
(SCR’s) were exclusively used for power control in industrial applications until 1970.
After 1970, various types of power semiconductor devices were developed and became
commercially available. The power semiconductor devices can be divided broadly into
five types
 Power Diodes.
 Thyristors.
 Power BJT’s.
 Power MOSFET’s.
 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT’s).
 Static Induction Transistors (SIT’s).

The Thyristors can be subdivided into different types

 Forced-commutated Thyristors (Inverter grade Thyristors)
 Line-commutated Thyristors (converter-grade Thyristors)
 Gate-turn off Thyristors (GTO).
 Reverse conducting Thyristors (RCT’s).
 Static Induction Thyristors (SITH).
 Gate assisted turn-off Thyristors (GATT).
 Light activated silicon controlled rectifier (LASCR) or Photo SCR’s.
 MOS-Controlled Thyristors (MCT’s).

POWER DIODES
Power diodes are made of silicon p-n junction with two terminals, anode and
cathode. P-N junction is formed by alloying, diffusion and epitaxial growth. Modern
techniques in diffusion and epitaxial processes permit desired device characteristics.

The diodes have the following advantages

 High mechanical and thermal reliability
 High peak inverse voltage
 Low reverse current
 Low forward voltage drop
 High efficiency
 Compactness.

Diode is forward biased when anode is made positive with respect to the cathode.
Diode conducts fully when the diode voltage is more than the cut-in voltage (0.7 V for
Si). Conducting diode will have a small voltage drop across it.
Diode is reverse biased when cathode is made positive with respect to anode. When
reverse biased, a small reverse current known as leakage current flows. This leakage
current increases with increase in magnitude of reverse voltage until avalanche voltage is
reached (breakdown voltage).

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 I T2 T1

A K Reverse
Leakage Current
R V

+ 
T1 T2
V

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER SWITCHING DIODES

At low frequency and low current, the diode may be assumed to act as a perfect
switch and the dynamic characteristics (turn on & turn off characteristics) are not very
important. But at high frequency and high current, the dynamic characteristics plays an
important role because it increases power loss and gives rise to large voltage spikes which
may damage the device if proper protection is not given to the device.

Vi
V
+ + - VF
I

Vi RL
0 t
t1

-VR (b)

pn-pn0
at
The waveform in junction
(a) Simple diode 0 t (C)
circuit.
(b)Input waveform
I
applied to the diode
circuit in (a); VF
IF  I0
(c) The excess-carrier RL
density at the junction; 0 t
(d) the diode current;
(e) the diode voltage.
VR (d)
IR 
RL

0 t
t1 t2
Forward Minority Transition
bias carrier interval, t t
storage, ts
(e)
-VR

Fig: Storage & Transition Times during the Diode Switching

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REVERSE RECOVERY CHARACTERISTIC
Reverse recovery characteristic is much more important than forward recovery
characteristics because it adds recovery losses to the forward loss. Current when diode is
forward biased is due to net effect of majority and minority carriers. When diode is in
forward conduction mode and then its forward current is reduced to zero (by applying
reverse voltage) the diode continues to conduct due to minority carriers which remains
stored in the p-n junction and in the bulk of semi-conductor material. The minority
carriers take some time to recombine with opposite charges and to be neutralized. This
time is called the reverse recovery time. The reverse recovery time (trr) is measured from
the initial zero crossing of the diode current to 25% of maximum reverse current Irr. trr
has 2 components, t1 and t2. t1 is as a result of charge storage in the depletion region of
the junction i.e., it is the time between the zero crossing and the peak reverse current Irr.
t2 is as a result of charge storage in the bulk semi-conductor material.
trr  t1  t2


I RR  t1 di
dt 

IF t rr
t1 t2

t
0.25 IRR

IRR

The reverse recovery time depends on the junction temperature, rate of fall of
forward current and the magnitude of forward current prior to commutation (turning off).
When diode is in reverse biased condition the flow of leakage current is due to minority
carriers. Then application of forward voltage would force the diode to carry current in the
forward direction. But a certain time known as forward recovery time (turn-ON time) is
required before all the majority carriers over the whole junction can contribute to current
flow. Normally forward recovery time is less than the reverse recovery time. The forward
recovery time limits the rate of rise of forward current and the switching speed.
Reverse recovery charge QRR , is the amount of charge carriers that flow across
the diode in the reverse direction due to the change of state from forward conduction to
reverse blocking condition. The value of reverse recovery charge QRR is determined form
the area enclosed by the path of the reverse recovery current.
1 1  1 1
QRR   I RR t1  I RR t2   I RR t RR  QRR  I RR t RR
2 2  2 2

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POWER DIODES TYPES
Power diodes can be classified as
 General purpose diodes.
 High speed (fast recovery) diodes.
 Schottky diode.

GENERAL PURPOSE DIODES

The diodes have high reverse recovery time of about 25 microsecs (sec). They
are used in low speed (frequency) applications. e.g., line commutated converters, diode
rectifiers and converters for a low input frequency upto 1 KHz. Diode ratings cover a
very wide range with current ratings less than 1 A to several thousand amps (2000 A) and
with voltage ratings from 50 V to 5 KV. These diodes are generally manufactured by
diffusion process. Alloyed type rectifier diodes are used in welding power supplies. They
are most cost effective and rugged and their ratings can go upto 300A and 1KV.

FAST RECOVERY DIODES

The diodes have low recovery time, generally less than 5 s. The major field of
applications is in electrical power conversion i.e., in free-wheeling ac-dc and dc-ac
converter circuits. Their current ratings is from less than 1 A to hundreds of amperes with
voltage ratings from 50 V to about 3 KV. Use of fast recovery diodes are preferable for
free-wheeling in SCR circuits because of low recovery loss, lower junction temperature
and reduced di dt . For high voltage ratings greater than 400 V they are manufactured by
diffusion process and the recovery time is controlled by platinum or gold diffusion. For
less than 400 V rating epitaxial diodes provide faster switching speeds than diffused
diodes. Epitaxial diodes have a very narrow base width resulting in a fast recovery time of
about 50 ns.

SCHOTTKY DIODES
A Schottky diode has metal (aluminium) and semi-conductor junction. A layer of
metal is deposited on a thin epitaxial layer of the n-type silicon. In Schottky diode there is
a larger barrier for electron flow from metal to semi-conductor.
When Schottky diode is forward biased free electrons on n-side gain enough
energy to flow into the metal causing forward current. Since the metal does not have any
holes there is no charge storage, decreasing the recovery time. Therefore a Schottky diode
can switch-off faster than an ordinary p-n junction diode. A Schottky diode has a
relatively low forward voltage drop and reverse recovery losses. The leakage current is
higher than a p-n junction diode. The maximum allowable voltage is about 100 V.
Current ratings vary from about 1 to 300 A. They are mostly used in low voltage and high
current dc power supplies. The operating frequency may be as high 100-300 kHz as the
device is suitable for high frequency application. Schottky diode is also known as hot
carrier diode.

General Purpose Diodes are available upto 5000V, 3500A. The rating of fast-
recovery diodes can go upto 3000V, 1000A. The reverse recovery time varies between
0.1 and 5sec. The fast recovery diodes are essential for high frequency switching of
power converters. Schottky diodes have low-on-state voltage drop and very small

6
recovery time, typically a few nanoseconds. Hence turn-off time is very low for schottky
diodes. The leakage current increases with the voltage rating and their ratings are limited
to 100V, 300A. The diode turns on and begins to conduct when it is forward biased.
When the anode voltage is greater than the cathode voltage diode conducts.
The forward voltage drop of a power diode is low typically 0.5V to 1.2V. If the
cathode voltage is higher than its anode voltage then the diode is said to be reverse
biased.
Power diodes of high current rating are available in
 Stud or stud-mounted type.
 Disk or press pack or Hockey-pack type.
In a stud mounted type, either the anode or the cathode could be the stud.

COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIODES

General Purpose Diodes Fast Recovery Diodes Schottky Diodes

Upto 5000V & 3500A Upto 3000V and 1000A Upto 100V and 300A
Reverse recovery time – Reverse recovery time – Reverse recovery time –
High Low Extremely low.
trr  25 s trr  0.1 s to 5 s trr = a few nanoseconds
Turn off time - High Turn off time - Low Turn off time – Extremely
low
Switching frequency – Switching frequency – Switching frequency –
Low High Very high.
VF = 0.7V to 1.2V VF = 0.8V to 1.5V VF  0.4V to 0.6V

Natural or AC line commutated Thyristors are available with ratings upto 6000V,
3500A.
The turn-off time of high speed reverse blocking Thyristors have been improved
substantially and now devices are available with tOFF = 10 to 20sec for a 1200V, 2000A
Thyristors.
RCT’s (reverse conducting Thyristors) and GATT’s (gate assisted turn-off
Thyristors) are widely used for high speed switching especially in traction applications.
An RCT can be considered as a thyristor with an inverse parallel diode. RCT’s are
available up to 2500V, 1000A (& 400A in reverse conduction) with a switching time of
40sec. GATT’s are available upto 1200V, 400A with a switching speed of 8sec.
LASCR’s which are available upto 6000V, 1500A with a switching speed of 200sec to
400sec are suitable for high voltage power systems especially in HVDC.
For low power AC applications, triac’s are widely used in all types of simple heat
controls, light controls, AC motor controls, and AC switches. The characteristics of
triac’s are similar to two SCR’s connected in inverse parallel and having only one gate
terminal. The current flow through a triac can be controlled in either direction.
GTO’s & SITH’s are self turn-off Thyristors. GTO’s & SITH’s are turned ON by
applying and short positive pulse to the gate and are turned off by applying short negative
pulse to the gates. They do not require any commutation circuits.
GTO’s are very attractive for forced commutation of converters and are available
upto 4000V, 3000A.

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 SITH’s with rating as high as 1200V and 300A are expected to be used in medium
power converters with a frequency of several hundred KHz and beyond the frequency
range of GTO.
An MCT (MOS controlled thyristor) can be turned ON by a small negative
voltage pulse on the MOS gate (with respect to its anode) and turned OFF by a small
positive voltage pulse. It is like a GTO, except that the turn off gain is very high. MCT’s
are available upto 1000V and 100A.
High power bipolar transistors (high power BJT’s) are commonly used in power
converters at a frequency below 10KHz and are effectively used in circuits with power
ratings upto 1200V, 400A.
A high power BJT is normally operated as a switch in the common emitter
configuration.
The forward voltage drop of a conducting transistor (in the ON state) is in the
range of 0.5V to 1.5V across collector and emitter. That is VCE  0.5V to 1.5V in the ON
state.

POWER TRANSISTORS
Transistors which have high voltage and high current rating are called power
transistors. Power transistors used as switching elements, are operated in saturation region
resulting in a low - on state voltage drop. Switching speed of transistors are much higher
than the thyristors. and they are extensively used in dc-dc and dc-ac converters with
inverse parallel connected diodes to provide bi-directional current flow. However, voltage
and current ratings of power transistor are much lower than the thyristors. Transistors are
used in low to medium power applications. Transistors are current controlled device and
to keep it in the conducting state, a continuous base current is required.
Power transistors are classified as follows
 Bi-Polar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
 Metal-Oxide Semi-Conductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs)
 Insulated Gate Bi-Polar Transistors (IGBTs)
 Static Induction Transistors (SITs)
BI-POLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
A Bi-Polar Junction Transistor is a 3 layer, 3 terminals device. The 3 terminals are
base, emitter and collector. It has 2 junctions’ collector-base junction (CB) and emitter-
base junction (EB). Transistors are of 2 types, NPN and PNP transistors.
The different configurations are common base, common collector and common
emitter. Common emitter configuration is generally used in switching applications.
IB
IC
RC VCE1 VCE2
RB VCE2>VCE1
VCE VCC
IB
VCC VBE
IE

VBE

Fig: NPN Transistor Fig: Input Characteristic

8
 IC

IB1
IB2 IB1>IB2>IB3
IB3

VCE
Fig: Output / Collector Characteristics

Transistors can be operated in 3 regions i.e., cut-off, active and saturation.

In the cut-of region transistor is OFF, both junctions (EB and CB) are reverse
biased. In the cut-off state the transistor acts as an open switch between the collector and
emitter.
In the active region, transistor acts as an amplifier (CB junction is reverse biased
and EB junction is forward biased),
In saturation region the transistor acts as a closed switch and both the junctions
CB and EB are forward biased.

SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS
An important application of transistor is in switching circuits. When transistor is
used as a switch it is operated either in cut-off state or in saturation state. When the
transistor is driven into the cut-off state it operates in the non-conducting state. When the
transistor is operated in saturation state it is in the conduction state.
Thus the non-conduction state is operation in the cut-off region while the
conducting state is operation in the saturation region.

Fig: Switching Transistor in CE Configuration

As the base voltage VB rises from 0 to VB, the base current rises to IB, but the
collector current does not rise immediately. Collector current will begin to increase only
when the base emitter junction is forward biased and VBE > 0.6V. The collector current
IC will gradually increase towards saturation level I C  sat  . The time required for the
collector current to rise to 10% of its final value is called delay time td . The time taken by
the collector current to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value is called rise time tr . Turn
on times is sum of td and tr . ton  td  tr

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The turn-on time depends on
 Transistor junction capacitances which prevent the transistors voltages from
changing instantaneously.
 Time required for emitter current to diffuse across the base region into the
collector region once the base emitter junction is forward biased. The turn on time
ton ranges from 10 to 300 ns. Base current is normally more than the minimum
required to saturate the transistor. As a result excess minority carrier charge is
stored in the base region.
When the input voltage is reversed from VB1 to VB 2 the base current also
abruptly changes but the collector current remains constant for a short time interval tS
called the storage time.
The reverse base current helps to discharge the minority charge carries in the base
region and to remove the excess stored charge form the base region. Once the excess
stored charge is removed the baser region the base current begins to fall towards zero.
The fall-time t f is the time taken for the collector current to fall from 90% to 10% of
I C  sat  . The turn off time toff is the sum of storage time and the fall time. toff  ts  t f

VB1

VB2 td = Turn on delay time.

tr = Rise time.
ts = Storage time.
IB
tf = Fall Time.
ton = (td + tr)
IB1
toff = (ts + tf)

IB2

IC
IC(sat)
0.9 IC

tr
0.1 IC
t
ts tf
td

Fig: Switching Times of Bipolar Junction Transistor

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DIAC
A diac is a two terminal five layer semi-conductor bi-directional switching device.
It can conduct in both directions. The device consists of two p-n-p-n sections in anti
parallel as shown in figure. T1 and T2 are the two terminals of the device.

T1

T1
N
P
P
N N
P
P
N T2

T2
Fig.: Diac Structure Fig.: Diac symbol

Figure above shows the symbol of diac. Diac will conduct when the voltage
applied across the device terminals T1 & T2 exceeds the break over voltage..

T1 T2 T1 T2

V RL V RL

Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2

Figure 1.1 shows the circuit diagram with T1 positive with respect to T2 . When the
voltage across the device is less than the break over voltage VB 01 a very small amount of
current called leakage current flows through the device. During this period the device is
in non-conducting or blocking mode. But once the voltage across the diac exceeds the
break over voltage VB 01 the diac turns on and begins to conduct. Once it starts conducting
the current through diac becomes large and the device current has to be limited by
connecting an external load resistance RL , at the same time the voltage across the diac
decreases in the conduction state. This explain the forward characteristics.
Figure 1.2 shows the circuit diagram with T2 positive with respect to T1 . The
reverse characteristics obtained by varying the supply voltage are identical with the
forward characteristic as the device construction is symmetrical in both the directions.
In both the cases the diac exhibits negative resistance switching characteristic during
conduction. i.e., current flowing through the device increases whereas the voltage across
it decreases.

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 Figure below shows forward and reverse characteristics of a diac. Diac is mainly
used for triggering triacs.

Forward
conduction region

VB02
V
VB01

Blocking state

Reverse
conduction region

Fig.: Diac Characteristics

TRIAC
A triac is a three terminal bi-directional switching thyristor device. It can conduct
in both directions when it is triggered into the conduction state. The triac is equivalent to
two SCRs connected in anti-parallel with a common gate. Figure below shows the triac
structure. It consists of three terminals viz., MT2 , MT1 and gate G.
MT1

G N2
MT2
P2
N3
P2
N1

N1
P1 G MT1

P1
N4

MT2
Fig. : Triac Structure Fig. : Triac Symbol

The gate terminal G is near the MT1 terminal. Figure above shows the triac
symbol. MT1 is the reference terminal to obtain the characteristics of the triac. A triac can
be operated in four different modes depending upon the polarity of the voltage on the
terminal MT2 with respect to MT1 and based on the gate current polarity.
The characteristics of a triac is similar to that of an SCR, both in blocking and
conducting states. A SCR can conduct in only one direction whereas triac can conduct in
both directions.

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TRIGGERING MODES OF TRIAC
MODE 1 : MT2 positive, Positive gate current ( I  mode of operation)
When MT2 and gate current are positive with respect to MT1, the gate current
flows through P2-N2 junction as shown in figure below. The junction P1-N1 and P2-N2
are forward biased but junction N1-P2 is reverse biased. When sufficient number of
charge carriers are injected in P2 layer by the gate current the junction N1-P2 breakdown
and triac starts conducting through P1N1P2N2 layers. Once triac starts conducting the
current increases and its V-I characteristics is similar to that of thyristor. Triac in this
mode operates in the first-quadrant.

MT2 (+)

P1

N1
P2
Ig
N2

MT1 ()
G
V
(+)
Ig

MODE 2 : MT2 positive, Negative gate current ( I  mode of operation)

MT2 (+)

P1
Initial Final
N1
conduction conduction
P2
N3 N2

MT1 ()
G
V

Ig
When MT2 is positive and gate G is negative with respect to MT1 the gate current
flows through P2-N3 junction as shown in figure above. The junction P1-N1 and P2-N3
are forward biased but junction N1-P2 is reverse biased. Hence, the triac initially starts
conducting through P1N1P2N3 layers. As a result the potential of layer between P 2-N3
rises towards the potential of MT2. Thus, a potential gradient exists across the layer P 2
with left hand region at a higher potential than the right hand region. This results in a
current flow in P2 layer from left to right, forward biasing the P2N2 junction. Now the
right hand portion P1-N1 - P2-N2 starts conducting. The device operates in first quadrant.

13
When compared to Mode 1, triac with MT2 positive and negative gate current is less
sensitive and therefore requires higher gate current for triggering.

MODE 3 : MT2 negative, Positive gate current ( III  mode of operation)

When MT2 is negative and gate is positive with respect to MT1 junction P2N2 is
forward biased and junction P1-N1 is reverse biased. N2 layer injects electrons into P2
layer as shown by arrows in figure below. This causes an increase in current flow through
junction P2-N1. Resulting in breakdown of reverse biased junction N1-P1. Now the
device conducts through layers P2N1P1N4 and the current starts increasing, which is
limited by an external load.
MT 2 ()

N4

P1
N1

P2
N2

G MT1 (+)
(+)

Ig
The device operates in third quadrant in this mode. Triac in this mode is less
sensitive and requires higher gate current for triggering.

MODE 4 : MT2 negative, Negative gate current ( III  mode of operation)

MT 2 ()

N4

P1
N1

P2
N3

G MT1 (+)
(+)

Ig
In this mode both MT2 and gate G are negative with respect to MT1, the gate
current flows through P2N3 junction as shown in figure above. Layer N3 injects electrons
as shown by arrows into P2 layer. This results in increase in current flow across P 1N1
and the device will turn ON due to increased current in layer N1. The current flows

14
through layers P2N1P1N4. Triac is more sensitive in this mode compared to turn ON
with positive gate current. (Mode 3).
Triac sensitivity is greatest in the first quadrant when turned ON with positive
gate current and also in third quadrant when turned ON with negative gate current. when
MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 it is recommended to turn on the triac by a positive
gate current. When MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 it is recommended to turn on the
triac by negative gate current. Therefore Mode 1 and Mode 4 are the preferred modes of
operation of a triac ( I  mode and III  mode of operation are normally used).

TRIAC CHARACTERISTICS
Figure below shows the circuit to obtain the characteristics of a triac. To obtain
the characteristics in the third quadrant the supply to gate and between MT2 and MT1 are
reversed.
RL I
- +
A
MT2

Rg + +
+ -G
A MT1 V Vs
-
+ -
Vgg
-

Figure below shows the V-I Characteristics of a triac. Triac is a bidirectional

switching device. Hence its characteristics are identical in the first and third quadrant.
When gate current is increased the break over voltage decreases.

VB01, VB01
MT2(+) - Breakover voltages
G(+) Ig2 > Ig21
 Ig2
I Ig1
VB02
V
V VB01

MT2()
G()

Fig.: Triac Characteristic

15
 Triac is widely used to control the speed of single phase induction motors. It is
also used in domestic lamp dimmers and heat control circuits, and full wave AC voltage
controllers.

POWER MOSFET
Power MOSFET is a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. It is a
voltage controlled device requiring a small input gate voltage. It has high input
impedance. MOSFET is operated in two states viz., ON STATE and OFF STATE.
Switching speed of MOSFET is very high. Switching time is of the order of nanoseconds.

MOSFETs are of two types

 Depletion MOSFETs
 Enhancement MOSFETs.

MOSFET is a three terminal device. The three terminals are gate (G), drain (D) and
source (S).

DEPLETION MOSFET
Depletion type MOSFET can be either a n-channel or p-channel depletion type
MOSFET.
A depletion type n-channel MOSFET consists of a p-type silicon substrate with two
highly doped n+ silicon for low resistance connections. A n-channel is diffused between
drain and source. Figure below shows a n-channel depletion type MOSFET. Gate is
isolated from the channel by a thin silicon dioxide layer.

Metal
+
D n D

p-type
G n
substrate G

S n
+ S
Channel
Oxide
Structure Symbol

Fig. : n-channel depletion type MOSFET

Gate to source voltage (VGS) can be either positive or negative. If VGS is

negative, electrons present in the n-channel are repelled leaving positive ions. This creates
a depletion.

16
 +
Metal
D p
D

n-type
G p substrate G

S p
+ S
Channel

Oxide
Structure Symbol

Fig. : P-channel depletion type MOSFET

Figure above shows a p-channel depletion type MOSFET. A P-channel depletion

type MOSFET consists of a n-type substrate into which highly doped p-regions and a P-
channel are diffused. The two P+ regions act as drain and source P-channel operation is
same except that the polarities of voltages are opposite to that of n-channel.

ENHANCEMENT MOSFET
Enhancement type MOSFET has no physical channel. Enhancement type
MOSFET can be either a n-channel or p-channel enhancement type MOSFET.

Metal
+
D n D

p-type
G
substrate G

S n
+ S

Oxide
Structure Symbol

Fig. : n-channel enhancement type MOSFET

Figure above shows a n-channel enhancement type MOSFET. The P-substrate

extends upto the silicon dioxide layer. The two highly doped n regions act as drain and
source.
When gate is positive (VGS) free electrons are attracted from P-substrate and they
collect near the oxide layer. When gate to source voltage, V GS becomes greater than or
equal to a value called threshold voltage (VT). Sufficient numbers of electrons are
accumulated to form a virtual n-channel and current flows from drain to source.
Figure below shows a p-channel enhancement type of MOSFET. The n-substrate
extends upto the silicon dioxide layer. The two highly doped P regions act as drain and
source. For p-channel the polarities of voltages are opposite to that of n-channel.

17
 +
Metal
D p
D

n-type
G
substrate G

S p
+ S

Oxide
Structure Symbol
Fig. : P-channel enhancement type MOSFET.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET
Depletion MOSFET
Figure below shows n-channel depletion type MOSFET with gate positive with
respect to source. I D , VDS and VGS are drain current, drain source voltage and gate-source
voltage. A plot of variation of I D with VDS for a given value of VGS gives the Drain
characteristics or Output characteristics.

D ID

G
VDS
+ +
VGS S
 

Fig: n-channel Depletion MOSFET

n-channel Depletion type MOSFET

VGS & VDS are positive. I D is positive for n channel MOSFET . VGS is negative for
depletion mode. VGS is positive for enhancement mode.
Figure below shows the drain characteristic. MOSFET can be operated in three
regions
 Cut-off region,
 Saturation region (pinch-off region) and
 Linear region.
In the linear region I D varies linearly with VDS . i.e., increases with increase in VDS .
Power MOSFETs are operated in the linear region for switching actions. In saturation
region I D almost remains constant for any increase in VDS .

18
 Linear Saturation
region region
VGS3

ID VGS2

VGS1

VDS
Fig.: Drain Characteristic

Figure below shows the transfer characteristic. Transfer characteristic gives the
variation of I D with VGS for a given value of VDS . I DSS is the drain current with shorted
gate. As curve extends on both sides VGS can be negative as well as positive.

IDSS

ID

VGS(OFF) VGS
Fig.: Transfer characteristic

Enhancement MOSFET

D ID

G
VDS
+ +
VGS S
 

Fig: n-channel Enhancement MOSFET

Enhancement type MOSFET

VGS is positive for a n-channel enhancement MOSFET. VDS & I D are also
positive for n channel enhancement MOSFET

19
 Figure above shows circuit to obtain characteristic of n channel enhancement type
MOSFET. Figure below shows the drain characteristic. Drain characteristic gives the
variation of I D with VDS for a given value of VGS .

ID

VT VGS
VT  VGS TH   Gate Source Threshold Voltage
Fig.: Transfer Characteristic

Figure below shows the transfer characteristic which gives the variation of I D
with VGS for a given value of VDS .

Linear Saturation
region region
VGS3

ID VGS2

VGS1

VDS
VGS 3  VGS 2  VGS 1
Fig. : Drain Characteristic

MOSFET PARAMETERS
The parameters of MOSFET can be obtained from the graph as follows.

I D
Mutual Transconductance g m  .
VGS VDS  Constant

VDS
Output or Drain Resistance Rds  .
I D VGS  Constant

Amplification factor   Rds x g m

20
 Power MOSFETs are generally of enhancement type. Power MOSFETs are used in
switched mode power supplies.
Power MOSFET’s are used in high speed power converters and are available at a
relatively low power rating in the range of 1000V, 50A at a frequency range of several
tens of KHz  f max  100 KHz  .

SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET

Power MOSFETs are often used as switching devices. The switching
characteristic of a power MOSFET depends on the capacitances between gate to
source CGS , gate to drain CGD and drain to source CGS . It also depends on the impedance
of the gate drive circuit. During turn-on there is a turn-on delay td  on  , which is the time
required for the input capacitance CGS to charge to threshold voltage level VT . During
the rise time tr , CGS charges to full gate voltage VGSP and the device operate in the linear
region (ON state). During rise time tr drain current I D rises from zero to full on state
current I D .
 Total turn-on time, ton  td  on   tr
MOSFET can be turned off by discharging capacitance CGS . td  off  is the turn-off
delay time required for input capacitance CGS to discharge from V1 to VGSP . Fall time t f
is the time required for input capacitance to discharge from VGSP to threshold voltage VT .
During fall time t f drain current falls from I D to zero. Figure below shows the switching
waveforms of power MOSFET.

VG

V1

V1
VGSP
VT
tr
td(on) td(off) tf

21
INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (IGBT)
IGBT is a voltage controlled device. It has high input impedance like a MOSFET
and low on-state conduction losses like a BJT.
Figure below shows the basic silicon cross-section of an IGBT. Its construction is
same as power MOSFET except that n+ layer at the drain in a power MOSFET is
replaced by P+ substrate called collector.

Collector

 C
p

n Bufferlayer

n epi G
p
 
n n E
Gate Gate

Emitter
Structure Symbol

Fig.: Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

IGBT has three terminals gate (G), collector (C) and emitter (E). With collector and
gate voltage positive with respect to emitter the device is in forward blocking mode.
When gate to emitter voltage becomes greater than the threshold voltage of IGBT, a n-
channel is formed in the P-region. Now device is in forward conducting state. In this state
p  substrate injects holes into the epitaxial n  layer. Increase in collector to emitter
voltage will result in increase of injected hole concentration and finally a forward current
is established.

CHARACTERISTIC OF IGBT
Figure below shows circuit diagram to obtain the characteristic of an IGBT. An
output characteristic is a plot of collector current I C versus collector to emitter voltage
VCE for given values of gate to emitter voltage VGE .

22
 IC
RC

RS G VCC
VCE

VG RGE VGE
E

Fig.: Circuit Diagram to Obtain Characteristics

IC
VGE4
VGE3 VGE4>VGE3>VGE2>VGE1
VGE2
VGE1

VCE
Fig. : Output Characteristics

A plot of collector current I C versus gate-emitter voltage VGE for a given value of
VCE gives the transfer characteristic. Figure below shows the transfer characteristic.
Note
Controlling parameter is the gate-emitter voltage VGE in IGBT. If VGE is less than the
threshold voltage VT then IGBT is in OFF state. If VGE is greater than the threshold
voltage VT then the IGBT is in ON state.
IGBTs are used in medium power applications such as ac and dc motor drives,
power supplies and solid state relays.
IC

VGE
VT
Fig. : Transfer Characteristic

23
SWITCHING CHARACTERISTIC OF IGBT
Figure below shows the switching characteristic of an IGBT. Turn-on time
consists of delay time td  on  and rise time tr .

VGE

VGET

t
tr tf
td(on) td(off)

VCE
t(on) = td(on)+tr
0.9 VCE t(off) = td(off)+tf

0.1 VCE
t

IC
0.9 ICE

0.1 ICE
t
td(off) tf

Fig. : Switching Characteristics

The turn on delay time is the time required by the leakage current I CE to rise to
0.1 I C , where I C is the final value of collector current. Rise time is the time required for
collector current to rise from 0.1 I C to its final value I C . After turn-on collector-emitter
voltage VCE will be very small during the steady state conduction of the device.
The turn-off time consists of delay off time td  off  and fall time t f . Off time delay is
the time during which collector current falls from I C to 0.9 I C and VGE falls to threshold
voltage VGET . During the fall time t f the collector current falls from 0.90 I C to 0.1 I C .
During the turn-off time interval collector-emitter voltage rises to its final value VCE .
IGBT’s are voltage controlled power transistor. They are faster than BJT’s, but
still not quite as fast as MOSFET’s. the IGBT’s offer for superior drive and output
characteristics when compared to BJT’s. IGBT’s are suitable for high voltage, high
current and frequencies upto 20KHz. IGBT’s are available upto 1400V, 600A and 1200V,
1000A.

24
IGBT APPLICATIONS
Medium power applications like DC and AC motor drives, medium power
supplies, solid state relays and contractors, general purpose inverters, UPS, welder
equipments, servo controls, robotics, cutting tools, induction heating

TYPICAL RATINGS OF IGBT

Voltage rating = 1400V. Current rating = 600A. Maximum operating frequency =
20KHz. Switching time  2.3 s  tON  tOFF  . ON state resistance = 600m = 60 x103  .

POWER MOSFET RATINGS

Voltage rating = 500V. Current rating = 50A. Maximum operating frequency =
100KHz. Switching time  0.6  s to 1 s  tON  tOFF  . ON state resistance RDON  = 0.4m
to 0.6m .

A MOSFET/ IGBT SWITCH

MOSFET / IGBT can be used as a switch in the circuit shown above. If a n-

channel enhancement MOSFET is used then the input pulse is VGS which is the pulse
applied between gate and source, which is a positive going voltage pulse.

IGBT’s
Minority carrier devices, superior conduction characteristics, ease of drive, wide
SOA, peak current capability and ruggedness. Generally the switching speed of an IGBT
is inferior to that of a power MOSFET.

POWER MOSFET’S (MAJORITY CARRIER DEVICES)

Higher switching speed, peak current capability, ease of drive, wide SOA,
d
avalanche and v capability have made power MOSFET is the ideal choice in new
dt
power electronic circuit designs.

25
IGBT (INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS) FEATURES
IGBT combines the advantages of BJT’s and MOSFET’s. Features of IGBT are
 IGBT has high input impedance like MOSFET’s.
 Low ON state conduction power losses like BJT’s.
 There is no secondary breakdown problem like BJT’s.
 By chip design and structure design, the equivalent drain to source
resistance RDS is controlled to behave like that of BJT.

DATA SHEET DETAILS OF THE IGBT MODULE CM400HA-24H

High power switching device by Mitsubishi Semiconductors Company
I C  400 A , VCES  1200V .

APPLICATIONS OF IGBT CM400HA-24H

AC and DC motor controls, general purpose inverters, UPS, welders, servo
controls, numeric control, robotics, cutting tools, induction heating.

MAXIMUM RATINGS

VCES Collector-Emitter (G-E short) voltage 1200V

VGES Gate-Emitter (C-E short) voltage 20V .
IC Collector Current (steady / average current) 400A, at TC  250 C .
I CM Pulsed Collector Current 800A
IE Emitter Current 400A, at TC  250 C .
I EM Maximum Pulsed Emitter Current 800A
PC  max  Maximum Collector Power Dissipation 2800W, at TC  250 C .
Tstorage Maximum Storage Temperature 400 c to 1250 c
TJ Junction Temperature 400 c to 1500 c
Weight Typical Value 400gm (0.4Kg)
Electrical Characteristics TJ = 250 c
VGETH   VTH  Gate  Emitter Threshold Voltage. VGETH   6V Typ  .
VGETH   4.5V  min  to 7.5V maximum at I C  40mA and VCE  10V .
I CES Collector cut-off current = 2mA (maximum) at VCE  VCES , VGE  0
I GES Gate leakage current  0.5 A (maximum) at VGE  VGES ,VCE  0
VCE  sat  Collector-Emitter saturation voltage TJ  250 C , I C  400 A, VGE  15V 
VCE  sat  : 2.5V (typical), 3.5V (maximum)
tdON  Turn ON delay time 300nsec (maximum) at VCC  600V , I C  400 A .
tr Turn ON rise time 500nsec (maximum), at VGE1  VGE 2  15V .
tON  800ns  max    td  tr 
td OFF  Turn off delay time = 350nsec.
tf Turn off fall time = 350nsec.

26
tOFF  td OFF   t f  700n sec (maximum)
trr Reverse recovery time 250nsec.
Qrr Reverse recovery charge = 2.97c (typical).

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EMITTER TO COLLECTOR FWD CM 400HA-

24H IGBT CHARACTERISTICS

800
VGE=15V 12

640

480
IC
AMPS VGE=10V
320
VGE=9V

160 8
VGE=7V

0 2 4 6 8 10
VCE (Volts)

Fig: Output Collector Characteristics

800
VCE=10V
640

480
IC Tj=250C
AMPS
320
Tj=1250C
160

VGE
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

VGE(TH) IC Vs VGE Characteristics

Fig: Transfer Characteristics

27
POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES, THEIR SYMBOLS AND
CHARACTERISTICS

28
CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER DEVICES

The power semiconductor devices can be operated as switches by applying control

signals to the gate terminal of Thyristors (and to the base of bi-polar transistor). The
required output is obtained by varying the conduction time of these switching devices.
Figure below shows the output voltages and control characteristics of commonly used
power switching devices. Once a thyristor is in a conduction mode, the gate signal of
either positive or negative magnitude has no effect. When a power semiconductor device
is in a normal conduction mode, there is a small voltage drop across the device. In the
output voltage waveforms shown, these voltage drops are considered negligible.

29
 Fig: Control Characteristics of Power Switching Devices

The power semiconductor switching devices can be classified on the basis of

 Uncontrolled turn on and turn off (e.g.: diode).
 Controlled turn on and uncontrolled turn off (e.g. SCR)
 Controlled turn on and off characteristics (e.g. BJT, MOSFET, GTO,
SITH, IGBT, SIT, MCT).
 Continuous gate signal requirement (e.g. BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, SIT).
 Pulse gate requirement (e.g. SCR, GTO, MCT).
 Bipolar voltage withstanding capability (e.g. SCR, GTO).
 Unipolar voltage withstanding capability (e.g. BJT, MOSFET, GTO,
IGBT, MCT).
 Bidirectional current capability (e.g.: Triac, RCT).
 Unidirectional current capability (e.g. SCR, GTO, BJT, MOSFET, MCT,
IGBT, SITH, SIT & Diode).

30
THYRISTORISED POWER CONTROLLERS
Block diagram given below, shows the system employing a thyristorised power
controller. The main power flow between the input power source and the load is shown
by solid lines.

Thyristorised
Power Power Load
Source Controllers Equipment

To measure
voltage, current,
speed, temperature

Control Measuring
Command Unit Unit
Input

Thyristorised power controllers are widely used in the industry. Old/conventional

controllers including magnetic amplifiers, mercury arc rectifiers, thyratrons, ignitrons,
rotating amplifiers, resistance controllers have been replaced by thyristorised power
controllers in almost all the applications.
A typical block diagram of a thyristorised power converter is shown in the above
figure.
The thyristor power converter converts the available power from the source into a
suitable form to run the load or the equipment. For example the load may be a DC motor
drive which requires DC voltage for its operation. The available power supply is AC
power supply as is often the case. The thyristor power converter used in this case is a AC
to DC power converter which converts the input AC power into DC output voltage to
feed to the DC motor. Very often a measuring unit or an instrumentation unit is used so as
to measure and monitor the output parameters like the output voltage, the load current, the
speed of the motor or the temperature etc. The measuring unit will be provided with
meters and display devices so that the output parameters can be seen and noted. The
control unit is employed to control the output of the thyristorised power converter so as to
adjust the output voltage / current to the desired value to obtain optimum performance of
the load or equipment. The signal from the control unit is used to adjust the phase angle /
trigger angle of the Thyristors in the power controller so as to vary the output voltage to
the desired value.

SOME IMPORTANT APPLICATIONS OF THYRISTORISED POWER

CONTROLLERS
 Control of AC and DC motor drives in rolling mills, paper and textile mills,
traction vehicles, mine winders, cranes, excavators, rotary kilns, ventilation fans,
compression etc.
 Uninterruptible and stand by power supplies for critical loads such as computers,
special high tech power supplies for aircraft and space applications.
 Power control in metallurgical and chemical processes using arc welding,
induction heating, melting, resistance heating, arc melting, electrolysis, etc.
 Static power compensators, transformer tap changers and static contactors for
industrial power systems.

31
  Power conversion at the terminals of a HVDC transmission systems.
 High voltage supplies for electrostatic precipitators and x-ray generators.
 Illumination/light control for lighting in stages, theaters, homes and studios.
 Solid state power controllers for home/domestic appliances.

ADVANTAGES OF THYRISTORISED POWER CONTROLLERS

 High efficiency due to low losses in the Thyristors.
 Long life and reduced/minimal maintenance due to the absence of mechanical
wear.
 Control equipments using Thyristors are compact in size.
 Easy and flexibility in operation due to digital controls.
 Faster dynamic response compared to the electro mechanical converters.
 Lower acoustic noise when compared to electro magnetic controllers, relays and
contactors.

DISADVANTAGES OF THYRISTORISED POWER CONTROLLERS

 All the thyristorised power controllers generate harmonics (unwanted frequency
components) due to the switching ON and OFF of the thyristors. These
harmionics adversely affect the performance of the load connected to them. For
example when the load are motors, there are additional power losses (harmonic
power loss) torque harmonics, and increase in acoustic noise.
 The generated harmonics are injected into the supply lines and thus adversely
affect the other loads/equipments connected to the supply lines.
 In some applications example: traction, there is interference with the commutation
circuits due to the power supply line harmonics and due to electromagnetic
radiation.
 The thyristorised AC to DC converters and AC to AC converters can operate at
low power factor under some conditions.
 Special steps are then taken for correcting the line supply power factor (by
installing PF improvement apparatus).
 The thyristorised power controllers have no short time over loading capacity and
therefore they must be rated for maximum loading conditions. This leads to an
increase in the cost of the equipment.
 Special protection circuits must be employed in thyristorised power controllers in
order to protect and safe guard the expensive thyristor devices. This again adds to
the system cost.

TYPES OF POWER CONVERTERS or THYRISTORISED POWER

CONTROLLERS
For the control of electric power supplied to the load or the equipment/machinery
or for power conditioning the conversion of electric power from one form to other is
necessary and the switching characteristic of power semiconductor devices (Thyristors)
facilitate these conversions
The thyristorised power converters are referred to as the static power converters
and they perform the function of power conversion by converting the available input
power supply in to output power of desired form.
The different types of thyristor power converters are
 Diode rectifiers (uncontrolled rectifiers).

32
  Line commutated converters or AC to DC converters (controlled rectifiers)
 AC voltage (RMS voltage) controllers (AC to AC converters).
 Cyclo converters (AC to AC converters at low output frequency).
 DC choppers (DC to DC converters).
 Inverters (DC to AC converters).

LINE COMMUTATED CONVERTERS (AC TO DC CONVERTERS)

+
AC Line DC Output
Input Commutated V0(QC)
Voltage Converter
-

These are AC to DC converters. The line commutated converters are AC to DC power

converters. These are also referred to as controlled rectifiers. The line commutated
converters (controlled rectifiers) are used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency AC
power supply to obtain a variable DC output voltage. They use natural or AC line
commutation of the Thyristors.

Fig: A Single Phase Full Wave Uncontrolled Rectifier Circuit (Diode Full
Wave Rectifier) using a Center Tapped Transformer

33
 Fig: A Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier Circuit (using SCRs)
using a Center Tapped Transformer

Different types of line commutated AC to DC converters circuits are

 Diode rectifiers – Uncontrolled Rectifiers
 Controlled rectifiers using SCR’s.
o Single phase controlled rectifier.
o Three phase controlled rectifiers.

Applications Of Line Commutated Converters

AC to DC power converters are widely used in
 Speed control of DC motor in DC drives.
 UPS.
 HVDC transmission.
 Battery Chargers.

AC VOLTAGE REGULATORS OR RMS VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS (AC TO

AC CONVERTERS)

V0(RMS)
AC Vs AC Variable AC
Input Voltage RMSO/P Voltage
Voltage fs Controller
fs fS

The AC voltage controllers convert the constant frequency, fixed voltage AC

supply into variable AC voltage at the same frequency using line commutation.
AC regulators (RMS voltage controllers) are mainly used for
 Speed control of AC motor.
 Speed control of fans (domestic and industrial fans).
 AC pumps.

34
 Fig: A Single Phase AC voltage Controller Circuit (AC-AC Converter using a
TRIAC)

CYCLO CONVERTERS (AC TO AC CONVERTERS WITH LOW OUTPUT

FREQUENCY)

V0 , f0
AC Vs Variable Frequency
Input Cyclo
Converters AC Output
Voltage fs
f0< fS

The cyclo converters convert power from a fixed voltage fixed frequency AC
supply to a variable frequency and variable AC voltage at the output.
The cyclo converters generally produce output AC voltage at a lower output
frequency. That is output frequency of the AC output is less than input AC supply
frequency.
Applications of cyclo converters are traction vehicles and gearless rotary kilns.

CHOPPERS (DC TO DC CONVERTERS)

+ V0(d c )
+
DC Variable DC
Vs Output Voltage
- Chopper

The choppers are power circuits which obtain power from a fixed voltage DC
supply and convert it into a variable DC voltage. They are also called as DC choppers or
DC to DC converters. Choppers employ forced commutation to turn off the Thyristors.

35
DC choppers are further classified into several types depending on the direction of power
flow and the type of commutation. DC choppers are widely used in
 Speed control of DC motors from a DC supply.
 DC drives for sub-urban traction.
 Switching power supplies.

Fig: A DC Chopper Circuit (DC-DC Converter) using IGBT

INVERTERS (DC TO AC CONVERTERS)

+ Inverter
DC AC
Supply (Forced Output Voltage
- Commutation)

The inverters are used for converting DC power from a fixed voltage DC supply
into an AC output voltage of variable frequency and fixed or variable output AC voltage.
The inverters also employ force commutation method to turn off the Thyristors.

Application of inverters are in

 Industrial AC drives using induction and synchronous motors.
 Uninterrupted power supplies (UPS system) used for computers, computer
labs.

36
 Fig: Single Phase DC-AC Converter (Inverter) using MOSFETS

DESIGN OF POWER ELECTRONICS CIRCUITS

The design and study of power electronic circuits involve
 Design and study of power circuits using Thyristors, Diodes, BJT’s or
MOSFETS.
 Design and study of control circuits.
 Design and study of logic and gating circuits and associated digital
circuits.
 Design and study of protection devices and circuits for the protection of
thyristor power devices in power electronic circuits.

The power electronic circuits can be classified into six types

 Diode rectifiers (uncontrolled rectifiers)
 AC to DC converters (Controlled rectifiers)
 AC to AC converters (AC voltage controllers)
 DC to DC converters (DC choppers)
 DC to AC converters (Inverters)
 Static Switches (Thyristorized contactors)

PERIPHERAL EFFECTS
The power converter operations are based mainly on the switching of power
semiconductor devices and as a result the power converters introduce current and voltage
harmonics (unwanted AC signal components) into the supply system and on the output of
the converters.
These induced harmonics can cause problems of distortion of the output voltage,
harmonic generation into the supply system, and interference with the communication and
signaling circuits. It is normally necessary to introduce filters on the input side and output
side of a power converter system so as to reduce the harmonic level to an acceptable
magnitude. The figure below shows the block diagram of a generalized power converter
with filters added. The application of power electronics to supply the sensitive electronic
loads poses a challenge on the power quality issues and raises the problems and concerns
to be resolved by the researchers. The input and output quantities of power converters

37
could be either AC or DC. Factors such as total harmonic distortion (THD), displacement
factor or harmonic factor (HF), and input power factor (IPF), are measures of the quality
of the waveforms. To determine these factors it is required to find the harmonic content of
the waveforms. To evaluate the performance of a converter, the input and output
voltages/currents of a converter are expressed in Fourier series. The quality of a power
converter is judged by the quality of its voltage and current waveforms.

Fig: A General Power Converter System

The control strategy for the power converters plays an important part on the
harmonic generation and the output waveform distortion and can be aimed to minimize or
reduce these problems. The power converters can cause radio frequency interference due
to electromagnetic radiation and the gating circuits may generate erroneous signals. This
interference can be avoided by proper grounding and shielding.

38