WU/TECHNO/ ELECTRICAL

Part one
Magnetic Switch
1.1. Introduction to Electrical Motor

Electric motors defined as electromechanical devices that convert electrical energy to mechanical
energy; they are the interface between the electrical and mechanical systems of a facility.
Machines which do opposite of this are called Generators.

E= emf I= current T=torque n= speed

Principle of Operation of Motors

Figure 1.1: working principle of electric motor

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1. Electrical current flowing in a loop of wire will produce a magnetic field across the loop.
2. When this loop is surrounded by the field of another magnet, the loop will turn, producing a
force (called torque) that results in mechanical motion

Types of Electrical motor

Electrical motor according to voltage supply divided into two AC MOTOR and DC MOTOR.
The following chart shows all types of motor.

Induction (asynchronous) motor

Working principle:
 a three phase stator winding is supplied by a three phase supply
 Alternating flux is produced around the stator winding due to AC supply. This alternating
flux revolves with synchronous speed. The revolving flux is called as "Rotating Magnetic
Field" (RMF).
 The relative speed between stator RMF and rotor conductors causes an induced emf in
the rotor conductors, according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The
rotor conductors are short circuited, and hence rotor current is produced due to induced
emf. That is why such motors are called as induction motors.

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 Now, induced current in rotor will also produce alternating flux around it. This rotor flux
lags behind the stator flux. The direction of induced rotor current, according to Lenz's
law, is such that it will tend to oppose the cause of its production.
 As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity between rotating stator
flux and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up with the stator RMF. Thus the rotor
rotates in the same direction as that of stator flux to minimize the relative velocity.
However, the rotor never succeeds in catching up the synchronous speed. This is the
basic working principle of induction motor of either type, single phase of 3 phase.

Figure 1.2: induction motor parts

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Parts of asynchronous motor

It consists of two main parts.

A. Stator - It is the stationary part of the motor.
B. Rotor - It is the rotating part of the motor
A. Stator
Stator has three main parts:
 Outer Frame: it is the outer body of the motor. It protects the inner part of the machine.
 Stator Core: built up of high grade silicon steel. Carries the alternating magnetic field.
 Stator winding: has a three phase winding.

Figure 1.3: stator

B. Rotor
 It is the rotating part of the induction motor.
 It is housed on the shaft of the induction motor.
 It has two ends, one is called Driving end and another is called non-Driving end.
 Mechanical load is connected on driving end while cooling fan is connected on non-driving
end.
 Both the ends are connected with bearings for free rotation means of reduced friction losses.

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There are two types of rotors which are employed in 3 – phase induction motor.
A. Squirrel Cage Rotor
B. Wound/ Slip Ring Rotor.

Squirrel Cage Rotor

 It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having semi closed circular slots at the outer
periphery.
 Copper or aluminum bar conductors are placed in these slots and short circuited at each end
by copper or aluminum rings called short circuiting rings.
 The rotor winding is permanently short circuited and it is not possible to add any external
resistance.
 The rotor slots are not parallel to the shaft but skewed to:
 reduce humming.
 provide smoother torque for different positions of rotor.
 reduce magnetic locking of stator and rotor.

Figure 1.4: squirrel cage rotor type

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Wound/ Slip Ring Rotor

 Consists of a laminated core having semi closed slots at the outer periphery and carries a 3-
phase insulated winding.
 The rotor is wound for the same number of poles as that of stator.
 The three finish terminals are connected together forming a star point and the three star
terminals are connected to three slip rings fixed on the shaft.

Figure 1.5: wound rotor

Stator and rotor windings

Figure 1.6: stator and rotor windings

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Rotor Windings:
 It is wound as rotor bars and short circuited at both the ends through end rings (for
Squirrel Cage Rotor type).
Stator Windings:
 Star connected
 Delta connected

Delta Connection
The figure below shows a delta configuration. This is the most common way of a motor
connection for direct on line, full voltage starting. The motor windings are designed to operate at
the nominal full voltage rating, which is 380V.

Figure 1.7: delta connection of three phase motor

Wye or Star Connection

When the windings in a wye connection rather than the delta, the full voltage applied line to line
is the same, but the voltage across the individual motor windings is reduced. The voltage is
reduced by the inverse of the square root of 3 or 57.7% of full voltage. For power systems with a
Line to Line (L to L) voltage of 380 the actual voltage across the motor windings is the Line to
Neutral (L to N) voltage of 220V.

Figure 1.8: star connection of three phase motor

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1.2. Starting of three phase Induction Motors

A 3-phase induction motor is theoretically self- starting. The stator of an induction motor
consists of 3-phase windings, which when connected to a 3-phase supply creates a rotating
magnetic field. This will link and cut the rotor conductors which in turn will induce a current in
the rotor conductors and create a rotor magnetic field. The magnetic field created by the rotor
will interact with the rotating magnetic field in the stator and produce rotation.
Therefore, 3-phase induction motors employ a starting method not to provide a starting torque at
the rotor, but because of the following reasons;
 Reduce heavy starting currents and prevent motor from overheating.
 Provide overload and no-voltage protection.

Some of the common methods are:

 Direct On-Line Starter (DOL)
 Star-Delta Starter
 Auto Transformer Starter
Basic Motor control components

Switch

Switch is an electrical device that can break and connect an electrical circuit, as well as
interrupting the flow of current or divert it from one conductor to the other.

Types of switches typically used in motor control applications:

 Pushbutton switch
 Limit switch
 Selector switch
 Footswitch
 Toggle switch

Push buttons: A push button switch is used to either close or open an electrical circuit
depending on the application. Push button switches are used in various applications such as
industrial equipment control handles, outdoor controls, mobile communication terminals, and

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medical equipment, and etc. Push button switches generally include a push button disposed
within housing. The push button may be depressed to cause movement of the push button
relative to the housing for directly or indirectly changing the state of an electrical contact to open
or close the contact.

a. Normally Open Pushbutton (green color) b. Normally Closed Pushbutton (red color)
Figure 1.9: pushbuttons

Push buttons can be either normally open (NO) or normally (NC). Some types can be stacked to
have multiple sets of NO and NC contacts.
Magnetic Contactor
A magnetic contactor is an electrically controlled switch used for switching a power circuit. It
has main contacts used for power circuit and auxiliary contact used for control circuit.

Figure 1.10: magnetic contactor

The parts of the magnetic contactor are coil, iron core, 3 contacts points and NC (normally
closed), NO (normally open) points.
The function of a contactor or motor starter is simple, when the AC supply goes to the contactor
coil, the coil make a strong magnetic field and field pulls the iron core to the coil and make a
electrical contacts.

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Control Relay

A relay is an electrically operated switch. The principle of operation is similar to that of the
contactor but differs in application.
While contactor is used to control motors, control relay on the other hand is used to control the
operation of other control components particularly the magnetic contactor.

Timer
 Relay timer contains an auxiliary contacts NO and NC that can be integrated into motor
control circuits. The initial state of its contact will change when activated after pre-
determined value.
 The timer unit can be set into seconds or minutes depending on the application requirements.
 For longer and iterative tasks, real time timers are available.

Figure 1.11: timer relays

Thermal Overload Relay

Thermal overload relay is an electrical component used in motor control applications which
provide protection for motor against excessive current.

Principles of operation:
This component has a bimetal strip that is made of two dissimilar metals bonded together. The
two metals have different thermal expansion characteristics, so the bimetal strip bends at a given
rate when heated.

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As current rises, heat also rises. The hotter the bimetal strip becomes, the more it bends. In an
overload condition, the heat generated from the heater will cause the bimetal strip to bend until
the mechanism is tripped, stopping the motor

Figure 1.12: thermal overload relay

Characteristics:
1. Allow harmless temporary overloads (such as motor starting) without disrupting the circuit.
2. Trip and open a circuit if current is high enough to cause motor damage over a period of
time.
3. Can be reset once the overload is removed.

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Experiment one
Full voltage direct on line starter of 3 phase induction motor
Theory
The Direct On-Line (DOL) starter is the simplest and the most inexpensive of all starting
methods and is usually used for squirrel cage induction motors. It directly connects the contacts
of the motor to the full supply voltage. The starting current is very large, normally 6 to 8 times
the rated current. The starting torque is likely to be 0.75 to 2 times the full load torque. In order
to avoid excessive voltage drops in the supply line due to high starting currents, the DOL starter
is used only for motors with a rating of less than 5kW.

Objective:
 To understand the circuit of full voltage direct on line motors control equipment’s.
 To learn how to install the circuit diagram of motor control system
Equipment required: quantity
Contactors 1
Overload relays 1
Push buttons 2
Circuit breaker or fuse 1
Procedure:
1. Construct the circuits shown below
2. Test the motor start and stop.

Principle operation of circuit: On pressing the start push button PB2, the contactor coil K1 is
energized from line L (R or S or T line). The three mains contacts (1-2), (3-4), and (5-6) in figure
1 are closed. The motor is thus connected to the supply. When the stop push button PB1 is
pressed, the supply through the contactor K1 is disconnected. Since the K1 is de-energized, the
main contacts (1 2), (3-4), and (5-6) are opened. The supply to motor is disconnected and the
motor stops.

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Power circuit controlling circuit

Figure 1.13: power and control circuits of I.M. with DOL starter

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Experiment Two
Full voltage forward reversing 3-phase induction motor
Theory
The rotation of a three phase motor can be reversed by interchanging the connection of any
motor terminals to the supply lines. As shown in figure 1.14, two separate contactors are used for
this purpose, one for forward and another for reverse operation. To prevent both the contactors
from being energized simultaneously and causing a short circuit, some preventive methods called
interlocking methods are employed. Two different interlocking methods generally used are
described below.
A. Push button interlocking

Push-button interlocking is one of the methods of preventing two contactors from being
energizing simultaneously. As shown in figure 1.14 power circuit, through contactor –K1, the
motor is fed with a three phase supply for forward rotation whereas through contactor –K2, the
motor is fed for reverse direction rotation. Both the NO and NC contacts of the forward and
reverse Push-button have been used. When the forward Push-button (PB3) is pressed, contactor –
K1 get energized by getting supply through the NC contact of the reverse Push-button (PB2).
The contactor remains energized even when the pressure on the Push-button is withdrawn as the
NO contact (-K1:13-14) of the contactor –K1 is now closed (this is called self-hold-on contact).
When the reverse Push-button (PB2) is pressed contactor –K1 gets de-energized first and then
contactor –K2 gets energized.
This ensures that it is not possible to energize both the contactors simultaneously.

B. Auxiliary contact interlocking

In this method, interlocking is done by connecting a normally closed auxiliary contact of the
forward contactor in series with the coil of the reverse contactor and vice versa, as shown in
figure 2, thus preventing simultaneous energisation of both the contactors.
When the Push-button –PB3 (S3) is pressed, contactor –K1 get energized and provides a three
phase supply to the motor for forward operation. When pressure on the Push-button -PB3 is
released the contactor remains energized because of the closing of the self-hold on contact -K1.
It should be noted that when a contactor –K1 is energized it is not possible to energize contactor
-K2 because NC of contactor –K1 is used in contactor -K2.

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Similarly, when contactor –K2 is energized it is not possible to energized contactor –K1 because
NC of contactor –K2 is used in contactor –K1. In this circuit changing the direction of the motor
is achieved either by using the stop push button in between or by using push-buttons –S2 and –
S2. It is necessary to stop the motor before receiving its direction of rotation. The motor stops
running when stop push-button (–S1) is pressed.
Objective:
 To understand the circuit of full voltage reversing 3-phase motors control equipment’s.
 To learn how to install the circuit diagram of motor control system.

Equipment required: Quantity

Forward and Reveres Contactors 2
Auxiliary contacts 2
Overload relays 1
Push buttons 5
Fuse or circuit breaker (3 ) 1

Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit shown below
2. Test the motor rotation in forward and reverse direction.

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Figure 1.14 a: Power and Control circuit of motor reversing

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Power circuit controlling circuit

Figure 1.14 b: Power and Control circuit of motor reversing

Principle operation: the coil of contactor K1 is energized by pressing PB3 .contactor K1

switches the motor on in clock wise direction and maintains itself after pb3 has been released by
its auxiliary contactor K1 (13-14).the NC contact K1 (11-12) blocks the energization of a
contactor K2 .upon operation of PB4 contactor K2 will be energized and the motor runs in anti
clock wise direction.

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Experiment three

Star-Delta 3 phase induction motors Starting

Theory
The star delta starting is a very common type of starter and extensively used, compared to the
other types of the starters. This method used reduced supply voltage in starting.
The method achieved low starting current by first connecting the stator winding in star
configuration, and then after the motor reaches a certain speed, throw switch changes the
winding arrangements from star to delta configuration.
By connecting the stator windings, first in star and then in delta, the line current drawn by the
motor at starting is reduced to one-third as compared to starting current with the windings
connected in delta. At the time of starting when the stator windings are start connected, each
stator phase gets voltage ⁄√ , where is the line voltage. Since the torque developed by an
induction motor is proportional to the square of the applied voltage, star- delta starting reduced
the starting torque to one – third that obtainable by direct delta starting.

Objective:
 To understand the Star-Delta connection in controlling
 To learn how to construct Star-Delta circuit diagram
Equipment required: Quantity
Contactors 3
Auxiliary contacts 4
Overload relays 1
Timer 1
Push buttons 3
Fuse or circuit breaker 1
Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit shown below
2. Test the motor rotation and observe the speed of the motor.

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Figure 1.15: power and control circuit for star delta starting without timer

Principle of operation
When pushbutton –S2 is pressed contactor-K3 energized thus, intern makes NO (13, 14) of
contactor-K3 to close and NC (21, 22) to open, as a result contactor-K1 energized and contactor
–K2 de-energized. This helps the motor to run in star connection. When pushbutton –S3 is
pressed contactor –K3 de-energized, both –K1 and –K2 energized, and the motor operated in
delta.

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Figure 1.16: star-delta control circuit using timer

Principle operation: when pushbutton –S2 is pressed both contactors-K3 and –K1 energized
and the motor runs in star. After a pre-defined time NC contact of the off delay timer (-K4T)
opens, thus makes contactor –K3 to de-energized and contactors –K2 and –K1 to energize, and
the motor operates in delta.

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Sequential Control (3 Stages)

In industrial processing operation there are cases where machineries should be started one after
another. One example of electrical control applied to machineries in a processing operation is the
sequential control shown in figure below (A) and (B). The 3 motors; M1, M2 and M3 are drive
mechanical machine. Motor M1 is first started. After a Pre-set time, Motor M2 is started
automatically. Later, with another pre-set time, motor M3 is started.

Control Operation
The first stage of control operation is started by pressing the start push button switch shown in
figure (a). Contactor C, timer TR1, and pilot lamp A are energized. Contact C1 (13-14) will close
to maintain contactor C, timer TR1, and pilot lamp A. Contacts C2 (1-2,3-4,5-6) will also closed
to energize and operate the motor M1, see figure (b). Likewise the instantaneous timer contact
TR1 (1-3) will close to prepare the second stage of operation.

(A) Control circuit of 3 stages sequential Control.

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After the pre-set time of the timer TR1, the delay contact TR1 (8-6) will close. This will energize
contactor C2, timer TR2, and pilot lamp B. Contact C2 (1-2,3-4,5-6) will closed to energized to
operate the motor M2. Almost instantly the instantaneous timer contact TR2 (1-2) will close also
to prepare the third stage of operation.

After the pre-set time of timer TR2, the delay contact TR2 (8-6) will close. This will energize
contactor C3 and pilot lamp C. Contact C3 (1-2,3-4,5-6) will closed to energized and operate is
fully accomplished when the three motors M1, M2, and M3 are all operating.

To de-energize the whole operation, press the stop push button.

(b) Power circuit of 3 stages sequential Control.

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Group Project one (15%)

Submission deadline March 23, 2016

Sequence control of motors

Sequence control of motors is required in situations where it is necessary to start a particular

motor first before the second motor can be started. This type of control is necessary where one
machine, before starting must have all its auxiliary equipments operating. For example in a
grinding machine, the auxiliary equipments such as the coolant pump and the lubricant pump
should start operating before the rotation of the grinding wheel.
Design the power and control circuit of sequence start of two motors where one motor is start
first and then the next motor after a certain time.

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PART Two

Repair of Electrical Apparatus Coil

Systematic preparation of coil and their repair should be organized in electrical maintenance
shops because of the need for large numbers of replacements and repairs.

For repairing the apparatus coil the following equipment is required.

1. Winding Machine
2. Press board
3. Soldering Equipment & Materials
 Soldering iron
 Lead
 Soldering flux
4. Micrometer
5. Venire caliper
6. Screw drivers
7. steel ruler

In order to wind a coil, it is necessary to know the following data

 Operating Voltage
 Number of turns
 Cross-section of wire ( or diameter the wire)
 Type of operation ( ac or dc)
 Operating time ( short time, intermittent or continuous duty)

Usually the above data are to be taken from damaged coil itself. But sometimes a coil may be
completely burned out and difficult to get the necessary data. In such cases it is necessary to
know the winding data before winding the coil.

For determining the coil winding data for ac apparatus coil, the following method is used to
determine quickly and with fair accuracy.

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Number of turns
The number of turns in the coil depends upon the cross-section of a core on which it is mounted.
If the core cross-section is known, the number of turns per volt depending upon coil duty, can be
determined from graph in fig(1)

Core cross-section
c = a * b in cm2
a = core length in cm
b = core width in cm

For example the core cross-section of an apparatus coil to be designed for continuous duty is
2.9cm2, the number of turns per volt depending upon coil duty, can be determined from graph in
fig(1) becomes 12 turns per volt.
Therefore the total number of turns is
N = operating voltage X number of turns per volt
For 380V operating voltage, therefore,
N = 380X12 = 4560 turns

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Core cross sectional area C[cm2]

Fig.1 Graph for determining number of turns per volt for continuous duty apparatus coil

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Cross-section of the wire

From the above figure, the window or opening area of the core q o can be calculated as shown
below.
qo = h X l
Where:
qo = window or opening area of the core in mm2
h = Core height in mm
l = distances between the laps in mm
Let h = 17mm, l = 40mm,
Therefore,

qo = 17 X 40 = 680mm2

In order to determine the area taken up by the conductor (i.e. the area of the coil) it is necessary
to find the fill factor (space factor). This can be done with the aid of the graph in fig(2).

For qo = 680mm2 the corresponding fill factor from the graph is 0.21 or 21%. This means that the
winding conductors occupy only 21% of the core opening area.

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The total cross-section of the entire conductor can be determined by multiplying the core
opening area with its corresponding fill factor. Therefore,
q = qo X kf
q = 680 X 0.21
q = 143mm2
Dividing the total number of turns by total cross-section area of the conductors:
W = N/q
Where: W:- number of turns per cross-section area of the core
The conductor diameter is determined from the graph given in fig (3).
For our case, W=4560/143=32 turns/mm2, hence from the graph the diameter of the conductor
without insulation dwi becomes 0.17mm.

If the diameter obtained from the graph is not standard, take the nearest standard diameter.

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Wire diameter without insulation dwi [mm]

Fig. 3 Graph for determine the diameter of enamel insulation wire

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Procedure for Re-Winding of the Apparatus Coil

1. Prepare a former

For preparing a former, first it is necessary to know the dimension of the press board. For such
case determine the value of A, B, C, and D from a coil or from the core itself.
A wood is inserted inside the former for better uniformity of the winding. Before inserting, make
a hole at a center of the wood.

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2. Winding a coil using winding machine:

2.1. Before winding a coil on the former using winding machine, connect and solder the
beginning of the coil to be winding to the insulated wire (or terminal wire) and insulate it by
insulating tape.
2.2. Wind the coil on the former using the winding machine. Note that the coil being wound has
no bare spots.
2.3. When the winding is completed, connect and solder the end of the coil being wound to the
insulated wire, and insulate it by insulating tape.
2.4. Finally rolled up the coil by the cotton tape then impregnate the coil by varnish and dry it.

3. Test the repaired apparatus coil:

3.1. Open test:

Using continuity tester, ohmmeter, etc

3.2. Ohmic resistance test:

a) Using instrument- ohmmeter, Wheatstone bridge volt-ammeter method.

Volt- ampere method

b) By calculation ρ=0.0175Ωmm2/m

l = AxN

A = (E+I)/2

R = ρ(l/a)

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Where l - Internal length, m

A - Average length, m
E - External length, m
N - number of turns of the coil
 - resistivity of the materials (coil)

If the resistance calculated by the above method is much more than the measured value, there is a
short - circuit in the coil being wound.

3.3. Ground test - using megger, continuity tester

Ground test is carried out by connecting one of the terminals of the megger to the core and the
other terminal to one of the other terminals of the coil winding.

3.4. Insulation resistance test – using megger

It is carried out by winding a bare wire on coil and connecting one of the terminals of the megger
to this wire and the other terminal to one of the terminals of coil winding. The insulation
resistance of the apparatus coil is not standardized by rule. The insulation resistance in practice
considered to be permissible when not lowed than 0.5 mega ohm.

4. Install and check the operation of the rated voltage

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Part Three
Design and Winding of Small Power Transformers
3.1 Introduction to Transformers
A device that changes AC electric power at one voltage level to AC electric power at another
voltage level through the action of a magnetic field. Unlike in rotating machines, there is no
energy conversion. It involves interchange of electric energy between two or more electric
systems.
Working Principle
The transformer works in the principle of mutual induction which states that when the two
coils are inductively coupled and if the current in coil change uniformly then the e.m.f.
induced in the other coils. This e.m.f can drive a current when a closed path is provided to it.
 When the alternating current flows in the primary coils, a changing magnetic flux is
generated around the primary coil.
 The changing magnetic flux is transferred to the secondary coil through the iron core
 The changing magnetic flux is cut by the secondary coil, hence induces an e.m.f in the
secondary coil
 Now if load is connected to a secondary winding, this e.m.f drives a current through it
 The magnitude of the output voltage can be controlled by the ratio of the no. of primary
coil and secondary coil.

Figure 3.1: two winding transformer

Construction of Transformer
In its most basic form a transformer consists of:
 Magnetic core : provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux
 Windings or coils

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Magnetic core

The core of transformer either square or rectangular type in size and is made of high grade
silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5mm). The addition of silicon and lamination of the core
reduce to minimum values the losses due to eddy currents because of flux variation. It is
further divided into two parts vertical and horizontal. The vertical portion on which coils are
wounds called limb while horizontal portion is called yoke.
Transformer are classified according to construction in two main types namely
A. core type and
B. shell type

Core type construction

 In this one magnetic circuit and cylindrical coils are used

 Normally L and T shaped laminations are used
 Commonly primary winding will be wound on one limb while secondary on the other but
performance will be reduced
 To get high performance it is necessary that other the two winding should be very close to
each other

Figure 3.2: Hollow-core construction

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Figure 3.3: Windings wrapped around laminations

Shell type construction

Shell type transformer consists of a three-legged laminated core with the windings
wrapped around the center leg. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped one on
top of the other with the low voltage winding innermost, due to 2 purposes:
 It simplifies the problem of insulating the high-voltage winding from the core.
 It results in much less leakage flux

Figure 3.4: Shell core construction

As shown in figure 3.4, each layer of the core consists of E- and I-shaped sections of
metal. These sections are butted together to form the laminations. The laminations are
insulated from each other and then pressed together to form the core.

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Windings

As stated above, the transformer consists of two coils called WINDINGS which are
wrapped around a core. The transformer operates when a source of ac voltage is
connected to one of the windings and a load device is connected to the other. The winding
that is connected to the source is called the PRIMARY WINDING. The winding that is
connected to the load is called the SECONDARY WINDING.
Below figure 3. 5 shows an exploded view of a shell-type transformer. The primary
winding is wound in layers directly on a rectangular cardboard form.

Figure 3. 5: Exploded view of shell-type transformer construction

In the transformer shown in the cutaway view in figure 6, the primary consists of many
turns of relatively small wire. The wire is coated with varnish so that each turn of the
winding is insulated from every other turn. In a transformer designed for high-voltage
applications, sheets of insulating material, such as paper, are placed between the layers of
windings to provide additional insulation.

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Figure 3.6: Cutaway view of shell-type core with windings

When the primary winding is completely wound, it is wrapped in insulating paper or

cloth. The secondary winding is then wound on top of the primary winding. After the
secondary winding is completed, it will be covered with insulating paper. Next, the E and I
sections of the iron core are inserted into and around the windings as shown. The leads
from the windings are normally brought out through a hole in the enclosure of the
transformer. Sometimes, terminals may be provided on the enclosure for connections to
the windings. The figure 3.6 shows four leads, two from the primary and two from the
secondary. These Leads are to be connected to the source and load, respectively.

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3.2 Design of the Transformer

We have different types of parameters which depends on the size and application of transformers
1. Input Data of Design
a. Total apparent power required at the secondary side (VA)
b. Primary and secondary voltages(V)
c. Frequency f (Hz)
d. Type of duty
e. Number of phases and connection
The sizing power is calculated

Where, is the power factor of the load

While for an autotransformer

Where,
S - total apparent power
Vmax & Vmin is the maximum and minimum output voltage in autotransformer respectively.

2. Data that are calculated by the designer

A. Sizing of core
i. Utilization (or machine) factor (Ku)
Table 3.1: utilization factor
Transformer Type Ku
Core type single-phase (1.2 ÷ 1.9) 10-2
Shell type single-phase (2.5 ÷ 4) 10-2
Core type three-phase (1 ÷ 1.6) 10-2
Shell type three-phase (2 ÷ 3) 10-2

High Ku value shows much iron and few copper, and vice versa.

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ii. Calculate the flux per column

√ ,

Where f is the supply frequency

iii. Determine the value of the induction B and current density J in the iron
Table3.2: The induction B and current density J
Operation B (Wb/m2 ) J (A/mm2 )
Continuous 0.8 ÷ 1 1.8 ÷ 3
Intermittent 0.9 ÷ 1.1 3÷4
Pulsed 1 ÷ 1.3 4÷5

Using the above table we can calculate the area of the net iron section

iv. Determine the approximate dimension of the width of the central column
√
Hence choose the commercial sheet
v. Calculate the net thickness of the iron package as

vi. Kind of lamination

The thickness of lamination depends on the kind operation time the transformer designed. That
is:
 Continuous operation: Thickness 0.35 mm (1.3 W/Kg)
 Intermittent operation: Thickness 0.5 mm (2.3 W/Kg)
Table 3.3: kind of lamination
Insulation Thickness Packing coefficient Ks
0.5 0.88 ÷ 0.91
Paper
0.35 0.85 ÷ 0.88
0.5 0.90 ÷ 0.93
Paint
0.35 0.88 ÷ 0.90

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Assuming a packing coefficient Ks from the above table depending on the lamination thickness
and insulation type, the gross thickness can be calculated as

Then the total number of laminations is:

vii. Voltage drop and efficiency

Table 3.4: voltage drop and efficiency
Power VA ∆V% ɳ%
5 ÷ 30 25 ÷ 15 65 ÷ 75
30 ÷ 50 15 ÷ 9 75 ÷ 80
50 ÷ 100 9÷7 80 ÷ 85
100 ÷ 500 7÷4 85 ÷ 90
500 ÷ 1000 4÷3 90 ÷ 94
1000 ÷ 5000 3÷3 94 ÷ 95

viii. Filling coefficient, Kr

Table 3.5: filling coefficient
Kr Diameter (mm)
1.1 0.05 ÷ 0.30
1.05 0.30 ÷ 3

We use the filing coefficient, Kr to keep the air layer between turns into account.

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B. Calculation of windings
i. Determine the voltage per turn, e

Hence, the number of primary turns at the primary winding is:

ii. Determine the number of turns at the secondary windings assuming a voltage drop from no-
load to load condition from table 3.4 as

iii. Calculate the current in the windings

Primary winding current is calculated as

And secondary winding current is also calculated as

iv. Determine the section of the conductor

and

Therefore we can select the commercial diameter

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C. Winding Overall Dimensions

i. Number of turns per layer
Being h the useful height of the reel, we can therefore calculate the number of turns per layer.
We have to keep the air layer between turns into account, through the filling coefficient, Kr

And

ii. The Number of Layers

and

Therefore the radial diameter of the winding is

S2 S1

Figure 3.7: The radial diameter of the winding

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D. Assembly Features
1. The winding of the low and of the high voltage are placed one on top of the other, on layers
of tight turns all wound on the same sense, using as a support the coil of dimensions equal to
the section of the column.
2. The ends of the windings must be brought outside the coil and protected through insulating
small pipes

3. When you start the first layer on the coil, it is better to wind by hand the first two or three
turns to fix the small pipe; then, you can proceed in the winding procedure using manual or
automatic winding machines.
Each layer is separated by the next one though insulating paper.
4. When the winding is finished, it is banded with one or two layers of insulating paper, fixed
by means of cementing material or through suitable bindings.
5. Assembly of the sheets,

With the shell-type transformer part n01 from one side and part n02 from the other side are
inserted in the coil for even layer, while for the odd layer part n03 and part n04 are inserted,
and so on until the core is completed.

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6. The core is completed exerting on the pack a certain pressure to get the last sheets going into
the coil
7. Finally, lock the pack by means of the flanges and the tie rods. It is better to isolate the bolts
passing through the holes in the plates by means of small pipes. also the locking nuts must be
isolated from the pack
8. Make the connections to the terminal box, after taking away the insulating enamel covering
the wires
9. Check through a tester the continuity of the phases and their insulation towards earth.
10. Verify the transformation ratio through a no load test.

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Commercial diameter of Enameled Round coil

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EI laminations

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Three phase EI lamination (0.5mm thickness)

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Design Example 1

Design Single-phase shell transformer total apparent power 200VA, intermittent operation,
Primary voltage 220V, Secondary voltage 48V and Frequency 50 Hz.

Solution
1. Flux

Assuming an utilization coefficient, Ku = 2.55 * 10-2, we can determine the flux

2. Therefore, when an induction B = 1.1 Wb/m2 is fixed, it is possible to calculate the area of
the net iron section

3. The column width is approximately

√ √

Therefore a commercial lamination can be selected with external size 100 x 120, column Size
40x60 and window size 20 x 60, having 0.5mm thickness including the paint insulation.

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4. The net thickness of the iron package is:

5. Assuming a packing coefficient Ks = 0.9 the gross thickness is

Then the total number of laminations is:

6. To mount the core, the laminations are inserted into a 40x40 nylon reel (on which the
winding has been previously realized); the laminations are alternatively inserted, so that the
joints are staggered.
7. The voltage per turn is

e = 4.44 f Ø (volt/ turn)

= 4.44 * 50 * 1.61 * 10-3 = 0.357V
8. The number of primary turns is therefore

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9. Assuming a voltage drop from no-load to load condition of 5%, the number of secondary
turns is

10. Assuming 87% efficiency, the primary current is calculated

11. Assuming a current density of 3.5 A/mm2, the section of a copper conductor

Therefore we can select the commercial diameter Ø1 = 0.63mm

12. The secondary current is now calculated

This corresponds to a copper section of

Therefore we can select the commercial diameter Ø2 = 1.25mm

Summary

Using a wire with single enamel clad, the maximum diameters on enamel are

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Ø1s = 0.64 mm
Ø2s = 1.3 mm

Being h = 57 mm the useful height of the reel, we can therefore calculate the number of turns
per layer. We have to keep the air layer between turns into account, through the filling
coefficient.

The number of layers is therefore

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Design Example 2
Design Three-phase column transformer total apparent power 1000VA, intermittent operation,
Primary voltage 220V-380V D - Y, Secondary voltage 110V and Frequency 50Hz.

Solution
1. Flux

Assuming an utilization coefficient, Ku = 1.4 * 10-2, we can determine the flux

2. Therefore, when an induction B = 1.1 Wb/m2 is fixed, it is possible to calculate the area of
the net iron section

3. The column width is approximately

√ √

Therefore a commercial lamination can be selected with external size 200 x 180, column Size
40x100 and window size 40 x 100, having 0.5mm thickness including the paint insulation.

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Note: the yoke can be also realized with two strips cut from the swarf of window construction; in
this way the cutting swarf can be reduced.

4. The net thickness of the iron package is:

5. Assuming a packing coefficient Ks = 0.9 the gross thickness is

Then the total number of laminations is:

To mount the core, the laminations are inserted into a 40x50 nylon reel (on which the
winding has been previously realized); the laminations are alternatively inserted, so that the
joints are staggered.

6. For the primary voltage Y/D switching may be selected, with phase voltage of 220V, on the
output side, the secondary may be Y connected, with accessible center. Linked voltages of
110V and phase voltages of 63.5V are therefore derived.
The voltage per turn is

e = 4.44 f Ø (volt/ turn)

= 4.44 * 50 * 2 * 10-3 = 0.444V
7. The number of primary turns is therefore

8. Assuming a voltage drop from no-load to load condition of 3%, the number of secondary
turns is

9. Assuming 94% efficiency, the primary current per phase is calculated

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10. Assuming a current density of 3.5 A/mm2, the section of a copper conductor

Therefore we can select the commercial diameter Ø1 = 0.8mm

11. The secondary phase current is now calculated

This corresponds to a copper section of

Therefore we can select the commercial diameter Ø2 = 1.4mm

Summary of the winding per column

Using a wire with single enamel clad, the maximum diameters on enamel are

Ø1s = 0.845 mm
Ø2s = 1.46 mm

Being h = 93 mm the useful height of the reel, we can therefore calculate the number of turns
per layer. We have to keep the air layer between turns into account, through the filling
coefficient.

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The number of layers is therefore

The radial dimension of winding is

Electric diagram

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Design exercise

1. Design Single-phase shell transformer total apparent power 1000VA, intermittent

operation, Primary voltage 220V-380V, Secondary voltage 180V and Frequency 50 Hz.
2. Design Single-phase shell transformer total apparent power 1000VA, intermittent
operation, Primary voltage 220V, Secondary voltage 40V and Frequency 50 Hz.
3. Design Single-phase shell autotransformer total apparent power 600VA,
intermittent operation, voltages 125, 160, 220, 260V and Frequency 50 Hz.
4. Design Three-phase column transformer total power 240 W, power factor 0.8
intermittent operation, Primary voltage 220V-380V D - Y, Secondary voltage 60V Y
and Frequency 50Hz.
5. Design Three-phase column autotransformer total apparent power 600VA,
intermittent operation, Primary voltage 380V, Secondary voltage 110V and Frequency
50Hz.
6. Design Three-phase column autotransformer total apparent power 100VA, intermittent
operation, Primary voltage 380V, Secondary voltage 40V and Frequency 50Hz.

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Solution for design Excercise

Q1.Design Single-phase shell transformer total apparent power 1000VA, intermittent operation,
Primary voltage 220V-380V, Secondary voltage 180V and Frequency 50 Hz.

Solution
1. Flux

Assuming an utilization coefficient, Ku = 2.9 * 10-2, we can determine the flux

2. Therefore, when an induction B = 1.1 Wb/m2 is fixed, it is possible to calculate the area
of the net iron section

3. The column width is approximately

√ √

Therefore a commercial lamination can be selected with external size 125 x 150, column Size
50x75 and window size 25 x 75, having 0.5mm thickness including the paint insulation.

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4. The net thickness of the iron package is:

5. Assuming a packing coefficient Ks = 0.9 the gross thickness is

Then the total number of laminations is:

6. To mount the core, the laminations are inserted into a 50x100 nylon reel (on which the
winding has been previously realized); the laminations are alternatively inserted, so that the
joints are staggered.
7. The voltage per turn is

e = 4.44 f Ø (volt/ turn)

= 4.44 * 50 * 4.1 * 10-3 = 0.91V
8. The number of primary turns is therefore

9. Assuming a voltage drop from no-load to load condition of 3%, the number of secondary
turns is

10. Assuming 92% efficiency, the primary current is calculated

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11. Assuming a current density of 3.5 A/mm2, the section of a copper conductor

Therefore we can select the commercial diameter:

Ø1 = 1mm
Ø’1 = 1.4mm
12. The secondary current is now calculated

This corresponds to a copper section of

Therefore we can select the commercial diameter Ø2 = 1.4mm

Summary

Using a wire with single enamel clad, the maximum diameters on enamel are
Ø1s = 1.1 mm
Ø’1s = 1.46 mm
Ø2s = 1.46 mm

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Being h = 70 mm the useful height of the reel, we can therefore calculate the number of turns
per layer. We have to keep the air layer between turns into account, through the filling
coefficient.

The number of layers is therefore

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Q3. Design Single-phase shell autotransformer total apparent power 600VA,

intermittent operation, voltages 125, 160, 220, 260V and Frequency 50 Hz.
Solution
1. The sizing power is calculated

2. Flux

Assuming an utilization coefficient, Ku = 3.6 * 10-2, we can determine the flux

√ √

3. Therefore, when an induction B = 1.1 Wb/m2 is fixed, it is possible to calculate the area
of the net iron section

4. The column width is approximately

√ √

Therefore a commercial lamination can be selected with external size 125 x 150, column Size
50x75 and window size 25 x 75, having 0.5mm thickness including the paint insulation.

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5. The net thickness of the iron package is:

6. Assuming a packing coefficient Ks = 0.9 the gross thickness is

Then the total number of laminations is:

7. To mount the core, the laminations are inserted into a 50x50 nylon reel (on which the
winding has been previously realized); the laminations are alternatively inserted, so that the
joints are staggered.
8. The voltage per turn is

e = 4.44 f Ø (volt/ turn)

= 4.44 * 50 * 2.84 * 10-3 = 0.63V
9. The number of primary turns can be therefore calculated for the different voltages

NOTE: As any tap can be used either as input or output tap, it isn't possible to keep the
secondary voltage drop into account. A certain voltage drop is therefore unavoidable
when switching from no-load to load conditions.

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10. Assuming 90% efficiency, the currents in the different sections of the winding can be
calculated

In the common section (0-125) the current I125 - I260 = 2.7A flows.
Therefore, assuming a current density of 3.5 A/mm2, the wire sections can be calculated

Therefore we can select the commercial diameters:

Ø1 = 1mm
Ø2 = 1.25mm
Ø1 =1.05mm
Ø2 = 0.95mm
while, for sake of procurement, diameters can be unified Ø1 = Ø3 = Ø4 = 1 mm

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Summary

Using a wire with single enamel clad, the maximum diameters on enamel are:
Ø1s = Ø3s = Ø4s = 1.05 mm
Ø2s = 1.3 mm
Being h = 70 mm the useful height of the reel, we can therefore calculate the number of turns
per layer. We have to keep the air layer between turns into account, through the filling
coefficient.

The number of layers is therefore

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Q4.Design Three-phase column transformer total power 240 W, power factor 0.8
intermittent operation, Primary voltage 220V-380V D - Y, Secondary voltage 60V Y and
Frequency 50Hz.
Solution
1. The apparent power required by the transformer is calculated

2. Flux

Assuming an utilization coefficient, Ku = 1.55 * 10-2, we can determine the flux

√ √

3. Therefore, when an induction B = 1.1 Wb/m2 is fixed, it is possible to calculate the area
of the net iron section

4. The column width is approximately

√ √ ⁄

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Therefore a commercial lamination can be selected with external size 150 x 150, column Size
30x90 and window size 30 x90, having 0.5mm thickness including the paint insulation.

Note: The yoke can be also realized with two strips cut from the swarf of window construction;
in this way the cutting swarf can be reduced.

5. The net thickness of the iron package is:

6. Assuming a packing coefficient Ks = 0.9 the gross thickness is

Then the total number of laminations is:

7. To mount the core, the laminations are inserted into a 30x50 nylon reel (on which the
winding has been previously realized); the laminations are alternatively inserted, so that the
joints are staggered.
For the primary voltage a Y/D switching may be selected, with phase voltage of 220V; on
the output side, the secondary may be Y connected, with accessible center. Linked voltages
of 60V and phase voltages of 34.7V are therefore derived.

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8. The voltage per turn is

e = 4.44 f Ø (volt/ turn)

= 4.44 * 50 * 1.203 * 10-3 = 0.267V
9. The number of primary turns per phase is therefore

10. Assuming a voltage drop from no-load to load condition of 5%, the number of secondary
turns is

11. Assuming 88% efficiency, the primary current is calculated

⁄

12. Assuming a current density of 3.5 A/mm2, the section of a copper conductor

Therefore we can select the commercial diameter:

Ø1 = 0.45mm
13. The secondary current is now calculated
⁄

This corresponds to a copper section of

Therefore we can select the commercial diameter Ø2 = 1mm

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Summary of the winding per column

Using a wire with single enamel clad, the maximum diameters on enamel are
Ø1s = 0.485 mm
Ø2s = 1.1 mm

Being h = 83 mm the useful height of the reel, we can therefore calculate the number of turns
per layer. We have to keep the air layer between turns into account, through the filling
coefficient.

The number of layers is therefore

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Q5.Design Three-phase column autotransformer total apparent power 600VA, intermittent

operation, Primary voltage 380V, Secondary voltage 110V and Frequency 50Hz.

Solution
1. The sizing power is calculated

2. Flux

Assuming an utilization coefficient, Ku = 1.26 * 10-2, we can determine the flux

√ √

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3. Therefore, when an induction B = 1.05 Wb/m2 is fixed, it is possible to calculate the area
of the net iron section

4. The column width is approximately

√ √ ⁄

Therefore a commercial lamination can be selected with external size 200 x 180, column Size
40x100 and window size 40 x100, having 0.5mm thickness including the paint insulation.

Note: The yoke can be also realized with two strips cut from the swarf of window construction;
in this way the cutting swarf can be reduced.

5. The net thickness of the iron package is:

6. Assuming a packing coefficient Ks = 0.9 the gross thickness is

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Then the total number of laminations is:

7. To mount the core, the laminations are inserted into a 40x40 nylon reel (on which the
winding has been previously realized); the laminations are alternatively inserted, so that the
joints are staggered.
8. The voltage per turn is

e = 4.44 f Ø (volt/ turn)

= 4.44 * 50 * 1.495 * 10-3 = 0.332V
Being the input phase voltage

9. Assuming a voltage drop from no-load to load condition of 3.5%, the output phase voltage
is

10. The number of total input turns is calculated

11. The number of secondary turns is

12. Assuming a 90% efficiency, the currents in the different sections of winding are calculated
⁄

In the common section (0 - 63.5) a current flows of Io - Ii = 2.15A; therefore, assuming a current
density of 3.5 A/mm2, the section of conductors can be calculated

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Therefore we can select the commercial diameter:

Øi = 0.60mm
Øo = 0.90mm

Summary of the winding per column

Using a wire with single enamel clad, the maximum diameters on enamel are
Øis = 0.64 mm
Øos = 0.95 mm

Being h = 93 mm the useful height of the reel, we can therefore calculate the number of turns
per layer. We have to keep the air layer between turns into account, through the filling
coefficient.

The number of layers is therefore

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