CHAPTER 4

COMMUNITY ECOLOGY

OVERVIEW

A community is a complex system that comprises the

assemblage of species living close enough together for potential
interaction. It differs in their species richness, the number of species
they contain, and the relative abundance of different species. In the
previous chapter, components of the ecosystem and organism’s
interactions/relationships were discussed.
In this chapter, three modules will be presented. The first module
focused on the energy flow in the ecosystem. Differences between
food chain and food web will be given emphasis.
The second module comprises the different nutrients cycles and
their effect on the community. Lastly, the third module is concentrated
on ecological succession.
Lastly, included in the module, the series of activities that will give
you an outlook on the factors that shape the community.
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Chapter Content:
 Energy Flows in the Ecosystem
 Cycles of Matter
 Community Structures and Dynamics
CHAPTER 4
Module 1 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem
Duration: 2 hours

INTRODUCTION
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All organisms need energy. The flow of energy in an ecosystem is characterized
by a food chain or food web. The feeding positions of each organism in a food chain or
food web are called trophic levels. The energy that passes on to the next higher trophic
level is only about 10 percent.
In this module, you will answer the question is energy conserved in the ecosystem?

OBJECTIVES
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Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:
1. differentiate between food chains and food webs and recognize the importance
of each; and
2. describe how organisms acquire energy in a food web and associated food
chains

LESSON PROPER
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Ecosystems contain essentially two kinds of commodities: matter (nutrients) and

energy. All living organisms require energy. It is obtained when light energy from the sun
enters the ecosystem through the process of photosynthesis and stored as chemical
energy. Then passes through one or more of the organisms of the community, and
eventually, lost in the form of heat. This is based on two important Laws of
Thermodynamics which are as follows:

First Law of Thermodynamics:

 Law of conservation of energy states that “Energy is neither created nor
destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another.”

Second Law of Thermodynamics

 In any energy conversion, some kinetic energy is lost as heat, thus it will yield into
less usable energy. In short, energy cannot be changed from one form into
another without a loss of usable energy.

Models of Energy Flow

The food chain is the linear sequence of who eats whom in a biological community
to obtain nutrition. It starts with light energy - the primary energy source from the sun. It
is a model that shows how energy is passed, in the form of food, from one organism to
another. In the diagram below, the arrows placed between the organisms show the
direction of energy flow.

(Photo Credit: clipartstation.com)

The Energy Pyramid, sometimes called the trophic pyramid is a graphical
representation of energy flow in each trophic levels.
 3rd order 10 Calories
Calories

2nd order 100 Calories

1st order 1, 000 Calories

Producers 10 000 Calories

(Photo Credit: kids.britannica.com)

Moreover, the amount of organic matter that can be found in any living organism,
referred to as biomass, at any trophic level forms the Biomass pyramid. It shows the
flow of energy between various levels, particularly how the biomass of living organisms
varies across trophic levels. It is in charge of showing the mass organisms for different
levels within the food chain. For example,

10 kg. Sparrowhawk

250 kg blue tilt

1000 kg. caterpillars

25000 kg. oak tree

(Photo Credit: tamaradavies17.blogspot.com)

The oak tree has huge biomass which means it is capable of feeding several
caterpillars. Since less energy is present at higher trophic levels, it is generally the case
that fewer organisms can be supported at higher levels. Hence, the biomass of the
organisms decreases towards the peak. Take note that it does not follow the 10% rule of
energy transferred.
 Lastly, the Numbers pyramid shows how the number of individuals per trophic
level varies across trophic levels. It ignores the biomass of organisms and does not
indicate the energy transferred or used by the organisms involved.

( Photo Credit: biology-igcse.weebly.com)

Most animals eat more than one kind of food and so in any ecosystem food chains
connect to form a food web. The food web is an interconnected food chain that represents
various relationships and shows how plants and animals are connected in ways that help
them survive. It illustrates the complex feeding relationships in an ecosystem where two
or more animals are feeding on the same food source. Thus, competition occurs when
any resource is limited.
In the diagram below, there are ten interconnected food chains. Some examples
are:

(Photo Credit: k8schoollessons.com)

 Can you give the other food chains?

Watch the YouTube video entitled “Food webs and Energy Pyramids” at the link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0oCtfA1f14c&feature=youtu.be.
CHAPTER 4
Module 2 Cycles of Matter
Duration: 2.5 hours

INTRODUCTION
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One of the essential commodities in the ecosystem is the matter (nutrients). These
nutrients cycle through the biotic and abiotic components for the repeated use of
organisms in the ecosystem. These cycles of use and reuse are called biogeochemical
cycles.
This module includes the different biogeochemical cycles and their impacts on
the environment.

OBJECTIVES
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Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:
1. discuss the biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
and sulfur; and
2. explain how human activities have impacted these cycles

LESSON PROPER
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The matter (nutrients) that makes up organisms is conserved and recycled in the
ecosystem. There are six essential elements associated with organic molecules and may
exist in the atmosphere, on land, in water, or beneath Earth’s surface for long periods.
This includes carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur which take a
variety of chemical forms. The study of the different processes in the ecosystem is based
on the concepts of geology and chemistry. Thus, the recycling of nutrients consisting of
these six elements and the influence in living organisms and their nonliving environment
is called biogeochemical cycles.

Biogeochemical Cycles are pathways for the transformation of matter within the
Earth’s biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and the atmosphere. It links together all
organisms and abiotic features on earth.

When living organisms die, the decaying matter disintegrates and transforms into
molecules/elements that enter the biogeochemical cycle. These elements are transported
in the biogeochemical cycles and have been categorized as microelements and macro
elements. Microelements are required by living organisms in smaller amounts like boron,
copper, and molybdenum. On the other hand, the elements needed by living organisms
in larger amounts like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur are
referred to as macroelements.

Importance of Biogeochemical cycles

1. They transform matter from one form to another and enable organisms to utilize this
matter in a specific form. For example, humans utilize water in liquid form. Through the
hydrological cycle, water vapor is condensed to liquid, and ice converted to liquid water.
2. They transfer molecules from one locality to another. Some elements such as nitrogen
are highly concentrated in the atmosphere, but some of the atmospheric nitrogen is
transferred to soil through the nitrogen cycle.
3. They facilitate the storage of elements in their natural reservoirs, and are released to
organisms in small consumable amounts. For example, nitrogen is abundant in the
atmosphere, yet, green plants utilize this gas through the nitrogen cycle and with the help
of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
4. They assist in the functioning of ecosystems. Whenever any disruptions and
imbalances occur, the biogeochemical cycles restore to the equilibrium state of the
ecosystem. Though it may take a few days or many years, still, the disturbing factor is
eliminated.
5. They link the biotic (living component) and the abiotic component of the ecosystem
with regards to the flow of nutrients engineered by the biogeochemical cycles.
6. They regulate the flow of substances through a particular medium and the rate at which
elements flow in different spheres.

Categories of Biogeochemical Cycles

Carbon-Oxygen Cycle
Carbon is one of the most important elements that sustain life on earth and exists
in many forms. Carbon dioxide is an example of carbon-containing compounds which has
a substantial effect on earth's heat balance. On the other hand, oxygen is important for
respiration and combustion. The main driving factor of carbon and oxygen and are usually
linked through the carbon-oxygen cycle. Organisms are connected in many ways such as
the exchange of carbon between heterotrophs and autotrophs using atmospheric carbon
dioxide.

The atmosphere is a major reservoir of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide. Green
plants utilize CO2 with the aid of sunlight in the process of photosynthesis. In the process,
it converts the inorganic carbon into organic matter (sugar) and releases oxygen in the
atmosphere.
6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight  C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2

(Photo Credit: www.easynotecards.com)

When a cow eats grass, it will get some of the organic molecules produced by the
plant’s photosynthesis. This implies that those organic compounds can be passed to
higher trophic levels. At each level, organisms are performing the respiration process. It
is a metabolic process in which organic molecules (food) is oxidized to release energy,
CO2, and water.
C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

As these organic molecules are broken down during respiration, the carbon once
again is released into the atmosphere as CO2.
Moreover, the combustion process intensifies the concentration of CO 2 in the
atmosphere. A very large amount of CO2 is released through forest fires, burning fossil
fuels and the like. Nowadays, the increase in CO2 emission causes global warming and
climate change.
Watch this video at the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CLqFUI2Pvlc to
learn more about the carbon cycle.

Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle)

Water is the most important chemical for all living organisms. It exists naturally into
three states: solid, liquid, and gas. Water vapor in the atmosphere condenses to liquid
water and turns to ice when temperature is at 00C.

(Photo Credit: ecobluelife.com)

 The main driving force of the water cycle is the energy coming from the sun which
warm bodies of water (oceans, surface, and frozen water). This leads to the process of
evaporation (liquid water to water vapor) and sublimation (ice to water vapor).
Also, plants transpire (transpiration) huge amounts of water into the atmosphere. These
processes are responsible for large amounts of water into the atmosphere as water vapor.

Over time, this water vapor condenses to form clouds and eventually leads to
precipitation (rain, snow, hail), where water falls from the atmosphere and reaches the
ground. Rain reaching Earth’s surface may evaporate again. Also, the most easily
observed is the flow of water through streams and lakes to the oceans (runoff); and the
flow of freshwater over land (surface runoff). Moreover, the rain may percolate into the
ground. Percolation is the movement of water though the soil layers by gravity and
capillary forces. Groundwater is a significant reservoir of fresh water. As such, the three
basic locations of water storage are in the atmosphere, surface water, and underground
water.

Watch this video at the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oaDkph9yQBs

to learn more about the Earth’s water cycle.

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen gas is the most abundant element in the atmosphere. It is an essential
component of protein and is required by all living organisms. It is difficult for living
organisms to get nitrogen. Plants and phytoplankton are not equipped to obtain nitrogen
from the atmosphere. Nitrogen enters the living world through certain species of bacteria
that can perform nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen Fixation is a process that involves the
conversion of gaseous nitrogen into Ammonia (NH3), and eventually to ammonium
(NH4+). Atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed by various methods such as atmospheric
fixation (Lightning), industrial fixation, and bacterial fixation (symbiotic bacteria -
Rhizobium and free-living -Azobacter and Cyanobacteria)
 (Photo Credit: studyblue.com)

Ammonium is converted by bacteria into nitrites (NO2−) and then nitrates (NO3−) in
the process called Nitrification. Such bacteria include Nitrosomonas Nitrococcus and
Nitrobacter. At this point, the nitrogen-containing molecules are used by plants and
converted into organic molecules such as DNA and proteins.
When living organisms produce waste products (urea and uric acid), as well as
when they die, the nitrogen that enters living systems is eventually converted back into
inorganic ammonia (NH3) by certain bacteria. This process is called ammonification.
Eventually, bacteria convert it into nitrates and back into gaseous nitrogen in the process
of denitrification. This allows nitrogen gas to re-enter the atmosphere.
Watch this video at the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LbBgPekjiyc
to learn more about the Nitrogen Cycle.

Phosphorus Cycle
. Phosphorus is a primary nutrient, in which large quantities are needed for healthy
plant growth. It is a major component of nucleic acids and other organic phosphorus
compounds. The phosphorus cycle does not involve the atmosphere and is the slowest
one of the sedimentary cycles.
 Phosphorus occurs in nature as the phosphate ion (PO 43-) from the weathering of
rocks. The phosphate percolates into the soil and is absorbed by plants. Phosphorous
moves up the food chain as the animals eat the plants. When the animals die, the
decomposers obtain phosphorous as they feed on dead remains. Thus, the phosphorous
is eliminated through their waste and become a soil then eventually a rock component.

On the other hand, when a natural surface runoff occurs, phosphate-containing

rock is leached and sends phosphates into bodies of water. Phosphate-containing ocean
forms sediments through time. This sediment then is moved to land over geologic time by
the uplifting of Earth’s surface through volcanic eruptions and so on.

Watch this video at the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nfW6JJ0ZiG0

to learn more about the Phosphorous Cycle.
Sulfur Cycle
Sulfur in its natural form is a solid, and limited to the sedimentary cycle in this form.
It is transported by physical processes like wind, erosion by water, and geological events
like volcanic eruptions. However, in its compounds such as sulfur dioxide, sulfuric acid,
salts of sulfate or organic sulfur, sulfur can be moved from the ocean to the atmosphere,
to land, and then to the ocean through rainfall and rivers.

(Photo Credit: https:thinglink.com)

Atmospheric sulfur in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO 2). As rain falls, sulfur is
dissolved in liquid water forming a weak sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The process in which sulfur
falls directly from the atmosphere is called fallout. The sulfur-containing rain may fall into
the ground and percolates deep within. Plants absorbed the sulfate ion through their roots
and enter the food chain. When these plants decompose and die, decomposers break
down organic sulfur compounds to gases. Sulfur is released back into the atmosphere in
the form of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas.
Also, sulfur-containing rocks weathered releasing sulfur into the soil, and
eventually leached to the bodies of water. Most sulfur is bound up in rocks and salts or
buried in deep ocean sediments. These ocean sediments are moved to land by the
geologic uplifting.
 Watch this video at the link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TNTTJ4N3kIE&list=RDQM1nxHYxmJUAE&start_ra
dio=1 to learn more about the Sulfur Cycle.
CHAPTER 4
Module 3 Community Structure and Dynamics
Duration: 1.5 hours

INTRODUCTION
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Communities are complex units that can be characterized by their structure and
dynamics. Understanding it enables us to manage ecosystems more effectively. Different
communities can be pretty different in terms of the types and numbers of species they
contain.
Environmental disturbances such as volcanic eruption, earthquakes, storms, fires,
and the like change the community structure and composition. The state of balance in
the ecosystem is at stake. Communities with a relatively constant number of species are
said to be at equilibrium. Following a disturbance, the community may or may not return
to the equilibrium state.
This module will equip you with the structure of the community and how
communities change over time.

OBJECTIVES
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Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:
1. describe community structure; and
2. discuss the types of ecological succession.
 LESSON PROPER
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Community structure can be described as species richness and species

diversity. Species richness refers to the number of various species present in a given
habitat or biome. It varies across the globe due to different factors like latitude and climate.
Communities with the highest species richness tend to be found in areas near the equator
while the lowest species richness lies near the poles. Species diversity pertains to both
the number of different species in a particular area and their relative abundance. It
measures the complexity of a community.
In a community structure, there are some species that have unusually strong
impacts on preserving the balance of the community. These special species include
foundation and keystone species. Foundation species are considered the “base” of a
community, a primary producer, and plays a unique, essential role in creating and defining
the environment. They maintain habitats and usually support the other organisms that
form the community. Kelp, brown algae, is an example of foundation species, forming the
basis of the kelp forests off the coast of California.
A keystone species is one whose presence has an inexplicably large effect in
maintaining biodiversity within an ecosystem. They are more likely to act in more diverse
ways than foundation species, which tend to modify their environment. Particularly, they
belong to higher trophic levels, often a dominant predator whose removal allows a prey
population to explode and often decreases overall diversity. For example, animals such
as gray wolves, beavers, sea otters, and more.
Ecological Succession is a sequential process by which ecosystems change
gradually and develop over time. Simply, it is the disturbance of a community usually
followed by recovery. It has two types – primary and secondary succession.
Primary succession takes place on newly exposed, bare, lifeless landforms
which becomes available for colonization. It arises in areas exposed by glacial retreat,
emerging islands, and formation of a new lake. Rocks weathered forming soil which is
the foundation of higher forms of plant life. The first organism that appears in this kind of
environment is called pioneer species. This marked the birth of an ecosystem.

(Photo Credit: livingnatureweb.wordpress.com/)

Pioneer organisms ( r-selected species) are the first organisms to occupy an

area which include algae, lichens, and so on. They are characterized as good colonizers,
with high reproductive output and high growth rate. However, they have low competitive
ability and short life span. They modify and establish the environment under which more
advanced organisms can live. Other species suited and adapt to the environment and
eventually replace the pioneer species. These species are called K-Selected Species.
They are described as late successional species with low reproductive but higher
maternal output, high competitive ability with long life span, low growth rate, and a better
competitor. Communities become stabilized and reach equilibrium where little or no
change in species composition, and abundance over long periods of time. Thus, the
climax community is reached.
If this primary ecosystem experienced damaged and is disturbed by natural
disasters and human activities, secondary succession may happen. Examples include
areas that have been cleared of existing vegetation and destructive events such as fire,
floods, bulldozers, and so on. With this, the ecosystem must start anew. Over time, the
ecosystem will arrive at a climax community which may or may not be the same to the
original community.
Watch the video at the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V49IovRSJDs to
understand the concept of ecological succession.