BRIDGES, COFFERDAMS AND CAISSONS

A Bridge: is a structure which provides passage facilities over an obstacle

without closing the way underneath. The required passage may be for railway
track, pedestrians, while the obstacle to be crossed may be rivers, swampy area,
road, railways.

Culverts: These are small bridges construction to cross small stream. Types of
culvert: (1) Box culvert: for larger spans and in loose soil. It can be rectangular
or square formed from reinforced concrete precast unit. (2) Ring culvert: This
has similar properties as box culvert. (3) Pipe culvert: This consists of one or
more pipes placed side by side below the embankment of the road or railway.
(4) Slab culvert: This consists of placing a reinforced concrete slab directly as
simply supported beam or piers or abutments.

COFFERDAMS

Cofferdams are temporary structures which may be constructed to assist in the

formation of foundation. It provides a working area at foundation level so that
soil and ground water are kept out of excavation to permit safe working for
construction of a bridge pier or other structures. When used to exclude water
and soil, the cofferdam is dewatered, in whole or part so that the structure may
be built substantially in the dry.

Cofferdams are the best approach for any heavy structure e.g. bridge pier where
free-flowing water, unstable soils or heavy surcharge loads are encountered.
When used in water the bottom is sealed by using underwater concrete of
sufficient thickness to counter cut the effect of uplift pressure before dewatering
is carried out.

Materials used in cofferdam construction may be earth, rock, steel or concrete.

Whichever is used, it must be able to produce water tight wall. However, the
choice of material will depend on:

a. Location of the cofferdam – onshore, offshore

b. Depth and size of excavation
c. Volume of water, velocity of water and tidal waves
d. Accessibility of site
e. Type of substrata
f. Availability of materials

1
Factors to be considered when selecting cofferdam

1. Site investigation report

2. Location, whether on water or on land
3. Size of working area required in cofferdam
4. The amount of soil and water to be excluded whilst work proceeds
5. The water condition i.e. velocity of flow and the tidal levels
6. Cost of execution in comparism with other solutions
7. Availability of materials and plants
8. Methods of constructing the cofferdam
9. The nature of permanent works to be built

Difference between Cofferdam and Caisson

A Cofferdam is a temporary structure used to assist in the formation of

foundation; its function is to provide a working area at foundation level from
which ground and water are excluded sufficiently to permit safe working.

Cofferdam could be gravity

type (i.e. earth/or concrete
sheeted type or Ground
stabilization)

Caisson are structure which is sunk through ground or water to provide working
space and which subsequently become an integral part of the permanent work.
Large caissons are used as foundation for bridge piers and other water
structures.

Types of Caisson
1. Open caisson
2. Pneumatic caisson (compressed air)
3. Box caisson
4. Monoliths caisson

Caisson
2
 PIPELINES

Materials

Water Pipeline – steel pipe (best suited)

Sewage Pipeline – vitrified clay pipe, concrete pipe, asbestos cement pipe

Choice of pipeline material (factors influencing)

1. Design of the basic pipeline
2. Simplicity of jointing and laying
3. Durability of the material
4. Ability of the material withstand internal and external forces
5. Frequency of maintenance
6. Impermeability of the material (nothing can go inside – penetrate
into it)

Pipeline Classification
- Rigid Pipe
- Flexible Pipe

Rigid Pipe breaks when significant extension (deformation/expansion)

takes place.

Flexible ones will deform significantly and transmit the load to the
surrounding field.

Construction Techniques
Steps Required
1. Site survey and line alignment coupled with production of working
drawing
2. Clearing of right of way (scrapper)
3. Pipe slinging (carrying) along the line
4. Excavation work using pail loader or wheel loader for excavating
trench for smaller diameter pipe, crane for laying bulldozer D6, or
D8 for final backfilling
Dewatering equipment for muddy water, or depending on the H 2O
table (centrifugal pump or diaphragm pump)
5. Laying, backfilling and disposal of surplus spoil
6. Manhole inspection chamber construction
7. Manhole dressing including installation of iron stop and manhole
cover.
3
Manholes are required at:

i. Change of direction
ii. Intersection
iii. Change of slope
iv. At least every 30m depending on pipe sizes

Bedding

i. Rigid bedding – concrete bedding

ii. Flexible bedding – crushed stone bedding

Selected backfilling on top and side of pipe is called initial backfilling,

such filling are tampered to hold the pipe in place thereafter final
backfilling is installed.

Coating and Lining

These are required to avoid corrosion, wear & tear, abbration and leakage.

- Internal coating can also be in red lead point

- External coating is usually in bitumen

4
 SEWAGE TREATMENT

Sewage can either be treated before discharged into a water course or

discharged into the sea or larger river without treatment (this is called direct
discharge). Direct discharge is common in seaside towns but can cause
defensive pollution as the point of discharge atimes might allow sewage to drift
back on the beach. The main purpose of sewage treatment is to render the
sewage fit to be discharged to a watercourse. The purpose of sewage treatment
is treating the offensive odour to become inoffensive material.

Type of Sewage Treatment Plant

1. Percolating Filter – takes up large areas of space. It is used where power
is not regular.
2. Activated sludge – this is more economical where there is shortage of
land. It is used where is a regular power supply.
3. Oxidation ditch plant – this is a simple system that is suitable for rural
areas.

Sludge Disposal
Methods of Sludge Disposal
(a) Tipping Method
(b) Aerobic
(c) Sterilization
(d) Road

Tipping Method
The sludge is transported and tipped into the lagoon. This is after treatment in
the sewage treatment plant.

Aerobic Digestion
The sludge is heated in closed ranks which converts it into an inoffensive
human-like material which is suitable for agricultural use.

Sterilization Method
When the sludge is sterilized, it produced methane which can be used to
generate power.

Road Method
After some chemical treatment, it is used for road construction in lieu of
bitumen.

5
Fig. 7a – Percolating Filter Plant

Fig. 7b – Activated Sludge Plant

6
 TUNNELLING

A tunnel is an underground passageway which is constructed without disturbing

the ground surface. It may be constructed through hills, below the ground or
rivers, below cities and atimes for special installations such as hydroelectric
plants.

Purposes of Tunnels

i. Passage for railtrack and highway

ii. Conduits for water and other liquids
iii. Access to mines and underground spaces
iv. Conduits for utility services
v. Passageways to persons

Advantages of Tunnels
i. They protect the system for which they are constructed from
weathering effects such as rain, sun etc. thus tunnels reduce the
maintenance cost of the system e.g. railway, highway, sewer line etc.
ii. They protect those systems during war times from destruction due to
bombarding.
iii. In certain places tunnels have proved cheaper for cross the mountain
or river than bridges or open cuts.
iv. In most congested urban cities, underground railway or highway is the
best alternative to provide means of transportation e.g. the aborted
metroline project for Lagos.
v. In a circuitous route to reach the other side of the hill, tunnel reduces
the length of the railway line, highway etc considerably.

Disadvantages
i. It is costly as it requires special construction equipment and modern
technique.
ii. It requires experienced and skilled staff for its construction.
iii. It takes longer period for its construction than bridges and open cuts.

Methods of Tunneling
The method of construction to be used will depend on so many factors namely;
a. Type of tunnel to be constructed
b. This ground conditions
c. Depth of tunnel

7
 d. Time available for the construction
e. The equipment available

Methods of Construction of Tunnel

1. Open Cut
This is also called cut and cover and involves the construction of a deep
trench supported by diagram walling with the final decking on it.

2. Pre-Deck
Here, the tunnel walls are sunk by the diagram walling method and the
upper surface of the ground is removed to allow the positioning of the
tunnel deck.

3. Other methods are; immensed-tubed/submerged tube, conventional

tunneling/driving of tunnels etc.

Methods of Boring of Tunnel

1. Full Face Method: This is used for tunnels whose lengths are not more
than 3m. It involves boring the entire face, loading the holes and
discharging the explosives.

2. Other methods of boring of tunnel are: heading and bench, drift, pilot
method, perimeter method and tunneling in soft grounds.
Ventilation of Tunnel
A tunnel should be well ventilated during and after construction operation due
to the following reasons:

i. To furnish fresh air during construction to workers.

ii. To remove objectionable gases fumes produced by explosives.
iii. To remove the dust caused by drilling, blasting and mucking and other
operations.

END OF CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS

8
 ENGINEERING SERVICES IN BUILDING

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

Structure of Power System

1. Generating station
2. Transmission lines
3. Distribution system

Power Generation (Source)

1. Coal fired station
2. Nuclear power station
3. Oil fired station
4. Hydro-electric power station

Transmission
This is the process whereby electrical power is carried in bulk either by
underground cables or overhead power line over long distances. It is transmitted
in high voltage current to reduce/avoid power loss in a cable.

Distribution
A distribution system connects all the loads in the particular area to the
transmission lines.

Types of Installation
1. Indoor Installation
– Surface wiring
- Conduit wiring
- Trunking wiring
2. Outdoor Installation – It deals with perimeter and high street light.
Materials normally use are street light column, fitting and armoured
cable. The street light shall be steel fabricated and properly earthed after
erection.
3. Rural Electrification
Scope of work – (1) planning (b) design (c) installation and (d)
commissioning of 111kv interconnection, 33/11/0.45kv

Factors governing the choice of wiring system

1. Durability of the installation
2. Neatness of the finished job
3. Future expansion and alteration
9
 4. Time required to do the job
5. Special condition to be withstood
6. Damage to the fabric of the blog by cutting away

Earthing: The basic reason for earthing is to prevent or minimize the risk of
shock to human beings.

Miniature Circuit Breaker: This is an alternative to fuse board, it is mounted

in a distribution board in the same way as fuse. They are design to open
automatically when the current passing through them exceeds the value for
which they are set.

Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker: This is an automatic device for making and
breaking a circuit both under normal and abnormal condition, such as those of a
short circuit.

Earth Conductor: Is a protective and safety device by acting as part of a

conductive circuit with earth, which is said to be neutral electrically, i.e. the
earth conductor carried excess current into the earth, which otherwise might
damage equipment, cause fire or endanger life.

Circuit Protective Conductor: Is a conductor used as circuit protective device,

it causes a break in the circuit in case of any excess current.

Earth Loop Impedance: this is a cable linking two or more earth electrode

Earth Electrode: it is a rod buried in the earth to which earth wire is connected,
it transfer the current from the earth wire to the earth.

CABLE

Cable consists of the following: (1) conductor (2) insulation (3) mechanical
protection.

Conductor: wire which can be copper or aluminum (copper is the best)

Insulation: used to prevent the excessive leakage of electricity from the

conductor to adjacent conducting materials e.g. PVC, vulcanized rubber

Mechanical Protection: is to prevent the damage to the cable during

installation and life. Material include tough rubber, PVC vulcanized rubber.

10
 ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING

The primary reason for installing artificial light in building is to provide

adequate illumination during evening and night. It is also frequently used to
supplement daylight during the daytime when natural right level is not
sufficiently high to provide condition suitable for the function being carried out
in the space.

Location Fittings
1) Banking Hall: Modular fitting with diffuser (minimum of 4 bulk).
2) Classroom (Primary & Secondary) Fluorescent (White)
3) Bedroom: (i) Wall bracket (for mellow light) the glass is opaque
(ii) Fluorescent: There is need in case where you are
searching for something
(iii) Bedside lamp for reading.
4) Football Pitch: Flood light of 15m high on steel plate, placed at 4 corners
all pointing to the pitch. Minimum of 1000W bulb used for maximum
illumination; 48 per board
5) Toilet: (i) Guest Toilet: Bulk head ceiling fittings
(ii) Your own toilet (Rest room) Bulk head ceiling fitting
and minor light for sharing.
6) Restaurant or Cafes: Fluorescent
7) Shop: Tungsten halogen lamp
Factors to be considered when designing artificial lighting
1. The purpose for which the lighting is being provided
2. The function being performed in the space being lighted
3. The environment in which the lighting is being fixed
4. The equipment available and method of fixing
5. The flexibility required of the installation
6. The length of time the installation is likely to be required
7. The cost of running the installation
8. The probable quality of maintenance of the installation and the amount of
money likely to be avoidable for the replacements, repairs, cleaning,
general maintenance.
DIVERSITY FACTOR: This is the current under the normal load condition
over total load connected current. It is the percentage of usage when considering
the design of electrical installation. Factors that determine the choice of a wiring
system are:
(a) Type of Building construction (e) Economy
(b) Flexibility (f) Safety
(c) Installation condition (g) Aesthetics
(d) Durability

11
 BOREHOLE
Sketch showing of 250mm diameter Borehole with a depth of 200m

12
THE VARIOUS BOREHOLES DRILLING SYSTEM

There are 2 classes of bore-hole drilling systems

a. Hand (manual) Boring
b. Mechanical (Power) boring

a. Hand-boring involves the use of manual labour to operate a boring

equipment comprising of a post hole auger and extension rods.
This method is suitable for soil of low weakness e.g. Sand or Soft clay
and for depths not more than 20 meters.

b. Mechanical Boring
This involves the use of mechanical power driven boring equipment
comprising of compressor, mud pump and tank. It could be in the
following ways:
 Wash boring:- for loose and week soils
 Rotary boring: for rocks and very hard soils

NOTE: The most preferred option for the 200metre borehole under
consideration will be mechanical boring of mud-rotary drilling types, because of
the deepness of depth.

13
 ACOUSTICS: SOUND CONTROL, NOISE PROBLEM AND THEIR
ELIMINATION

Types of Sound: (1) Direct and (2) Indirect sound

Direct sound: This is the one recentered and incident in one ears directly from
source of emission.

Indirect Sound: This is the ones recentered from reflection air borne sound,
vibration and flanking transmission.

Possible part for sound transmission through the structure of a building

Sound Control:
Sound inference can be curtailed or eliminated through the following methods:
1. Mass-construction (for generator base)
2. Sound insulation
3. Hollow wall construction
4. Provision of barrier
5. Discontinuous construction
6. Proper planning during design by use grouping – (grouping of rooms)

Planning and noise control

1. Grouping of rooms
2. Sound barrier
3. Selection of finishing
4. Use of field and grass as against slab
5. Location

14
 AIR CONDITIONING: FORMS, PLANT EQUIPMENT AND
INSTALLATION

Ventilation: Moving air from one space to another i.e. entirely separate space as
a matter of air volume
Or
This is the process of changing air in an enclosed space.

(i) Ventilation is required for supply of sufficient oxygen for breathing. (ii)
Also to create air movement (iii) prevention of undue concentration of odour,
bacteria (iv) Removal of heat from product of combustion

TYPES OF VENTILATION: Natural and Mechanical Ventilation

Natural Ventilation: This is primarily the maintenance of a satisfactory standard
of air purity and confusable atmospheric conditions within a room or building
by natural means and largely depend on direction of wind current.

Mechanical Ventilation: This is the process of supplying or removing air by

mechanical means. It represents a forced ventilation. It makes use of fan or duct
in large system. It is divided into 3 namely;

1. Extract system
2. Input system – supply system
3. Combined extract and input system.

AIR CONDITIONING
Air Conditioning is a primarily a system of heating and cooling rather on the
ventilating system. It is aimed at controlling within predetermined unit, the
temperature, humidity and cleanly of air within a building (Air movement).

Air conditioning is defined as the ventilation combines with adjustment of the

air temperature and humidity.

Factors that make the introduction of ductwork a necessity in an AC

installation
1. To control air temperature
2. To control humidity

15
 3. Air movement (cleaning of air within a building)
4. Prevention of dust
5. Prevention of bacteria and toxic gases
6. Prevention of odours

Process of Air Conditioning

(1) Heating (2) Cooling (3) Humidifying (4) Cleaning and filtering (5)
Circulating

THE USUAL PROCEDURE ADOPTED IN A/C PLANT

1) Filter the incoming air 2) Lower the temperature to achieve 100% relative
humidity 3) Raise the temperature of the design level which automatically
adjusted R.H. to 60% 4) Push the air into the duct system and into the room
5) Remove the air from the rooms and duct is back to the AC plant or waste it to
the atmosphere

External Air Enters

AIR CONDITIONING PLANT

16
 OTHER ASPECTS OF BUILDING WORKS

RAFT FOUNDATION

This is a large combined slab design to cover the whole or a larger part of the
available site. It is required into the following:

i. Where the subsoil is weak

ii. Where columns carry such loads that the bases will overlap such that
they almost cover the whole site
iii. Where columns are closely spaced in both directions
iv. Where relative settlement is to be reduced to minima
v. For multistorey buildings
vi. Where basement construction is a must

Solid Slab Raft

This consists of a reinforced concrete slab of depth of 300mm. the thickness of

the slab depends solely on the type of loaded. Where the slab is situated on the
ground level, weathering away the soil mass below the raft. The slab usually
acts as the ground floor.

Beam and Slab

This is used where the thickness of the raft will exceed 300mm. it is an inverted
floor directly on the ground with the beam projecting above it. This is called
upstand beam and slab has the advantage of providing rigidity beam and
stiffness to the bottom of the beams. However, the downstand beam and slab
may be necessary where the top surface of the slab is to be used as floor. This
alternative also reduces the volume of excavation to be carried out during
construction. It is only economical at a depth of 900mm.

Cellular Raft

This is used where high rigidity is required especially in subsidence soils, where
stresses are high and the depth exceeds 900mm. It consists of top and bottom
slabs with edge and intermediate beams in both directions to reduce differential
settlement; it might be taken to some depth as much as a basement

17
 BUILDING REGULATIONS AND APPROVAL

Functions of Planning Authority

The main function of the local planning authority is to give planning approval,
which is the permission granted any individual, firm or governmental
organizations to erect a structure and carry out a development in an area.

This permission is further guided by some established regulations which are

supposed made to give legal backing to the erection of the structure based on
the relevant operations such as:

a) Submission of correct number of plans to the planning office for cross-

checking and approval
b) Correlation and supervision of clearing and marking of building sites.
c) Regulation of buildable areas before approval
d) Allowance of enough building air space by working within the stated or
expected building lines
e) Giving enough spaces within the building for good functionality
f) Provision of scaffolding and related construction technology
g) Provision of appropriate foundation
h) Use of appropriate wall thickness and finishes
i) Use of appropriate floor finishes for the provided spaces in relation to the
different functions
j) Sizes of rooms to be adequate and to be well ventilated and lighted
k) Provision of fences and other appropriate structures e.g plant buildings

Approval Procedure

The drawings are submitted to the registry of the Area planning office for
registration and assessment. The drawings are assessed according to its type and
magnitude and the client is charged certain fees for the payment accordingly.
From the registry, the drawings go to the technical registry where the drawings
are checked to see whether they are prepared in accordance with all planning
statutory regulations and whether they conform with architectural principles of
ventilation, lighting, comfort, safety and structural stability.

The drawings then go to the inspection section where the site on which the
building is to be erected would be inspected for suitability of otherwise after site
inspection. The drawings are sent to the planning officers who will consider all
comments made on the plan including commends of the site inspector(s), to
18
make his own recommendation to the Area Planning Officer. The Area Planning
Officer considers the various reports and gives the final approval or disapproval.
The drawings also go the land officer in the lands department for the assessment
and payment of allocation fees before they are returned to the Area Planning
Officer.

From the Area Planning Officer the drawing is sent back to the registry for
stamping and collection. Two out of the four sets submitted are returned to the
owner, however he can collect an additional set on special request.

Requirements for Planning Approval

i. Clear evidence of ownership/or title to land

ii. Site survey plan
iii. Drawings (architectural, structural, mechanical, electrical)
Sub-Contractors

Contractor

iv. Tax clearance certificate

v. Evidence of payment for all levies/development charges
vi. Receipt of payment of processing fee

Parties to Building Contract

Client
Consultants (Architect, Quantity-Surveyor,
Civil Engineer (Structural), Electrical and
Mechanical Engineer

19
 CURTAIN WALLING

Curtain walling is the system of cladding buildings with thin sheet of glass,
metal or other impermeable materials supported by slender metal mullions and
transoms and they are attached to the structural frame of the building.

Curtain walling as an external vertical building enclosure produced by elements

mainly of metal, timber or plastic.

The functions of curtain walls in building are elimination of water penetration,

air impermeability, resistance to wind, thermal and acoustic action.

To fulfill its primary functions, a curtain wall must meet the following
requirements:
1. Resistance to the elements
2. Adequate strength
3. Ease of assembly and fixing
4. Required degree of fire resistance
5. Required degree of sound insulation
6. Provision for thermal and structural movements

Three common types of curtain walls are

1. Custom walls
2. Commercial walls – there is standardization of components
3. Industrial walls – there are windows

Methods of Weather Proofing Joint in Curtain Walling

The method of weather proofing joint in curtain walling should be flexible both
in effect and application. These methods are:
1. Sealant: This makes use of mastic which depends for its sealing property
upon adhesion to the components edges.
2. Gaskets:- Specially shaped solid or hollow strips which grips the panel
and establish a seal by their close fit between the panel and the adjacent
framing.
3. Metal cover strip/beads:- In this case, the panel is held against a flange
by a spring clip bead or capping.

20
21
 INDUSTRIALIZED SYSTEM BUILDING

The Industrialized System Building (ISB) is a building system whereby precast

reinforced concrete walls, floor and roof elements in form of panels are used for
building erection.

Reasons for ISB

1. To reduce site work for the building of high rise blocks of flats or other
building types which have been recognized as social necessity such as
hospitals and school buildings such that they can be erected 4-5 times
faster than the traditional methods.
2. To hasten construction generally.

Limitations of ISB
1. Handling equipment for the components. Specialized equipment are
needed for handling the heavy components such as wall panels, floor
unites etc.
2. Limits or road and rail transport. If the road network is poor (as in
Nigeria), the use of ISB may not be effective as components may be
impaired.
3. The problem of offsite assembly and packaging in an obstacle.
4. The jointing method may limited its use if there is no skilled labour.
5. Importation of skilled labour and components is a limitation.

Types of System Building

Open: Design to available module, in this system, the components are

interchangeable with other systems. The aim of the system is to produce a
complete range of standard components which are inter-changeable over a wide
range of building types and the components are chosen from component
available in the market.

Close: Design to any that is required, but is better but expensive. Here, the
components are not interchangeable with any other system or method and thus
the building is formed from components specially designed for and applicable
to the particular building type in question. For example, schools or housing.

22
Differences between Industrialized System Building (ISB) and Traditional
Method (TM)

1. The components ISB are dominantly fabricated off-site where that of

traditional method is mostly on site.
2. The labour requirement on site is higher with TM than ISB while factory
labour requirement with ISB is higher than TM
3. The time spent on site operation is reduced in ISB but this takes a longer
time with the TM. On the other hand, most of the works in ISB are
factory made.
4. The ISB method requires a larger capital outlay for plants, equipment
factory to site transportation of finished components and premises.
5. In the TM, the time and extend of non-productive works such as
scaffolding is increased but considerably reduced in ISB.
6. Production drawings are more simplified and diagrammatic in ISB than
with TM which is more pictorial.
7. Contracts TM are always subject to tenders whereas contract in ISB are
usually negotiated and so less competitive.
8. ISB does not come under any serious inclement weather condition as it is
the case in TM.

Similarities between TM and ISB

1. The component of the two systems are of the same materials e.g. cement,
sand etc.
2. Both system require the use of temporary structures e.g. scaffold is
common to both excepts that the length of period of use is reduced in
ISB.
3. The both adopt the use of cross wall whereby the shorter cross wall are
load bearing walls.
4. For the transmission of building loads foundations are required under
both systems.
5. Allowances are made for preliminary items of work like lighting
watching, insurance, access road etc. in both systems of building.
6. Application of finishing is common to both systems. Though ISB may be
factory finished while the TM may be site finished.
7. Both the ISB and TM are subject to site organization and planning during
constriction. Therefore, the services of site supervisors are required.

23