Tuberculosis

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Tuberculosis
Classification and external resources

Chest X-ray of a patient suffering from

tuberculosis
ICD-10 A15.-A19.
ICD-9 010-018
OMIM 607948
DiseasesDB 8515
MedlinePlus 000077 000624
eMedicine med/2324 emerg/618
radio/411
MeSH C01.252.410.040.552.846

Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or Tuberculosis) is a common and

often deadly infectious disease caused by mycobacteria, mainly Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. Tuberculosis usually attacks the lungs (as pulmonary TB) but can also affect
the central nervous system, the lymphatic system, the circulatory system, the
genitourinary system, the gastrointestinal system, bones, joints, and even the skin. Other
mycobacteria such as Mycobacterium bovis, Mycobacterium africanum, Mycobacterium
canetti, and Mycobacterium microti also cause tuberculosis, but these species are less
common.

The typical symptoms of tuberculosis are a chronic cough with blood-tinged sputum,
fever, night sweats and weight loss. Infection of other organs cause a wide range of
symptoms. The diagnosis relies on radiology (commonly chest X-rays), a tuberculin skin
test, blood tests, as well as microscopic examination and microbiological culture of
bodily fluids. Tuberculosis treatment is difficult and requires long courses of multiple
antibiotics. Contacts are also screened and treated if necessary. Antibiotic resistance is a
growing problem in (extensively) multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis. Prevention relies on
screening programs and vaccination, usually with Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG
vaccine).

Tuberculosis is spread through the air, when people who have the disease cough, sneeze
or spit. One third of the world's current population have been infected with M.
tuberculosis, and new infections occur at a rate of one per second.[1] However, most of
these cases will not develop the full-blown disease; asymptomatic, latent infection is
most common. About one in ten of these latent infections will eventually progress to
active disease, which, if left untreated, kills more than half of its victims. In 2004,
mortality and morbidity statistics included 14.6 million chronic active cases, 8.9 million
new cases, and 1.6 million deaths, mostly in developing countries.[1] In addition, a rising
number of people in the developed world are contracting tuberculosis because their
immune systems are compromised by immunosuppressive drugs, substance abuse, or
AIDS.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Other names
• 2 Symptoms
• 3 Bacterial species
o 3.1 Evolution
• 4 Transmission
• 5 Pathogenesis
• 6 Diagnosis
• 7 Progression
• 8 Treatment
• 9 Prevention
o 9.1 Vaccines
• 10 Epidemiology
• 11 History
o 11.1 Folklore
o 11.2 Study and treatment
• 12 Infection of other animals
• 13 See also
• 14 References
• 15 Further reading

• 16 External links

[edit] Other names

In the past, tuberculosis has been called consumption, because it seemed to consume
people from within, with a bloody cough, fever, pallor, and long relentless wasting. Other
names included phthisis (Greek for consumption) and phthisis pulmonalis; scrofula (in
adults), affecting the lymphatic system and resulting in swollen neck glands; tabes
mesenterica, TB of the abdomen and lupus vulgaris, TB of the skin; wasting disease;
white plague, because sufferers appear markedly pale; king's evil, because it was
believed that a king's touch would heal scrofula; and Pott's disease, or gibbus of the
spine and joints.[2][3] Miliary tuberculosis—now commonly known as disseminated TB—
occurs when the infection invades the circulatory system resulting in lesions which have
the appearance of millet seeds on X-ray.[2][4]

[edit] Symptoms
Further information: Tuberculosis classification

When the disease becomes active, 75% of the cases are pulmonary TB. Symptoms
include chest pain, coughing up blood, and a productive, prolonged cough for more than
three weeks. Systemic symptoms include fever, chills, night sweats, appetite loss, weight
loss, pallor, and often a tendency to fatigue very easily.[1]

In the other 25% of active cases, the infection moves from the lungs, causing other kinds
of TB. This occurs more commonly in immunosuppressed persons and young children.
Extrapulmonary infection sites include the pleura, the central nervous system in
meningitis, the lymphatic system in scrofula of the neck, the genitourinary system in
urogenital tuberculosis, and bones and joints in Pott's disease of the spine. An especially
serious form is disseminated TB, more commonly known as miliary tuberculosis.
Although extrapulmonary TB is not contagious, it may co-exist with pulmonary TB,
which is contagious.[5]

[edit] Bacterial species

Main article: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Scanning electron micrograph of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

The primary cause of TB, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is an aerobic bacterium that
divides every 16 to 20 hours, an extremely slow rate compared with other bacteria, which
usually divide in less than an hour.[6] (For example, one of the fastest-growing bacteria is
a strain of E. coli that can divide roughly every 20 minutes.) Since MTB has a cell wall
but lacks a phospholipid outer membrane, it is classified as a Gram-positive bacterium.
However, if a Gram stain is performed, MTB either stains very weakly Gram-positive or
does not retain dye due to the high lipid & mycolic acid content of its cell wall.[7] MTB is
a small rod-like bacillus that can withstand weak disinfectants and survive in a dry state
for weeks. In nature, the bacterium can grow only within the cells of a host organism, but
M. tuberculosis can be cultured in vitro.[8]

Using histological stains on expectorate samples from phlegm (also called sputum),
scientists can identify MTB under a regular microscope. Since MTB retains certain stains
after being treated with acidic solution, it is classified as an acid-fast bacillus (AFB).[7]
The most common staining technique, the Ziehl-Neelsen stain, dyes AFBs a bright red
that stands out clearly against a blue background. Other ways to visualize AFBs include
an auramine-rhodamine stain and fluorescent microscopy.

The M. tuberculosis complex includes three other TB-causing mycobacteria: M. bovis,

M. africanum and M. microti. M. africanum is a not widespread, but in parts of Africa it
is a significant cause of tuberculosis.[9][10] M. bovis was once a common cause of
tuberculosis, but the introduction of pasteurized milk has largely eliminated this as a
public health problem in developed countries.[11] M. microti is mostly seen in
immunodeficient people, although it is possible that the prevalence of this pathogen has
been underestimated.[12]

Other known pathogenic mycobacteria include Mycobacterium leprae, Mycobacterium

avium and M. kansasii. The last two are part of the nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM)
group. Nontuberculous mycobacteria cause neither TB nor leprosy, but they do cause
pulmonary diseases resembling TB.[13]

Phylogenetic tree of the genus Mycobacterium.

[edit] Evolution
Tuberculosis has co-evolved with humans for many thousands of years, and perhaps as
much as several million years.[14] During this evolution, M. tuberculosis has lost
numerous coding and non-coding regions in its genome, losses that can be used to
distinguish between strains of the bacteria. The implication is that M. tuberculosis strains
differ geographically, so their genetic differences can be used to track the origins and
movement of each strain.[15]

[edit] Transmission
Further information: Transmission (medicine)

When people suffering from active pulmonary TB cough, sneeze, speak, or spit, they
expel infectious aerosol droplets 0.5 to 5 µm in diameter. A single sneeze can release up
to 40,000 droplets.[16] Each one of these droplets may transmit the disease, since the
infectious dose of tuberculosis is very low and the inhalation of just a single bacterium
can cause a new infection.[17]

People with prolonged, frequent, or intense contact are at particularly high risk of
becoming infected, with an estimated 22% infection rate. A person with active but
untreated tuberculosis can infect 10–15 other people per year.[1] Others at risk include
people in areas where TB is common, people who inject drugs using unsanitary needles,
residents and employees of high-risk congregate settings, medically under-served and
low-income populations, high-risk racial or ethnic minority populations, children exposed
to adults in high-risk categories, patients immunocompromised by conditions such as
HIV/AIDS, people who take immunosuppressant drugs, and health care workers serving
these high-risk clients.[18]

Transmission can only occur from people with active — not latent — TB. The probability
of transmission from one person to another depends upon the number of infectious
droplets expelled by a carrier, the effectiveness of ventilation, the duration of exposure,
and the virulence of the M. tuberculosis strain.[5] The chain of transmission can, therefore,
be broken by isolating patients with active disease and starting effective anti-tuberculous
therapy. After two weeks of such treatment, people with non-resistant active TB generally
cease to be contagious. If someone does become infected, then it will take at least 21
days, or three to four weeks, before the newly infected person can transmit the disease to
others.[19] TB can also be transmitted by eating meat infected with TB. Mycobacterium
bovis causes TB in cattle. (See details below.)

[edit] Pathogenesis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (stained red) in sputum

About 90% of those infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis have asymptomatic, latent
TB infection (sometimes called LTBI), with only a 10% lifetime chance that a latent
infection will progress to TB disease. However, if untreated, the death rate for these
active TB cases is more than 50%.[20]

TB infection begins when the mycobacteria reach the pulmonary alveoli, where they
invade and replicate within alveolar macrophages.[21] The primary site of infection in the
lungs is called the Ghon focus. Bacteria are picked up by dendritic cells, which do not
allow replication, although these cells can transport the bacilli to local (mediastinal)
lymph nodes. Further spread is through the bloodstream to other tissues and organs where
secondary TB lesions can develop in other parts of the lung, peripheral lymph nodes,
kidneys, brain, and bone.[22] All parts of the body can be affected by the disease, though it
rarely affects the heart, skeletal muscles, pancreas and thyroid.[23]

Tuberculosis is classified as one of the granulomatous inflammatory conditions.

Macrophages, T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes and fibroblasts are among the cells that
aggregate to form a granuloma, with lymphocytes surrounding the infected macrophages.
The granuloma functions not only to prevent dissemination of the mycobacteria, but also
provides a local environment for communication of cells of the immune system. Within
the granuloma, T lymphocytes (CD4+) secrete cytokines such as interferon gamma,
which activates macrophages to destroy the bacteria with which they are infected.[24] T
lymphocytes (CD8+) can also directly kill infected cells.[21]

Importantly, bacteria are not always eliminated within the granuloma, but can become
dormant, resulting in a latent infection. Another feature of the granulomas of human
tuberculosis is the development of cell death, also called necrosis, in the center of
tubercles. To the naked eye this has the texture of soft white cheese and was termed
caseous necrosis.[25]
If TB bacteria gain entry to the bloodstream from an area of damaged tissue they spread
through the body and set up many foci of infection, all appearing as tiny white tubercles
in the tissues. This severe form of TB disease is most common in infants and the elderly
and is called miliary tuberculosis. Patients with this disseminated TB have a fatality rate
of approximately 20%, even with intensive treatment.[26]

In many patients the infection waxes and wanes. Tissue destruction and necrosis are
balanced by healing and fibrosis.[25] Affected tissue is replaced by scarring and cavities
filled with cheese-like white necrotic material. During active disease, some of these
cavities are joined to the air passages bronchi and this material can be coughed up. It
contains living bacteria and can therefore pass on infection. Treatment with appropriate
antibiotics kills bacteria and allows healing to take place. Upon cure, affected areas are
eventually replaced by scar tissue.[25]

[edit] Diagnosis
For more details on this topic, see Tuberculosis diagnosis.

Mantoux tuberculin skin test

Tuberculosis can be a difficult disease to diagnose, mainly due to the difficulty in

culturing this slow-growing organism in the laboratory (4–12 weeks for blood culture). A
complete medical evaluation for TB must include a medical history, a chest X-ray, and a
physical examination. Tuberculosis radiology is used in the diagnosis of TB. It may also
include a tuberculin skin test, a serological test, microbiological smears and cultures. The
interpretation of the tuberculin skin test depends upon the person's risk factors for
infection and progression to TB disease, such as exposure to other cases of TB or
immunosuppression.[5]

Currently, latent infection is diagnosed in a non-immunized person by a tuberculin skin

test, which yields a delayed hypersensitivity type response to an extract made from M.
tuberculosis. Those immunized for TB or with past-cleared infection will respond with
delayed hypersensitivity parallel to those currently in a state of infection, so the test must
be used with caution, particularly with regard to persons from countries where TB
immunization is common.[27] New TB tests are being developed that offer the hope of
cheap, fast and more accurate TB testing. These use polymerase chain reaction detection
of bacterial DNA and antibody assays to detect the release of interferon gamma in
response to mycobacteria.[28] These tests are not affected by immunization, so generate
fewer false positive results.[29] Rapid and inexpensive diagnosis will be particularly
valuable in the developing world.

[edit] Progression
Progression from TB infection to TB disease occurs when the TB bacilli overcome the
immune system defenses and begin to multiply. In primary TB disease—1–5% of cases—
this occurs soon after infection. However, in the majority of cases, a latent infection
occurs that has no obvious symptoms. These dormant bacilli can produce tuberculosis in
2–23% of these latent cases, often many years after infection.[30] The risk of reactivation
increases with immunosuppression, such as that caused by infection with HIV. In patients
co-infected with M. tuberculosis and HIV, the risk of reactivation increases to 10% per
year.[20]

Other conditions that increase risk include drug injection, mainly due to the lifestyle of
IV drug users; recent TB infection or a history of inadequately treated TB; chest X-ray
suggestive of previous TB, showing fibrotic lesions and nodules; diabetes mellitus;
silicosis; prolonged corticosteroid therapy and other immunosuppressive therapy; head
and neck cancers; hematologic and reticuloendothelial diseases, such as leukemia and
Hodgkin's disease; end-stage kidney disease; intestinal bypass or gastrectomy; chronic
malabsorption syndromes; or low body weight.[5]

Twin studies in the 1950s showed that the course of TB infection was highly dependent
on genetics. At that time, it was rare that one identical twin would die and the other
live.[31]

Some drugs, including rheumatoid arthritis drugs that work by blocking tumor necrosis
factor-alpha (an inflammation-causing cytokine), raise the risk of activating a latent
infection due to the importance of this cytokine in the immune defense against TB.[32]

[edit] Treatment
For more details on this topic, see Tuberculosis treatment.

Treatment for TB uses antibiotics to kill the bacteria. The two antibiotics most commonly
used are rifampicin and isoniazid. However, instead of the short course of antibiotics
typically used to cure other bacterial infections, TB requires much longer periods of
treatment (around 6 to 12 months) to entirely eliminate mycobacteria from the body.[5]
Latent TB treatment usually uses a single antibiotic, while active TB disease is best
treated with combinations of several antibiotics, to reduce the risk of the bacteria
developing antibiotic resistance.[33] People with latent infections are treated to prevent
them from progressing to active TB disease later in life. However, treatment using
Rifampin and Pyrazinamide is not risk-free. The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) notified healthcare professionals of revised recommendations against
the use of rifampin plus pyrazinamide for treatment of latent tuberculosis infection, due
to high rates of hospitalization and death from liver injury associated with the combined
use of these drugs.[34]

Drug resistant tuberculosis is transmitted in the same way as regular TB. Primary
resistance occurs in persons who are infected with a resistant strain of TB. A patient with
fully-susceptible TB develops secondary resistance (acquired resistance) during TB
therapy because of inadequate treatment, not taking the prescribed regimen appropriately,
or using low quality medication.[33] Drug-resistant TB is a public health issue in many
developing countries, as treatment is longer and requires more expensive drugs. Multi-
drug resistant TB (MDR-TB) is defined as resistance to the two most effective first line
TB drugs: rifampicin and isoniazid. Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) is also
resistant to three or more of the six classes of second-line drugs.[35]

In ancient times, available treatments focused more on dietary parameters. Pliny the Elder
described several methods in his Natural History: "wolf's liver taken in thin wine, the lard
of a sow that has been fed upon grass, or the flesh of a she-ass taken in broth".[36] While
these particular remedies haven't been tested scientifically, it has been demonstrated that
malnourished mice receiving a 2% protein diet suffer far higher mortality from
tuberculosis than those receiving 20% protein receiving the same infectious challenge
dose, and the progressively fatal course of the illness could be reversed by restoring the
mice to the normal diet.[37] Moreover, statistics for immigrants in South London reveal an
8.5 fold increased risk of tuberculosis in (primarily Hindu Asian) lacto vegetarians, who
frequently suffer protein malnutrition, compared to those of similar cultural backgrounds
who ate meat and fish daily.[38]

[edit] Prevention
TB prevention and control takes two parallel approaches. In the first, people with TB and
their contacts are identified and then treated. Identification of infections often involves
testing high-risk groups for TB. In the second approach, children are vaccinated to protect
them from TB. Unfortunately, no vaccine is available that provides reliable protection for
adults. However, in tropical areas where the levels of other species of mycobacteria are
high, exposure to nontuberculous mycobacteria gives some protection against TB.[39]

The World Health Organization (W.H.O.) declared TB a global health emergency in

1993, and the Stop TB Partnership developed a Global Plan to Stop Tuberculosis that
aims to save 14 million lives between 2006 and 2015.[40] Since humans are the only host
of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, eradication would be possible: a goal that would be
helped greatly by an effective vaccine.[41]

[edit] Vaccines
Many countries use Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine as part of their TB control
programs, especially for infants. According to the W.H.O., this is the most often used
vaccine worldwide, with 85% of infants in 172 countries immunized in 1993.[42] This was
the first vaccine for TB and developed at the Pasteur Institute in France between 1905
and 1921.[43] However, mass vaccination with BCG did not start until after World War
II.[44] The protective efficacy of BCG for preventing serious forms of TB (e.g. meningitis)
in children is greater than 80%; its protective efficacy for preventing pulmonary TB in
adolescents and adults is variable, ranging from 0 to 80%.[45]

In South Africa, the country with the highest prevalence of TB, BCG is given to all
children under age three.[46] However, BCG is less effective in areas where mycobacteria
are less prevalent; therefore BCG is not given to the entire population in these countries.
In the USA, for example, BCG vaccine is not recommended except for people who meet
specific criteria:[5]

• Infants or children with negative skin test results who are continually exposed to
untreated or ineffectively treated patients or will be continually exposed to
multidrug-resistant TB.
• Healthcare workers considered on an individual basis in settings in which a high
percentage of MDR-TB patients has been found, transmission of MDR-TB is
likely, and TB control precautions have been implemented and were not
successful.

BCG provides some protection against severe forms of pediatric TB, but has been shown
to be unreliable against adult pulmonary TB, which accounts for most of the disease
burden worldwide. Currently, there are more cases of TB on the planet than at any other
time in history and most agree there is an urgent need for a newer, more effective vaccine
that would prevent all forms of TB—including drug resistant strains—in all age groups
and among people with HIV.[47]

Several new vaccines to prevent TB infection are being developed. The first recombinant
tuberculosis vaccine entered clinical trials in the United States in 2004, sponsored by the
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID).[48] A 2005 study showed
that a DNA TB vaccine given with conventional chemotherapy can accelerate the
disappearance of bacteria as well as protect against re-infection in mice; it may take four
to five years to be available in humans.[49] A very promising TB vaccine, MVA85A, is
currently in phase II trials in South Africa by a group led by Oxford University,[50] and is
based on a genetically modified vaccinia virus. Many other strategies are also being used
to develop novel vaccines. In order to encourage further discovery, researchers and
policymakers are promoting new economic models of vaccine development including
prizes, tax incentives and advance market commitments.[51][52]

The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has been a strong supporter of new TB vaccine
development. Most recently, they announced a $200 million grant to the Aeras Global TB
Vaccine Foundation for clinical trials on up to six different TB vaccine candidates
currently in the pipeline.[53]
[edit] Epidemiology

Annual number of new reported TB cases. Data from WHO.[54]

World TB incidence. Cases per 100,000; Red => 300, orange = 200–300, yellow = 100–
200, green = 50–100, blue =< 50 and grey = n/a. Data from WHO, 2006.[54]

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), nearly 2 billion people—one third
of the world's population—have been exposed to the tuberculosis pathogen.[55] Annually,
8 million people become ill with tuberculosis, and 2 million people die from the disease
worldwide.[56] In 2004, around 14.6 million people had active TB disease with 9 million
new cases. The annual incidence rate varies from 356 per 100,000 in Africa to 41 per
100,000 in the Americas.[1] Tuberculosis is the world's greatest infectious killer of women
of reproductive age and the leading cause of death among people with HIV/AIDS.[57]

The rise in HIV infections and the neglect of TB control programs have enabled a
resurgence of tuberculosis.[58] The emergence of drug-resistant strains has also contributed
to this new epidemic with, from 2000 to 2004, 20% of TB cases being resistant to
standard treatments and 2% resistant to second-line drugs.[35] The rate at which new TB
cases occur varies widely, even in neighboring countries, apparently because of
differences in health care systems.[59]

In 2005, the country with the highest estimated incidence of TB was Swaziland, with
1262 cases per 100,000 people. India has the largest number of infections, with over 1.8
million cases.[60] In developed countries, tuberculosis is less common and is mainly an
urban disease. In the United Kingdom, TB incidences range from 40 per 100,000 in
London to less than 5 per 100,000 in the rural South West of England;[61] the national
average is 13 per 100,000. The highest rates in Western Europe are in Portugal (42 per
100,000) and Spain (20 per 100,000). These rates compare with 113 per 100,000 in China
and 64 per 100,000 in Brazil. In the United States, the overall tuberculosis case rate was
4.9 per 100,000 persons in 2004.[56]

The incidence of TB varies with age. In Africa, TB primarily affects adolescents and
young adults.[62] However, in countries where TB has gone from high to low incidence,
such as the United States, TB is mainly a disease of older people.[63]

There are a number of known factors that make people more susceptible to TB infection:
worldwide the most important of these is HIV. Co-infection with HIV is a particular
problem in Sub-Saharan Africa, due to the high incidence of HIV in these countries.[54][64]
Smoking more than 20 cigarettes a day also increases the risk of TB by two to four
times.[65][66] Diabetes mellitus is also an important risk factor that is growing in
importance in developing countries.[67]

[edit] History

Tubercular decay has been found in the spines of Egyptian mummies. Pictured: Egyptian
mummy in the British Museum

Tuberculosis has been present in humans since antiquity. The earliest unambiguous
detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is in the remains of bison dated 18,000 years
before the present.[68] Whether tuberculosis originated in cattle and then transferred to
humans, or diverged from a common ancestor infecting a different species, is currently
unclear.[69] However, it is clear that M. tuberculosis is not directly descended from M.
bovis, which seems to have evolved relatively recently.[70]

Skeletal remains show prehistoric humans (4000 BC) had TB, and tubercular decay has
been found in the spines of mummies from 3000–2400 BC.[71] Phthisis is a Greek term for
tuberculosis; around 460 BC, Hippocrates identified phthisis as the most widespread
disease of the times involving coughing up blood and fever, which was almost always
fatal.[72] Genetic studies suggest that TB was present in South America for about 2,000
years.[73] In South America, the earliest evidence of tuberculosis is associated with the
Paracas-Caverna culture (circa 750 BC to circa 100 AD).[74]

[edit] Folklore

Before the Industrial Revolution, tuberculosis may sometimes have been regarded as
vampirism. When one member of a family died from it, the other members that were
infected would lose their health slowly. People believed that this was caused by the
original victim draining the life from the other family members. Furthermore, people who
had TB exhibited symptoms similar to what people considered to be vampire traits.
People with TB often have symptoms such as red, swollen eyes (which also creates a
sensitivity to bright light), pale skin, extremely low body heat, a weak heart and coughing
blood, suggesting the idea that the only way for the afflicted to replenish this loss of
blood was by sucking blood.[75] Another folk belief attributed it to being forced, nightly,
to attend fairy revels, so that the victim wasted away owing to lack of rest; this belief was
most common when a strong connection was seen between the fairies and the dead.[76]
Similarly, but less commonly, it was attributed to the victims being "hagridden"—being
transformed into horses by witches (hags) to travel to their nightly meetings, again
resulting in a lack of rest.[76]

TB was romanticized in the nineteenth century. Many people believed TB produced

feelings of euphoria referred to as "Spes phthisica" or "hope of the consumptive". It was
believed that TB sufferers who were artists had bursts of creativity as the disease
progressed. It was also believed that TB sufferers acquired a final burst of energy just
before they died which made women more beautiful and men more creative.[77] In the
early 20th century, some believed TB to be caused by masturbation.[78]

[edit] Study and treatment

The study of tuberculosis dates back to The Canon of Medicine written by Ibn Sina
(Avicenna) in the 1020s. He was the first physician to identify pulmonary tuberculosis as
a contagious disease, the first to recognise the association with diabetes, and the first to
suggest that it could spread through contact with soil and water.[79][80] He developed the
method of quarantine in order to limit the spread of tuberculosis.[81]

Although it was established that the pulmonary form was associated with "tubercles" by
Dr Richard Morton in 1689,[82][83] due to the variety of its symptoms, TB was not
identified as a single disease until the 1820s and was not named "tuberculosis" until 1839
by J. L. Schönlein.[84] During the years 1838 – 1845, Dr. John Croghan, the owner of
Mammoth Cave, brought a number of tuberculosis sufferers into the cave in the hope of
curing the disease with the constant temperature and purity of the cave air; they died
within a year.[85] The first TB sanatorium opened in 1859 in Görbersdorf, Germany (today
Sokołowsko, Poland) by Hermann Brehmer.[86]

In regard to this claim, The Times for January 15, 1859, page 5, column 5, carries an
advertisement seeking funds for the Bournemouth Sanatorium for Consumption, referring
to the balance sheet for the past year, and offering an annual report to prospective donors,
implying that this sanatorium was in existence at least in 1858.
Dr. Robert Koch discovered the tuberculosis bacilli.

The bacillus causing tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, was identified and

described on March 24, 1882 by Robert Koch. He received the Nobel Prize in physiology
or medicine in 1905 for this discovery.[87] Koch did not believe that bovine (cattle) and
human tuberculosis were similar, which delayed the recognition of infected milk as a
source of infection. Later, this source was eliminated by the pasteurization process. Koch
announced a glycerine extract of the tubercle bacilli as a "remedy" for tuberculosis in
1890, calling it "tuberculin". It was not effective, but was later adapted as a test for pre-
symptomatic tuberculosis.[88]

The first genuine success in immunizing against tuberculosis was developed from
attenuated bovine-strain tuberculosis by Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin in 1906. It
was called "BCG" (Bacillus of Calmette and Guérin). The BCG vaccine was first used on
humans in 1921 in France,[43] but it was not until after World War II that BCG received
widespread acceptance in the USA, Great Britain, and Germany.[44]

Tuberculosis, or "consumption" as it was commonly known, caused the most widespread

public concern in the 19th and early 20th centuries as an endemic disease of the urban
poor. In 1815, one in four deaths in England was of consumption; by 1918 one in six
deaths in France were still caused by TB. In the 20th century, tuberculosis killed an
estimated 100 million people.[89] After the establishment in the 1880s that the disease was
contagious, TB was made a notifiable disease in Britain; there were campaigns to stop
spitting in public places, and the infected poor were "encouraged" to enter sanatoria that
resembled prisons; the sanatoria for the middle and upper classes offered excellent care
and constant medical attention.[86] Whatever the purported benefits of the fresh air and
labor in the sanatoria, even under the best conditions, 50% of those who entered were
dead within five years (1916).[86]
Public health campaigns tried to halt the spread of TB

The promotion of Christmas Seals began in Denmark during 1904 as a way to raise
money for tuberculosis programs. It expanded to the United States and Canada in 1907 –
1908 to help the National Tuberculosis Association (later called the American Lung
Association).

In the United States, concern about the spread of tuberculosis played a role in the
movement to prohibit public spitting except into spittoons.

In Europe, deaths from TB fell from 500 out of 100,000 in 1850 to 50 out of 100,000 by
1950. Improvements in public health were reducing tuberculosis even before the arrival
of antibiotics, although the disease remained a significant threat to public health, such
that when the Medical Research Council was formed in Britain in 1913 its initial focus
was tuberculosis research.[90]

It was not until 1946 with the development of the antibiotic streptomycin that effective
treatment and cure became possible. Prior to the introduction of this drug, the only
treatment besides sanatoria were surgical interventions, including the pneumothorax
technique — collapsing an infected lung to "rest" it and allow lesions to heal — a
technique that was of little benefit and was largely discontinued by the 1950s.[91] The
emergence of multidrug-resistant TB has again introduced surgery as part of the treatment
for these infections. Here, surgical removal of chest cavities will reduce the number of
bacteria in the lungs, as well as increasing the exposure of the remaining bacteria to drugs
in the bloodstream, and is therefore thought to increase the effectiveness of the
chemotherapy.[92]

Hopes that the disease could be completely eliminated have been dashed since the rise of
drug-resistant strains in the 1980s. For example, tuberculosis cases in Britain, numbering
around 117,000 in 1913, had fallen to around 5,000 in 1987, but cases rose again,
reaching 6,300 in 2000 and 7,600 cases in 2005.[93] Due to the elimination of public
health facilities in New York and the emergence of HIV, there was a resurgence in the late
1980s.[94] The number of those failing to complete their course of drugs is high. New York
had to cope with more than 20,000 "unnecessary" TB-patients with multidrug-resistant
strains (resistant to, at least, both Rifampin and Isoniazid). The resurgence of tuberculosis
resulted in the declaration of a global health emergency by the World Health Organization
in 1993.[95]

[edit] Infection of other animals

Main article: Mycobacterium bovis

Tuberculosis can be carried by mammals; domesticated species, such as cats and dogs,
are generally free of tuberculosis, but wild animals may be carriers. In some places,
regulations aiming to prevent the spread of TB restrict the ownership of novelty pets; for
example, the U.S. state of California forbids the ownership of pet gerbils.[96]

Mycobacterium bovis causes TB in cattle. An effort to eradicate bovine tuberculosis from

the cattle and deer herds of New Zealand is underway. It has been found that herd
infection is more likely in areas where infected vector species such as Australian brush-
tailed possums come into contact with domestic livestock at farm/bush borders.[97]
Controlling the vectors through possum eradication and monitoring the level of disease in
livestock herds through regular surveillance are seen as a "two-pronged" approach to
ridding New Zealand of the disease.

In the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, badgers have been identified as one
vector species for the transmission of bovine tuberculosis. As a result, governments have
come under pressure from some quarters, primarily dairy farmers, to mount an active
campaign of eradication of badgers in certain areas with the purpose of reducing the
incidence of bovine TB. The effectiveness of culling on the incidence of TB in cattle is a
contentious issue, with proponents and opponents citing their own studies to support their
position.[98][99][100] For instance, a study by an Independent Study Group on badger culling
reported on 18 June 2007 that it was unlikely to be effective and would only make a
“modest difference” to the spread of TB and that "badger culling cannot meaningfully
contribute to the future control of cattle TB"; in contrast, another report concluded that
this policy would have a significant impact.[101] On July 4th 2008, the UK government
decided against a proposed random culling policy.[102]

[edit] See also

• 2007 tuberculosis scare
• Abreugraphy
• ATC code J04 Drugs for treatment of TB
• Buruli ulcer and leprosy: other diseases caused by mycobacteria
• Latent tuberculosis
 • List of tuberculosis victims
• Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Structural Genomics Consortium
• National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention
• Nontuberculous mycobacteria
• Overcrowding
• Philip D'Arcy Hart
• The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria
• Tuberculosis in history and art
• UNITAID
• Nosocomial infection

[edit] References
1. ^ a b c d e World Health Organization (WHO). Tuberculosis Fact sheet N°104 - Global and
regional incidence. March 2006, Retrieved on 6 October 2006.
2. ^ a b Tuberculosis Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed.
3. ^ Rudy's List of Archaic Medical Terms English Glossary of Archaic Medical Terms,
Diseases and Causes of Death. Accessed 9 October 2006
4. ^ Disseminated tuberculosis NIH Medical Encyclopedia. Accessed 9 October 2006
5. ^ a b c d e f Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Division of Tuberculosis
Elimination. Core Curriculum on Tuberculosis: What the Clinician Should Know. 4th edition
(2000). Updated August 2003.
6. ^ Cox R (2004). "Quantitative relationships for specific growth rates and macromolecular
compositions of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) and Escherichia coli
B/r: an integrative theoretical approach". Microbiology 150 (Pt 5): 1413–26.
doi:10.1099/mic.0.26560-0. PMID 15133103.
7. ^ a b Madison B (2001). "Application of stains in clinical microbiology". Biotech
Histochem 76 (3): 119–25. doi:10.1080/714028138. PMID 11475314.
8. ^ Parish T, Stoker N (1999). "Mycobacteria: bugs and bugbears (two steps forward and
one step back)". Mol Biotechnol 13 (3): 191–200. doi:10.1385/MB:13:3:191. PMID 10934532.
9. ^ Niemann S, Rüsch-Gerdes S, Joloba ML, et al (September 2002). "Mycobacterium
africanum subtype II is associated with two distinct genotypes and is a major cause of human
tuberculosis in Kampala, Uganda". J. Clin. Microbiol. 40 (9): 3398–405.
doi:10.1128/JCM.40.9.3398-3405.2002. PMID 12202584. PMC:130701.
10. ^ Niobe-Eyangoh SN, Kuaban C, Sorlin P, et al (June 2003). "Genetic biodiversity of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex strains from patients with pulmonary tuberculosis in
Cameroon". J. Clin. Microbiol. 41 (6): 2547–53. doi:10.1128/JCM.41.6.2547-2553.2003. PMID
12791879. PMC:156567.
11. ^ Thoen C, Lobue P, de Kantor I (February 2006). "The importance of Mycobacterium
bovis as a zoonosis". Vet. Microbiol. 112 (2-4): 339–45. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2005.11.047.
PMID 16387455.
12. ^ Niemann S, Richter E, Dalügge-Tamm H, Schlesinger H, Graupner D, Königstein B,
Gurath G, Greinert U, Rüsch-Gerdes S (2000). "Two cases of Mycobacterium microti
derived tuberculosis in HIV-negative immunocompetent patients". Emerg Infect Dis 6
(5): 539–42. PMID 10998387.
13. ^ "Diagnosis and treatment of disease caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria. This
official statement of the American Thoracic Society was approved by the Board of
Directors, March 1997. Medical Section of the American Lung Association" (1997). Am
J Respir Crit Care Med 156 (2 Pt 2): S1–25. PMID 9279284.
14. ^ Gutierrez MC, Brisse S, Brosch R, et al (September 2005). "Ancient origin and gene
mosaicism of the progenitor of Mycobacterium tuberculosis". PLoS Pathog. 1 (1): e5.
doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.0010005. PMID 16201017. PMC:1238740.
15. ^ Rao K, Kauser F, Srinivas S, Zanetti S, Sechi L, Ahmed N, Hasnain S (2005).
"Analysis of genomic downsizing on the basis of region-of-difference polymorphism
profiling of Mycobacterium tuberculosis patient isolates reveals geographic partitioning".
J Clin Microbiol 43 (12): 5978–82. doi:10.1128/JCM.43.12.5978-5982.2005. PMID 16333085.
16. ^ Cole E, Cook C (1998). "Characterization of infectious aerosols in health care
facilities: an aid to effective engineering controls and preventive strategies". Am J Infect
Control 26 (4): 453–64. doi:10.1016/S0196-6553(98)70046-X. PMID 9721404.
17. ^ Nicas M, Nazaroff WW, Hubbard A (2005). "Toward understanding the risk of
secondary airborne infection: emission of respirable pathogens". J Occup Environ Hyg 2
(3): 143–54. doi:10.1080/15459620590918466. PMID 15764538.
18. ^ Griffith D, Kerr C (1996). "Tuberculosis: disease of the past, disease of the present". J
Perianesth Nurs 11 (4): 240–5. doi:10.1016/S1089-9472(96)80023-2. PMID 8964016.
19. ^ "Causes of Tuberculosis". Mayo Clinic (2006-12-21). Retrieved on 2007-10-19.
20. ^ a b Onyebujoh, Phillip and Rook, Graham A. W. World Health Organization Disease Watch:
Focus: Tuberculosis. December 2004. Accessed 7 October 2006.
21. ^ a b Houben E, Nguyen L, Pieters J (2006). "Interaction of pathogenic mycobacteria with
the host immune system". Curr Opin Microbiol 9 (1): 76–85. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2005.12.014.
PMID 16406837.
22. ^ Herrmann J, Lagrange P (2005). "Dendritic cells and Mycobacterium tuberculosis:
which is the Trojan horse?". Pathol Biol (Paris) 53 (1): 35–40. PMID 15620608.
23. ^ Agarwal R, Malhotra P, Awasthi A, Kakkar N, Gupta D (2005). "Tuberculous dilated
cardiomyopathy: an under-recognized entity?". BMC Infect Dis 5 (1): 29. doi:10.1186/1471-
2334-5-29. PMID 15857515.
24. ^ Kaufmann S (2002). "Protection against tuberculosis: cytokines, T cells, and
macrophages". Ann Rheum Dis 61 Suppl 2: ii54–8. PMID 12379623.
25. ^ a b c Grosset J (2003). "Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the extracellular compartment: an
underestimated adversary". Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47 (3): 833–6.
doi:10.1128/AAC.47.3.833-836.2003. PMID 12604509.
26. ^ Kim J, Park Y, Kim Y, Kang S, Shin J, Park I, Choi B (2003). "Miliary tuberculosis and
acute respiratory distress syndrome". Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 7 (4): 359–64. PMID
12733492.
27. ^ Rothel J, Andersen P (2005). "Diagnosis of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis
infection: is the demise of the Mantoux test imminent?". Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 3
(6): 981–93. doi:10.1586/14787210.3.6.981. PMID 16307510.
28. ^ Nahid P, Pai M, Hopewell P (2006). "Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of
tuberculosis". Proc Am Thorac Soc 3 (1): 103–10. doi:10.1513/pats.200511-119JH. PMID
16493157.
29. ^ Pai M, Zwerling A, Menzies D (June 2008). "Systematic Review: T-Cell-Based Assays
for the Diagnosis of Latent Tuberculosis Infection: An Update". Ann. Intern. Med. 149
(3): 1–9. PMID 18593687.
30. ^ Parrish N, Dick J, Bishai W (1998). "Mechanisms of latency in Mycobacterium
tuberculosis". Trends Microbiol 6 (3): 107–12. doi:10.1016/S0966-842X(98)01216-5. PMID
9582936.
31. ^ New Scientist, 16 June 2007 [1]
32. ^ Mutlu G, Mutlu E, Bellmeyer A, Rubinstein I (2006). "Pulmonary adverse events of
anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha antibody therapy". Am J Med 119 (8): 639–46.
doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.01.015. PMID 16887405.
33. ^ a b O'Brien R (1994). "Drug-resistant tuberculosis: etiology, management and
prevention". Semin Respir Infect 9 (2): 104–12. PMID 7973169.
34. ^ "Update: adverse event data and revised American Thoracic Society/CDC recommendations
against the use of rifampin and pyrazinamide for treatment of latent tuberculosis infection—
United States, 2003" (2003). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 52 (31): 735–9. PMID
12904741.
35. ^ a b "Emergence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with extensive resistance to second-line drugs—
worldwide, 2000–2004" (2006). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 55 (11): 301–5. PMID
16557213.
36. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, quoted at Naphtali Lewis, Meyer Reinhold. "Roman
Civilization".
37. ^ John Chan, Yu Tian, Kathryn E. Tanakadagger, Ming S. Tsang, Keming Yu, Padmini
Salgame, Dinah Carroll, Yvonne Kress, Rachel Teitelbaum, and Barry R. Bloom (1996-
12-10). "Effects of protein calorie malnutrition on tuberculosis in mice". Proc Natl Acad
Sci USA 93 (25): 14857–61. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.25.14857. PMID 8962145.
38. ^ Strachan DP, Powell KJ, Thaker A, Millard FJ, Maxwell JD (1995-02). "Vegetarian diet
as a risk factor for tuberculosis in immigrant south London Asians". Thorax 50 (2): 175–
80. PMID 8962145.
39. ^ Fine P, Floyd S, Stanford J, Nkhosa P, Kasunga A, Chaguluka S, Warndorff D, Jenkins
P, Yates M, Ponnighaus J (2001). "Environmental mycobacteria in northern Malawi:
implications for the epidemiology of tuberculosis and leprosy". Epidemiol Infect 126 (3):
379–87. doi:10.1017/S0950268801005532. PMID 11467795.
40. ^ World Health Organization (WHO). Stop TB Partnership. Retrieved on 3 October 2006.
41. ^ Martin C (May 2006). "Tuberculosis vaccines: past, present and future". Curr Opin
Pulm Med 12 (3): 186–91. doi:10.1097/01.mcp.0000219267.27439.1b. PMID 16582673.
42. ^ WHO statement on BCG revaccination for the prevention of tuberculosis. Geneva: World
Health Organization; 1995.
43. ^ a b Bonah C (2005). "The 'experimental stable' of the BCG vaccine: safety, efficacy,
proof, and standards, 1921–1933". Stud Hist Philos Biol Biomed Sci 36 (4): 696–721.
doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2005.09.003. PMID 16337557.
44. ^ a b Comstock G (1994). "The International Tuberculosis Campaign: a pioneering
venture in mass vaccination and research". Clin Infect Dis 19 (3): 528–40. PMID 7811874.
45. ^ Bannon M (1999). "BCG and tuberculosis". Arch Dis Child 80 (1): 80–3. PMID
10325767.
46. ^ WHO/UNICEF Review of National Immunization Coverage 1980–2005: South Africa (PDF).
World Health Organization (August 2006). Retrieved on 2007-06-08.
47. ^ Sadoff, Jerry. Advances in Tuberculosis Vaccine Strategies. Nature Reviews
Microbiology. Vol. 4. June 2006.
48. ^ National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID).First U.S. Tuberculosis
Vaccine Trial in 60 Years Begins. National Institutes of Health News 26 January 2004.
Retrieved on 19 October 2007.
49. ^ Ha S, Jeon B, Youn J, Kim S, Cho S, Sung Y (2005). "Protective effect of DNA vaccine
during chemotherapy on reactivation and reinfection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis".
Gene Ther 12 (7): 634–8. doi:10.1038/sj.gt.3302465. PMID 15690060.
50. ^ Ibanga H, Brookes R, Hill P, Owiafe P, Fletcher H, Lienhardt C, Hill A, Adegbola R,
McShane H (2006). "Early clinical trials with a new tuberculosis vaccine, MVA85A, in
 tuberculosis-endemic countries: issues in study design". Lancet Infect Dis 6 (8): 522–8.
doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70552-7. PMID 16870530.
51. ^ Webber, David and Kremer, Michael. Stimulating Industrial R&D for Neglected Infectious
Diseases: Economic Perspectives (PDF). Bulletin of the World Health Organization 79(8),
2001, pp. 693–801.
52. ^ Barder, Owen; Kremer, Michael; Williams, Heidi. "Advance Market Commitments: A
Policy to Stimulate Investment in Vaccines for Neglected Diseases," The Economists' Voice,
Vol. 3 (2006) Issue 3.
53. ^ Aeras Receives New Grant from the Gates Foundation
54. ^ a b c World Health Organization (WHO). Global tuberculosis control - surveillance, planning,
financing WHO Report 2006. Retrieved on 13 October 2006.
55. ^ National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). [2] 26 October 2005.
Retrieved on 3 October 2006. "According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
nearly 2 billion people, one-third of the world's population, have TB."
56. ^ a b Centers for Disease Control. Fact Sheet: Tuberculosis in the United States. 17 March 2005,
Retrieved on 6 October 2006.
57. ^ Stop TB Partnership. London tuberculosis rates now at Third World proportions. PR
Newswire Europe Ltd. 4 December 2002. Retrieved on 3 October 2006.
58. ^ Iademarco MF, Castro KG (2003). "Epidemiology of tuberculosis". Seminars in
respiratory infections 18 (4): 225–40. doi:10.1017/S0950268801005532. PMID 14679472.
59. ^ Sobero R, Peabody J (2006). "Tuberculosis control in Bolivia, Chile, Colombia and
Peru: why does incidence vary so much between neighbors?". Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 10
(11): 1292–5. PMID 17131791.
60. ^ Global tuberculosis control: surveillance, planning, financing. WHO report 2007. Geneva,
World Health Organization (WHO/HTM/TB/2007.376)
61. ^ Notification rates of tuberculosis: by NHS Regional Office area, 1990-2001: Regional Trends 37
Office for National Statistics Retrieved on 13 October 2006.
62. ^ World Health Organization (WHO). Global Tuberculosis Control Report, 2006 - Annex 1
Profiles of high-burden countries. (PDF) Retrieved on 13 October 2006.
63. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2005 Surveillance Slide Set.
(September 12, 2006) Retrieved on 13 October 2006.
64. ^ Chaisson RE, Martinson NA (2008). "Tuberculosis in Africa—combating an HIV-driven
crisis". N Engl J Med 358 (11): 1089–1092. doi:10.1056/NEJMp0800809. PMID 18337598.
65. ^ Davies PDO, Yew WW, Ganguly D, et al. (2006). "Smoking and tuberculosis: the
epidemiological association and pathogenesis". Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100: 291–8.
doi:10.1016/j.trstmh.2005.06.034. PMID 16325875.
66. ^ Jha P, Jacob B, Gajalakshmi V, et al. (2008). "A nationally representative case–control
study of smoking and death in India". N Engl J Med 358 (11): 1137–1147.
doi:10.1056/NEJMsa0707719. PMID 18272886.
67. ^ Restrepo BI (2007). "Convergence of the tuberculosis and diabetes epidemics: renewal of old
acquaintances" ([dead link] – Scholar search). Clin Infect Dis 45: 436–8. doi:10.1086/519939.
68. ^ Rothschild B, Martin L, Lev G, Bercovier H, Bar-Gal G, Greenblatt C, Donoghue H,
Spigelman M, Brittain D (2001). "Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNA from an
extinct bison dated 17,000 years before the present". Clin Infect Dis 33 (3): 305–11.
doi:10.1086/321886. PMID 11438894.
69. ^ Pearce-Duvet J (2006). "The origin of human pathogens: evaluating the role of
agriculture and domestic animals in the evolution of human disease". Biol Rev Camb
Philos Soc 81 (3): 369–82. doi:10.1017/S1464793106007020. PMID 16672105.
70. ^ Ernst JD, Trevejo-Nuñez G, Banaiee N (July 2007). "Genomics and the evolution,
pathogenesis, and diagnosis of tuberculosis". J. Clin. Invest. 117 (7): 1738–45.
doi:10.1172/JCI31810. PMID 17607348.
71. ^ Zink A, Sola C, Reischl U, Grabner W, Rastogi N, Wolf H, Nerlich A (2003).
"Characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNAs from Egyptian
mummies by spoligotyping". J Clin Microbiol 41 (1): 359–67. doi:10.1128/JCM.41.1.359-
367.2003. PMID 12517873.
72. ^ Hippocrates. Aphorisms. Accessed 7 October 2006.
73. ^ Konomi N, Lebwohl E, Mowbray K, Tattersall I, Zhang D (2002). "Detection of
mycobacterial DNA in Andean mummies". J Clin Microbiol 40 (12): 4738–40.
doi:10.1128/JCM.40.12.4738-4740.2002. PMID 12454182.
74. ^ "South America: Prehistoric Findings". Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Vol. 98
(Suppl.I) January 2003. Retrieved on 2007-02-08.
75. ^ Sledzik P, Bellantoni N (1994). "Brief communication: bioarcheological and biocultural
evidence for the New England vampire folk belief". Am J Phys Anthropol 94 (2): 269–74.
doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330940210. PMID 8085617.
76. ^ a b Katharine Briggs, An Encyclopedia of Fairies "Consumption" (Pantheon Books,
1976) p. 80. ISBN 0-394-73467-X
77. ^ Lawlor, Clark. "Transatlantic Consumptions: Disease, Fame and Literary Nationalism
in the Davidson Sisters, Southey, and Poe". Studies in the Literary Imagination, Fall
2003. Available at findarticles.com. Retrieved on 2007-06-08.
78. ^ Laumann, Edward O. (1994) The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the
United States University of Chicago Press p 80, ISBN 0-22647-020-2
79. ^ Y. A. Al-Sharrah (2003), "The Arab Tradition of Medical Education and its
Relationship with the European Tradition", Prospects 33 (4), Springer.
80. ^ George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science.
(cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997). Quotations From Famous Historians of Science,
Cyberistan.)
81. ^ David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine",
Heart Views 4 (2).
82. ^ Who Named It? Léon Charles Albert Calmette. Retrieved on 6 October 2006.
83. ^ Trail R (1970). "Richard Morton (1637–1698)". Med Hist 14 (2): 166–74. PMID
4914685.
84. ^ Zur Pathogenie der Impetigines. Auszug aus einer brieflichen Mitteilung an den
Herausgeber. [Müller’s] Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin.
1839, page 82.
85. ^ Kentucky: Mammoth Cave long on history. CNN. 27 February 2004. Accessed 8 October
2006.
86. ^ a b c McCarthy OR (2001). "The key to the sanatoria". J R Soc Med 94 (8): 413–7. PMID
11461990.
87. ^ Nobel Foundation. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905. Accessed 7 October
2006.
88. ^ Waddington K (2004). "To stamp out "so terrible a malady": bovine tuberculosis and
tuberculin testing in Britain, 1890–1939". Med Hist 48 (1): 29–48. PMID 14968644.
89. ^ Torrey EF and Yolken RH. 2005. Their bugs are worse than their bite. Washington Post, April
3, p. B01.
90. ^ Medical Research Council (UK). MRC's contribution to Tuberculosis research. Accessed 2
July 2007.
 91. ^ Wolfart W (1990). "Surgical treatment of tuberculosis and its modifications—collapse
therapy and resection treatment and their present-day sequelae". Offentl Gesundheitswes
52 (8–9): 506–11. PMID 2146567.
92. ^ Lalloo U, Naidoo R, Ambaram A (2006). "Recent advances in the medical and surgical
treatment of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis". Curr Opin Pulm Med 12 (3): 179–85.
doi:10.1097/01.mcp.0000219266.27439.52. PMID 16582672.
93. ^ "Tuberculosis — Respiratory and Non-respiratory Notifications, England and Wales, 1913-
2005". Health Protection Agency Centre for Infections (21 March 2007). Retrieved on
2007-08-01.
94. ^ Paolo W, Nosanchuk J (2004). "Tuberculosis in New York city: recent lessons and a
look ahead". Lancet Infect Dis 4 (5): 287–93. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(04)01004-7. PMID
15120345.
95. ^ World Health Organization (WHO). Frequently asked questions about TB and HIV.
Retrieved 6 October 2006.
96. ^ 14 CA ADC § 671 Barclays official California code of regulations; Title 14. Natural
resources; Division 1. Fish and game commission – Department of fish and game;
Subdivision 3. General regulations; Chapter 3. Miscellaneous.
97. ^ Tweddle N, Livingstone P (1994). "Bovine tuberculosis control and eradication
programs in Australia and New Zealand". Vet Microbiol 40 (1–2): 23–39. doi:10.1016/0378-
1135(94)90044-2. PMID 8073626.
98. ^ The Department of Agriculture & Food (Ireland). Disease Eradication Schemes - Bovine
Tuberculosis and Brucellosis. Retrieved on 8 May 2006.
99. ^ Cassidy, Martin. Badgers targeted over bovine TB. BBC News 2 December 2004.
Retrieved on 8 May 2006.
100.^ National Federation of Badger Groups (Ireland). Cattle blamed for massive increase in
bovine TB. Retrieved on 8 May 2006.
101.^ "Badgers and cattle TB: the final report of the Independent Scientific Group on Cattle TB".
House of Commons Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee. Retrieved on
2008-07-04.
102.^ "Farmers' anger on cull rejection". BBC News (4 July 2008). Retrieved on 2008-07-04.

[edit] Further reading

• Blumberg HM, Leonard MK, Jasmer RM (2005). "Update on the treatment of
tuberculosis and latent tuberculosis infection". JAMA 293 (22): 2776–84.
doi:10.1001/jama.293.22.2776. PMID 15941808.
• Dormandy, Thomas (2000). The White Death. New York: New York University Press. ISBN
0814719279.
• Joint Tuberculosis Committee of the British Thoracic Society (2000). "Control and
prevention of tuberculosis in the United Kingdom: code of practice 2000". Thorax 55 (11): 887–
901. doi:10.1136/thorax.55.11.887. PMID 11050256.
• Kidder, Tracy (2004). Mountains Beyond Mountains. New York: Random House Trade
Paperbacks. ISBN 0812973011. A nonfiction account of treating TB in Haiti, Peru, Russia,
and elsewhere.
• Lawlor, Clark (2007). Consumption and Literature. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN
0230020038.
• Nemery B, Yew WW, Albert R, et al (2005). "Tuberculosis, nontuberculous lung
infection, pleural disorders, pulmonary function, respiratory muscles, occupational lung
 disease, pulmonary infections, and social issues in AJRCCM in 2004". Am. J. Respir.
Crit. Care Med. 171 (6): 554–62. doi:10.1164/rccm.2412009. PMID 15753485.
• Ryan, Frank (1993), The Forgotten Plague: How the Battle Against Tuberculosis Was
Won — and Lost, Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, ISBN 0-316-76380-2. First
published in the United Kingdom as Tuberculosis: The Greatest Story Never Told.
• Walton D, Farmer P (2000). "MSJAMA: the new white plague". JAMA 284 (21): 2789.
doi:10.1001/jama.284.21.2789. PMID 11105192.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Tuberculosis

• The Stop TB Partnership - was established in 2000 to realize the goal of

eliminating tuberculosis as a public health problem.
• BioHealthBase Bioinformatics Resource Center Database of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis genome sequences and related information.
• Tuberculosis at the Open Directory Project
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Division of Tuberculosis
Elimination. Core Curriculum on Tuberculosis: What the Clinician Should Know.
4th edition (2000). Updated August 2003.
• European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control - official website Fact sheet
on tuberculosis
• Central Asia Health Review (CAHR). High Prevalence of Multi-Drug Resistant
Tuberculosis in Uzbekistan
• (CDC) - Division of Tuberculosis Elimination News and updates.
• (CDC) - Questions and Answers About TB, 2007.
• Health Protection Agency, England
• Kaiser Family Foundation. Tuberculosis. Globalhealthfacts.org.
• The Nobel Prize Website. Tuberculosis Educational Game
• United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The Tuberculosis
Coalition for Technical Assistance (TBCTA).
• World Health Organization (WHO). Tuberculosis.
• Tuberculosis and HIV: HIV InSite Knowledge Base chapter and related resources.
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis SysbOrg at the Institute of Genomics and Integrative
Biology
• Open Source Drug Discovery Initiative for TB
• Tuberculosis 2007 - a textbook that focuses on research, diagnosis and treatment
of tuberculosis
 [hide]

v•d•e

Infectious diseases - Bacterial diseases (primarily A00-A79, 001-041,080-109)

Pseudomembranous colitis - Botulism - Tetanus - Gas

Clostridium
gangrene

Firmicutes Strep-: Alpha (pneumoniae, mutans, viridans)

- Beta A pyogenes (Scarlet fever, Erysipelas,
Bacilli CoccusRheumatic fever, Streptococcal pharyngitis),
(class) B agalactiae - D Entero-
Staphylo- - Toxic shock syndrome

Bacillus (shape)Bacillus (Anthrax) - Listeria (Listeriosis)

G+

Actinomycosis/Actinomycetoma (Whipple's disease) -

ActinomycetalesCorynebacterium (Diphtheria, Erythrasma) - Nocardia
(Nocardiosis, Maduromycosis)

M. tuberculosis (Tuberculosis): Ghon focus - Ghon's

complex - Meningitis - Pott's disease - Rich focus -
Actinobacteria
Scrofula - Bazin disease - Lupus vulgaris - Miliary

MycobacteriumM. leprae (Leprosy)

Nontuberculous: Mycobacterium avium (Lady

Windermere syndrome) - Mycobacterium ulcerans (Buruli
ulcer)

Treponema: Syphilis (Bejel) - Yaws - Pinta

Borrelia: Relapsing fever - Lyme disease (Erythema chronicum migrans)

Spirochetal
other/multiple/unknown: Noma - Trench mouth - Rat-bite fever (Sodoku) -
Leptospirosis

MycoplasmatalesMycoplasma pneumonia - Ureaplasma infection

Intracellular
Chlamydophila (Psittacosis) - Chlamydia (Chlamydia,
Chlamydiae
Lymphogranuloma venereum, Trachoma)