Chapter- 1.

Source of Transient Over Voltages

2 2.
3.
Principles of Over Voltage Protection
Devices for Over Voltage Protection

Transient 4.
5.
Utility Capacitor Switching Transients
Utility System Lightning Protection

Over 6.
7.
Load Switching Transient Problems
Computer Tools for Transient Analysis
Voltages
1
 switching a single capacitor
Capacitor switching switching back-to-back capacitors
transient “magnification”

Synchronous condenser
Other methods to improve
power electronics device
power factor (VSC/STATCOM)
1. Sources of transient over
voltages line energizing
Other switching transients
Faults

Lightning

May be sustained, not

Ferro-resonance transient

2
 1. Source of Transient Over Voltages

➢ It is due to sudden change in circuit conditions i.e.

➢ Switch open / Closes / Fault occurs on system
➢ TR period is very short (micro/milli-sec) duration in
voltage b/w two or more conductors than circuit
spend in steady state period
➢ During this TR / Surge period circuit components
are subjected to the grater stress from excessive
currents or voltages

3
 1. Source of Transient Over Voltages

➢ This may cause damage the plant and due to

this,
➢ plant may be shut down or
➢ complete black out of city.

➢ The source of the transient energy may be an

internal event or a nearby event.

➢ The energy then couples to other parts of

the system, typically appearing as a short burst
of oscillation.
4
Switching Over Voltages in PS and
Transient Over Voltage (TRV)

5
 1. Source of Transient Over Voltages

➢ Transient voltages are caused by the sudden release of stored energy due to incidents such as
➢ External Cause
➢ lightning strikes,
➢ Internal Cause
➢ Capacitor switching
➢ Switching Operation – Contactor/Breaker /Loads
➢ power electronic devices when switched
➢ unfiltered electrical equipment,
➢ contact bounce,
➢ arcing, capacitor bank or
➢ generators being switched ON and OFF.
➢ Transient voltages differ from swells by being larger in magnitude and shorter in duration. 6
 1. Source of Transient Over Voltages

➢Transient over voltages can be generated at;

➢high frequency (load switching and lightning),
➢medium frequency (capacitor energizing), or
➢low frequency ( high winds)
➢ A typical lightning flash is about 300 million Volts (MV) and about 30,000 Amps. In comparison,
household current is 120 Volts and 15 Amps.
➢ A direct lightning strike will cause significant damage to electrical and nonelectrical items in the
home.
➢ Moreover, electronics plugged into an electrical system that receives a direct lightning strike
typically cannot be protected by a surge protector.
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 1. Source of Transient Over Voltages

➢ Don't forget the 30-30 rule (thumb rule). After

you see lightning, start counting to 30. If you
hear thunder before you reach 30, go indoors.
Suspend activities for at least 30 minutes after
the last clap of thunder.

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Internal Cause : 1. Switching Surges

➢ Switching means – sudden interruption in any circuit

➢ Surges means – over current spikes that are caused in the circuit
➢ In simple – switching surges are the over current / over voltage spikes that are
experienced in the highly inductive circuits at the time of sudden interruption i.e. witching
period
➢ The magnetic field about the inductive conductor collapses, a brief HV can be generated at
that point
➢ These switching surges can be highly dangerous for the electrical system
➢ Hence, require proper control and protection devices
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Internal Cause : 2. Insulation Failure

➢ Electrical breakdown is often associated with the failure of solid or liquid insulating materials used
inside HV transformers or capacitors in the electricity distribution grid, usually resulting in short
circuit or blown fuse.

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 Internal Cause : 3. Arcing Ground

➢ Arcing ground is a phenomenon which

is observed in ungrounded 3 phase
system.
➢ In an ungrounded system capacitance
are formed between phase and ground

➢ Balanced condition, Ia+Ib+Ic=0 and VAN = Phase voltage and VN = 0

➢ If in C – phase fault occurs, system will unbalance i.e. (Ia+Ib) will flow in Phase C and Neutral voltage
➢ VN = some voltage.
➢ VAN = VA – VC = line voltage
➢ Now the voltage in the system will have 3 x healthy phase voltage
➢ Hence voltage increases and it damages the insulation and leads to arching 11
Internal Cause : 3. Arcing Ground

➢ One of the most common switching events on utility systems.

➢ Used to provide reactive power (in units of vars) to correct the power factor, which reduces losses
and supports the voltage on the system.
➢ Very economical and generally trouble-free means of accomplishing these goals.
➢ Alternative methods such as the use of
➢ rotating machines and
➢ electronic var compensators, are much more costly or have high maintenance costs.
➢ Thus, the use of capacitors on power systems is quite common and will continue to be.
➢ One drawback to the use of capacitors is that they yield oscillatory transients when switched.

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Internal Cause : 3. Arcing Ground

➢ Some capacitors are energized all the time (a fixed bank), while others are switched
according to load levels;
➢ Various control means,
➢ including time,
➢ temperature,
➢ voltage, current, and
➢ reactive power,
➢ are used to determine when the capacitors are switched.
➢ It is common for controls to combine two or more of these functions

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 Internal Cause : 3. Arcing Ground

capacitor switch contacts close at a point near

the system voltage peak

One-line diagram showing location of switched capacitor

and measurement location on distribution feeder circuit

Equivalent Circuit

Typical utility capacitor-switching transient reaching 134

percent voltage, observed upline from the capacitor transient
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Internal Cause : 3. Arcing Ground

➢ The overshoot will generate a transient

between 1.0 and 2.0 pu depending on system
damping.
➢ In this case the transient observed at the ➢ This kind of transient will generally pass-through
monitoring location is about 1.34 pu. distribution transformers into customer load
➢ Utility capacitor-switching transients are ➢ If there are capacitors on the secondary system,
commonly in the 1.3- to 1.4-pu range but have the voltage may actually be magnified on the
also been observed near the theoretical load side of the transformer if the natural
maximum frequencies of the systems are properly aligned.
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Internal Cause : 3. Arcing Ground

➢ While such brief transients up to 2.0 pu are not generally

damaging to the system insulation, they can often cause
mis-operation of electronic power conversion devices.
➢ Controllers may interpret the high voltage as a sign that
there is an impending dangerous situation and subsequently
disconnect the load to be safe.
➢ The transient may also interfere with the gating of thyristors

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 Magnification of capacitor switching transient by customer

One-line diagram showing

location of switched
capacitor and customer
with LV capacitor which
may magnify switching
transient

➢ W.k.t a brief voltage transient of at least 1.3 to 1.4 pu when capacitor banks are
switched. The transient is generally no higher than 2.0 pu on the primary distribution
➢ This may require customer to install high energy MOV
system, although ungrounded capacitor banks may yield some what higher values. surge arresters
➢ customer may install a small inductor (called a
➢ customer’s capacitor bank on LV side of service transformer will see the voltage
reactor) in series with the capacitor bank
transient produced by utility capacitor switching (on MV or HV system). ➢ added advantage of improving harmonic
performance
➢ if the resonant frequency is close to the frequency produced by the utility capacitor,
➢ if a few drives are all that are affected , then
the customer’s capacitor bank will appear to magnify the oscillation locally. the inductor can be added there

17
Magnification of capacitor switching transient by customer

Voltage magnification of capacitor bank switching

➢ Transient over voltages on the end-user side may reach as

high as 3.0 to 4.0 pu on the low-voltage bus under these
conditions, with potentially damaging consequences for all
types of customer equipment.
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Back-to-back capacitor switching

➢ Charging one capacitor from the other

through a very small inductance.
➢ Rise time on inrush current waveform is
very high, with high-frequency oscillation.

➢ When one or more capacitor banks are switch on when there are
others previously energized (Back-to-back), over voltages will
arise in local and remote buses.
➢ These over voltages are typically smaller than those obtained
when the circuit breaker of the first capacitor bank was closed.

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Back-to-back capacitor switching

➢ This case occurs due to the switching of a capacitor bank in the presence of already
energized banks on the same bus.
➢ In this case, the transients mainly consist of interchange of current between the banks.
➢ These transient currents can be high in amplitude and frequency and may exceed the
capability of the circuit breaker.
➢ They may induce high over voltages and currents into secondary relaying and metering
circuits by transformation through current transformers and/or magnetic coupling
between busbars and unshielded secondary cables.

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 Ferro-resonance

➢ Ferro-resonance a nonlinear resonance is a type of resonance in electric circuits which occurs when a
circuit containing a nonlinear inductance is fed from a source that has series capacitance, and the
circuit is subjected to a disturbance such as opening of a switch.
➢ Common strategies for managing ferro-resonance include:
➢ Preventing open phase condition,
➢ limiting over voltages,
➢ damping resonance with secondary load,
➢ limiting cable length,
➢ switching at transformer terminals and
➢ grounding transformer primary

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 Ferro-resonance

➢ Ferro-resonance can occur when the

primary of a voltage transformer is
connected line to ground in an
ungrounded circuit.

➢ This configuration results in the

magnetizing reactance of the VT being in
a parallel loop with the coupling
capacitance to ground of the system

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 Ferro-resonance

➢The coupling capacitance is primarily made

up of the capacitance of the system
dielectric between the phase conductor and
ground.

➢The value of the voltage transformers

magnetizing reactance varies as a function
of the amount of flux going through the
iron.

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 Ferro-resonance

➢This results in an LC circuit and requires

only a simple voltage transient to excite the
resonant frequency.

➢Once the ringing begins the voltage across

the individual components of magnetizing
reactance and coupling capacitance can
reach high levels and the ringing can go
undamped if the voltage transformer is
lightly loaded.

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Ferro-resonance

Fig. Common system conditions where ferroresonance may occur:

(a) one phase closed, (b) one phase open. 25
External Cause - Lightning

Lightning surge may enter from

➢ strike to HV or MV (primary)
line supplying customer

➢ nearby strike to ground

➢ strike to LV (secondary) line

on or near customer premise

➢ strike to customer building or

other structure

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External Cause - Lightning

➢ Lightening a potent source of impulsive

transients.
➢ Keep in mind that grounds are never perfect
conductors, especially for impulses.
➢ While most of the surge current may eventually
be dissipated into the ground connection closest
to the strike, there will be substantial surge
currents flowing in other connected ground
conductors in the first few microseconds of the
strike.

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External Cause - Lightning

➢ An electric discharge between cloud and earth,

between clouds or between the charge centers of
the same cloud is known as lightening.

➢ Lightening is a huge spark and takes place when

clouds are charged to such a high potential (+ve or
-ve) with respect to earth or a neighboring cloud
that the dielectric strength of neighboring medium
(air) is destroyed.

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External Cause - Lightning

The chief power quality problems with lightning stroke currents entering the
ground system are

➢ They raise the potential of the local ground above other grounds in the
vicinity by several kilovolts.

➢ Sensitive electronic equipment that is connected between two ground

references, such as a computer connected to the telephone system
through a modem, can fail when subjected to the lightning surge
voltages.

➢ They induce high voltages in phase conductors as they pass through

cables on the way to a better ground.

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2. Principles of Over Voltage Protection

The fundamental principles of overvoltage protection of https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n3qT50pR5hI

load equipment are

1. Limit the voltage across sensitive insulation.

2. Divert the surge current away from the load.

3. Block the surge current from entering the load.

4. Bond grounds together at the equipment.

5. Reduce, or prevent, surge current from flowing

between grounds.

6. Create a low-pass filter using limiting and blocking

principles.
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2. Principles of Over Voltage Protection

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2. Principles of Over Voltage Protection

➢ The main function of surge arresters and transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSSs) is to limit the
voltage that can appear between two points in the circuit.
➢ This is an important concept to understand.
➢ One of the common misconceptions about varistors, and similar devices, is that they somehow are able
to absorb the surge or divert it to ground independently of the rest of the system.

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2. Principles of Over Voltage Protection

➢ That may be a beneficial side effect of the arrester application if there is a suitable path for the surge
current to flow into, but the foremost concern in arrester application is to place the arresters directly
across the sensitive insulation that is to be protected so that the voltage seen by the insulation is limited
to a safe value.
➢ Surge currents, just like power currents, must obey Kirchoff’s laws.
➢ They must flow in a complete circuit, and they cause a voltage drop in every conductor through which
they flow.
➢ One of the points to which arresters, or surge suppressors, are connected is frequently the local ground,
but this need not be the case

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3. Devices for Over Voltage Protection

The following points highlight the five main devices used for protection from over-voltage.
The devices are:

1. Surge Arresters and Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors

2. Isolation Transformers

3. Low-Pass Filters

4. Low Impedance Power Conditioners

5. Utility Surge Arresters.

https://unacademy.com/lesson/source-of-transients-overvoltage-capacitor-switching-and-
restrikes-during-capacitor-denergizing/3UTZWSL3
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1. Surge Arresters and Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors(TVSS)

➢ Arresters and TVSS devices protect equipment from transient over voltages by limiting the maximum voltage, and the
terms are sometimes used interchangeably.

➢ However, TVSSs are generally associated with devices used at the load equipment.

➢ A TVSS will sometimes have more surge-limiting elements than an arrester, which most commonly consists solely of
MOV blocks.

➢ An arrester may have more energy-handling capability; however, the distinction between the two is blurred by
common language usage.

➢ The elements that make up these devices can be classified by two different modes of operation,

➢ crowbar and

➢ clamping.

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 Crow-Bar Over Voltage Protection

➢ Crowbar devices are normally open devices that conduct current

during over-voltage transients.
➢ Once the device conducts, the line voltage will drop to nearly
zero due to the short circuit imposed across the line.
➢ These devices are usually manufactured with a gap filled with air
or a special gas.
➢ A crowbar circuit works by sensing a voltage that is above a
certain threshold and shorting out the power supply.
➢ This causes a voltage drop in the rest of the circuit and current
surge through the power supply that will trip a circuit-breaker
or blow a fuse

36
 Clampers Over Voltage Protection

➢ Voltage clampers are used to limit the amplitude of a

transient across a circuit.
➢ A voltage clamping device begins conducting when a
preset threshold voltage is exceeded, then returns
back to a non-conducting mode when the overvoltage
drops below its threshold level.

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 2. Isolation Transformers

➢ Figure.1 shows a diagram of an isolation transformer used to attenuate high frequency noise and transients as they
attempt to pass from one side to the other. However, some common mode and normal mode noise can still reach the
load. An electrostatic shield, as shown in Fig. 2 is effective in eliminating common mode noise.

➢ However, some normal mode noise can still reach the load due to magnetic and capacitive coupling.

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 The chief characteristic of isolation transformers for:

1. The chief characteristic of isolation transformers for:

2. Electrically isolating the load from the system for transients is their leakage inductance.
3. High frequency noise and transients are kept from reaching the load, and any load generated noise
and transients are kept from reaching the rest of the power system.
4. Voltage notching due to power electronic switching is one example of a problem that can be limited
to the load side by an isolation transformer.
5. Capacitor switching and lightning transients coming from the utility system can be attenuated,
thereby preventing nuisance tripping of adjustable speed drives and other equipment.
6. An additional use of isolation transformers is that they allow the user to define a new ground
reference, or separately derived system. This new neutral-to-ground bond limits neutral-to-ground
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voltages at sensitive equipment.
 3. Low-Pass Filters:

➢ Low-pass filters use the pi-circuit principle to achieve even better protection for high-frequency
transients.
➢ For general usage in electric circuits, low-pass filters are composed of series inductors and parallel
capacitors.
➢ This LC combination provides a low impedance path to ground for selected resonant frequencies.
➢ In surge protection usage, voltage clamping devices are added in parallel to the capacitors.
➢ In some designs, there are no capacitors.

40
 3. Low-Pass Filters:

➢ Figure shows a common hybrid protector that combines two surge suppressors and a low-pass filter
to provide maximum protection.
➢ It uses a gap-type protector on the front end to handle high-energy transients.
➢ The low-pass filter limits transfer of high-frequency transients.

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 3. Low-Pass Filters:

➢ The inductor helps block high-frequency transients and forces them into the first suppressor.
➢ The capacitor limits the rate of rise, while the nonlinear resistor (MOV) clamps the voltage
magnitude at the protected equipment.
➢ Other variations on this design will employ MOVs on both sides of the filters and may have
capacitors on the front end as well.

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 4 Low-impedance power conditioners

➢ Low-impedance power conditioners (LIPCs) are used

primarily to interface with the switch-mode power supplies

found in electronic equipment.

➢ LIPCs differ from isolation transformers in that these

conditioners have a much lower impedance and have a filter

as part of their design (Fig.) ➢ Note the new neutral-to-ground connection that can be made on

the load side because of the existence of an isolation transformer.

➢ The filter is on the output side and protects against high-
➢ However, low- to medium-frequency transients (capacitor
frequency, source-side, common-mode, and normal-mode switching) can cause problems for LIPCs:

disturbances (i.e., noise and impulses). ➢ The transient can be magnified by the output filter capacitor.

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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1k4ePyG7U2I

5 Utility surge arresters

➢ The three most common surge arrester

technologies employed by utilities are depicted in
Fig.
➢ Gapped Silicon Carbide ,
➢ Gapless MOV and
➢ Gapped MOV
➢ Most arresters manufactured today use a MOV as
the main voltage-limiting element.

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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1k4ePyG7U2I

5 Utility surge arresters

➢ The chief ingredient of a MOV is zinc oxide (ZnO), which

is combined with several proprietary ingredients to
achieve the necessary characteristics and durability.
➢ Older-technology arresters, of which there are still many
installed on the power system, used silicon carbide (SiC)
as the energy-dissipating nonlinear resistive element.
➢ The relative discharge voltages for each of these three
technologies are shown in Fig.

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4. Utility Capacitor Switching Transients (CST)

➢ Deal with problems related to capacitor-switching transients.

1. Switching times Capacitor

2. Pre-insertion resistors

3. Synchronous closing

4. Capacitor location

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 1. Switching times Capacitor

➢ CST are very common and usually not damaging.

➢ However, the timing of switching may be unfortunate for some sensitive industrial loads.
➢ Ex. if the load picks up the same time each day, the utility may decide to switch the capacitors
coincident with that load increase.
➢ One simple and inexpensive solution is to determine if there is a switching time that might be more
acceptable.
➢ For example, it may be possible to switch on the capacitor a few minutes before the beginning of the
shift and before the load actually picks up.

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 2. Pre-insertion resistors

➢ Preinsertion resistors can reduce the capacitor-

switching transient considerably.
➢ The first peak of the transient is usually the most
damaging.
➢ The idea is to insert a resistor into the circuit briefly so
that the first peak is damped significantly.
➢ This is old technology but is still quite effective.
➢ Figure shows one example of a capacitor switch with
preinsertion resistors to reduce transients.

48
 2. Pre-insertion resistors

➢ The preinsertion is accomplished by the

movable contacts sliding past the resistor
contacts first before mating with the main
contacts.
➢ This results in a preinsertion time of
approximately one-fourth of a cycle at 60
hertz (Hz).
➢ The effectiveness of the resistors is
dependent on capacitor size and available
short-circuit current at the capacitor location.
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2. Pre-insertion resistors

➢ Table 4.1 shows expected maximum transient overvoltages

upon energization for various conditions, both with and
without the preinsertion resistors.
➢ These are the maximum values expected; average values
are typically 1.3 to 1.4 pu without resistors and 1.1. to 1.2
pu with resistors.
➢ This helps the transient damp out quickly.

50
 3. Synchronous closing

➢ Another popular strategy for reducing transients on capacitor switching is to use a

synchronous closing breaker.
➢ This is a relatively new technology for controlling capacitor-switching transients.
➢ Synchronous closing prevents transients by timing the contact closure such that the system
voltage closely matches the capacitor voltage at the instant the contact's mate.
➢ This avoids the step change in voltage that normally occurs when capacitors are switched,
causing the circuit to oscillate.
➢ This breaker would normally be applied on the utility sub transmission or transmission system
(72- and 145-kV classes).

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 3. Synchronous closing

➢ It is capable of closing within 1 ms of voltage zero

➢ A synchronous close circuit breaker utilizes controlled switching
as a method to minimize or eliminate switching transients by
energizing a capacitor at the point when the voltage across the
circuit breaker contacts is zero.
➢ To accomplish this, it is very important that pre-strikes do not
occur during closing.

➢ To avoid pre-strikes, the dielectric strength of the gap between the circuit breaker contacts must exceed
the rate of the system voltage change, commonly identified as RDDS. (Fig.)
➢ However, it is frequently a cost-effective solution when capacitor switching transients are disrupting end-
user load.
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 4. Capacitor location

➢ For distribution feeder banks, a switched capacitor may be too close to a sensitive load or at a
location where the transient over voltages tend to be much higher.
➢ Often, it may be possible to move the capacitor downline or to another branch of the circuit and
eliminate the problem.
➢ The strategy is to either create more damping with more resistance in the circuit or to get more
impedance between the capacitor and the sensitive load.
➢ The success of this strategy will depend on a number of factors.
➢ Of course, if the capacitor is placed at a large load to supply reactive power specifically for that load,
moving the bank may not be an option.

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5. Utility Lightening Protection

➢ Many power quality problems stem from lightning.

➢ Not only can the high-voltage impulses damage load equipment, but the temporary fault
that follows a lightning strike to the line causes voltage sags and interruptions.
➢ Here are some strategies for utilities to use to decrease the impact of lightning.

1. Shielding
2. Line arresters
3. Low-side surges

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1. Shielding

55
 1. Shielding

➢ One of the strategies open to utilities for lines that are particularly susceptible to lightning strikes is
to shield the line by installing a grounded neutral wire over the phase wires.
➢ This will intercept most lightning strokes before they strike the phase wires.
➢ This can help but will not necessarily prevent line flashovers because of the possibility of back
flashovers.
➢ Shielding overhead utility lines is common at transmission voltage levels and in substations but is
not common on distribution lines because of the added cost of taller poles and the lower benefit
due to lower flashover levels of the lines.

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2. Line arresters

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 2. Line arresters

➢ Another strategy for lines that are struck frequently is to apply arresters periodically along the phase
wires.
➢ Normally, lines flash over first at the pole insulators.
➢ Therefore, preventing insulator flashover will reduce the interruption and sag rate significantly.
➢ Stansberry argues that this is more economical than shielding and results in fewer line flashovers.
➢ Neither shielding nor line arresters will prevent all flashovers from lightning.
➢ The aim is to significantly reduce flashovers in particular trouble spots.
➢ As shown in Fig. the arresters bleed off some of the stroke current as it passes along the line.

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3. Low-side surges

59
 3. Low-side surges

➢ Some utility and end-user problems with lightning impulses are closely related.
➢ One of the most significant ones is called the “low-side surge” problem by many utility engineers.
➢ The name was coined by distribution transformer designers because it appears from the
transformer’s perspective that a current surge is suddenly injected into the low-voltage side
terminals.

➢ Utilities have not applied secondary arresters at low-voltage levels in great numbers.

➢ From the customer’s point of view it appears to be an impulse coming from the utility and is likely to
be termed a secondary surge.

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 6. Switching Transient Problems with Loads

➢ This section describes some transient

problems related to loads and load
switching.

1 Nuisance tripping of ASDs

➢ Most adjustable-speed drives typically
use a voltage source inverter (VSI)
design with a capacitor in the dc link.

➢ The controls are sensitive to dc over

voltages and may trip the drive at a
level as low as 117 percent.
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6. Switching Transient Problems with Loads

• Since transient voltages due to utility capacitor switching typically exceed 130
percent, the probability of nuisance tripping of the drive is high.

• One set of typical waveforms for this phenomenon is shown in Fig.

62
6. Switching Transient Problems with Loads

2 Transients from load switching

➢ Deenergizing inductive circuits with air-gap switches, such
as relays and contactors, can generate bursts of high-
frequency impulses.
➢ Figure shows an example. ANSI/IEEE C62.41-1991,
Recommended Practice for Surge Voltages in Low-Voltage
AC Power Circuits, cites a representative 15-ms burst
composed of impulses having 5-ns rise times and 50-ns
durations.
➢ There is very little energy in these types of transient due to
the short duration, but they can interfere with the operation
of electronic loads 63
 6. Switching Transient Problems with Loads

3 Transformer energizing

64
 6. Switching Transient Problems with Loads

➢ Energizing a transformer produces inrush currents that are rich in harmonic components for a period
lasting up to 1 s.
➢ If the system has a parallel resonance near one of the harmonic frequencies, a dynamic overvoltage
condition results that can cause failure of arresters and problems with sensitive equipment.
➢ This problem can occur when large transformers are energized simultaneously with large power factor
correction capacitor banks in industrial facilities.
➢ The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.
➢ A dynamic overvoltage waveform caused by a third harmonic resonance in the circuit is shown in Fig.
➢ This form of dynamic overvoltage problem can often be eliminated simply by not energizing the
capacitor and transformer together
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7. Computer
Tools for
Transient
Analysis

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