Course: Social change (541)

Semester: Autumn, 2020

ASSIGNMENT No.2
Q.1. Discuss history and political leadership among the swat pathans as proposed by Fredrik Barth.
The Pashtun are an ethnic group that straddles the Afghanistan-Pakistan border, and are the largest group in
Afghanistan. Historically, when Afghanistan has been united, it has been under Pashtun rule. Pashtun rulers of
Afghanistan have come from the Durrani Pashtun, who are a western Pashtun group. The Durrani learned
governance from serving under Turko-Mongolian dynasties. These dynasties tried to rule only the most
populous, productive areas, leaving marginal areas ungoverned. Pashtun social structure is what anthropologists
term a segmentary lineage system. In such a system, there is a hierarchy of social groupings starting at the local
level, then proceeding upward through various levels to an entire ethnic group. These relationships are based on
kinship and shared culture. At any given level (local, regional, ethnic group), social segments operate only in
opposition to equivalent segments (local kinship group vs. local kinship group, regional group vs. regional
group, etc.). Leadership is situational rather than institutionalized. Both leadership and segmentary organization
end when conflict ends. The cultural ideal is egalitarianism. Pashtun society is atomized in the sense that it is
based on the most basic element, the individual (especially the individual man). Each man considers himself
independent and self-sufficient, and simultaneously in competition with all others Pashtun men. This belief in
self-sufficiency, and the perpetual competition, make it difficult for Pashtun to unite for cooperative projects, or
even to engage in economic exchange. The ideal economic exchange among the Pashtun is reciprocal and
balanced. The Pashtun consider all non-Pashtun to be inferior. A Pashtun man may engage in economic
relations with non-Pashtun without losing honor, but also considers it acceptable to cheat non-Pashtun. On the
other hand, because of competition within Pashtun society, Pashtun men look to establish friendships with
outsiders. The social structure determines how the Pashtun understand the actions of outsiders, and limits their
capacity for responding to external intervention. Members of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF)
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) should understand and consider this social structure when dealing
with the Pashtun. Segmentary lineage organization presents outsiders with both opportunities and challenges. It
is highly important to understand this in such areas as (a) economic development), (b) Taliban force
composition, (c) negotiation, and (d) the establishment of friendships and alliances. The report discusses these
topics in some detail. The Pashtun on the one hand, and Western interveners on the other, are likely to have
fundamentally different understandings in these areas. Pshtun conceptions of time are not fully understood. This
is an important element of economic development, so it is vital to understand how the Pashtun view it.
The Pathan has a tender heart but tries to hide it under a rough and gruff exterior. He is too good a fighter to
leave his weakest part uncovered. “Don’t be so sweet,” he says, “that people may swallow: nor so bitter that
people may spit you out.” “So he covers his sweetness with bitterness, self-preservation pure and simple. His
violent nature, strong body and tender heart make a very unstable combination for living but an ideal one for
poetry and colour. He keeps a rough face “because he does not want you to see his soft eyes. He would rather
you thought he was a rogue than let you see him weep his eyes out for his wife. (para. 27)

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Being direct and rather thick between the ears, every Pathan imagines he is Alexander the Great and wants the
world to admit it. The result is a constant struggle between cousin and cousin, brother and brother, and quite
often between father and son. This has provided his sole undoing through the ages. They have not succeeded in
being a great nation because there is an autocrat in every home, who would rather burn his own house than see
his brother rule it. (para. 108)
He suffers from a pronounced lack of tact and a distinct excess of practical self-expression. He would rather
shoot his way out of a problem than get a headache thinking about it. He has great ambition and no patience that
is why he usually dies rather young. He has a great heart and a thick head; that is why he makes a charming
friend and a fine host. He has a proud head and an empty stomach that is why he is a great dacoit [i.e., a bandit].
(para. 110)
When he has to choose between ransom and alms, he chooses ransom, because he is a man and not a worm.
Looks at the torn clothes of his beautiful young wife and the hungry eyes of his child. He picks up rifle and grits
his teeth and goes into the jaws of death to procure a yard of cloth for the one and a mouthful of food for the
other. When a social system fails to provide for his dear ones, he tramples it down under his grass sandals.
When a political arrangement decides to starve him, and over feed another he shoots holes into it. (para. 111)
That is a quality in him, which I admire. He would rather steal than beg. So would I. He would rather face the
anger of God and man than the shame and disgrace of poverty. He would rather look into the frightened eyes of
a kidnapped merchant than the sad accusing eyes of his ill fed wife and the hungry, hopeful glance of his
wretched children. I would rather see a man hang for dacoity than see him crawl along a pavement. It with
outstretched palms, asking for alms from those who have found generous buyers for their souls. The Pathan
loves to steal because he hates to beg. That is why I love, him, in spite of his thick head and vain heart. He
would rather break his head than sell it with that genteel submission so common in civilised man. (Para. 112)
They love life, but only a life with honour. Life is, in fact, subordinated to honour because mere living is
considered useless and uselessness is despised. The ideal life is the life of a Nangyalai. They are a proud people
but like a life which is down to earth. Ghani Khan, the Pashto poet says in one of his couplets that
‫ س@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@تا د مرګ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه ن@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ۀ ويرې@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ږم‬،‫زۀ پښ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@تون يم‬
‫خ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@و مې تش ژون@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@دون اؤ خوش@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ي م@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@رګ ت@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه ق@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ار شي‬
.)Ghani, 1986, p. 339(
).O`My God,I am a Pakhtun and am not afraid of death, but I abhor mere living and a death of no use(
Or, as the great Pashto poet Khushal Khan Khattak (1613-1689) puts it in one of his couplets,
 
‫م@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@رګ زم@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ا پ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه پوه@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه ښ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ۀ ت@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ر دا ژون@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@دون دے‬
‫د ع@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@زت س@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ره چې ن@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ۀ وي زيس@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ت روزګ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ار‬
(In Kamil , 1960, p. 528)
(To me death is far better than life, if mere living is not with respect and honour.)

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This—the couplet, the aphorism—is not merely a literary tradition within Pashto poetry, but clues to the life
mottos of every true Pakhtun. Pashto literature and Pashto folklore describe and define this code with clarity, so
the linkage between language and culture is especially strong in this case: Pashto is not only the name of their
language but the name of their code of conduct as well. Pashto is the foundation of the culture, and only
Pakhtunwali who can live a life according to the laws and rules of Pakhtunwali are qualified to be called
Pakhtun. Dr. Charles Lindholm comments on the values of Pakhtunwali in these words:
This code is far more complex than that hypothesized by Hobbs, and covers behaviour on all public occasions.
The demands of this code are well known to all, and provide a charter for public action which both ratifies the
necessity of the social structure and conceals its contradictions. It is by reference to Pakhtunwali that the
villager will define himself and his culture to outsiders, and it is by adherence to Pakhtunwali that a man makes
his claim to a place of dignity among his peers. (1982, p. 210)
Though honour is a separate value of the Pakhtun culture, all the values of Pakhtunwali derive from their code
of honour. All norms, values, traditions and practices fall under the comprehensive system of Pakhtunwali,
which is reflected in family, clan and tribal behaviours. The term Pakhtunwali is derived from the term Pakhtun
and Pashtun from Pashto, which might be said to be comprised of the following according to some scholars:
 (‫)پ‬Pey (Pashto letter Pat), which means honour, fellowship or comradeship.(*)
‫پت دې ن@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ۀ ځي‬،‫م@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ال دې درومي‬،‫س@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ر دې درومي‬
‫د س@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ړي د چ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ارې ک@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ل خ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@وبي پ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه پت ده‬
Let the head be gone, wealth be gone but the honour must not go, because the whole of dignity of a man is due (
)Khushal in Kamil, 1960, p. 281().to this honour
 (‫)ښ‬ Xeen or Sheen (Pashto letter for Xegarha), which means doing good to others or the needy.
‫چې د خلق@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@و ني@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ک خ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@واهي ل@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ري پ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه زړۀ کښې‬
‫مب@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ارک ش@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه بادش@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@اهي ل@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@رې پ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه زړۀ کښې‬
If you have a passion in your heart for doing well to others, congratulations! You keep a kingdom in your (
)Khushal in Kamil, 1960, p. 379().heart
 (‫)ت‬Tey for Toora, which literally means sword and stands for bravery.
‫چې او ن@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه وهې پ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه دواړه الس@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه ت@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ورې‬
‫چ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ا ملکون@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه پ@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه م@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@يراث ن@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ه دي مون@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@دلي‬
Khushal().Unless one fights with swords in both of his hands, no one has won the counties mere by hereditary ( 
)in Kamil, 1960, p. 874
 (‫)و‬Waw for Wafa, which means fidelity to one’s commitments.

 (‫)ن‬Noon for Nang, which means honour.

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From this point of view, the essence or meaning of the term “Pakhtun” resides in commitments to chivalry,
courage, fidelity, and honour, so these are the qualities that shape the character of Pakhtun society.
In addition, other useful concepts and terms (and their Pashto equivalents) include hospitality (melmastia), the
Council of Elders (Jirga), modesty (sharam, haya), revenge (badal), taunting (peghor), seeking forgiveness in a
feud (nanawati), the honour of the family (nang, namoos), and zeal, courage, or manliness.
Comradeship, doing well to others, bravery, fidelity and honour are also fundamental values of Pakhtun
Culture; however, explanations of each and of the historical events related to them are outside the scope of this
brief overview. Such an effort requires explication of a whole philosophy of life. The general point however, is
that these values have given a special character to the Pakhtuns, values reflected in their customs, traditions and
worship.
Q.2. Write short notes on the following;
a) urbanization and politics in Pakistan.
It depends on the context. In relatively stable societies, economics shapes politics — these are places where one
can meaningfully say “it’s the economy, stupid”. Even seemingly bizarre foreign policies can be related to
economics as one might infer from the title of Lenin’s classic text Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism.
In less stable societies, the economy is hostage to politics. Think of Pakistan’s quixotic foreign policy
adventures that have no conceivable relationship to national considerations and have driven the economy into
the ground. Politics, in turn, is orchestrated by narrow, parochial and privileged economic interests as those who
can discern can readily make out.
It is in this framework that the politics of urbanisation in Pakistan is more fascinating than its economics.
Almost every news report in the election season makes the point that the urban sentiment is quite different to
the rural one — more politically conscious, more receptive to party programmes, less weighed down by clan
loyalties, and less indebted to patrons for access to basic rights.
As the country becomes more urbanised, the hold of dynastic quasi-feudal elites should decline — but this is
where politics intervenes. Electoral outcomes depend heavily on how individual constituencies are delimited.
In most secondary cities the urban vote is fragmented over many constituencies each of which has a rural
majority. As a result the urban vote is under-represented, a standard practice in all conservative polities where
entrenched privilege benefits from rural votes.
It is also no surprise that the population census has not been carried out since 1998 although that is no more
difficult a task than conducting an election. Given rapid migration and urbanisation a census update clearly has
implications for the allocation of seats both across provinces and the urban-rural divide.
It is here that one can glean a lot from the Latin American experience, a forerunner to Pakistan’s encounters
with kleptocratic democracies and authoritarian dictatorships focused on shoring up entrenched privilege
against the demands of marginalised majorities empowered with the right to vote.

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It was only after Latin American countries were almost fully urbanised that biased delimitation tactics became
ineffective. Urban citizens were then able to struggle and organise over time to vote into power leaders like
Lula, Chavez and Morales who represented better the demands of the majorities.
Pakistan still awaits such representatives and must contend with several more rounds of rule by representatives
of entrenched privilege, either populists like Peron or strongmen like Pinochet.
The violence with which the Latin American transition was accompanied, and which still continues, clearly
suggests that the violence in Pakistan is not exceptional.
We can expect our cities to become even more violent as entrenched privilege defends its interests and attempts
to break up the solidarity of the urban vote.
Here Pakistan is more vulnerable than Latin America because of the ethnic and sectarian heterogeneity of its
urban population that remains vulnerable to the politics of identity — witness the internecine wars in Karachi
the origins of which can be traced back to political manipulations of one kind or another.
The politics of urbanisation plays out within cities as well as a brief recap of its history would illustrate. At the
time Europe was urbanising the footprint of the city was small. Without mass transportation rich and poor had
to live in relative proximity. There were no privatised sources of clean air or water and no selective protection
from diseases via immunisations. Outbreaks of pestilence affected all citizens with equal effect.
It was this shared fate that became the basis for urban reform as elites fearful for their lives and businesses
allocated resources to city-wide improvements in sanitation and sewerage.
All this has changed in our times as advances in science and technology have ironically worked to the
disadvantage of the poor. The affluent can now physically segregate themselves by moving to suburbs, protect
themselves from disease through inoculations, and are no longer dependent on city-wide networks for access to
amenities.
As a result our cities have split into rich enclaves and poor slums and there is no powerful group of influential
citizens to lobby for reforms that benefit the entire city. Urban funds are spent on better roads for cars while
pedestrians and cyclists are left to fend for themselves. The emphasis on clean water and sewerage for the low-
income areas is remarkable only for its absence.
It is in this context that those who project cities as unambiguous engines of economic growth need to take
pause. Because of their ethnic and sectarian heterogeneity and the polarisation of rich and poor, South Asian
cities can just as easily be powder kegs ready to explode. And the fuse is quite likely to be deliberately lit by
those who stand to gain from the fracturing of the urban vote.
The gerrymandering of electoral constituencies does not mean however that the city can be ignored. We need to
keep our eyes open and our ears to the ground as we move forward in time.
The capacity of the state and market to deliver to urban citizens the essentials of everyday living like electricity
and natural gas has eroded to a dangerous degree. Unless it is ameliorated, if not fully repaired, any random
trigger can set off pent-up frustrations that have accumulated over the years.

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b) Social power in Pakistan villages.

People in village usually live in houses made of bricks, clay or mud. These typically have two or three rooms
which house extended families. Although now they prefer living by making separate home for each family
(nuclear units) but they don't live far away from their relatives, and they are extending their villages by making
more homes. Due to geographical and other socioeconomic diversity, different regions have slightly different
physical and social layout. For example, in Gongrani, Balochistan, people live in homes built within cliff-side
caves that are connected by walkways.[1] Most of the villagers are farmers but other rural occupations
include blacksmiths, hairdressers and tailorers, shepherds.[1]
Rural social organization in Pakistan is marked by kinship and exchange relations. [2] Socioeconomic
status among rural Pakistani villagers is often based upon the ownership of agricultural land, which also may
provide social prestige in village cultures.[3] The majority of rural Pakistani inhabitants livelihoods is based upon
the rearing of livestock, which also comprises a significant part of Pakistan's gross domestic product.
[4]
 Some livestock raised by rural Pakistanis include cattle and goats.[5]
The traditional culture of the village is now subject to change due to the effects upon village society due to rural
urbanization,[6] and from the introduction of modern technology, such as pumps and tube wells for irrigation.
[7]
 Resistance to social and cultural changes exists among Pakistani village inhabitants, and varying methods of
managing these changes have been tried.
Q.3. Do you agree with statement that ‘rapid process of urbanization has created many socio-political
problems in Pakistan’? Discuss.
The majority of people in Pakistan live in the countryside, with only one-third of the country's estimated 188
million inhabitants currently are in cities. But things are changing rapidly. Pakistan is urbanizing at an annual
rate of three percent – the fastest pace in South Asia. The United Nations Population Division estimates that, by
2025, nearly half the country's population will live in urban areas.
By 2025, Lahore's population, currently about seven million, will exceed 10 million. Karachi's will be 19
million; it is 13 million today. But how can the country cope with such migration levels? The inadequate
provision of shelter to the urban poor continues to be one of Pakistan's most immediate problems.
As a result, Pakistan’s cities contribute much less to the economy compared to other developing countries.
Pakistani cities – inhabited by 38 percent of the population – make up around 55 percent of total GDP. India’s
urban population is 30 percent, with 58 percent of its GDP coming from cities. In Indonesia, urban population
and urban share of GDP are 44 percent and 60 percent[1], respectively.
According to the World Bank, Pakistan’s urbanization is also ‘messy and hidden’: Messy from low-density
sprawl and hidden as cities grow beyond administrative boundaries to include ‘ruralopilises’, which are densely
populated rural areas and outskirts not officially designated as cities. Ruralopilises today are estimated to make
up to 60 percent of urban Pakistan[2]. Such urbanization without an accompanying shift in economic patterns
does not bode well.

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Without better urban planning to accommodate rapid growth, cities have the potential to become hotbeds of
discontent and unrest rather than engines of growth and innovation.
Following are the biggest challenges facing urban policymakers.
1. Poor housing quality and affordability
The State Bank of Pakistan has estimated that across all major cities, urban housing was approximately 4.4
million units short of demand in 2015. If current trends continue, Pakistan’s five largest cities will account for
78 percent of the total housing shortage by 2035. Even if urban population remains stagnant, the growing trend
of nuclear families who seek housing separate from larger families will increase pressure on housing supply[3].
When provided, housing is often low quality. Pakistan ranks eighth among the ten countries that collectively
hold 60 percent of substandard housing across the world[4]. Karachi, one of the world’s fastest growing
megacities with an estimated 17 million people, ranks second lowest in South Asia and sixth lowest in the
world on the Economist Intelligence Unit’s 2015 livability index.
2. Water and Sanitation

In most Pakistani cities, water is supplied only four to 16 hours per day and to only 50 percent of the
population. According to the Asian Development Bank (ADB), 90 percent of water supply schemes are unsafe
for drinking. Shared latrines among households are common in cities and access to solid waste management
services remains low. In the most population-dense areas of Karachi, one toilet is shared between twenty
people. The World Bank estimates that poor sanitation costs Pakistan around 3.9 percent of GDP; diarrhea-
related death and disease among children under five being the largest contributors.
3. Transportation
Karachi is the only megacity in the world without a mass public transport system. Meanwhile, the cost of
private transportation is estimated to have increased by over 100 percent since 2000. Those who cannot
afford the commute are forced to live in unplanned, inner-city neighborhoods.
Increased private transport on urban roads has caused severe congestion. The government has responded by
upgrading many urban roads. However, infrastructure for the most common modes of travel in Pakistan – such
as pavements for walking or special lanes for bicycles – either does not exist or has been encroached upon. This
is despite the fact that 40 percent of all trips in Lahore are made on foot.
Mobility in urban Pakistan is also harder for women. An ADB study found that almost 85 percent of working-
women surveyed in Karachi were harassed in 2015.
4. Health
While overall health and nutrition are better for urban than for rural populations[5], child mortality and
malnutrition indicators show that Pakistan’s urban poor have health outcomes only marginally better than the
rural poor.

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Better health outcomes in urban areas are explained by improved access to private health care in cities. But with
the exception of immunization, utilization of basic public health services is very low in urban areas.
Poor health outcomes are also a direct impact of the pollution caused by rapid urbanization. According to the
World Health Organization, Karachi is the most polluted city in Pakistan with air twice as polluted as that of
Beijing. The level of pollution in Punjab’s major cities is also three to four times higher than that determined
safe by the UN.
A lack of clean drinking water remains a major contributor to the high mortality rate of children under five
years old. According to Save the Children’s 2015 Annual Report, poor urban children in Pakistan are more
likely to die young than rural children.
The challenge of global warming has also intensified in cities. A rise in concrete structures across the urban
landscape is increasing temperatures within cities.[6] In 2015, an unanticipated heat wave in Karachi led to
almost 1,500 deaths.
5. Education
Although urban areas have higher student enrollment and better learning outcomes, close to 10 percent of all
children in Lahore, Karachi and Peshawar remain out of school.
Like healthcare, better education in cities is explained by the private sector. From 2001 to 2014, the share of
primary enrollment in urban private schools rose from 25 percent to 40 percent.
Moreover, there seems to be an inverse relationship between public schooling and city size. In small cities,
approximately 35 percent of all children aged five to nine are enrolled in government schools. In capital cities,
that figure drops to 22 percent.
Continued preference for private schools reflects the low quality of government schools in urban centers. While
all private schools have basic facilities (drinkable water and toilets), they are missing in around 12 percent of
government schools in Lahore.
The absence of educational and health facilities in smaller cities pushes people towards big cities, where service
delivery becomes increasingly strained as the urban population grows.
6. Land Management
Outdated land use regulation and building codes, the absence of a unified land record system and patchy data on
land use result in poor urban land management. One consequence is extreme inequality in land use. In Karachi,
36 percent of the population lives in formally planned settlements that consume 77 percent of the city’s
residential land, where urban density can be as low as 84 people per hectare. On the other hand, Karachi’s
many informal settlements have densities of more than 4,500 per hectare. These hugely varying densities
have resulted in unequal access to vital urban services.
Unplanned urban sprawl continues unchecked. Housing schemes built beyond city limits have used up an
estimated 60,000 acres of prime agricultural land. Both Karachi and Lahore have seen the development of large

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real estate schemes by private and military developers particularly along the highways. These ventures are
redefining urban limits, further straining service delivery.
Q.4. Analyze the theory of modernization and motivational aspects of development in light of Neil J.
Smelser &Wilbert E. Moore research.
The treatment of rural and urban areas in this chapter relates to the functions these areas perform and the
specific strategies that are required for their development. The objectives is to enhance the efficiency of these
areas through a professional approach to enhance the quality of development activities. In the rural areas, the
bulk of employment and productive activities are related to the agriculture sector while the production base of
the urban areas is in manufacturing and services. Enhancing the efficiencies of urban and rural areas requires a
holistic approach, covering the entire socioeconomic spectrum, which involves not only the local governments
but also the provincial and federal governments for those functional areas, including policy interventions and
oversight, which still remain with them. A challenge, therefore, is to enhance the institutional interfaces,
coordination and cooperation for integrated development activities, particularly in metropolitan areas and
megacities, where there is extensive involvement of federal and provincial government agencies. With the
implementation of the devolution plan, the rural-urban dichotomy has been removed. All devolved activities are
to be undertaken in accordance with the functional assignments of district governments, tehsil municipal
administrations (TMAs) and union administration. The devolution plan also provides for city districts and towns
in a city district. In accordance with the Local Government Ordinance 2001, the provincial departments of
public health engineering and local government and rural development as well as development authorities are
be fully decentralized to the TMA level, with the provincial role restructured to effectively perform policy
making, regulating and guiding local governments. The local government functions are to be performed
exclusively by the concerned local governments; all the vertical programmes and parallel structures of the
federal and provincial governments would be fully aligned with the new local government structures. In the past
many problems arose because of the rural-urban divide and lack of spatial planning and control of physical
developments beyond municipal jurisdictions. With participatory decision making at the local level covering all
settlements, there is now a framework in place to resolve these problems. There are initial positive indications
that the delivery of local services has improved following devolution. However, comprehensive capacity
building of the local governments is envisaged during the MTDF period so that the benefits could be fully
realized. The involvement of the federal government in rural and urban development activities will relate to the
national policies and plans, both strategic and sectoral, to facilitate growth, income, employment, and
improvement in quality of life indicators; legal and regulatory framework; functions under the responsibility of
federal agencies such as development of energy and water resources, national highways, ports, airports and
shipping; sharing of finances with the provinces and coordination of provincial programmes; coordination with
development partners, and overall monitoring, including MDGs. The provincial governments will be involved
in standard setting, regulation, monitoring and oversight of local government programmes, as well as sharing of

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provincial resources with local governments. The delivery of services invariable in all devolved functions will
be the responsibility of the local governments. Under LGO 2001, the district government has decentralized
offices, divided several groups including agriculture, community development, education, finance and district
government have been authorized to established district municipal offices for additional services more relevant
to the urban setting. The functions of the Tehsil and town municipal administration and union council have also
been defined in detail. All local activities will be undertaken according to these functions. At independence,
Pakistan was a predominantly rural country. While the rural population still constitutes about two-thirds of the
total population, the share of urban population has been progressively increasing as a result of the structural
transformation of the economy. People move to urban areas because of expectations that cities can provide
better employment opportunities and higher incomes. While urban settlement patterns have varied across
countries, efforts to significantly restrain migration or urban growth have largely proven to be unsuccessful. To
an extent, the development of smaller towns can reduce the migration to metropolitan areas and megacities.
Creation of employment opportunities in such areas must also be accompanied by investment in social
infrastructure. The policies that determine the “terms of trade” between urban and rural areas should ensure that
pricing distortions do not unintentionally encourage migration. Rural and urban development are
complementary. Strengthening linkages between urban centres and rural areas is necessary to ensure that the
two remain mutually reinforcing. Towns and cities provide markets for rural products and jobs to absorb surplus
rural labour. If marketing systems are improved for both agricultural products and inputs, production,
employment and the scope for private enterprise in rural areas and cities can be increased. Efficient
infrastructure and services can facilitate complementary rural-urban development with diversification and
commercialization of rural economies. If properly strengthened, the rural-urban dynamics can help ensure that
investments in services, facilities, infrastructure and productive activities are located strategically in towns to
serve a wide area.

Q.5. How do you view the statement that ‘in Pakistan rural areas women labour force is neither
counted nor credited’. Discuss.
Women’s empowerment has more than one component: their right to make a decision; their access to
opportunities and resources; authority to be in charge of their own lives, both inside and outside the home.
Female empowerment has many dimensions. It includes access to knowledge, possession of social and
economic resources and more autonomy in political and economic decision-making processes. All these
components and dimensions of female empowerment are interrelated and an alteration in one component will
not bring a huge transformation unless all change.
If females have access to the productivity of men, then both genders can work simultaneously towards the
betterment of the country, and this will lead to a sustainable way out of poverty. Therefore, women should get
equal work opportunities. But women have greater challenges, as they do not get the same economic

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opportunities as men do. They do not get access to the decent working condition and lag behind men in decision
making.
In Pakistan, women do not has proper identities, as she is owned by her male peers. Their integrity and health
are often beyond their own control. They are taken as invisible, underserved and undernourished. The culture of
Pakistan is greatly patriarchal, there are many old and conservative traditions of women having a subservient
and subordinate role. Decisions for female individuals are made by men in her family, especially in under-
developed and distant regions. In Pakistan, specific religious beliefs are deeply rooted in citizen’s beliefs, on
which many traditions and social perspective surfaces.
Gender empowerment means that females ought to gain equality under the law and it must be implemented and
enforced. Women’s empowerment essentially contains legal fairness, equal access to education and practical
exercise, females’ management at the national level, positive action for jobs with one and the same pay, and a
gender-sensitive justice system.
Women consist of more than 50 percent of population in Pakistan and to deprive this half population of
empowerment is to deprive our economy of growth. Women empowerment will not only result in the
empowerment of women but also the economic well-being of the country. The development of the country also
should result in equitable distribution of development benefits especially to the women sector. Economically
empower women have more autonomy and resultantly this can transform their children and family lives. As she
is a pivot about which entire family unit revolve, therefore an economically enriched woman has a constructive
impact on the future generation.
Countries who don’t take benefit of its full population and ignores half of it, it is actually misallocating its
resources, which will only lead to the reducing their development potential. All countries should focus on its
weakness and learn from more successful countries. It should also set up such policies which take advantage of
the whole population, as in both female and male. As successful countries are the one who recognize the
potential in the women force as well for development.
Throughout the world, there is not a single country which can boast of gender equality and full women
empowerment. Women still out there face discrimination and are lagging behind in one way or the other.
Gender equality in two critical sections is very important like economic and political empowerment of women.
There is improvement in health and education with the advent of technology and as globally economies are
developing but yet there is a long way to go as women are still very behind men especially in decision making
and income earning. With the past trend it is quiet visible women are actively participating in to take charge of
their own lives and this is in fact effecting the communities and society as a whole. But there is a big problem as
women are not consistent class, they vary by race culture, society, brought up and opportunity, thus these
factors also plays an important part in the disparity of women as these factors affect the behavior of society
members.

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The objective of this research is to find out what political and economic determinants effect the women
empowerment especially in Pakistan. The main goal is to find out what past variables have been selected and to
learn from them and find new determinants.
As Pakistan is a growing and developing country and for the past few years its condition is not much improving,
this in act is further affecting the condition of women. As more and more people are effected and thus poverty is
increasing. Thus women have to strive hard to contribute to the family income, so that their family is at least
above poverty line
In Pakistan, apparently through the perspective of Islam this country says it gives equal right to both men and
women but there is another side to the picture. Women constitute a small portion in decision making and they
contribute very less o the development of the country as there labor force participation with respect to men is
very less. The status of women in this country represents the traditions and the social customs, which led
women to this condition.
Women are always underprivileged then man in Pakistan, they get less education, food, decision making and
health. As it is consider men are the lords of women, and women are deprived from their basic rights. Women
destiny is controlled by men. This is not the case in Pakistan only but also in many countries men are
considered superior than women. To achieve development, we have to convert our weakness to strengths.
It is also known that increase women participation in the labor force will benefit the growth and resources can
be distributed more easily to disadvantaged people. Thus women should get decent work, social protection and
voice at work. As most of the time women are subjugated to lower wages than men and their wages have barely
increased over time and they are offered low skilled, low paid atypical jobs, mainly performed from home. One
of the greatest achievements in Pakistan, during the last decade has been the increasing proportion of women in
the labor force, enabling women all over the country to use their potential in the labor market and to achieve
economic independence. But yet we still have a long way to go.
From Global perspective higher percentage of female are working in the developed countries than ever before,
yet at the identical time these women continuing raise children to bear new burdens. But these women face
tradeoffs as it will be difficult to find good demanding jobs with children to look after too as well. That is why
there is not equal opportunity for men and women. Not only the family but also the society, government and the
whole nation will benefit from the empowerment of women.
Versatile aspects contribute to the passive functions played by women in the Pakistan Society. Great emphasis
has been laid on removing gender inequality and improving women empowerment as Millennium
Developmental Goal, resultantly many efforts have been initiated by the Government and NGOs in Pakistan on
this issue
According to (Pakistan employment trends for women) , international Labor Organization (ILO), has the
objective of the promotion of opportunities for women and men to obtain productive employment is also the
overall objective of the four fundamental ILO Conventions stressing gender equality cover: (1) equal

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remuneration (2) non-discrimination in employment and occupation, (3) workers with family responsibilities
and (4) maternity protection.
The Millennium Development Goals that emerged from the UN Millennium Declaration of September 2000 are
specific measurable targets, including the one for reducing the extreme poverty that still grips more than 1
billion of the world’s people by 2015. Essential to this promise are the MDGs interrelated to educational results:
(1) Guarantee that all youngsters complete primary education by 2015. (2) Remove gender inequalities in
primary and secondary education. By 2006, most countries have already fallen well behind the necessary targets
to meet these goals (Millennium Development Goal, 2006).
As stated in millennium development goal 3 the promotion of gender equality and empowerment is fundamental
to achieving the remaining MDGs .Likewise, there is evidence that addressing gender issues benefits
individuals and families, workers and employers, society and national economies. Improving women’s wages
and earnings has been identified as a key element in tackling poverty and achieving the MDGs.
Yet there are Country specific activities to promote gender equality and decent work as in Pakistan’s
constitution ensures all fundamental human rights and guarantees equal employment opportunities for men and
women. Existing labor legislations do not discriminate against anyone on the basis of sex, but women are not
allowed to work in a few areas for health and safety reasons, but the society as a whole plays a big part. the
traditions of Pakistan forces women to sit at home and look after the children only , whether there husband give
them money or not ,. Society or community does not approve females going out and raising voices for their
rights. They also disapprove females working outside their homes. It is consider the work of women juts to look
after their families. So to change this whole perceptive media is playing a big part but the government also
needs to be active.
As recently the Government initiated a number of activities to promote gender equality at the heart of decent
work and to achieve MDG target calling for “full and productive employment and decent work for all including
women and young people.” Those activities range from gender
Sensitive revisions of constitutional and legal provisions to the establishment of new policy frameworks that
help to accomplish the target. Therefore, the elevation of privileges of women and men in the domain of work
and to achieve gender equality are reflected in a number of national development frameworks and policy
documents including the Medium Term Development Framework (MTDF) for 2005-10, the Poverty Reduction
Strategy Papers (PRSPs) and documents exclusively relating to labor markets such as the 2002 Labor Policy
and the 2006 Labor Protection Policy. Pakistan’s Decent Work Country Program (DWCP) spells out the main
strategy and plan of action to promote the creation of decent work with gender equality as a cross cutting theme.
Overview of existing national policies and development frameworks that stress gender equality and decent work
in the country.

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