1 – Introductory Concepts of DBMS

Define the following terms.

Data
 Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed.
Information
 When data is processed, organized, structured or presented in a given context so as to
make it useful, it is called information.
Database
 A Database is a collection of inter-related data.
DBMS (Database Management System)
 A database management system is a collection of inter-related data and set of programs
to manipulate those data.
 DBMS = Database + Set of programs
Metadata
 Metadata is data about data.
 Data such as table name, column name, data type, authorized user and user access
privileges for any table is called metadata for that table.
Data dictionary
 Data dictionary is an information repository which contains metadata.
 It is usually a part of the system catalog.
Data warehouse
 Data warehouse is an information repository which stored data.
 It is design to facilitate reporting and analysis.
Field
 A field is a character or group of characters that have a specific meaning.
 It is also called a data item. It is represented in the database by a value.
 For Example customer id, name, society and city are all fields for customer Data.
Record
 A record is a collection of logically related fields.
 For examples, collection of fields (id, name, society & city) forms a record for customer.
Explain disadvantages of file system (file processing systems)
compare to Database management system. OR
Explain disadvantages of conventional file-based system
compared to Database management system.
Data Redundancy
 It is possible that the same information may be duplicated in different files. This leads to
data redundancy.
 Data redundancy results in memory wastage.
 For example, consider that some customers have both kinds of accounts - saving and
current. In this case, data about customers - name, address, e-mail, contact number -
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 1 – Introductory Concepts of DBMS
will be duplicated in both files, file for saving accounts and file for current accounts. This
leads to requirement of higher storage space. In other words, same information will be
stored in two different locations (files). And, it wastes memory.
Data Inconsistency
 Due to data redundancy, it is possible that data may not be in consistent state.
 For example, consider that an address of some customer changes. And, that customer
has both kinds of accounts. Now, it is possible that this changed address is updated in
only one file, leaving address in other file as it is. As a result of this, same customer will
have two different addresses in two different files, making data inconsistent.
Difficulty in Accessing Data
 Accessing data is not convenient and efficient in file processing system.
 For example, suppose, there is a program to find information about all customers. But,
what if there is a need to find out all customers from some particular city. In this case,
there are two choices here: One, find out all customers using available program, and
then extract the needed customers manually. Second, develop new program to get
required information. Both options are not satisfactory.
 For each and every different kind of data access, separate programs are required. This is
neither convenient nor efficient.
Limited Data Sharing
 Data are scattered in various files.
 Different files may have different formats. And these files may be stored in different
folders (directories) may be of different computers of different departments.
 So, due to this data isolation, it is difficult to share data among different applications.
Integrity Problems
 Data integrity means that the data contained in the database is both correct and
consistent. For this purpose, the data stored in database must satisfy certain types of
constraints (rules).
 For example, a balance for any account must not be less than zero. Such constraints are
enforced in the system by adding appropriate code in application programs. But, when
new constraints are added, such as balance should not be less than Rs. 5000, application
programs need to be changed. But, it is not an easy task to change programs whenever
required.
Atomicity Problems
 Any operation on database must be atomic. This means, operation completes either
100% or 0%.
 For example, a fund transfer from one account to another must happen in its entirely.
But, computer systems are vulnerable to failure, such as system crash, virus attack. If a
system failure occurs during the execution of fund transfer operation, it may possible
that amount to be transferred, say, Rs. 500, is debited from one account, but is not
credited to another account.

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 1 – Introductory Concepts of DBMS
 This leaves database in inconsistent state. But, it is difficult to ensure atomicity in a file
processing system.
Concurrent Access Anomalies
 Multiple users are allowed to access data simultaneously (concurrently). This is for the
sake of better performance and faster response.
 Consider an operation to debit (withdrawal) an account. The program reads the old
balance, calculates the new balance, and writes new balance back to database. Suppose
an account has a balance of Rs. 5000. Now, a concurrent withdrawal of Rs. 1000 and Rs.
2000 may leave the balance Rs. 4000 or Rs. 3000 depending upon their completion time
rather than the correct value of Rs. 2000.
 Here, concurrent data access should be allowed under some supervision.
 But, due to lack of co-ordination among different application programs, this is not
possible in file processing systems.
Security Problems
 Database should be accessible to users in a limited way.
 Each user should be allowed to access data concerning his application only.
 For example, a customer can check balance only for his/her own account. He/She
should not have access for information about other accounts.
 But, in file processing system, application programs are added in an ad hoc manner by
different programmers. So, it is difficult to enforce such kind of security constraints.

Explain purpose of database system.

OR
Explain advantages (benefits) of DBMS over file management
system.

Minimal Data Redundancy (Duplication)

 Due to centralized database, it is possible to avoid unnecessary duplication of
information.
 This leads to reduce data redundancy.
 It prevents memory wastage.
 It also reduces extra processing time to get required data.
Shared Data
 All authorized user and application program can share database easily.
Data Consistency
 Data inconsistency occurs due to data redundancy.
 With reduced data redundancy such type of data inconsistency can be eliminated.
 This results in improved data consistency.

Data Access
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 1 – Introductory Concepts of DBMS
 DBMS utilizes a variety of techniques to retrieve data.
 Required data can be retrieved by providing appropriate query to the DBMS.
 Thus, data can be accessed in convenient and efficient manner.
Data Integrity
 Data in database must be correct and consistent.
 So, data stored in database must satisfy certain types of constraints (rules).
 DBMS provides different ways to implement such type of constraints (rules).
 This improves data integrity in a database.
Data Security
 Database should be accessible to user in a limited way.
 DBMS provides way to control the access to data for different user according to their
requirement.
 It prevents unauthorized access to data.
 Thus, security can be improved.
Concurrent Access
 Multiple users are allowed to access data simultaneously.
 Concurrent access to centralized data can be allowed under some supervision.
 This results in better performance of system and faster response.
Guaranteed Atomicity
 Any operation on database must be atomic. This means, operation must be executed
either 100% or 0%.
 This type of atomicity is guaranteed in DBMS.

List and explain the applications of DBMS.

Airlines and railways
 Airlines and railways use online databases for reservation, and for displaying the
schedule information.
Banking
 Banks use databases for customer inquiry, accounts, loans, and other transactions.
Education
 Schools and colleges use databases for course registration, result, and other
information.
Telecommunications
 Telecommunication departments use databases to store information about the
communication network, telephone numbers, record of calls, for generating monthly
bills, etc.
Credit card transactions
 Databases are used for keeping track of purchases on credit cards in order to generate
monthly statements.
E-commerce
 Integration of heterogeneous information sources (for example, catalogs) for business
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 1 – Introductory Concepts of DBMS
activity such as online shopping, booking of holiday package, consulting a doctor, etc.

Health care information systems and electronic patient record

 Databases are used for maintaining the patient health care details in hospitals.
Digital libraries and digital publishing
 Databases are used for management and delivery of large bodies of textual and
multimedia data.
Finance
 Databases are used for storing information such as sales, purchases of stocks and bonds
or data useful for online trading.
Sales
 Databases are used to store product, customer and transaction details.
Human resources
 Organizations use databases for storing information about their employees, salaries,
benefits, taxes, and for generating salary checks.
Describe functions (responsibility, roles, and duties) of DBA to
handle DBMS.
DBA
 The full form of DBA is Database Administrator.
 Database Administrator is a person in an organization who controls the design and the
use of database.
Functions or Responsibilities of DBA are as listed below:
Schema Definition
 DBA defines the logical schema of the database.
 A schema refers to the overall logical structure of the database.
 According to this schema, database will be designed to store required data for an
organization.
Storage Structure and Access Method Definition
 DBA decides how the data is to be represented in the database.
 Based on this, storage structure of the database and access methods of data is defined.
Defining Security and Integrity Constraints
 DBA decides various security and integrity constraints.
 DDL provides facilities to specifying such constraints.
Granting of Authorization for Data Access
 The DBA determines which user needs access to which part of the database.
 According to this, various types of authorizations (permissions) are granted to different
users.
 This is required to prevent unauthorized access of a database.

Liaison with Users

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 1 – Introductory Concepts of DBMS
 DBA is responsible to provide necessary data to user.
 User should be able to write the external schema, using DDL.

Assisting Application Programmers

 DBA provides assistance to application programmers to develop application programs.
Monitoring Performance
 The DBA monitors performance of the system.
 The DBA ensures that better performance is maintained by making change in physical or
logical schema if required.
Backup and Recovery
 Database should not be lost or damaged.
 The task of DBA is to backing up the database on some storage devices such as DVD, CD
or Magnetic Tape or remote servers.
 In case of failures, such as flood or virus attack, Database is recovered from this backup.

Explain three levels ANSI SPARC Database System. OR

Explain three level Data abstraction.

The ANSI SPARC architecture divided into three levels:
1) External level
2) Conceptual level
3) Internal level
External View A View B View C
Level

Conceptual
Conceptual View
Level

Internal
Level Internal View

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 1 – Introductory Concepts of DBMS
Three levels ANSI SPARC Database System

Internal Level

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 1 – Introductory Concepts of DBMS
 This is the lowest level of the data abstraction.
 It describes how the data are actually stored on storage devices.
 It is also known as a physical level.
 The internal view is described by internal schema.
 Internal schema consists of definition of stored record, method of representing the data
field and access method used.

Conceptual Level
 This is the next higher level of the data abstraction.
 It describes what data are stored in the database and what relationships exist among
those data.
 It is also known as a logical level.
 Conceptual view is defined by conceptual schema. It describes all records and
relationship.
External Level
 This is the highest level of data abstraction.
 It is also known as view level.
 It describes only part of the entire database that a particular end user requires.
 External view is describes by external schema.
 External schema consists of definition of logical records, relationship in the external
view and method of deriving the objects from the conceptual view.
 This object includes entities, attributes and relationship.
Explain Mapping. OR
Explain external and internal mapping. OR
What is mapping? Describe type of mapping.
Mapping
 The process of transforming requests and results between the three levels is called
mapping.
Types of Mapping
 Conceptual/Internal Mapping
 External/Conceptual Mapping
Conceptual/Internal Mapping
 It relates conceptual schema with internal schema.
 It defines correspondence between the conceptual schema and the database stored in
physical devices.
 It specifies how conceptual records and fields are presented at the internal level.
 If the structure of stored database is changed, then conceptual/internal mapping must
be changed accordingly and conceptual schema can remain invariant.
 There could be one mapping between conceptual and internal levels.
External/Conceptual Mapping
 It relates each external schema with conceptual schema.
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 1 – Introductory Concepts of DBMS
 It defines correspondence between a particular external view and conceptual schema.
 If the structure of conceptual schema is changed, then external/conceptual mapping
must be changed accordingly and external schema can remain invariant.
 There could be several mappings between external and conceptual levels.

Explain Data Independence.

Data Independence
 Data independency is the ability to modify a schema definition in one level without
affecting a schema definition in the next higher level.
Types of data independence
 Physical data independence
 Logical data independence
Physical data independence
 Physical data independence allows changing in physical storage devices or organization
of file without change in the conceptual view or external view.
 Modifications at the internal level are occasionally necessary to improve performance.
 Physical data independence separates conceptual level from the internal level.
 It is easy to achieve physical data independence.
Logical data independence
 Logical data independence is the ability to modify the conceptual schema without
requiring any change in application programs.
 Conceptual schema can be changed without affecting the existing external schema.
 Modifications at the logical level are necessary whenever the logical structure of the
database is altered.
 Logical data independence separates external level from the conceptual view.
 It is difficult to achieve logical data independence.
Explain different database users.
There are four different database users.
Application programmers
 These users are computer professionals who write application programs using some
tools.
Sophisticated users
 These users interact with system without writing program. They form their request in a
database query language.
Specialized users
 These users write specialized database applications that do not fit into the traditional
data processing framework.
Naive users
 These users are unsophisticated users who have very less knowledge of database
system.
 These users interact with the system by using one of the application programs that have been

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 1 – Introductory Concepts of DBMS
written previously.
 Examples, people accessing database over the web, bank tellers, clerical staff etc.

Differentiate the DA and DBA.

DA (Data Administrator) DBA (Database Administrator)
The data administrator is a person in the The database administrator is a person in the
organization who controls the data of the organization who controls the design and the use
database. of the database.
DA determines what data to be stored in database DBA provides necessary technical support for
based on requirements of the organization. implementing a database.

DA is involved more in the requirements DBA is involved more in the design,

gathering, analysis, and design phases. development, testing and operational phases.
DA is a manager or some senior level person in an DBA is a technical person having knowledge of
organization who understands organizational database technology.
requirements with respect to
data.
DA does not need to be a technical person, but DBA does not need to be a business person, but
any kind of knowledge about database technology any kind of knowledge about a functionality of an
can be more beneficiary. organization can be more beneficiary.

DA is a business focused person, but, he/she DBA is a technically focused person, but, he/she
should understand more about the database should understand more about the business to
technology. administer the databases effectively.

Explain Database System Architecture. (OR)

Explain Database System Structure.
Components of a DBMS
These functional units of a database system can be divided into two parts:
1. Query Processor Units (Components)
2. Storage Manager Units
Query Processor Units:
Query processor units deal with execution of DDL and DML statements.
 DDL Interpreter — Interprets DDL statements into a set of tables containing metadata.
 DML Compiler — Translates DML statements into low level instructions that the query
evaluation engine understands.
 Embedded DML Pre-compiler — Converts DML statements embedded in an application program
into normal procedure caIls in the host language.
 Query Evaluation Engine — Executes low level instructions generated by DML compiler.
Storage Manager Units:
Storage manager units provide interface between the low level data stored in database and the application
programs & queries submitted to the system.

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 1 – Introductory Concepts of DBMS
 Authorization Manager — Checks the authority of users to access data.
 Integrity Manager — Checks for the satisfaction of the integrity constraints.
 Transaction Manager — Preserves atomicity and controls concurrency.
 File Manager — Manages allocation of space on disk storage.
 Buffer Manager — Fetches data from disk storage to memory for being used.
In addition to these functional units, several data structures are required to implement physical storage system.
These are described below:
 Data Files — To store user data.
 Data Dictionary and System Catalog — To store metadata. It is used heavily, almost for each and
every data manipulation operation. So, it should be accessed efficiently.
 Indices — To provide faster access to data items.
 Statistical Data — To store statistical information about the data in the database. This information is
used by the query processor to select efficient ways to execute a query.

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 1 – Introductory Concepts of DBMS
naive users
sophisticated
(tellers, agents, application database
users
web-users) programmers administrator
(analyst)
use write use
use

application administra
application query
interfaces -tion tool
program tool

DDL
compiler and interpreter
DML queries
linker

application
program object DML compiler
code and organizer

query evaluation
engine
query processor

buffer manager file manager authorization transaction

and integrity manager
manager

storage manager

data data dictionary

12
Explain database system 3 tier architecture with clear diagram
in detail.
 Most widely used architecture is 3-tier architecture.
 3-tier architecture separates it tier from each other on basis of users.

user Presentation Tier

client

application client

Application Tier
network

application server
server
Database Tier
database system

3 tier architecture
Database (Data) Tier
 At this tier, only database resides.
 Database along with its query processing languages sits in layer-3 of 3-tier architecture.
 It also contains all relations and their constraints.
Application (Middle) Tier
 At this tier the application server and program, which access database, resides.
 For a user this application tier works as abstracted view of database.
 Users are unaware of any existence of database beyond application.
 For database-tier, application tier is the user of it.
 Database tier is not aware of any other user beyond application tier.
 This tier works as mediator between the two.
User (Presentation) Tier
 An end user sits on this tier.
 From a users aspect this tier is everything.
 He/she doesn't know about any existence or form of database beyond this layer.
 At this layer multiple views of database can be provided by the application.
 All views are generated by an application, which resides in application tier.
 2 – Relational Model

Explain keys.
Super key
 A super key is a set of one or more attributes that allow us to identify each tuple
uniquely in a relation.
 For example, the enrollment_no, roll_no with department_name of a student is
sufficient to distinguish one student tuple from another. So {enrollment_no} and
{roll_no, department_name} both are super key.
Candidate key
 Candidate key is a super key for which no proper subset is a super key.
 For example, combination of roll_no and department_name is sufficient to distinguish
one student tuple from another. But either roll_no or department_name alone is not
sufficient to distinguish one student tuple from another. So {roll_no, department_name}
is candidate key.
 Combination of enrollment_no and department_name is sufficient to distinguish one
student tuple from another. But enrollment_no alone is also sufficient to distinguish one
student tuple from another. So {enrollment_no, department_name} is not candidate
key.
Primary key
 A Primary key is a candidate key that is chosen by database designer to identify tuples
uniquely in a relation.
Alternate key
 An Alternate key is a candidate key that is not chosen by database designer to identify
tuples uniquely in a relation.
Foreign key
 A foreign key is a set of one or more attributes whose values are derived from the
primary key attribute of another relation.
What is relational algebra? Explain relational algebraic
operation.
 Relational algebra is a language for expressing relational database queries.
 Relation algebra is a procedural query language.
 Relational algebraic operations are as follows:
Selection:-
 Operation: Selects tuples from a relation that satisfy a given condition.
It is used to select particular tuples from a relation.
It selects particular tuples but all attribute from a relation.
 Symbol: σ (Sigma)
 Notation: σ(condition) <Relation>
 Operators: The following operators can be used in a condition.
=, ?, <, >, <=,>=, Λ(AND), ∨(OR)

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 2 – Relational Model
 Consider following table

Student
Rno Name Dept CPI
101 Ramesh CE 8
108 Mahesh EC 6
109 Amit CE 7
125 Chetan CI 8
138 Mukesh ME 7
128 Reeta EC 6
133 Anita CE 9

 Example: Find out all the students of CE department.

σDept=“CE” (Student)
 Output: The above query returns all tuples which contain CE as department
name. Output of above query is as follows

Student
Rno Name Dept CPI
101 Ramesh CE 8
109 Amit CE 7
133 Anita CE 9
Projection:-
 Operation: Selects specified attributes of a relation.
It selects particular attributes but all tuples from a relation.
 Symbol: ∏ (Pi)
 Notation: ∏ (attribute set) <Relation>
 Consider following table

Student
Rno Name Dept CPI
101 Ramesh CE 8
108 Mahesh EC 6
109 Amit CE 7
125 Chetan CI 8
138 Mukesh ME 7
128 Reeta EC 6
133 Anita CE 9

 Example: List out all students with their roll no, name and department name.
∏Rno, Name, Dept (Student)

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 2 – Relational Model
 Output: The above query returns all tuples with three attributes roll no, name and
department name.
Output of above query is as follows
Student
Rno Name Dept
101 Ramesh CE
108 Mahesh EC
109 Amit CE
125 Chetan CI
138 Mukesh ME
128 Reeta EC
133 Anita CE

 Example: List out all students of CE department with their roll no, name and
department name.
∏Rno, Name, Dept (σDept=“CE” (Student))
 Output: The above query returns tuples which contain CE as department with three
attributes roll no, name and department name.
Output of above query is as follows
Student
Rno Name Dept
101 Ramesh CE
109 Amit CE
133 Anita CE
Division:-
 Operation: The division is a binary relation that is written as R÷S.
The result consists of the header of R but not in the header of S, for which it
holds that all the tuples in S are presented in R.
 Symbol: ÷
 Notation: R ÷ S
 Consider following table

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 2 – Relational Model
Work
Student Task
Shah Database1
Project Shah Database2
Task Shah Compiler1
Database1 Vyas Database1
Database2 Vyas Compiler1
Patel Database1
Patel Database2

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 2 – Relational Model
 Example: Find out all students having both tasks Database1 as well as Database2.
∏(student)(Work) ÷ ∏(Task)(Project)
 Output: It gives name of all students whose task is both
Database1 as well as Database2. Output of above query is
as follows
Student
Shah
Patel

Cartesian product:-
 Operation: Combines information of two relations.
It will multiply each tuples of first relation to each tuples of second relation.
It is also known as Cross product operation and similar to mathematical
Cartesian product operation.
 Symbol: X (Cross)
 Notation: Relation1 X Relation2
 Resultant Relation :
 If relation1 and relation2 have n1 and n2 attributes respectively, then resultant
relation will have n1 + n2 attributes from both the input relations.
 If both relations have some attribute having same name, it can be distinguished
by combing relation-name.attribute-name.
 If relation1 and relation2 have n1 and n2 tuples respectively, then resultant
relation will have n1*n2 attributes, combining each possible pair of tuples from
both the input relations.

R R×S
A 1 A 1 A 1
B 2 A 1 D 2
D 3 A 1 E 3
B 2 A 1
S
B 2 D 2
A 1 B 2 E 3
D 2 D 3 A 1
E 3 D 3 D 2
D 3 E 3
 Consider following table
Emp Dept
Empid Empname Deptname Deptname Manager
S01 Manisha Finance Finance Arun
S02 Anisha Sales Sales Rohit
S03 Nisha Finance Production Kishan

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 2 – Relational Model
 Example:
Emp × Dept
Empid Empname Emp.Deptname Dept.Deptname Manager
S01 Manisha Finance Finance Arun
S01 Manisha Finance Sales Rohit
S01 Manisha Finance Production Kishan
S02 Anisha Sales Finance Arun
S02 Anisha Sales Sales Rohit
S02 Anisha Sales Production Kishan
S03 Nisha Finance Finance Arun
S03 Nisha Finance Sales Rohit
S03 Nisha Finance Production Kishan

Join:-
Natural Join Operation (⋈)
 Operation: Natural join will retrieve information from multiple relations. It works in
three steps.
1. It performs Cartesian product
2. Then it finds consistent tuples and inconsistent tuples are deleted
3. Then it deletes duplicate attributes
 Symbol: ⋈
 Notation: Relation1 ⋈ Relation2
 Consider following table
Emp Dept
Empid Empname Deptname Deptame Manager
S01 Manisha Finance Finance Arun
S02 Anisha Sales Sales Rohit
S03 Nisha Finance Production Kishan
 Example:
Emp ⋈ Dept
Empid Empname Deptname Manager
S01 Manisha Finance Arun
S02 Anisha Sales Rohit
S03 Nisha Finance Arun

The Outer Join Operation

 An outer join does not require each record in the two joined tables to have a matching
record.

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 2 – Relational Model
 In natural join some records are missing if we want that missing records than we have to
use outer join.
 The outer join operation can be divided into three different forms:
1. Left outer join ( )
2. Right outer join ( )
3. Full outer join ( )
 Consider following tables
College Hostel
Name Id Department Name Hostel_name Room_no
Manisha S01 Computer Anisha Kaveri hostel K01
Anisha S02 Computer Nisha Godavari hostel G07
Nisha S03 I.T. Isha Kaveri hostel K02
Left outer join ( )
 The left outer join retains all the tuples of the left relation even through there is no
matching tuple in the right relation.
 For such kind of tuples having no matching, the attributes of right relation will be
padded with null in resultant relation.
 Example : College Hostel
College Hostel
Name Id Department Hostel_name Room_no
Manisha S01 Computer Null Null
Anisha S02 Computer Kaveri hostel K01
Nisha S03 I.T. Godavari hostel G07

Right outer join ( )

 The right outer join returns all the tuples of the right relation even though there is no
matching tuple in the left relation.
 For such kind of tuples having no matching, the attributes of left relation will be padded
with null in resultant relation.
 Example : College Hostel
College Hostel
Name Id Department Hostel_name Room_no
Anisha S02 Computer Kaveri hostel K01
Nisha S03 I.T. Godavari hostel G07
Isha Null Null Kaveri Hostel K02
Full outer join ( )
 The full outer join returns all the tuples of both of the relations. It also pads null values
whenever required.

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 2 – Relational Model
 Example : College Hostel

College Hostel
Name Id Department Hostel_name Room_no
Manisha S01 Computer Null Null
Anisha S02 Computer Kaveri hostel K01
Nisha S03 I.T. Godavari hostel G07
Isha Null Null Kaveri Hostel K02
Union
 Operation: Selects tuples those are in either or both of the relations.
 Symbol : U(Union)
 Notation : Relation1 U Relation2
 Requirement: Union must be taken between compatible
relations. Relations R and S are compatible, if
 Both have same arity, i.e. total numbers of attributes, and
 Domains of ith attribute of R and S are same type.

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 2 – Relational Model
 Example :
R S RUS
A 1
B 2
A 1
A 1 C 2
B 2
C 2 D 3
D 3
D 3 F 4
F 4
E 4 E 5
E 5
E 4

 Consider following tables

Emp Cst
Id Name Id Name
1 Manisha 1 Manisha
2 Anisha 2 Anisha
3 Nisha 4 Isha
 Example:
Emp U Cst
Id Name
1 Manisha
2 Anisha
3 Nisha
4 Isha

9
Intersection
 Operation: Selects tuples those are in both relations.
 Symbol : ∩ (Intersection)
 Notation : Relation1 ∩ Relation2
 Requirement: Set-intersection must be taken between compatible relations.
Relations R and S are compatible, if
 Both have same arity, i.e. total numbers of attributes, and
 Domains of ith attributes of R and S are same type.
  Example
R S R∩S
A 1
B 2 A 1
D 3 C 2 A 1
F 4 D 3 D 3
E 5 E 4

 Consider following tables

Emp Cst
Id Name Id Name
1 Manisha 1 Manisha
2 Anisha 2 Anisha
3 Nisha 4 Isha
 Example:
Emp ∩ Cst
Id Name
1 Manisha
2 Anisha
Difference:-
 Operation: Selects tuples those are in first (left) relation but not in second (right)
relation.
 Symbol : — (Minus)
 Notation : Relation1 — Relation2
 Requirement: Set-difference must be taken between compatible relations.
Relations R and S are compatible, if
 Both have same arity, i.e. total numbers of attributes, and
 Domains of ith attribute of R and S are same type.
  Example :
R S R—S
A 1
B 2 A 1
B 2
D 3 C 2
F 4
F 4 D 3
E 5
E 5 E 4

 Consider following tables

Emp Cst
Id Name Id Name
1 Manisha 1 Manisha
2 Anisha 2 Anisha
3 Nisha 4 Isha
 Example:
Emp — Cst
Id Name
3 Nisha

Cst — Emp
Id Name
4 Isha

Rename:-
 Operation: It is used to rename a relation or attributes.
 Symbol: ρ (Rho)
 Notation: ρA(B) Rename relation B to A.
ρA(X1,X2….Xn)(B) Rename relation B to A and its attributes to X1, X2, …., Xn.
 Consider following table

Student
Rno Name Dept CPI
101 Ramesh CE 8
108 Mahesh EC 6
109 Amit CE 7
125 Chetan CI 8
138 Mukesh ME 7
128 Reeta EC 6
133 Anita CE 9
  Example: Find out highest CPI from student table.
∏CPI (Student) — ∏A.CPI (σ A.CPI<B.CPI (ρA (Student) X ρB (Student)))
 Output: The above query returns highest CPI.
Output of above query is as follows

CPI
9
Aggregate Function:-
 Operation: It takes a more than one value as input and returns a single value as output
(result).
 Symbol: G
 Notation: G function (attribute) (relation)
 Aggregate functions: Sum, Count, Max, Min, Avg.
 Consider following table

Student
Rno Name Dept CPI
101 Ramesh CE 8
108 Mahesh EC 6
109 Amit CE 7
125 Chetan CI 8
138 Mukesh ME 7
128 Reeta EC 6
133 Anita CE 9
 Example: Find out sum of all students CPI.
G sum (CPI) (Student)
Output: The above query returns sum of CPI.
Output of above query is as follows

sum
51
 Example: Find out max and min CPI.
G max (CPI), min (CPI) (Student)
Output: The above query returns sum of CPI.
Output of above query is as follows

max min
9 6
 SQL Concepts

Consider following schema and represent given statements in

relation algebra form.
* Branch(branch_name,branch_city)
* Account(branch_name, acc_no, balance)
* Depositor(customer_name, acc_no)
(i) Find out list of customer who have account at ‘abc’ branch.
∏customer_name (σbranch_name=“abc” (Depositor ⋈ Account))

(ii) Find out all customer who have an account in ‘Ahmedabad’ city and
balance is greater than 10,000.
∏customer_name (σ Branch.branch_city=“Ahmedabad” Λ σ Account.balance >10000 (Branch ⋈ Account ⋈
Depositor))

(iii) find out list of all branch name with their maximum balance.
∏branch_name , G max (balance) (Account)

1
 SQL Concepts
What is constraint? Explain types of constraints.

OR What are integrity constraints? Explain various types of

integrity constraints with suitable example.
 A constraint is a rule that restricts the values that may be present in the database.
 Constraints can be mainly classified into two categories.
1. Entity integrity constraints
2. Referential integrity constraints
Oracle constraints

Entity integrity Referential

integrity

Domain integrity Key constraints

constraint

1. Not null 1. Unique 1. Foreign key

2. check 2. Primary key

Not Null constraint

 A null value indicates ‘not applicable’, ‘missing’, or ‘not known’.
 A null value is distinct from zero or blank space.
 A column, defined as a not null, cannot have a null value.
 Such a column become a mandatory (compulsory) column and cannot be left empty for
any record.
 Syntax : ColumName datatype (size) NOT NULL
 Example :
create table Account (ano char(3),
Balance number(9) NOT
NULL, Branch varchar2(10));
 Now, if we insert NULL value to Balance column then it will generate an error.
Check constraint
 The check constraint is used to implement business rule. So, it is also called business
rule constraint.
 Example of business rule: A balance in any account should not be negative.
 Business rule define a domain for a particular column.
 The check constraint is bound to a particular column.
2
 SQL Concepts
 Once check constraint is implemented, any insert or update operation on that table
must follow this constraint.
 If any operation violates condition, it will be rejected.
 Syntax : ColumnName datatype (size) check(condition)
 Example :
create table Account (ano char(3),
Balance number(9) CHECK (not (balance <0)),
Branch varchar2(10));
 Any business rule validations can be applied using this constraint.
 A condition must be some valid logical expression.
 A check constraint takes longer time to execute.
 On violation of this constrain, oracle display error message like – “check constraint
violated”.
Unique Constraint
 Sometime there may be requirement that column cannot contain duplicate values.
 A column, defined as a unique, cannot have duplicate values across all records.
 Syntax : ColumnName datatype (size) UNIQUE
 Example :
create table Account (ano char(3) UNIQUE,
Balance number(9),
Branch varchar2(10));
 Though, a unique constraint does not allow duplicate values, NULL values can be
duplicated in a column defined as a UNIQUE column.
 A table can have more than one column defined as a unique column.
 If multiple columns need to be defined as composite unique column, then only table
level definition is applicable.
 Maximum 16 columns can be combined as a composite unique key in a table.
Primary key Constraint
 “A primary key is a set of one or more columns used to identify each record uniquely in
a column.”
 A single column primary key is called a simple key, while a multi-column primary key is
called composite primary key.
 Oracle provides a primary key constraint to define primary key for a table.
 A column, defined as a primary key, cannot have duplicate values across all records and
cannot have a null value.
 Syntax : ColumnName datatype (size) primary key
 Example :
create table Account (ano char(3) PRIMARY KEY,
Balance number(9),
Branch varchar2(10));
 A primary key constraint is combination of UNIQUE constraint and NOT NULL constraint.

3
 SQL Concepts
 A table cannot have more than one primary key.
 If multiple columns need to be defined as primary key column, then only table level
definition is applicable.
 Maximum 16 columns can be combined as a composite primary key in a table.
Foreign Key Constraint
 A foreign key constraint is also called referential integrity constraint, is specified
between two tables.
 This constraint is used to ensure consistency among records of the two tables.
 The table, in which a foreign key is defined, is called a foreign table, detail table or child
table.
 The table, of which primary key or unique key is defined, is called a primary table,
master table or parent table.
 Restriction on child table :
 Child table contains a foreign key. And, it is related to master table.
 Insert or update operation involving value of foreign key is not allowed, if
corresponding value does not exist in a master table.
 Restriction on master table :
 Master table contains a primary key, which is referred by foreign key in child
table.
 Delete or update operation on records in master table are not allowed, if
corresponding records are present in child table.
 Syntax : ColumnName datatype (size) REFERENCES TableName (ColumnName)
 Example :
create table Account (ano char(3) ,
Balance number(9),
Branch varchar2(10) REFERENCES branch_detail(branch));
 Master table must be exist before creating child table.
Explain DDL, DML, DCL and DQL. OR
Describe component of SQL.
DDL (Data Definition Language)
 It is a set of SQL commands used to create, modify and delete database objects such as
tables, views, indices, etc.
 It is normally used by DBA and database designers.
 It provides commands like:
 CREATE: to create objects in a database.
 ALTER: to alter the schema, or logical structure, of the database.
 DROP: to delete objects from the database.
 TRUNCATE: to remove all records from the table.

4
 SQL Concepts
DML (Data Manipulation Language)
 It is a set of SQL commands used to insert, modify and delete data in a database.
 It is normally used by general users who are accessing database via pre-developed
applications.
 It provides commands like:
 INSERT: to insert data into a table.
 UPDATE: to modify existing data in a table.
 DELETE: to delete records from a table.
 LOCK: to lock tables to provide concurrency control among multiple users.
DQL (Data Query Language)
 It is a component of SQL that allows data retrieval from the database.
 It provides command like SELECT. This command is a heart of SQL, and allows
data retrieval in different ways.
DCL (Data Control Language)
 It is set of SQL commands used to control access to data and database. Occasionally DCL
commands are grouped with DML commands.
 It provides commands like:
 COMMIT: to save work permanently.
 ROLLBACK: to undo work and restore database to previous state.
 SAVEPOINT: to identify a point in a transaction to which work can be undone.
 GRANT: to give access privileges to users on the database.
 REVOKE: to withdraw access privileges given to users on the database.
Describe the following SQL functions.
SQL Function Description SQL Query Example

Numeric function
Abs(n) Returns the absolute value of n. Select Abs(-15) from dual;
O/P : 15
Power (m,n) Returns m raised to n power.
th
Select power(3,2) from dual;
O/P : 9
Round (n,m) Returns n rounded to m places the Select round(15.91,1) from dual;
right of decimal point. o/p : 15.9
Sqrt(n) Returns square root of n. Select sqrt(25) from dual;
O/P : 5
th
Exp(n) Returns e raised to the n power, Select exp(1) from dual;
O/P : 1
e=2.17828183.
Gretest() Returns the greatest value in a list Select greatest(10, 20, 30) from dual;
of values. O/P : 30

5
 SQL Concepts
Least () Returns the least value in a list of Select least(10,20,30) from dual;
values. O/P : 10
Mod(n,m) Returns remainder of n divided by Select mod(10,2) from dual;
m. O/P : 0
Ceil(n) Returns the smallest integer value Select ceil(24.8) from dual;
that is greater than or equal to a O/P : 25
number.
ASCII(x) Returns ASCII value of character. Select ascii(‘A’) from dual;
O/P : 97
Concat() Concatenates two strings. Select concat(‘great’,’DIET’) from dual;
O/P : greatDIET
Initcap () Changes the first letter of a word in Select initcap(‘diet’) from dual;
to capital. O/P : Diet
Instr () Returns a location within the string Select instr(‘this is test’,’is) from dual;
where search patterns begins. O/P : 3
Length () Returns the number of character in Select length(‘DIET’) from dual;
x. O/P : 4
Lower() Converts the string to lower case. Select lower(‘DIET’) from dual;
O/P : diet
Upper() Converts the string to upper case. Select upper(‘diet’) from dual;
O/P : DIET
Lpad() Pads x with spaces to left to bring Select lpad(‘abc’,9,’>’) from dual;
the total length of the string up to O/P : >>>>>>abc
width characters.
Rpad() Pads x with spaces to right to bring Select rpad(‘abc’,9,’>’) from dual;
the total length of the string up to O/P : abc>>>>>>
width characters.
Ltrim() Trim characters from the left of x. Select ltrim(‘sumita‘,’usae’) from dual;
O/P : mita
Rtrim() Trim characters from the right of x. Select rtrim(‘sumita‘,’tab’) from dual;
O/P : sumi
Replace() Looks for the string and replace the Select replace(‘this is college’,’is’,’may
string every time it occurs. be’) from dual;
O/P :thmay be may be college
Substr() Returns the part of string Select substr(‘this is college’,6,7) from
dual;
O/P : is my c

6
 SQL Concepts
Vsize() Returns storage size of string in Select vsize(‘abc’) from dual;
oracle. O/P : 3

Miscellaneous function
Uid Returns integer value corresponding Select uid from dual;
to the UserId. O/P : 618
User Returns the name of user. Select user from dual;
O/P : admin
Userenv Returns the information about the Select userenv (‘language’) from dual;
current oracle session. O/P :
AMERICAN_AMERICA.WE8MSWIN1252
Avg(x) Returns the average value. Select avg(salary) from employee;
Count(x) Returns the number of row return Select count(deptno) from employee;
by a query.
Max(x) Returns the maximum value of x. Select max(salary) from employee;
Min(x) Returns the minimum value of x. Select min(salary) from employee;
Median(x) Returns the median value of x. Select median(salary) from employee;
Sum(x) Returns the sum of x. Select sum(salary) from employee;
Stddev(x) Returns standard deviation of x. Select stddev(salary) from employee;
Variance(x) Returns variance of x. Select variance(salary) from employee;

Date functions & conversion function

To_char Takes date data type and returns Select ldate, to_char(ldate,’dd-mon-
character string according to yyyy’) from demodate;
acceptable format. O/P : 1-jan-2011
To_date Converts x string to date time Select to_date(‘1-jan-2011’,
’dd-mon-yyyy’) from dual;
O/P : 1-jan-2011
To_number Converts character string to number Select to_number(‘10’) + 20 from dual;
O/P : 30
Add_months(x,y) Gets the result of adding y months Select add_months(‘1-jan-2005’,1)
to x. from dual;
O/P : 1-feb-2005
Sysdate Returns the date of operating Select sysdate from dual;
system O/P : (write today’s date)
Last_day Returns the last day of any month. Select last_day(’01-jan-2005’) from
dual;
O/P : 31-jan-2005

7
 SQL Concepts
Months_between Gets the number of months between Select months_between(’01-jan-
x and y. 2005’,’01-feb-2005’) from dual;
O/P : 1
Next_day Returns date of the next day Select next_day(’01-jan-
following x. 2005’,’saturday’) from dual;
O/P : 08-jan-2005

Explain Transaction Control Commands. OR

Explain commit, rollback and savepoint command.
 Transaction Control Commands (TCL) is a set of SQL commands that are used to control
transactional processing in a database.
 A transaction is logical unit of work that consists of one or more SQL statements, usually
a group of Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements.
 Transaction Control Commands (TCL) commands include
1. COMMIT: The COMMIT command is the transactional command used to save
changes invoked by a transaction to the database. The COMMIT command saves
all transactions to the database since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK command.

Example: Consider following table

Student
Rollno Name SPI
1 Raju 8
2 Hari 9
3 Mahesh 7
SQL> DELETE FROM STUDENT WHERE SPI <8;
SQL> COMMIT;
Output:
Student
Rollno Name SPI
1 Raju 8
2 Hari 9

2. ROLLBACK: The ROLLBACK command is the transactional control command used

to undo transactions that have not already been saved to the database.
The ROLLBACK command can only be used to undo transactions since the
last COMMIT or ROLLBACK command was issued.

8
 SQL Concepts
Example: Consider following table
Student
Rollno Name CGPA
1 Raju 8
2 Hari 9
3 Mahesh 7

SQL> DELETE FROM STUDENT WHERE CGPA <8;

SQL> COMMIT;
Output:
Student
Rollno Name CGPA
1 Raju 8
2 Hari 9
3 Mahesh 7

3. SAVEPOINT: A SAVEPOINT is a point in a transaction when you can roll the

transaction back to a certain point without rolling back the entire transaction.
Example:
SQL> SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
SQL> ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT_NAME;
Explain Security Privileged Commands. OR
Explain Grant and Revoke command. OR
Explain Data Control Language (DCL) Commands.
 DCL commands are used to enforce (implement) database security in a multiple user
database environment.
 These commands are used to give or take back permission on any object to/from any
user.
 Two types of DCL commands are GRANT and REVOKE.
 Only Database Administrator's or owner of the database object can provide/remove
privileges on a database object.
1. GRANT: GRANT is a command used to provide access or privileges or rights on
the database objects to the users.
Syntax:
GRANT privilege_name
ON object_name
TO {user_name |PUBLIC}
[WITH GRANT OPTION];

9
 SQL Concepts
Explanation:
 privilege_name is the access right or privilege granted to the user. Some
of the access rights are ALL, EXECUTE, and SELECT.
 object_name is the name of an database object like TABLE, VIEW,
STORED PROC and SEQUENCE.
 user_name is the name of the user to whom an access right is being
granted.
 PUBLIC is used to grant access rights to all users.
 WITH GRANT OPTION - allows a user to grant (give) access rights to other
users.
2. REVOKE: The REVOKE is a command used to take back access or privileges or
rights on the database objects from the users.
Syntax:
REVOKE privilege_name
ON object_name
FROM {user_name |PUBLIC }
Explanation:
 privilege_name is the access right or privilege want to take back from the
user. Some of the access rights are ALL, EXECUTE, and SELECT.
 object_name is the name of an database object like TABLE, VIEW,
STORED PROC and SEQUENCE.
 user_name is the name of the user from whom an access right is being
taken back.
 PUBLIC is used to take back access rights to all users.
Explain on delete cascade with example.
 A foreign key with cascade delete means that if a record in the Parent (Master) table is
deleted, then the corresponding records in the Child (Foreign) table with automatically
be deleted. This is called a cascade delete in Oracle.
 A foreign key with a cascade delete can be defined in either a CREATE TABLE statement
or an ALTER TABLE statement.
 Syntax (Create table)
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column1 datatype null/not null,
column2 datatype null/not null,
...

CONSTRAINT fk_column
FOREIGN KEY (column1, column2, ... column_n)
REFERENCES parent_table (column1, column2, ...
column_n)
10
 SQL Concepts
ON DELETE CASCADE
);

 Syntax (Alter table)

ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name
FOREIGN KEY (column1, column2, ... column_n)
REFERENCES parent_table (column1, column2, ... column_n)
ON DELETE CASCADE;

11
 PL/SQL Concepts

Explain the advantages of PL/SQL.

Advantages of PL/SQL
 Block structure: PL/SQL consist of block of code, which can be nested within each other.
Each block forms a unit of a task or a logical module. PL/SQL blocks can be stored in the
database and reused.
 Procedural language capability: PL/SQL consist of procedural constructs such as
conditional statements (if, if else, nested if, else if ladder) and loops (for, while, do
while).
 Better performance: PL/SQL engine processes multiple SQL statements simultaneously
as a single block, thereby reducing network traffic.
 Error handling: PL/SQL handles errors or exceptions effectively during the execution of
PL/SQL program. Once an exception is caught, specific action can be taken depending
upon the type of the exception or it can be displayed to the user with message.
Write short note on stored procedure in PL/SQL. OR
Explain stored procedures in PL/SQL.
 A stored procedure (proc) is a group of PL/SQL statements that performs specific task.
 A procedure has two parts, header and body.
 The header consists of the name of the procedure and the parameters passed to the
procedure.
 The body consists of declaration section, execution section and exception section.
 A procedure may or may not return any value. A procedure may return more than one
value.
General Syntax to create a procedure
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE proc_name [list of parameters]
IS
Declaration section
BEGIN
Execution section
EXCEPTION
Exception section
END;

Explanation
Create:-It will create a procedure.
Replace:- It will re-create a procedure if it already exists.
We can pass parameters to the procedures in three ways.
1. IN-parameters: - These types of parameters are used to send values to stored
procedures.

1
 2. OUT-parameters: - These types of parameters are used to get values from stored
procedures. This is similar to a return type in functions but procedure can return values
for more than one parameters.
3. IN OUT-parameters: - This type of parameter allows us to pass values into a procedure
and get output values from the procedure.
IS indicates the beginning of the body of the procedure. The code between IS and BEGIN forms
the Declaration section.
Begin:-It contains the executable statement.
Exception:- It contains exception handling part. This section is optional.
End:- It will end the procedure.
The syntax within the brackets [ ] indicates that they are optional.
By using CREATE OR REPLACE together the procedure is created if it does not exist and if it
exists then it is replaced with the current code.

How to execute a Stored Procedure?

 There are two ways to execute a procedure.
1) From the SQL prompt.
Syntax: EXECUTE [or EXEC] procedure_name (parameter);
2) Within another procedure – simply use the procedure
name. Syntax: procedure_name (parameter);

Example 1 (Using IN)

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE get_studentname_by_id (id IN NUMBER)
IS
BEGIN
 SELECT studentname
FROM stu_tbl
WHERE studentID = id;
END;
Execute:- EXECUTE get_studentname_by_id(10); OR
get_studentname_by_id(10);
Explanation:- Above procedure gives the name of student whose id is 10.

Example 2 (Using OUT)

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE multiplication @mult1 int, @mult2 int, @result int
OUTPUT
as
select @result = @mult1 * @mult2
Execute:- EXECUTE multiplication (5,6); OR
multiplication (5,6);
Explanation:- Above procedure gives the multiplication of 4 and 6 that is equal to 30.
Advantages of procedure
 Security:- We can improve security by giving rights to selected persons only.
 Faster Execution:- It is precompiled so compilation of procedure is not required every
time you call it.
 Sharing of code:- Once procedure is created and stored, it can be used by more than
one user.
 Productivity:- Code written in procedure is shared by all programmers. This eliminates
redundant coding by multiple programmers so overall improvement in productivity.

Explain database trigger with example.

OR Write short note on database triggers in PL/SQL.

OR What is trigger? Explain its type with their syntax.

 A trigger is a PL/SQL block structure which is triggered (executed) automatically when
DML statements like Insert, Delete, and Update is executed on a table.
 There are two types of triggers based on the level it is triggered.
1. Row level trigger - An event is triggered when any row of the table is changed
irrespective of insert, update or delete statement.
2. Statement level trigger - An event is triggered when particular SQL statement is
executed, e.g. trigger on insert command.
 We cannot pass parameters into triggers like stored procedure.
 We cannot do transaction control (commit … rollback) in trigger.
 Triggers are normally slow.
 When triggers can be used,
1. Based on change in one table, we want to update other table.
2. Automatically update derived columns whose values change based on other
columns.
3. Logging.
4. Enforce business rules.

Syntax of Trigger
CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name
[BEFORE / AFTER]
[INSERT / UPDATE / DELETE [of columnname]]
ON table_name
[REFERENCING [OLD AS old, NEW AS new]]
[FOR EACH ROW [WHEN condition]]
DECLARE
Declaration section
 BEGIN
Executable statements
END;

CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name:- This clause creates a trigger with the given
name or overwrites an existing trigger.
[BEFORE | AFTER]:- This clause indicates at what time the trigger should be fired. Before
updating the table or after updating a table.
[INSERT / UPDATE / DELETE]:- This clause determines on which kind of statement the trigger
should be fired. Either on insert or update or delete or combination of any or all. More than
one statement can be used together separated by OR keyword. The trigger gets fired at all the
specified triggering event.
[OF columnname]:- This clause is used when you want to trigger an event only when a specific
column is updated. This clause is mostly used with update triggers.
[ON table_name]:- This clause identifies the name of the table or view to which the trigger is
related.
[REFERENCING OLD AS old NEW AS new]:- This clause is used to reference the old and new
values of the data being changed. By default, you reference the values as old. column_name or
new.column_name. The reference names can also be changed from old or new to any other
user-defined name. You cannot reference old values while inserting a record, or new values
while deleting a record, because they do not exist.
[FOR EACH ROW]:- This clause is used to determine whether a trigger must fire when each row
gets affected ( i.e. a Row Level Trigger) or just once when the entire SQL statement is
executed(i.e.statement level Trigger).
WHEN (condition):- The trigger is fired only for rows that satisfy the condition specified. This
clause is valid only for row level triggers.

Example 1
We are creating trigger that display message if we insert negative value or update value to
negative value in bal column of account table.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER balnegative
BEFORE insert OR update
On account
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
IF :NEW.bal<0 THEN
dbms.output.put.line (‘balance is negative’)
END IF;
END;
OUTPUT:- Trigger is created.
 Now when you perform insert operation on account table.
SQL:> Insert into account (bal) values (-2000); OR
 Update account set bal=-5000 where bal=1000;
 It displays following message before executing insert or update statement.
Output:- Balance is negative.
 We get message that balance is negative it indicates that trigger has executed before
the insertion or update operation.

Example 2
CREATE TRIGGER trig1
AFTER insert ON T4
REFERENCING NEW AS newRow
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (newRow.a <= 10)
BEGIN
INSERT INTO T5 VALUES (newRow.a, newRow.b);
END;
OUTPUT:- Trigger is created.
Explanation:- We have following two tables
 CREATE TABLE T4 (a INTEGER, b CHAR(10));
 CREATE TABLE T5 (c INTEGER, d CHAR(10));
 We have created a trigger that may insert a tuple into T5 when a tuple is inserted into
T4. It will check that the record insert in T4 is 10 th or less than 10th record if so then the
same record is inserted into table T5.

Example 3
CREATE TRIGGER Person_Check_Age
AFTER insert OR update OF age ON Person
FOR EACH ROW
 BEGIN
IF (:new.age < 0) THEN
dbms.output.put.line('no negative age allowed');
END IF;
END;
OUTPUT:- Trigger is created.
Explanation:-In above trigger if we are inserting negative value in Age column then it will give
error. If we insert negative value in other column then it will not give any error.
What is cursor? Explain with example. OR
Write short note on cursors and its types.
 Cursors are database objects used to traverse the results of a select SQL query.
 It is a temporary work area created in the system memory when a select SQL statement
is executed.
  This temporary work area is used to store the data retrieved from the database, and
manipulate this data.
 It points to a certain location within a record set and allow the operator to move
forward (and sometimes backward, depending upon the cursor type).
 We can process only one record at a time.
 The set of rows the cursor holds which is called the active set (active data set).
 Cursors are often criticized for their high overhead.
 There are two types of cursors in PL/SQL:
1. Implicit cursors:
 These are created by default by ORACLE itself when DML statements like,
insert, update, and delete statements are executed.
 They are also created when a SELECT statement that returns just one row
is executed.
 We cannot use implicit cursors for user defined work.
2. Explicit cursors:
 Explicit cursors are user defined cursors written by the developer.
 They can be created when a SELECT statement that returns more than
one row is executed.
 Even though the cursor stores multiple records, only one record can be
processed at a time, which is called as current row.
 When you fetch a row, the current row position moves to next row.
Attributes of Cursor:-
Attributes Return Value Example
%FOUND It will return TRUE, if the DML statements like INSERT, SQL%FOUND
DELETE, UPDATE and SELECT will affect at least one row
else return FALSE
%NOTFOUND It will return FALSE, if the DML statements like INSERT, SQL%NOTFOUND
DELETE, UPDATE and SELECT will affect at least one row
else return TRUE
%ROWCOUNT Return the number of rows affected by the DML SQL%ROWCOUNT
operations INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE, SELECT
%ISOPEN It will return true if cursor is open else return false. SAL%OPEN

Steps to manage explicit cursor:-

1) Declare a cursor:-
A cursor is defined in the declaration section of PL/SQL block.
Syntax:-
CURSOR cursorname IS SELECT ………
2) Open a cursor:-
Once cursor is declared we can open it.
When cursor is opened following operations are performed.
 a. Memory is allocated to store the data.
b. Execute SELECT statement associated with cursor
c. Create active data set by retrieving data from table
d. Set the cursor row pointer to point to first record in active data set.
Syntax:-
OPEN cursorname;

3) Fetching data:-
We cannot process selected row directly. We have to fetch column values of a row into
memory variables. This is done by FETCH statement.
Syntax:-
FETCH cursorname INTO variable1, variable2……….

4) Processing data:-
This step involves actual processing of current row.

5) Closing cursor:-
A cursor should be closed after the processing of data completes. Once you close the
cursor it will release memory allocated for that cursor.
Syntax:-
CLOSE cursorname;
Example:-
DECLARE CURSOR emp_cur IS SELECT emp_rec FROM emp_tbl WHERE salary > 10000;
BEGIN
OPEN emp_cur;
FETCH emp_cur INTO emp_rec;
dbms_output.put_line (emp_rec.first_name || ' ' || emp_rec.last_name);
CLOSE emp_cur;
END;
Explanation:-
 In the above example, first we are delaring a cursor whose name is emp_cur with select
query.
 In select query we have used where condition such that salary<10000. So active data set
contain only such records whose salalry less than 10000.
 Then, we are opening the cursor in the execution section.
 Then we are fetching the records from cursor to the variable named emp_rec.
 Then we are displaying the first_name and last_name of records fetched in variable.
 At last as soon as our work completed we are closing the cursor.
Write a PL/SQL block to print the sum of Numbers from 1 to 50.
declare
sum number:=0;
begin

for i in 1..50
loop
sum:=sum+i;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('The sum of 100 natural nos is = '||sum);
end;

Write a PL/SQL block to print the given number is Odd or Even.

declare
A number(5)
begin
a:=&a;
if(A mod 2=0) then
dbms_output.put_line('number of odd');
else
dbms_output.put_line('number of odd');
end if;
end;
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model

Define the following terms.

Entity
 An entity is a thing or object or person in the real world that is distinguishable from all
other object.
 E.g. book, student, employee, college etc…
Entity sets
 An entity set is a set of entities of same type that share the same properties or
attributes.
 E.g. the set of all students in a college can be defined as entity set student.
Relationship
 Relationship is an association (connection) between several entities.
 Relationship between 2 entities is called binary relationship.
 E.g. book is issued by student where book and student are entities and issue is relation.
Relationship set
 Relationship set is a set of relationships of the same type.
Attributes
 Attributes are properties hold by each member of an entity set.
 E.g. entity is student and attributes of students are enrollmentno, name, address, cpi etc
Types of attributes
 Simple attribute: It cannot be divided into subparts. E.g. cpi, rollno
 Composite attribute: It can be divided into subparts. E.g. name (first name-middle
name- last name), address.
 Single valued attribute: It has single data value. E.g. enrollmentno, birthdate
 Multi valued attribute: It has multiple data value. E.g. phoneno (may have multiple
phones)
 Stored attribute: It’s value is stored manually in database. E.g. birthdate
 Derived attribute: It’s value is derived or calculated from other attributes. E.g. age (can
be calculated using current date and birthdate).
Descriptive attributes
 A relationship may also have attributes like an entity. These attributes are called
descriptive attributes.
 E.g. Student gets degree certificate on 14th March 2011. Student and Degree are
entities, gets certificate is relation and certificate date is an attribute of relationship.
Recursive relationship set
 The same entity set participates in a relationship set more than once then it is called
recursive relationship set.
 E.g. an employee entity participated in relationship under with department entity as an
employee as well manager also.

1
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model

Explain various mapping cardinality (cardinality constraint).

Mapping cardinality (cardinality constraints)
 It represents the number of entities of another entity set which are connected to an
entity using a relationship set.
 It is most useful in describing binary relationship sets.
 For a binary relationship set the mapping cardinality must be one of the following types:
 One to one
 One to many
 Many to one
 Many to many
One-to-one relationship
A B

A1 B1

A2 B2

A3 B3

A4 B4

 An entity in A is associated with at most (only) one entity in B and an entity in B is

associated with at most (only) one entity in A.

customer-name customer-address

customer-city loan-no amount

customer-id

customer loan
borrower

 A customer is connected with only one loan using the relationship borrower and a loan
is connected with only one customer using borrower.

2
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model
One-to-many relationship
A B

A1 B1

A2 B2

A3 B3

A4 B4

 An entity in A is associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in B and an entity
in B is associated with at most one (only) entity in A.

customer-name customer-address

loan-no amount
customer-id customer-city

customer loan
borrower

 In the one-to-many relationship a loan is connected with only one customer using
borrower and a customer is connected with more than one loans using borrower.
Many-to-one relationship
A B

A1 B1

A2 B2

A3 B3

A4 B4

3
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model
 An entity in A is associated with at most (only) one entity in B and an entity in B is
associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in A.

customer-name customer-address

customer-city loan-no amount

customer-id

customer loan
borrower

 In a many-to-one relationship a loan is connected with more than one customer using
borrower and a customer is connected with only one loan using borrower.
Many-to-many relationship
A B

A1 B1

A2 B2

A3 B3

A4 B4

 An entity in A is associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in B and an entity
in B is associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in A.

customer-name customer-address

customer-id customer-city loan-no amount

customer loan
borrower

 A customer is connected with more than one loan using borrower and a loan is
connected with more than one customer using borrower.

4
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model

Explain various participation constraints.

Participation constraints
 It specifies the participation of an entity set in a relationship set.
 There are two types participation constraints
 Total participation
 Partial participation
Total participation
 In total participation every entity in the entity set participates in at least one
relationship in the relationship set.
 It specifies that every entity in super class must be member of some of its sub class.
 E.g. participation of loan in borrower is total because every loan must be connected to a
customer using borrower.
 It is indicated by double line.
Partial participation
 In partial participation some entities may not participate in any relationship in the
relationship set.
 It specifies that an entity may not belong to any sub class.
 E.g. participation of customer in borrower is partial because every customer is not
connected to loan using borrower.
 It is indicated by single line.

customer-name customer-address

customer-city loan-no amount

customer-id

customer loan
borrower

Partial Participation Total Participation

Explain weak entity set with the help of example.

Weak entity set
 An entity set that does not have a primary key is called weak entity set.
 The existence of a weak entity set depends on the existence of a strong entity set.
 Weak entity set is indicated by double rectangle.
 Weak entity relationship set is indicated by double diamond.
 The discriminator (partial key) of a weak entity set is the set of attributes that
distinguishes between all the entities of a weak entity set.

5
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model
 The primary key of a weak entity set is created by combining the primary key of the
strong entity set on which the weak entity set is existence dependent and the weak
entity set’s discriminator.
 We underline the discriminator attribute of a weak entity set with a dashed line.
 E.g. in below fig. there are two entities loan and payment in which loan is strong entity
set and payment is weak entity set.
 Payment entity has payment-no which is discriminator.
 Loan entity has loan-no as primary key.
 So primary key for payment is (loan-no, payment-no).

payment-date

amount payment-no loan-amount

loan-no

loan payment
loan-payment

Strong Entity
Weak Entity Relationship Weak Entity

Explain the Superclass and Subclass in E-R diagram with the

help of example.
Superclass
 A superclass is an entity from which another entity can be derived.
 A superclass is a generic entity set which has a relationship with one or more subclasses.
 For example, an entity set account has two subsets saving_account and
current_account. So an account is superclass.
 Each member of subclass is also a member of superclass. So any saving account or a
current account is a member of entity set account.
Subclass
 A subclass is an entity that is derived from another entity.
 A class is a subset of entities in an entity set which has attributes distinct from those in
other subset.
 For example, entities of the entity set account are grouped in to two classes
saving_account and current_account. So saving_account and current_account are

6
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model
subclasses.
superclass
account

sublass saving account current account

Explain the difference between Specialization and

Generalization in E-R diagram.
Specialization Generalization
It will work in Top-down approach. It will work in Bottom-up approach
The process of creating sub-groupings within an The process of creating groupings from
entity set is called specialization. various entity sets is called generalization.
Specialization is a process of taking a sub set of Generalization is a process of taking the
higher level entity set to form a lower-level union of two or more lower-level entity sets
entity set. to produce a higher-level entity set.
Specialization starts from a single entity set; it Generalization starts from the number of
creates different low-level entity set using some entity sets and creates high-level entity set
different features. using some common features.
Explain Specialization and Generalization in E-R diagram with
example.
 For all practical purposes, generalization specialization is inversion of each other.
Specialization
 A top-down design process that creates subclasses based on some different
characteristics of the entities in the superclass.
 An entity set may include sub groupings of entities that are distinct in some way from
other entities in the set.
 For example, a subset of entities within an entity set may have attributes that are not
shared by all the entities in the entity set.
 Consider an entity set person, with attributes name, street and city.
 A person may be further classified as one of the following:
 customer
 Employee

7
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model
 For example, customer entities may be described further by the attribute customer-id,
credit-rating and employee entities may be described further by the attributes
employee-id and salary.
 The process of designating sub groupings within an entity set is called specialization. The
specialization of person allows us to distinguish among persons according to whether
they are employees or customers.
 Now again, employees may be further classified as one of the following:
 officer
 teller
 secretary
 Each of these employee types is described by a set of attributes that includes all the
attributes of entity set employee plus additional attributes.
 For example, officer entities may be described further by the attribute office-number,
tellerentities by the attributes station-number and hours-per-week, and secretary
entities by the attribute hours-per-week.
 In terms of an E-R diagram, specialization is depicted by a triangle component labeled
ISA.
 The label ISA stands for “is a” and represents, for example, that a customer “is a”
person.
 The ISA relationship may also be referred to as a superclass subclass relationship.
Generalization
 A bottom-up design process that combines number of entity sets that have same
features into a higher-level entity set.
 The design process proceed in a bottom-up manner, in which multiple entity sets are
synthesized into a higher level entity set on the basis of common features.
 The database designer may have to first identify a customer entity set with the
attributes name, street, city, and customer-id, and an employee entity set with the
attributes name, street, city, employee-id, and salary.
 But customer entity set and the employee entity set have some attributes common. This
commonality can be expressed by generalization, which is a containment relationship
that exists between a higher level entity set and one or more lower level entity sets.
 In our example, person is the higher level entity set and customer and employee are
lower level entity sets.
 Higher level entity set is called superclass and lower level entity set is called subclass. So
the person entity set is the superclass of two subclasses customer and employee.
 Differences in the two approaches may be characterized by their starting point and
overall goal.

8
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model

name street city

person

salary
ISA credit-rating

employee customer

ISA

officer teller secretary

officer-number hours-worked

station-number hours-worked
Explain types of constraints on specialization and
Generalization.
 There are mainly two types of constraints apply to a specialization/generalization:
Disjoint Constraint
 Describes relationship between members of the superclass and subclass and indicates
whether member of a superclass can be a member of one, or more than one subclass.
 It may be disjoint or non-disjoint (overlapping).
Disjoint Constraint
 It specifies that the subclasses of the specialization must be disjointed (an entity can be
a member of only one of the subclasses of the specialization).
 Specified by ‘d’ in EER diagram or by writing disjoint.
Non-disjoint (Overlapping)
 It specifies that is the same entity may be a member of more than one subclass of the
specialization.
 Specified by ‘o’ in EER diagram or by writing overlapping.
Participation Constraint
 Determines whether every member in super class must participate as a member of a
subclass or not.
 It may be total (mandatory) or partial (optional).

9
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model
Total (Mandatory)
 Total specifies that every entity in the superclass must be a member of some subclass in
the specialization.
 Specified by a double line in EER diagram.
Partial (Optional)
 Partial specifies that every entity in the super class not belong to any of the subclass of
specialization.
 Specified by a single line in EER diagram.
 Based on these two different kinds of constraints, a specialization or generalization can
be one of four types
 Total, Disjoint
 Total, Overlapping
 Partial, Disjoint
 Partial, Overlapping.
Explain aggregation in E-R diagram.
 The E-R model cannot express relationships among relationships.
 When would we need such a thing at that time aggregation is used.
 Consider a database with information about employees who work on a particular
project and use a number of machines doing that work.
work

hours hours
name id number name id number

emp project emp project

work work

uses uses

machineary machineary

id id

Fig. A Fig. B
 Relationship sets work and uses could be combined into a single set. We can
combine them by using aggregation.

10
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model
 Aggregation is an abstraction through which relationships are treated as higher-level
entities.
 For our example, we treat the relationship set work and the entity sets employee and
project as a higher-level entity set called work.
 Transforming an E-R diagram with aggregation into tabular form is easy. We create
a table for each entity and relationship set as before.
 The table for relationship set uses contains a column for each attribute in the primary
key of machinery and work.

Explain the steps to reduce the ER diagram to ER database

schema.
Step 1: Entities and Simple Attributes:
 An entity type within ER diagram is turned into a table. You may preferably keep the
same name for the entity or give it a sensible name but avoid DBMS reserved words as
well as avoid the use of special characters.
 Each attribute turns into a column (attribute) in the table. The key attribute of the entity
is the primary key of the table which is usually underlined. It can be composite if
required but can never be null.
 It is highly recommended that every table should start with its primary key attribute
conventionally named as TablenameID.
 Consider the following simple ER diagram:

PersonID
Person
Phone

Name
Address Email

 The initial relational schema is expressed in the following format writing the table
names with the attributes list inside a parentheses as shown below
 Persons( personid, name, address, email )
 Persons and Phones are Tables and personid, name, address and email are Columns
(Attributes).
 personid is the primary key for the table : Person
Step 2: Multi-Valued Attributes
 A multi-valued attribute is usually represented with a double-line oval.

PersonID Person
Phone

11
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model

 If you have a multi-valued attribute, take that multi-valued attribute and turn it into a
new entity or table of its own.
 Then make a 1:N relationship between the new entity and the existing one.
 In simple words.
 1. Create a table for that multi-valued attribute.
 2. Add the primary (id) column of the parent entity as a foreign key within
the new table as shown below:
 First table is Persons ( personid, name, lastname, email )
 Second table is Phones ( phoneid , personid, phone )
 personid within the table Phones is a foreign key referring to the personid of Persons
Step 3: 1:1 Relationship
WifeID Name
Wife

Have

PersonID
Person
Phone

Name
Address Email

 Let us consider the case where the Person has one wife. You can place the primary key
of the wife table wifeid in the table Persons which we call in this case Foreign key as
shown below.
 Persons( personid, name, lastname, email , wifeid )
 Wife ( wifeid , name )
 Or vice versa to put the personid as a foreign key within the wife table as shown below:
 Persons( personid, name, lastname, email )
 Wife ( wifeid , name , personid)
 For cases when the Person is not married i.e. has no wifeID, the attribute can set to
NULL

12
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model
Step 4: 1:N Relationships
HouseID House Name

Address
Has

Person
PersonID
Phone

Name
Address Email

 For instance, the Person can have a House from zero to many, but a House can have
only one Person.
 In such relationship place the primary key attribute of table having 1 mapping in to the
table having many cardinality as a foreign key.
 To represent such relationship the personid as the Parent table must be placed within
the Child table as a foreign key.
 It should convert to :
 Persons( personid, name, address, email )
 House ( houseid, name , address, personid)
Step 5: N:N Relationships
CountryID Name
Country

Has

PersonID
Person
Phone

Name
Address Email

 For instance, The Person can live or work in many countries. Also, a country can have
many people. To express this relationship within a relational schema we use a separate
table as shown below:

13
 3 – Entity-Relationship Model
 It should convert into :
 Persons( personid, name, lastname, email )
 Countries ( countryid, name, code)
 HasRelat ( hasrelatid, personid , countryid)
What is E-R model (Entity-Relationship) model (diagram) also
draw various symbols using in E-R diagram.
E-R model
 Entity-relationship (ER) diagram is a graphical representation of entities and their
relationships to each other with their attributes.

14
 4 –Relational Database Design

Define functional dependency. Explain different types of FD

with the help of example. Explain the use of functional
dependency in database design.
Functional Dependency
 Let R be a relation schema having n attributes A1, A2, A3,…, An.
 Let attributes X and Y are two subsets of attributes of relation R.
 If the values of the X component of a tuple uniquely (or functionally) determine the
values of the Y component, then, there is a functional dependency from X to Y.
 This is denoted by X → Y.
 It is referred as: Y is functionally dependent on the X, or X functionally determines Y.
 The abbreviation for functional dependency is FD or fd.
 The set of attributes X is called the left hand side of the FD, and Y is called the right hand
side.
 The left hand side of the FD is also referred as determinant whereas the right hand side
of the FD is referred as dependent.
Diagrammatic representation
R:
X Y

Example
 Consider the relation Account(ano, balance, bname). In this relation ano can determines
balance and bname. So, there is a functional dependency from ano to balance and
bname.
 This can be denoted by ano → {balance, bname}.
Account:
ano balance bname

Types of Functional
Dependencies Full Dependency
 In a relation, the attribute B is fully functional dependent on A if B is functionally
dependent on A, but not on any proper subset of A.
 Eg. {Roll_No, Department_Name}→SPI
Partial Dependency
 In a relation, the attribute B is partial functional dependent on A if B is functionally
dependent on A as well as on any proper subset of A.

1
 4 –Relational Database Design
 If there is some attribute that can be removed from A and the still dependency holds.
 Eg. {Enrollment_No, Department_Name}→SPI
Transitive Dependency
 In a relation, if attribute(s) A→B and B→C, then C is transitively depends on A via B
(provided that A is not functionally dependent on B or C).
 Eg. Staff_No→Branch_No and Branch_No→Branch_Address
Trivial FD:
 X→Y is trivial FDif Y is a subset of X
 Eg.{Roll_No, Department_Name}→Roll_No
Nontrivial FD
 X→Y is nontrivial FDif Y is not a subset of X
 Eg.. {Roll_No, Department_Name}→Student_Name
Use of functional dependency in database design
 To test relations to see if they are legal under a given set of functional dependencies. If a
relation r is legal under a set F of functional dependencies, we say that r satisfies F.
 To specify constraints on the set of legal relations.
List and explain Armstrong's axioms (inference rules).
 Let A, B, and C is subsets of the attributes of the relation R.
Reflexivity
 If B is a subset of A then A → B
Augmentation
 If A → B then AC → BC
Transitivity
 If A → B and B → C then A → C
Self-determination
 A→A
Decomposition
 If A → BC then A → B and A → C
Union
 If A → B and A → C then A → BC
Composition
 If A → B and C → D then A,C → BD
What is redundant functional dependency? Write an algorithm
to find out redundant functional dependency.
Redundant functional dependency
 A FD in the set is redundant, if it can be derived from the other FDs in the set.

2
 4 –Relational Database Design
Algorithm
Input: Let F be a set of FDs for relation R.
Let f: A → B is a FD to be examined for redundancy.
Steps:
1. F’ = F – f # find out new set of FDs by removing f from F
2. T = A # set T = determinant of A → B
3. For each FD: X → Y in F’ Do
If X T Then # if X is contained in T
T=TUY # add Y to T
End if
End For
4. If B  T Then # if B is contained in T
f : A → B is redundant. # given FD f : A → B is redundant. `
End if
Output: Decision whether a given FD f : A → B is redundant or not.

Example
Suppose a relation R is given with attributes A, B, C, D and E.
Also, a set of functional dependencies F is given with following FDs.
F = {A →B, C →D, BD → E, AC → E}

1. Find out whether a FD f: AC → E is redundant or not.

Step-1: F'= { A → B, C → D, BD → E} #F' = F – f
Step-2:T = AC # set T = determinant of AC → E
Step-3:T = AC + B = ACB # A → B is in F’ and A 
T T = ACB + D = ACBD # C→D is in F’ and C  T
T = ACB + E = ACBDE # AC→E is in F’ and AC  T
Step-4: f: AC → E is redundant. #E  T

2. Find out whether a FD f: BD → E is redundant or not.

Step-1: F'= { A→ B, C → D, AC → E} #F' = F – f
Step-2:T = BD # set T = determinant of f: BD → E
Step-3: Nothing can be added to T, As there is no other FD: X → Y such that X 
T Step-4: f: BD→ E is not redundant. # E is not contained in T
What is closure of a set of FD? Explain how (Write an algorithm)
to find closure of a set of attributes.
Closure of set of FD
 A closure of a set of FDs is a set of all possible FDs that can be derived from a given set
of FDs.
 It is also referred as a complete set of FDs.
3
  If F is used to denote the set of FDs for relation R, then closure a set of FDs implied by F
is denoted by F+.
Algorithm
 Given a set of attributes a, define the closure of a under F (denoted by a+) as the set of
attributes that are functionally determined by a under F
 Algorithm to compute a+, the closure of a under F
result = a;
while (changes to result) do
for each    in F
do
begin
 if   result then result = result  
end
Example
Consider the following relation schema Depositer_Account (cid, ano, acess_date, balance, bname).
For this relation, a set of functional dependencies F can be given as
F = { {cid, ano } →access_date and ano→ { balance, bname } }
Find out the closure of F.
Solution
 Determine each set of attributes X that appears as a left-hand side of FD in F.
{ cid, ano } and ano.
 Find out { cid, ano }+
Step-1 :{ cid, ano }+ = { cid, ano }
Step-2 :{ cid, ano }+ = { cid, ano, acess_date } # {cid, ano}  X+
{ cid, ano }+ = { cid, ano, acess_date, balance, bname } # ano  X+
Step-3 :{ cid, ano }+ = { cid, ano, acess_date, balance, bname }
 Find out ano+
Step-1 :ano+ = ano
Step-2 :ano+ = { ano, balance, bname } # ano  X+
Step-3 :ano+ = { ano, balance, bname }
 Combine all such sets of X+ to form a closure of F.
{ cid, ano }+ = { cid, ano, acess_date, balance, bname }
ano+ = { ano, balance, bname }
What is decomposition? Explain different types of
decomposition.
Decomposition
 Decomposition is the process of breaking down given relation into two or more
relations.
 Here, relation R is replaced by two or more relations in such a way that -
1. Each new relation contains a subset of the attributes of R, and
2. Together, they all include all tuples and attributes of R.
  Relational database design process starts with a universal relation schema R = {A1, A2,
A3,..., An), which includes all the attributes of the database. The universal relation states
that every attribute name is unique.
 Using functional dependencies, this universal relation schema is decomposed into a set
of relation schemas D = {R1, R2, R3,…,Rm}.
 Now, D becomes the relational database schema and D is referred as decomposition of
R.
 Generally, decomposition is used to eliminate the pitfalls of the poor database design
during normalization process.
 For example, consider the relation Account_Branch given in figure:

Account_Branch
Ano Balance Bname Baddress
A01 5000 Vvn Mota bazaar, VVNagar
A02 6000 Ksad Chhota bazaar, Karamsad
A03 7000 Anand Nana bazaar, Anand
A04 8000 Ksad Chhota bazaar, Karamsad
A05 6000 Vvn Mota bazaar, VVNagar
 This relation can be divided with two different relations
1. Account (Ano, Balance, Bname)
2. Branch (Bname, Baddress)
 These two relations are shown in below figure

Account Branch
Ano Balance Bname Bname Baddress
A01 5000 Vvn Vvn Mota bazaar, VVNagar
A02 6000 Ksad Ksad Chhota bazaar, Karamsad
A03 7000 Anand Anand Nana Bazar, Anand
A04 8000 Ksad
A05 6000 Vvn
 A decomposition of relation can be either lossy decomposition or lossless
decomposition.
 There are two types of decomposition
1. lossy decomposition
2. lossless decomposition (non-loss decomposition)
Lossy Decomposition
 The decomposition of relation R into R1 and R2 is lossy when the join of R1 and R2
does not yield the same relation as in R.
 This is also referred as lossy-join decomposition.
  The disadvantage of such kind of decomposition is that some information is lost during
retrieval of original relation. And so, such kind of decomposition is referred as lossy
decomposition.
 From practical point of view, decomposition should not be lossy decomposition.
Example
 A figure shows a relation Account. This relation is decomposed into two relations
Acc_Bal and Bal_Branch.
 Now, when these two relations are joined on the common attributeBalance, the
resultant relation will look like Acct_Joined. This Acct_Joined relation contains rows in
addition to those in original relation Account.
 Here, it is not possible to specify that in which branch account A01 or A02 belongs.
 So, information has been lost by this decomposition and then join operation.

Acct_Bal
Ano Balance
Acct_Joined
A01 5000
Account Ano Balance Bname
A02 5000
Ano Balance Bname A01 5000 Vvn
A01 5000 Vvn A01 5000 Ksad
A02 5000 Ksad Bal_Branch A02 5000 Vvn
Balance Bname A02 5000 Ksad
5000 Vvn
5000 Ksad

Not same

 In other words, decomposition is lossy if decompose into R1 and R2 and again combine
(join) R1 and R2 we cannot get original table as R1, over X, where R is an original
relation, R1 and R2 are decomposed relations, and X is a common attribute between
these two relations.

Lossless (Non-loss) Decomposition

 The decomposition of relation R into R1 and R2 is lossless when the join of R1 and R2
produces the same relation as in R.
 This is also referred as a non-additive (non-loss) decomposition.
 All decompositions must be lossless.
Example
 Again, the same relation Account is decomposed into two relations Acct_Bal and
Acct_Branch.
  Now, when these two relations are joined on the common column Ano, the resultant
relation will look like Acc_Joined relation. This relation is exactly same as that of original
relation Account.
 In other words, all the information of original relation is preserved here.
 In lossless decomposition, no any fake tuples are generated when a natural join is
applied to the relations in the decomposition.
 In other words, decomposition is lossy if R = join of R1 and R2, over X, where R is an
original relation, R1 an R2 are decomposed relations, and x is a common attribute
between these two relations.

Account Acct_Bal Acct_Joined

Ano Balance Bname Ano Balance Ano Balance Bname
A01 5000 Vvn A01 5000 A01 5000 Vvn
A02 5000 Ksad A02 5000 A02 5000 Ksad
Acct_Branch
Ano Bname
A01 Vvn
A02 Ksad

Same
What is an anomaly in database design? How it can be solved.
Anomaly in database design:
 Anomalies are problems that can occur in poorly planned, un-normalized database
where all the data are stored in one table.
 There are three types of anomalies that can arise in the database because of
redundancy are
 Insert anomalies
 Delete anomalies
 Update / Modification anomalies
 Consider a relation emp_dept (E#, Ename, Address, D#, Dname, Dmgr#) with E# as a
primary key.
Insert anomaly:
 Let us assume that a new department has been started by the organization but initially
there is no employee appointed for that department, then the tuple for this department
cannot be inserted in to this table as the E# will have NULL value, which is not allowed
because E# is primary key.
 This kind of problem in the relation where some tuple cannot be inserted is known as
insert anomaly.
Delete anomaly:
 Now consider there is only one employee in some department and that employee
leaves the organization, then the tuple of that employee has to be deleted from the
table, but in addition to that information about the department also will be deleted.
 This kind of problem in the relation where deletion of some tuples can lead to loss of
some other data not intended to be removed is known as delete anomaly.
Update / Modification anomaly:
 Suppose the manager of a department has changed, this requires that the Dmgr# in all
the tuples corresponding to that department must be changed to reflect the new status.
If we fail to update all the tuples of given department, then two different records of
employee working in the same department might show different Dmgr# lead to
inconsistency in the database.
 This kind of problem is known as update or modification anomaly.
How anomalies in database design can be solved:
 Such type of anomalies in database design can be solved by using normalization.
What is normalization? What is the need of it? OR
What is normalization? Why normalization process is needed?
Normalization
 Database normalization is the process of removing redundant data from the given tables
to improve storage efficiency, data integrity, and scalability.
 In the relational model, methods exist for quantifying how efficient a database is. These
classifications are called normal forms (or NF), and there are algorithms for converting a
given database between them.
 Normalization generally involves splitting existing tables into multiple ones, which must
be re-joined or linked each time a query is issued.
Need of Normalization
 Eliminates redundant data
 Reduces chances of data errors
 Reduces disk space
 Improve data integrity, scalability and data consistency.
Explain different types of normal forms with example. OR
Explain 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF, 4NF and 5NF with example.
1NF
 A relation R is in first normal form (1NF) if and only if all underlying domains contain
atomic values only. OR
 A relation R is in first normal form (1NF) if and only if it does not contain any composite
or multi valued attributes or their combinations.
Example
Cid Name Address Contact_no
Society City
C01 Riya SaralSoc, Aand 9879898798,55416
C02 Jiya Birla Gruh, Rajkot 9825098254

 Above relation has four attributes Cid, Name, Address, Contact_no. Here address is
composite attribute which is further divided in to sub attributes as Society and City.
Another attribute Contact_no is multi valued attribute which can store more than one
values. So above relation is not in 1NF.
Problem
 Suppose we want to find all customers for some particular city then it is difficult to
retrieve. Reason is city name is combined with society name and stored whole as
address.
Solution
 Insert separate attribute for each sub attribute of composite attribute.
 Insert separate attribute for multi valued attribute and insert only one value on one
attribute and other in other attribute.
 So above table can be created as follows.

Cid Name Society City Contact_no1 Contact_no2

C01 Riya SaralSoc Aand 9879898798 55416
C02 Jiya Birla Gruh Rajkot 9825098254

2NF
 A relation R is in second normal form (2NF) if and only if it is in 1NF and every non-
prime attribute is fully functionally dependent on the primary key. OR
 A relation R is in second normal form (2NF) if and only if it is in 1NF and no non-prime
attribute is partially dependent on the primary key.
Example
cid ano acess_date balance bname

 Above relation has five attributes cid, ano, acess_date, balance, bname and two FDS
FD1 {cid,ano}{acess_date,balance,bname} and
FD2 ano{balance,bname}
 We have cid and ano as primary key. As per FD2 balace and bname are only depend on
ano not cid. In above table balance and bname are not fully dependent on primary key
 but these attributes are partial dependent on primary key. So above relation is not in
2NF.
Problem
 For example in case of joint account multiple customers have common accounts. If
some account says ‘A02’ is jointly by two customers says ‘C02’ and ‘C04’ then data
values for attributes balance and bname will be duplicated in two different tuples of
customers ‘C02’ and ‘C04’.
Solution
 Decompose relation in such a way that resultant relation does not have any partial FD.
 For this purpose remove partial dependent attribute that violets 2NF from relation.
Place them in separate new relation along with the prime attribute on which they are
full dependent.
 The primary key of new relation will be the attribute on which it if fully dependent.
 Keep other attribute same as in that table with same primary key.
 So above table can be decomposed as per following.

ano balance bname

cid ano acess_date

3NF
 A relation R is in third normal form (3NF) if and only if it is in 2NF and every non-key
attribute is non-transitively dependent on the primary key.
 An attribute C is transitively dependent on attribute A if there exist an attribute B such
that: A  B and B  C.
Example
ano balance bname baddress

 Above relation has four attributes ano, balance, bname, baddress and two FDS
FD1 ano{balance, bname, baddress} and
FD2 bnamebaddress
 So from FD1 and FD2 and using transitivity rule we get anobaddress.
 So there is transitively dependency from ano to baddress using bname in which
baddress is non-prime attribute.
 So there is a non-prime attribute baddress which is transitively dependent on primary
key ano.
  So above relation is not in 3NF.
Problem
 Transitively dependency results in data redundancy.
 In this relation branch address will be stored repeatedly from each account of same
branch which occupy more space.
Solution
 Decompose relation in such a way that resultant relation does not have any non-prime
attribute that are transitively dependent on primary key.
 For this purpose remove transitively dependent attribute that violets 3NF from relation.
Place them in separate new relation along with the non-prime attribute due to which
transitive dependency occurred. The primary key of new relation will be this non-prime
attribute.
 Keep other attributes same as in that table with same primary key.
 So above table can be decomposed as per following.

ano balance bname

bname baddress

BCNF
 A relation R is in BCNF if and only if it is in 3NF and no any prime attribute is transitively
dependent on the primary key.
 An attribute C is transitively dependent on attribute A if there exist an attribute B such
that AB and BC.

Example
Student_Project
Student Language Guide
Mita JAVA Patel
Nita VB Shah
Sita JAVA Jadeja
Gita VB Dave
Rita VB Shah
Nita JAVA Patel
Mita VB Dave
Rita JAVA Jadeja
 student language guide

 Above relation has five attributes cid, ano, acess_date, balance, bname and two FDS
FD1 {student,language}guide and
FD2 guidelanguage
 So from FD1 and FD2 and using transitivity rule we get studentlanguage
 So there is transitively dependency from student to language in which language is prime
attribute.
 So there is on prime attribute language which is transitively dependent on primary key
student.
 So above relation is not in BCNF.
Problem
 Transitively dependency results in data redundancy.
 In this relation one student have more than one project with different guide then
records will be stored repeatedly from each student and language and guides
combination which occupies more space.
Solution
 Decompose relation in such a way that resultant relation does not have any prime
attribute transitively dependent on primary key.
 For this purpose remove transitively dependent prime attribute that violets BCNF from
relation. Place them in separate new relation along with the non-prime attribute due to
which transitive dependency occurred. The primary key of new relation will be this non-
prime attribute.
 So above table can be decomposed as per following.

Student Guide Guide Language

Mita Patel Patel JAVA
Nita Shah Shah VB
Sita Jadeja Jadeja JAVA
Gita Dave Dave VB
Rita Shah
Nita Patel
Mita Dave
Rita Jadeja
4NF
 A table is in the 4NF if it is in BCNF and has no multivalued dependencies.
Example
 The multi-valued dependency X Y holds in a relation R if whenever we have two
tuples of R that agree (same) in all the attributes of X, then we can swap their Y
components and get two new tuples that are also in R.
 Suppose a student can have more than one subject and more than one activity.

Student_Info
Student_Id Subject Activity
100 Music Swimming
100 Accounting Swimming
100 Music Tennis
100 Accounting Tennis
150 Math Jogging
 Note that all three attributes make up the Primary Key.
 Note that Student_Id can be associated with many subject as well as many activities
(multi-valued dependency).
 Suppose student 100 signs up for skiing. Then we would insert (100, Music, Skiing). This
row implies that student 100 skies as Music subject but not as an accounting subject, so
in order to keep the data consistent we must add one more row (100, Accounting,
Skiing). This is an insertion anomaly.
 Suppose we have a relation R(A) with a multivalued dependency X Y. The MVD can
be removed by decomposing R into R1(R - Y) and R2(X U Y).
 Here are the tables Normalized

Student_Id Subject StudentId Activity

100 Music 100 Swimming
100 Accounting 100 Tennis
150 Math 150 Jogging
5NF
 A table is in the 5NF if it is in 4NF and if for all Join dependency (JD) of (R1, R2, R3, ...,Rm)
in R, every Ri is a superkey for R. OR
 A table is in the 5NF if it is in 4NF and if it cannot have a lossless decomposition in to any
number of smaller tables (relations).
 It is also known as Project-join normal form (PJ/NF).
Example
 AGENT_COMPANY_PRODUCT (Agent, Company, Product)
  This table
, lists agents, the companies they work for and the
products they sell for those companies. 'The agents do not
necessarily sell all the products supplied by the companies
they do business with. . An example of this table might be:
AGENT_COMPANY_PRODUCT
Agent Company Product
Suneet ABC Nut
Raj ABC Bolt
Raj ABC Nut
Suneet CDE Bolt
Suneet ABC Bolt
 The table is in 4NF because it contains no multi-valued dependency.
 Suppose that the table is decomposed into its three relations, P1, P2 and P3.

P2
P1 Agent Product P3
Agent Company Suneet Nut Company Product
Suneet ABC Suneet Bolt ABC Nut
Suneet CDE Raj Bolt ABC Bolt
Raj ABC Raj Nut CDE Bolt

 Now if we perform natural join between any of two above relations (tables) i.e P1 P2,
P2 P3 or P1 P3 then spurious (extra) rows are added so this decomposition is
called lossy decomposition.
 But if we perform natural join between the above three relations then no spurious
(extra) rows are added so this decomposition is called lossless decomposition.
 So above three tables P1, P2 and P3 are in 5 NF.

P1 P2
Agent Company Product P1 P2 P3
Suneet ABC Nut P3 Agent Company Product
Suneet ABC Bolt Company Product Suneet ABC Nut
Suneet CDE Nut ABC Nut Suneet ABC Bolt
Suneet CDE Bolt ABC Bolt Suneet CDE Bolt
Raj ABC Bolt CDE Bolt Raj ABC Nut
Raj ABC Nut Raj ABC Bolt
Normalize (decompose) following relation into lower to higher
normal form. (From 1NF to 4 NF)

OR
PLANT MANAGER MACHINE SUPPLIER_NAME SUPPLIER_CITY
Lathe Jay industry Ahmedabad
Plant-A Ravi Boiler Abb aplliance Surat
Cutter Raj machinery Vadodara
Boiler Daksh industry Rajkot
Plant-B Meena CNC Jay industry Ahmedabad
Explain with suitable example, the process of normalization
converting from 1NF to 3NF.
1 Normal Form (1NF)
PLANT PLANT MANAGER MANAGER MACHINE MACHINE SUPPLIER SUPPLIER SUPPLIER
_ID _NAME _ID _NAME _ID _NAME _ID _NAME _CITY
P1 Plant-A E1 Ravi M1 Lathe S1 Jay industry Ahmedabad
P1 Plant-A E1 Ravi M2 Boiler S2 Abb aplliance Surat
P2 Plant-B E2 Meena M3 Cutter S3 Raj machinery Vadodara
P2 Plant-B E2 Meena M2 Boiler S4 Daksh industry Rajkot
P2 Plant-B E2 Meena M4 CNC S1 Jay industry Ahmedabad
2 Normal Form (2NF)
Table-1
PLANT_ID PLANT_NAME MANAGER_ID MANAGER_NAME
P1 Plant-A E1 Ravi
P2 Plant-B E2 Meena
Table-2
PLANT_ID MACHINE_ID MACHINE_NAME
P1 M1 Lathe
P1 M2 Boiler
P2 M3 Cutter
P2 M2 Boiler
P2 M4 CNC
Table-3
MANAGER_ID SUPPLIER_ID SUPPLIER_NAME SUPPLIER_CITY
E1 S1 Jay industry Ahmedabad
E1 S2 Abb aplliance Surat
E2 S3 Raj machinery Vadodara
E2 S4 Daksh industry Rajkot
E2 S1 Jay industry Ahmedabad
3 Normal Form or BCNF (3NF or BCNF)
Table-1
PLANT_ID PLANT_NAME
P1 Plant-A
P2 Plant-B
Table-2
MANAGER_ID MANAGER_NAME
E1 Ravi
E2 Meena
Table-3
PLANT_ID MANAGER_ID
P1 E1
P2 E2
Table-4
MACHINE_ID MANAGER_NAME
M1 Lathe
M2 Boiler
M3 Cutter
M4 CNC
Table-5
PLANT_ID MACHINE_ID
P1 M1
P1 M2
P2 M3
P2 M2
P2 M4
Table-6
SUPPLIER_ID SUPPLIER_NAME SUPPLIER_CITY
S1 Jay industry Ahmedabad
S2 Abb aplliance Surat
S3 Raj machinery Vadodara
S4 Daksh industry Rajkot
Table-7
MANAGER_ID SUPPLIER_ID
E1 S1
E1 S2
E2 S3
E2 S4
E2 S1
4 Normal Form (4NF)
Table-1
PLANT_ID PLANT_NAME
P1 Plant-A
P2 Plant-B
Table-2
MANAGER_ID MANAGER_NAME
E1 Ravi
E2 Meena
Table-3
MACHINE_ID MACHINE_NAME
M1 Lathe
M2 Boiler
M3 Cutter
M4 CNC
Table-4
PLANT_MACHINE_ID PLANT_ID MACHINE_ID
PM1 P1 M1
PM2 P1 M2
PM3 P2 M3
PM4 P2 M2
PM5 P2 M4
Table-5
PLANT_MACHINE_ID MANAGER_ID
PM1 E1
PM2 E1
PM3 E2
PM4 E2
PM5 E2
Table-6
SUPPLIER_ID SUPPLIER_NAME SUPPLIER_CITY
S1 Jay industry Ahmedabad
S2 Abb aplliance Surat
S3 Raj machinery Vadodara
S4 Daksh industry Rajkot
Table-7
MANAGER_ID SUPPLIER_ID
E1 S1
E1 S2
E2 S3
E2 S4
E2 S1

Consider a relation R with five attribute A,B,C,D and E having

following dependencies:
A -> B, BC-> E and ED-> A
b) List all keys for R.
c) In which normal form table is, justify your answer.
OR Consider table R(A,B,C,D,E) with FDs as A->B, BC->E and
ED-> A. The table is in which normal form? Justify your answer.
Keys for R are:
{ACD} {BCD} {CDE}
 Above relation R is in 3NF because there is no non-prime attributes. That is, every
column (attribute) is a part of Super Key, so the right hand side of every FD must be a
part of super key. But it’s not in BCNF (Or 4NF or 5NF).

What is canonical cover? Consider following set F of functional

dependencies on schema R(A,B,C) and compute canonical cover
for F.
A -> BC, B -> C, A -> B and AB -> C
Canonical cover:
 A canonical cover for F is a set of dependencies Fc such that
1) F logically implies all dependencies in Fc, and
2) Fc logically implies all dependencies in F, and
3) No functional dependency in Fc contains an extraneous attribute, and
4) Each left side of functional dependency in Fc is unique.
Algorithm to find Canonical cover:
 To compute a canonical cover for
F: repeat
Step 1: Use the union rule to replace any dependencies in F
1 1 and 1 2 with 1 1 2
 Step 2 : Find a functional dependency  with an
extraneous attribute either in  or in 
If an extraneous attribute is found, delete it from 
until F does not change
 Note: Union rule may become applicable after some extraneous attributes have been
deleted, so it has to be re-applied

Steps to find Canonical Cover:

 Given : R = (A, B, C) and F = {A → BC, B → C, A → B, AB → C}
Step 1: Combine A → BC and A → B into A → BC
Set is now {A → BC, B → C, AB → C}
Step 2: A is extraneous in AB → C
Check if the result of deleting A from AB → C is implied by the other
dependencies
Yes: in fact, B → C is already present.
Set is now {A → BC, B → C}
Step 3: B is extraneous in A → BC
Check if A → C is logically implied by A → B and the other dependencies
Yes: using transitivity on A → B and B → C.
Set is now {A → B and B → C}
Can use attribute closure of A in more complex cases
 The canonical cover is: A → B, B → C
Given relation R with attributes A,B, C,D,E,F and set of FDs as A-
> BC, E-> CF, B->E and CD-> EF. Find out closure {A, B} + of the
set of attributes.
Steps to find the closure {A,B}+
Step-1: result=AB
Step-2: First loop
result=ABC # for A → BC, A  result so result=result 
BC result=ABC # for E→ CF, E  result so result=result
result=ABCE # for B→ E, B  result so result=result  E
result=ABCE # for CD→ EF, CD  result so result=result

result before step2 is AB and after step 2 is ABCE which is different so repeat same as
step 2.
Step-3: Second loop
result=ABCE # for A → BC, A  result so result=result 
BC result=ABCEF # for E→ CF, E  result so result=result  CF
result=ABCEF # for B→ E, B  result so result=result  E
result=ABCEF # for CD→ EF, CD  result so result=result
 result before step3 is ABCE and after step 3 is ABCEF which is different so repeat same
as step 3.
Step-4: Third loop
result=ABCEF # for A → BC, A  result so result=result 
BC result=ABCEF # for E→ CF, E  result so result=result  CF
result=ABCEF # for B→ E, B  result so result=result  E
result=ABCEF # for CD→EF, CD result so result=result
result before step4 is ABCEF and after step 3 is ABCEF which is same so stop.
So Closure of {A,B}+ is {A, B, C, E, F}.
State and explain Heath’s Theorem.
Heath’s theorem
 A relation R(X, Y, Z) that satisfies a functional dependency X → Y can always be non-loss
decomposed into its projections R1=∏XY(R) and R2=∏XZ(R).
Proof.
 First we show that R ⊆∏XY(R)⋈X∏XZ(R). This actually holds for any relation, does not
have to satisfy X → Y.
 Assume r ∈R. We need to show r ∈∏XY(R) ⋈X∏XZ(R).
 Since r ∈R, r(X,Y) ∈∏XY(R) and r(X,Z) ∈∏XZ(R).
 Since r(X,Y) and r(X,Z) have the same value for X, their join r(X,Y,Z) = r is in
∏XY(R)⋈X∏XZ(R).
 5 – Query Processing & Optimization

Explain query processing.

Query processing
 It is a process of transforming a high level query (such as SQL) in to low level language.
 Query processing refers to the range of activities involved in extracting data from a
database.

Query in high level language

Scanning, parsing and validating

Intermediate form of query
Query optimizer

Execution plan
Query code generator
Code to execute the query

Runtime database processor

Result of query

 A query expressed in a high level query language such as SQL must be

 Scanned
 Parsed
 Validated
 The scanner identifies the language tokens such as SQL keywords, attribute names and
relation names in the text of the query.
 Parser checks the query syntax to determine whether it is formulated according to the
syntax rules of the query language.
 The query must also be validated by checking that all attributes and relation names are
valid and semantically meaningful names in the schema of the particular database being
queried.
 A query typically has many possible execution strategies and the process of choosing a
suitable one for processing a query is known as query optimization.
 The query optimizer module has the task of producing an execution plan and code
generator generates the code to execute that plan.
 The runtime database processor has the task of running the query code whether in
compiled or interpreted mode, to produce the query result.

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 5 – Query Processing & Optimization
 If a runtime error results, an error message is generated by the runtime database
processor.
 Query code generator will generate code for query.
 Runtime database processor will select optimal plan and execute query and gives result.
Explain different search algorithm for selection operation. OR
Explain linear search and binary search algorithm for selection
operation.
 There are two scan algorithms to implement the selection operation:
1. Linear search
2. Binary search
Linear search
 In a linear search, the systems scans each file block and tests all records to see whether
they satisfy the selection condition.
 For a selection on a key attribute, the system can terminate the scan if the requires
record is found, without looking at the other records of the relation.
 The cost of linear search in terms of number of I/O operations is br where br is the
number of blocks in file.
 Selection on key attribute has an average cost of br/2.
 It may be a slower algorithm than any another algorithm.
 This algorithm can be applied to any file regardless of the ordering of file or the
availability of indices or the nature of selection operation.
Binary search
 If the file is ordered on attribute and the selection condition is an equality comparison
on the attribute, we can use a binary search to locate the records that satisfy the
condition.
 The number of blocks that need to be examined to find a block containing the required
record is log(br).
 If the selection is on non-key attribute more than one block may contain required
records and the cost of reading the extra blocks has to be added to the cost estimate.
Explain various steps involved in query evaluation.

OR Explain query evaluation process.

OR Explain evaluation expression process in query

optimization.
 There are two methods for the evaluation of expression
1. Materialization
2. Pipelining
Materialization
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 5 – Query Processing & Optimization
 In this method we start from bottom of the tree and each expression is evaluated one
by one in bottom to top order. The result of each expression is materialized (stored) in
temporary relation (table) for later use.

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 5 – Query Processing & Optimization

Πcustomer-name (balalce<2500 (account) customer)

∏customer-name

balalce<2500
customer

account

 In our example, there is only one such operation, selection operation on account.
 The inputs to the lowest level operation are relations in the database.
 We execute these operations and we store the results in temporary relations.
 We can use these temporary relations to execute the operation at the next level up in
the tree, where the inputs now are either temporary relations or relations stored in the
database.
 In our example the inputs to join are the customer relation and the temporary relation
created by the selection on account.
 The join can now be evaluated, creating another temporary relation.
 By repeating the process, we will finally evaluate the operation at the root of the tree,
giving the final result of the expression.
 In our example, we get the final result by executing the projection operation at the root
of the tree, using as input the temporary relation created by the join. Evaluation just
described is called materialized evaluation, since the results of each intermediate
operation are created and then are used for evaluation of the next level operations.
 The cost of a materialized evaluation is not simply the sum of the costs of the operations
involved. To compute the cost of evaluating an expression is to add the cost of all the
operation as well as the cost of writing intermediate results to disk.
 The disadvantage of this method is that it will create temporary relation (table) and that
relation is stored on disk which consumes space on disk.
 It evaluates one operation at a time, starting at the lowest level.
Pipelining
 We can reduce the number of temporary files that are produced by combining several
relations operations into pipeline operations, in which the results of one operation are
passed along to the next operation in the pipeline. Combining operations into a pipeline
eliminates the cost reading and writing temporary relations.
 In this method several expression are evaluated simultaneously in pipeline by using the
result of one operation passed to next without storing it in a temporary relation.

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 5 – Query Processing & Optimization

Πcustomer-name (balalce<2500 (account) customer)

 First it will compute records having balance less than 2500 and then pass this result
directly to project without storing that result in any temporary relation (table). And then
by using this result it will compute the projections on customer-name.
 It is much cheaper than materialization because in this method no need to store a
temporary relation to disk.
 Pipelining is not used in sort, hash joins.
Explain the method of query optimization. OR
Explain query optimization process.
Query optimization
 It is a process of selecting the most efficient query evaluation plan from the available
possible plans for processing a given query.
 There are two phases of query optimization
1. Optimization which occur at the relational algebra level. In this phase the system
will find an expression that is equivalent to the given expression but more
efficient to execute.
2. Selecting a detailed strategy for processing the query such as choosing algorithm
and specific indices etc.
 For example consider the relational algebra expression for the query
 “Find the name of all customers who have account at any branch located in Pune”
Πcustomer-name (  branch-city=”pune” (branch (account depositor)))
 The above query may be written as below
Πcustomer-name (  branch-city=”pune” (branch) (account depositor))
 In the second algebra expression the size of intermediate result is smaller than first
because it will only contain the records of pune branch city. Final result of both the
expression is same.
∏customer-name ∏customer-name

σbranch-city=’pune’

σbranch-city=’pune’

branch branch account depositor

account depositor

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 5 – Query Processing & Optimization
 To choose from the different query evaluation plan, the optimizer has to estimate the
cost of each evaluation plan.
 Optimizer use statically information about the relation such as relation size and index
depth to make a good estimate of the cost of a plan.
Explain transformation of relational expression to equivalent
relational expression.
 Two relational algebra expressions are said to be equivalent (same) if on every legal
database operation, the two expressions gives the same set of tuples (records).
Sequence of records may be different but no of records must be same.
Equivalence rules
 This rule says that expressions of two forms are same.
 We can replace an expression of first form by an expression of the second form.
 The optimizer uses equivalence rule to transform expression into other logically same
expression.
 We use
θ1, θ2, θ3 and so on to denote condition
L1, L2, L3 and so on to denote list of attributes (columns)
E1, E2, E3 and so on to denote relational algebra expression.
Rules 1
 Combined selection operation can be divided into sequence of individual selections. This
transformation is called cascade of σ.
σθ1Λθ2 (E)=σθ1(θ2 (E))
Rules 2
 Selection operations are commutative.
σθ1(θ2 (E))=σθ2(θ1 (E))
Rules 3
 If more than one projection operation is used in expression then only the outer
projection operation is required. So skip all the other inner projection operation.
∏L1 (∏L2 (… (∏Ln (E))…)) = ∏L1 (E)
Rules 4
 Selection operation can be joined with Cartesian product and theta join.
σθ (E1 E2) = E1 θ E2
σθ1 (E1 θ2 E2) = E1 θ1Λθ2 E2
Rules 5
 Theta operations are commutative.
E1 θ2 E2 = E2 θ2 E1
Rules 6
 Natural join operations are associative.
(E1 E2) E3 = E1 (E2 E3)
 Theta join operations are associative.

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 5 – Query Processing & Optimization

(E1 θ1E2) θ2Λθ3E3 = E1 θ1Λθ3 (E2 θ2E3)

Rules 7
 The selection operation distribute over theta join operation under the following
condition
 It distribute when all the attributes in the selection condition θ0 involves only
the attributes of the one of the expression (says E1) being joined.
σθ0 (E1 E2) = (σθ0 (E1)) θ E2
 It distributes when the selection condition θ1involves only the attributes of E1
and θ2 involves only the attributes of E2.
 σθ1Λθ2 (E1 θ E2) = (σθ1(E1) θ (σθ2 (E2)))
Explain the purpose of sorting with example with reference to
query optimization.
Purpose of Sorting
 Several of the relational operations such as joins can be implemented efficiently if the
input relations are first sorted.
 We can sort a relation by building an index on the sort key and then using that index to
read the relation in sorted order.
 Such a process orders the relation only logically rather than physically.
 Hence reading of tuples in the sorted order may lead to disk access for each record.
 So it is desirable to order the records physically.
 Sorting could be applied to both relations that fit entirely in main memory and for
relations bigger than main memory.
 Sorting of relation that fit into main memory, standard sorting techniques such as quick-
sort can be used.
 Sorting of relations that do not fit in main memory is called external sorting.
 Most commonly used algorithm for this type of sorting is external sort merge algorithm.
 It consists mainly two steps:
 Step 1 (Create sorted runs)
 Let M denotes memory size (in pages).
 Create sorted runs. Let i be 0 initially.
Repeatedly do the following till the end of the relation:
(a) Read M blocks of relation into memory
(b) Sort the in-memory blocks
(c) Write sorted data to run Ri; increment i.
Let the final value of i be N
 Step 2 (Merge the runs)

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 5 – Query Processing & Optimization
 Merge the runs (N-way merge). We assume (for now) that N < M.
1) Use N blocks of memory to buffer input runs, and 1 block to
buffer output. Read the first block of each run into its buffer page
2) repeat
I. Select the first record (in sort order) among all buffer
pages
II. Write the record to the output buffer. If the output buffer
is full write it to disk.
III. Delete the record from its input buffer page.
If the buffer page becomes empty then read the next block
(if any) of the run into the buffer.
3) until all input buffer pages are empty:
 If N  M, several merge passes are required.
 In each pass, contiguous groups of M - 1 runs are merged.
 A pass reduces the number of runs by a factor of M -1, and creates runs longer
by the same factor.
 E.g. If M=11, and there are 90 runs, one pass reduces the number of runs
to 9, each 10 times the size of the initial runs
 Repeated passes are performed till all runs have been merged into one.
 The output of the merge stage is the sorted relation.
 The output file is buffered to reduce the number of disk operations.
 If the relation is much larger than memory there may be M or more runs generated in
the first stage and it is not possible to allocate a page frame for each run during the
merge stage.
 In this case merge operation proceed in multiple passes.
 Since there is enough memory for M-1 input buffer pages each merge can take M-1 runs
as input.
Explain the measures of query cost, selection operation and
join.

OR
Explain the measures of finding out the cost of a query in query
processing.
Measures of query cost
 The cost of query evaluation can be measured in terms of a number of different
resources including disk access, CPU time to execute a query and in a distributed or

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 5 – Query Processing & Optimization
parallel database system the cost of communication.

9
 5 – Query Processing & Optimization
 The response time for a query evaluation plan i.e the time required to execute the plan
(assuming no other activity is going on) on the computer would account for all these
activities.
 In large database system, however disk accesses are usually the most important cost,
since disk access are slow compared to in memory operation.
 Moreover, CPU speeds have been improving much faster than have a disk speed.
 Therefore it is likely that the time spent in disk activity will continue to dominate the
total time to execute a query.
 Estimating the CPU time is relatively hard, compared to estimating disk access cost.
 Therefore disk access cost a reasonable measure of the cost of a query evaluation plan.
 Disk access is the predominant cost (in terms of time) relatively easy to estimate;
therefore number of block transfers from/to disk is typically used as measures.
 We use the number of block transfers from disk as a measure of actual cost.
 To simplify our computation, we assume that all transfer of blocks have same cost.
 To get more precise numbers we need to distinguish between sequential I/O where
blocks read are contiguous on disk and random I/O where blocks are non-contiguous
and an extra seek cost must be paid for each disk I/O operations.
 We also need to distinguish between read and write of blocks since it takes more time
to write a block on disk than to read a block from disk.
Selection Operation
 There are two scan algorithms to implement the selection operation:
1. Linear search
2. Binary search
Linear search
 In a linear search, the system scans each file block and tests all records to see whether
they satisfy the selection condition.
 For a selection on a key attribute, the system can terminate the scan if the requires
record is found, without looking at the other records of the relation.
 The cost of linear search in terms of number of I/O operations is br where br is the
number of blocks in file.
 Selection on key attribute has an average cost of br/2.
 It may be a slower algorithm than any another algorithm.
 This algorithm can be applied to any file regardless of the ordering of file or the
availability of indices or the nature of selection operation.
Binary search
 If the file is ordered on attribute and the selection condition is an equality comparison
on the attribute, we can use a binary search to locate the records that satisfy the
condition.

1
0
 5 – Query Processing & Optimization
 The number of blocks that need to be examined to find a block containing the required
record is log(br).
 If the selection is on non-key attribute more than one block may contain required
records and the cost of reading the extra blocks has to be added to the cost estimate.
Join
 Like selection, the join operation can be implemented in a variety of ways.
 In terms of disk access, the join operation can be very expensive, so implementing and
utilizing efficient join algorithms is critical in minimizing a query’s execution time.
 For example consider
depositor customer
 We assume following information about the two above relations
I. Number of records of customer ncustomer = 10,000
II. Number of blocks of customer bcustomer = 400
III. Number of records of depositor ndepositor = 5,000
IV. Number of blocks of depositor bdepositor = 100
 There are four types of algorithms for join operations.
1. Nested loop join
2. Indexed nested loop join
3. Merge join
4. Hash join

1
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 6 – Transaction Management

What is transaction? List and explain ACID property of

transaction with example. (UNIT-4)
Transaction
 A transaction is a part of program execution that accesses and updates various data
items.
 A transaction can be defined as a group of tasks in which a single task is the minimum
processing unit of work, which cannot be divided further.
 A transaction is a logical unit of work that contains one or more SQL statements.
 A transaction is an atomic unit (transaction either complete 0% or 100%).
 A database transaction must be atomic, meaning that it must be either entirely
completed or aborted.
ACID
property
Atomicity
 Either all operations of the transaction are properly reflected in the database or none
are.
 Means either all the operations of a transaction are executed or not a single operation is
executed.
 For example consider below transaction to transfer Rs. 50 from account A to account B:
1. read(A)
2. A := A – 50
3. write(A)
4. read(B)
5. B := B + 50
6. write(B)
 In above transaction if Rs. 50 is deducted from account A then it must be added to
account B.
Consistency
 Execution of a transaction in isolation preserves the consistency of the database.
 Means our database must remain in consistent state after execution of any transaction.
 In above example total of A and B must remain same before and after the execution of
transaction.
Isolation
 Although multiple transactions may execute concurrently, each transaction must be
unaware of other concurrently executing transactions.
 Intermediate transaction results must be hidden from other concurrently executed
transactions.
 In above example once your transaction start from step one its result should not be
access by any other transaction until last step (step 6) is completed.

1
 6 – Transaction Management
Durability
 After a transaction completes successfully, the changes it has made to the database
persist, even if there are system failures.
 Once your transaction completed up to step 6 its result must be stored permanently. It
should not be removed if system fails.
Explain different states in transaction processing in database.
OR
Explain State Transition Diagram (Transaction State Diagram).
 Because failure of transaction may occur, transaction is broken up into states to
handle various situations.
 Following are the different states in transaction processing in database
 Active
 Partial committed
 Failed
 Aborted
 Committed

Partial Committed
committed

Active

Failed Aborted

2
 6 – Transaction Management
Fig. State Transition Diagram
Active
 This is the initial state. The transaction stays in this state while it is executing.
Partially Committed
 This is the state after the final statement of the transaction is executed.
 At this point failure is still possible since changes may have been only done in main
memory, a hardware failure could still occur.
 The DBMS needs to write out enough information to disk so that, in case of a failure, the
system could re-create the updates performed by the transaction once the system is
brought back up.
 After it has written out all the necessary information, it is committed.

3
Failed
 After the discovery that normal execution can no longer proceed.
 Once a transaction cannot be completed, any changes that it made must be undone
rolling it back.
Aborted
 The state after the transaction has been rolled back and the database has been restored
to its state prior to the start of the transaction.
Committed
 The transaction enters in this state after successful completion of the transaction.
 We cannot abort or rollback a committed transaction.
Explain following terms.
Schedule
 A schedule is the chronological (sequential) order in which instructions are executed in a
system.
 A schedule for a set of transaction must consist of all the instruction of those
transactions and must preserve the order in which the instructions appear in each
individual transaction.
 Example of schedule (Schedule 1)
 T1 T2

read(A)
A:=A-50
write(A)
read(B)
B:= B+ 50
write(B)

read(A)
temp: A *
0.1 A: A-
temp write
(A) read(B)
B:=B +temp
write(B)
Serial schedule
 Schedule that does not interleave the actions of different transactions.
 In schedule 1 the all the instructions of T1 are grouped and run together. Then all the
instructions of T2 are grouped and run together.
 Means schedule 2 will not start until all the instructions of schedule 1 are complete. This
type of schedules is called serial schedule.
Interleaved schedule
 Schedule that interleave the actions of different transactions.
 Means schedule 2 will start before all instructions of schedule 1 are completed. This
type of schedules is called interleaved schedule.
 T1 T2

read(A)
A:=A-50
write(A)
read(A)
temp: A *
0.1 A: A-
temp write
(A)
read(B)
B:= B+ 50
write(B)

read(B)
B:=B +temp
Equivalent schedules write(B)
 Two schedules are equivalent schedule if the effect of executing the first schedule is
identical (same) to the effect of executing the second schedule.
 We can also say that two schedule are equivalent schedule if the output of executing
the first schedule is identical (same) to the output of executing the second schedule.
Serializable schedule
 A schedule that is equivalent (in its outcome) to a serial schedule has the serializability
property.
 Example of serializable schedule
Schedule 1 Schedule 2
T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
read(X) read(X)
write(X) read(Y)
read(Y) read(Z)
write(Y) write(X)
read(Z) write(Y)
write(Z) write(Z)
 In above example there are two schedules as schedule 1 and schedule 2.
 In schedule 1 and schedule 2 the order in which the instructions of transaction are
executed is not the same but whatever the result we get is same. So this is known as
serializability of transaction.
Explain serializability of transaction. OR
Explain both the forms of serializability with example. Also
explain relation between two forms. OR
Explain conflict serializability and view serializability with
example.
Conflict serializability
 Instructions li and lj of transactions Ti and Tj respectively, conflict if and only if there
exists some item Q accessed by both li and lj, and at least one of these instructions
wrote Q.
1. If li and lj access different data item then li and lj don’t conflict.
2. li = read(Q), lj = read(Q). li and lj don’t conflict.
3. li = read(Q), lj = write(Q). li and lj conflict.
4. li = write(Q), lj = read(Q). li and lj conflict.
5. li = write(Q), lj = write(Q). li and lj conflict.
 Intuitively, a conflict between li and lj forces a (logical) temporal order between them.
 If a schedule S can be transformed into a schedule S´ by a series of swaps of non-
conflicting instructions, we say that S and S´ are conflict equivalent.
 We say that a schedule S is conflict serializable if it is conflict equivalent to a serial
schedule.
Example
 Schedule S can be transformed into Schedule S’ by swapping of non-conflicting series of
instructions. Therefore Schedule S is conflict serializable.
Schedule S Schedule S’
T1 T2 T1 T2
read(A) read(A)
write(A) write(A)
read(A) read(B)
write(A) write(B)
read(B) read(A)
write(B) write(A)
read(B) read(B)
write(B) write(B)
 Instruction Ii of transaction T1 and I j of transaction T2 conflict if both of these instruction
access same data A and one of these two instructions performs write operation on that
data (A).
 In above example the write(A) instruction of transaction T1 conflict with read(A)
instruction of transaction T2 because both the instructions access same data A. But
write(A) instruction of transaction T2 is not conflict with read(B) instruction of
transaction T1 because both the instructions access different data. Transaction T2
performs write operation in A and transaction T1 is reading B.
  So in above example in schedule S two instructions read(A) and write(A) of transaction
T2 and two instructions read(B) and write(B) of transaction T1 are interchanged and we
get schedule S’.
 Therefore Schedule S is conflict serializable.
Schedule S’’
T3 T4
read(Q)
write(Q)
write(Q)
 We are unable to swap instructions in the above schedule S’’ to obtain either the serial
schedule < T3, T4 >, or the serial schedule < T4, T3 >.
 So above schedule S’’ is not conflict serializable.
View serializability
 Let S and S´ be two schedules with the same set of transactions. S and S´ are view
equivalent if the following three conditions are met, for each data item Q,
1. If in schedule S, transaction Ti reads the initial value of Q, then in schedule S’ also
transaction Ti must read the initial value of Q.
2. If in schedule S transaction Ti executes read(Q), and that value was produced by
transaction Tj (if any), then in schedule S’ also transaction T i must read the value
of Q that was produced by the same write(Q) operation of transaction Tj .
3. The transaction Ti (if any) that performs the final write(Q) operation in schedule
S then in schedule S’ also the final write(Q) operation must be performed by Ti.
 A schedule S is view serializable if it is view equivalent to a serial schedule.
 Every conflict serializable schedule is also view serializable but every view serializable is
not conflict serializable.
 Below is a schedule which is view serializable but not conflict serializable.
Schedule S
T3 T4 T6
read(Q)
write(Q)
write(Q)
write(Q)
 Above schedule is view serializable but not conflict serializable because all the
transactions can use same data item (Q) and all the operations are conflict with each
other due to one operation is write on data item (Q) and that’s why we cannot
interchange any non conflict operation of any transaction.
Explain two phase commit protocol. OR
Explain working of two phase commit protocol.
Two phase commit protocol
• The two phase commit protocol provides an automatic recovery mechanism in case a
system or media failure occurs during execution of the transaction.
• The two phase commit protocol ensures that all participants perform the same action
(either to commit or to roll back a transaction).
• The two phase commit strategy is designed to ensure that either all the databases are
updated or none of them, so that the databases remain synchronized.
• In two phase commit protocol there is one node which is act as a coordinator and all
other participating node are known as cohorts or participant.
• Coordinator – the component that coordinates with all the participants.
• Cohorts (Participants) – each individual node except coordinator are participant.
• As the name suggests, the two phase commit protocol involves two phases.
1. The first phase is Commit Request phase OR phase 1
2. The second phase is Commit phase OR phase 2
Commit Request Phase (Obtaining Decision)
 To commit the transaction, the coordinator sends a request asking for “ready for
commit” to each cohort.
 The coordinator waits until it has received a reply from all cohorts to “vote” on the
request.
 Each participant votes by sending a message back to the coordinator as follows:
 It votes YES if it is prepared to commit
 It may vote NO for any reason if it cannot prepare the transaction due to a local
failure.
 It may delay in voting because cohort was busy with other work.
Commit Phase (Performing Decision)
 If the coordinator receives YES response from all cohorts, it decides to commit. The
transaction is now officially committed. Otherwise, it either receives a NO response or
gives up waiting for some cohort, so it decides to abort.
 The coordinator sends its decision to all participants (i.e. COMMIT or ABORT).
 Participants acknowledge receipt of commit or about by replying DONE.
What is system recovery?
 Database recovery is the process of restoring a database to the correct state in the
event of a failure.
 Database recovery is a service that is provided by the DBMS to ensure that the database
is reliable and remain in consistent state in case of a failure.
 Restoring a physical backup means reconstructing it and making it available to the
database server.
  To recover a restored backup, data is updated using redo command after the backup
was taken.
 Database server such as SQL server or ORACLE server performs cash recovery and
instance recovery automatically after an instance failure.
 In case of media failure, a database administrator (DBA) must initiate a recovery
operation.
 Recovering a backup involves two distinct operations: rolling the backup forward to a
more recent time by applying redo data and rolling back all changes made in
uncommitted transactions to their original state.
 In general, recovery refers to the various operations involved in restoring, rolling
forward and rolling back a backup.
 Backup and recovery refers to the various strategies and operations involved in
protecting the database against data loss and reconstructing the database.
Explain Log based recovery method.
Log based recovery
 The most widely used structure for recording database modification is the log.
 The log is a sequence of log records, recording all the update activities in the database.
 In short Transaction log is a journal or simply a data file, which contains history of all
transaction performed and maintained on stable storage.
 Since the log contains a complete record of all database activity, the volume of data
stored in the log may become unreasonable large.
 For log records to be useful for recovery from system and disk failures, the log must
reside on stable storage.
 Log contains
1. Start of transaction
2. Transaction-id
3. Record-id
4. Type of operation (insert, update, delete)
5. Old value, new value
6. End of transaction that is committed or aborted.
 All such files are maintained by DBMS itself. Normally these are sequential files.
 Recovery has two factors Rollback (Undo) and Roll forward (Redo).
 When transaction Ti starts, it registers itself by writing a <Ti start>log record
 Before Ti executes write(X), a log record <Ti, X, V1, V2> is written, where V1 is the value
of X before the write, and V2 is the value to be written to X.
 Log record notes that Ti has performed a write on data item Xj
 Xj had value V1 before the write, and will have value V2 after the write.
 When Ti finishes it last statement, the log record <Ti commit> is written.
 Two approaches are used in log based recovery
1. Deferred database modification
2. Immediate database modification
Log based Recovery Techniques
 Once a failure occurs, DBMS retrieves the database using the back-up of database and
transaction log. Various log based recovery techniques used by DBMS are as per below:
1. Deferred Database Modification
2. Immediate Database Modification
 Both of the techniques use transaction logs. Thesetechniques are explained in following
sub-sections.
Explain Deferred Database Modification log based recovery
method.
Concept
 Updates (changes) to the database are deferred (or postponed) until the
transaction commits.
 During the execution of transaction, updates are recorded only in the transaction log
and in buffers. After the transaction commits, these updates are recorded in the
database.
When failure occurs
 If transaction has not committed, then it has not affected the database. And so, no
need to do any undoing operations. Just restart the transaction.
 If transaction has committed, then, still, it may not have modified the database. And
so, redo the updates of the transaction.
Transaction Log
 In this technique, transaction log is used in following ways:
 Transaction T starts by writing <T start> to the log.
 Any update is recorded as <T, X, V>, where V indicates new value for data item X. Here,
no need to preserve old value of the changed data item. Also, V is not written to the X in
database, but it is deferred.
 Transaction T commits by writing <T commit> to the log. Once this is entered in log,
actual updates are recorded to the database.
 If a transaction T aborts, the transaction log record is ignored, and no any updates are
recorded to the database.
Example
 Consider the following two transactions, T 0 and T1 given in figure, where T0 executes
before T1. Also consider that initial values for A, B and C are 500, 600 and 700
respectively.
Transaction – T0 Transaction – T1
Read (A) Read (C)
A =A -100 C=C-200
Write (A) Write (C)
Read (B)
B =B+ 100
Write (B)
  The following figure shows the transaction log for above
two transactions at three different instances of time.
Time Instance (a) Time Instance (b) Time Instance (c)
<T0 start> < T0 start> < T0 start>
< T0, A, 400> < T0, A, 400> < T0, A, 400>
< T0, B, 700> < T0, B, 700> < T0, B, 700>
< T0 commit> < T0 commit>
<T1 start> < T1 start>
<T1, C, 500> < T1, C, 500>
< T1 commit>
 If failure occurs in case of
1. No any REDO actions are required.
2. As Transaction T0 has already committed, it must be redone.
3. As Transactions T0 and T1 have already committed, they must be redone.
Explain Immediate Database Modification log based recovery
method.
Concept
 Updates (changes) to the database are applied immediately as they occur without
waiting to reach to the commit point.
 Also, these updates are recorded in the transaction log.
 It is possible here that updates of the uncommitted transaction are also written to the
database. And, other transactions can access these updated values.
When failure occurs
 If transaction has not committed, then it may have modified the database. And so, undo
the updates of the transaction.
 If transaction has committed, then still it may not have modified the database. And so,
redo the updates of the transaction.
Transaction Log
 In this technique, transaction log is used in following ways:
 Transaction T starts by writing <T start> to the log.
 Any update is recorded as <T, X, Vold, Vnew > where Vold indicates the original value of data
item X and Vnew indicates new value for X. Here, as undo operation is required, it
requires preserving old value of the changed data item.
 Transaction T commits by writing <T commit> to the log.
 If a transaction T aborts, the transaction log record is consulted, and required undo
operations are performed.
Example
 Again, consider the two transactions, T0 and T1, given in figure, where T0 executes
before T1.
 Also consider that initial values for A, B and C are 500, 600 and 700 respectively.
  The following figure shows the transaction log for above two transactions at three
different instances of time. Note that, here, transaction log contains original values also
along with new updated values for data items.
 If failure occurs in case of -
 Undo the transaction T0 as it has not committed, and restore A and B to 500 and 600
respectively.
 Undo the transaction T1, restore C to 700; and, Redo the Transaction T0 set A and B to
400 and 700 respectively.
 Redo the Transaction T0 and Transaction T0; and, set A and B
to 400 and 700 respectively, while set C to 500.
Time Instance (a) Time Instance (b) Time Instance (c)
<T0 start> < T0 start> < T0 start>
< T0, A, 500, 400> < T0, A, 500, 400> < T0, A, 500, 400>
< T0, B, 600, 700> < T0, B, 600, 700> < T0, B, 600, 700>
< T0 commit> < T0 commit>
<T1 start> < T1 start>
<T1, C, 700, 500> < T1, C, 700, 500>
< T1 commit>
Explain system recovery procedure with Checkpoint record
concept.
Problems with Deferred & Immediate Updates
 Searching the entire log is time-consuming.
 It is possible to redo transactions that have already been stored their updates to the
database.
Checkpoint
 A point of synchronization between database and transaction log file.
 Specifies that any operations executed before this point are done correctly and stored
safely.
 At this point, all the buffers are force-fully written to the secondary storage.
 Checkpoints are scheduled at predetermined time intervals
 Used to limit -
1. The size of transaction log file
2. Amount of searching, and
3. Subsequent processing that is required to carry out on the transaction log file.
When failure occurs
 Find out the nearest checkpoint.
 If transaction has already committed before this checkpoint, ignore it.
 If transaction is active at this point or after this point and has committed before failure,
redo that transaction.
 If transaction is active at this point or after this point and has not committed, undo that
 transaction.
Example
 Consider the transactions given in following figure. Here, Tc indicates checkpoint, while
Tf indicates failure time.
 Here, at failure time -
1. Ignore the transaction T1 as it has already been committed before checkpoint.
2. Redo transaction T2 and T3 as they are active at/after checkpoint, but have
committed before failure.
3. Undo transaction T4 as it is active after checkpoint and has not committed.

Time Tc Tf

T1
T2

T3

T4

Checkpoint Time Failure

Explain Shadow Paging Technique.

Concept
 Shadow paging is an alternative to transaction-log based recovery techniques.
 Here, database is considered as made up of fixed size disk blocks, called pages. These
pages are mapped to physical storage using a table, called page table.
 The page table is indexed by a page number of the database. The information about
physical pages, in which database pages are stored, is kept in this page table.
 This technique is similar to paging technique used by Operating Systems to allocate
memory, particularly to manage virtual memory.
 The following figure depicts the concept of shadow paging.
Execution of Transaction
 During the execution of the transaction, two page tables are maintained.
1. Current Page Table: Used to access data items during transaction execution.
2. Shadow Page Table: Original page table, and will not get modified during
transaction execution.
 Whenever any page is about to be written for the first time
1. A copy of this page is made onto an free page,
2. The current page table is made to point to the copy,
3. The update is made on this copy.
  At the start of the transaction, both tables are same and point· to same pages.
 The shadow page table is never changed, and is used to restore the database in case of
any failure occurs. However, current page table entries may change during transaction
execution, as it is used to record all updates made to the database.
 When the transaction completes, the current page table becomes shadow page table.
At this time, it is considered that the transaction has committed.
 The following figure explains working of this technique.
 As shown in this figure, two pages - page 2 & 5 - are affected by a transaction and
copied to new physical pages. The current page table points to these pages.
 The shadow page table continues to point to old pages which are not changed by the
transaction. So, this table and pages are used for undoing the transaction.
Pages Page Table

Page 5 1
Page 1 2
Page 4 3
Page 2 4
Page 3 5
Page 6  6

Current Shadow
Page Tale Pages Page Table

Page 5(old) 1

Page 1 2
 Page 4 3
 Page 2(old) 4
 Page 3 5
 Page 6
 6
 Page 2(new)
Page 5(new)

Advantages
 No overhead of maintaining transaction log.
 Recovery is quite faster, as there is no any redo or undo operations required.
Disadvantages
 Copying the entire· page table is very expensive.
 Data are scattered or fragmented.
 After each transaction, free pages need to be collected by garbage collector. Difficult to
extend this technique to allow concurrent transactions.
What is concurrency? What are the methods to control
concurrency?
Concurrency
 Concurrency is the ability of a database to allow multiple (more than one) users to
access data at the same time.
Methods to control concurrency (Mechanisms)
 Optimistic - Delay the checking of whether a transaction meets the isolation and other
integrity rules (e.g., serializability and recoverability) until its end, without blocking any
of its (read, write) operations and then abort a transaction to prevent the violation, if
the desired rules are to be violated upon its commit. An aborted transaction is
immediately restarted and re-executed, which incurs an obvious overhead. If not too
many transactions are aborted, then being optimistic is usually a good strategy.
 Pessimistic - Block an operation of a transaction, if it may cause violation of the rules,
until the possibility of violation disappears. Blocking operations is typically involved with
performance reduction.
 Semi-optimistic - Block operations in some situations, if they may cause violation of
some rules, and do not block in other situations while delaying rules checking (if
needed) to transaction's end, as done with optimistic.
Methods to control concurrency (Methods)
 Locking (Two-phase locking - 2PL) - Controlling access to data by locks assigned to the
data. Access of a transaction to a data item (database object) locked by another
transaction may be blocked (depending on lock type and access operation type) until
lock release.
 Serialization graph checking (also called Serializability, or Conflict, or Precedence
graph checking) - Checking for cycles in the schedule's graph and breaking them by
aborts.
 Timestamp ordering (TO) - Assigning timestamps to transactions, and controlling or
checking access to data by timestamp order.
 Commitment ordering (Commit ordering or CO) - Controlling or checking transactions'
chronological order of commit events to be compatible with their respective precedence
order.
What are the three problems due to concurrency? How the
problems can be avoided.
Three problems due to concurrency
1. The lost update problem: This problem indicate that if two transactions T1 and T2
both read the same data and update it then effect of first update will be overwritten
by the second update.
 T1 Time T2
--- T0 ---
Read X T1 ---
--- T2 Read X
Update X T3 ---
--- T4 Update X
--- T5 ---
How to avoid: In above example a transaction T2 must not update the data item (X)
until the transaction T1 can commit data item (X).
2. The dirty read problem: The dirty read arises when one transaction update some
item and then fails due to some reason. This updated item is retrieved by another
transaction before it is changed back to the original value.
T1 Time T2
--- T0 ---
--- T1 Update X
Read X T2 ---
--- T3 Rollback
--- T5 ---
How to avoid: In above example a transaction T1 must not read the data item (X)
until the transaction T2 can commit data item (X).
3. The incorrect retrieval problem: The inconsistent retrieval problem arises when one
transaction retrieves data to use in some operation but before it can use this data
another transaction updates that data and commits. Through this change will be
hidden from first transaction and it will continue to use previous retrieved data. This
problem is also known as inconsistent analysis problem.
Balance (A=200 B=250 C=150)
T1 Time T2
--- T0 ---
Read (A) T1 ---
Sum  200
Read (B) T2 ---
Sum  Sum + 250 = 450
--- T3 Read (C)
--- T4 Update (C)
150  150 – 50 = 100
--- T5 Read (A)
--- T6 Update (A)
200  200 + 50 = 250
--- T7 COMMIT
Read (C) T8 ---
Sum Sum + 100 = 550
 How to avoid: In above example a transaction T2 must not read or update data item
(X) until the transaction T1 can commit data item (X).
What is concurrency control? Why Concurrency control is
needed?
Concurrency control
 The technique is used to protect data when multiple users are accessing (using) same
data concurrently (at same time) is called concurrency control.
Concurrency control needed
 If transactions are executed serially, i.e., sequentially with no overlap in time, no
transaction concurrency exists. However, if concurrent transactions with interleaving
operations are allowed in an uncontrolled manner, some unexpected, undesirable result
may occur. Here are some typical examples:
1. The lost update problem: This problem indicates that if two transactions T1 and T2
both read the same data and update it then effect of first update will be overwritten
by the second update.
2. The dirty read problem: The dirty read arises when one transaction updates some
item and then fails due to some reason. This updated item is retrieved by another
transaction before it is changed back to the original value.
3. The incorrect retrieval problem: The inconsistent retrieval problem arises when one
transaction retrieves data to use in some operation But before it can use this data
another transaction update that data and commits. Through this change will be
hidden from first transaction and it will continue to use previous retrieved data. This
problem is also known as inconsistent analysis problem.
 Most high-performance transactional systems need to run transactions concurrently to
meet their performance requirements. Thus, without concurrency control such systems
can neither provide correct results nor maintain their databases consistent.
Define lock. Define locking. Explain lock based protocol.
Lock
 A lock is a variable associated with data item to control concurrent access to that data
item.
 Lock requests are made to concurrency-control manager.
 Transaction can proceed only after request is granted.
Locking
 One major problem in databases is concurrency.
 Concurrency problems arise when multiple users try to update or insert data into a
database table at the same time. Such concurrent updates can cause data to become
corrupt or inconsistent.
 Locking is a strategy that is used to prevent such concurrent updates to data.
Lock based protocol
 A lock is a mechanism to control concurrent access to a data item
 Data items can be locked in two modes :
 Data items can be locked in two modes :
1. Exclusive (X) mode. Data item can be both read as well as written. X-lock is
requested using lock-X instruction.
2. Shared (S) mode. Data item can only be read. S-lock is requested using lock-S
instruction.
 Lock requests are made to concurrency-control manager.
 Transaction can proceed only after request is granted.
 Lock-compatibility matrix
S X
S TRUE FALSE
X FALSE FALSE

 A transaction may be granted a lock on an item if the requested lock is compatible with
locks already held on the item by other transactions
 Any number of transactions can hold shared locks on an item, but if any transaction
holds an exclusive on the item no other transaction may hold any lock on the item.
 If a lock cannot be granted, the requesting transaction is made to wait till all
incompatible locks held by other transactions have been released. The lock is then
granted.
T1 T2 Concurrency Control
Manager
Lock-X(B)
Grant-X(B,T1)
Read(B)
B=B-50
Write(B)
Unlock(B)
Lock-S(A)
Grant-S(A,T2)
Read (A)
Unlock(A)
Lock-S(B)
Grant-S(B,T2)
Read (B)
Unlock(B)
Display(A+B)
Lock-X(A)
Grant-X(A,T1)
Read(A)
A=A+50
 Write(A)
Unlock(A)

 This locking protocol divides transaction execution phase into three parts.
1. In the first part, when transaction starts executing, transaction seeks grant for locks
it needs as it executes.
2. Second part is where the transaction acquires all locks and no other lock is required.
Transaction keeps executing its operation.
3. As soon as the transaction releases its first lock, the third phase starts. In this phase
a transaction cannot demand for any lock but only releases the acquired locks.
 Lock acquisition Lock releasing
phase phase

T begin T end Time

Explain two phase locking protocol. What are its advantages

and disadvantages? OR
Explain two phase locking. Explain its advantage and
disadvantage.
Two-Phase Locking Protocol
 The use of locks has helped us to create neat and clean concurrent schedule.
 The Two Phase Locking Protocol defines the rules of how to acquire the locks on a data
item and how to release the locks.
 Two phase locking (2PL) is a concurrency control method that guarantees serializability.
 The protocol utilizes locks, applied by a transaction on data, which may block (stop)
other transactions from accessing the same data during the transaction's life.
 The Two Phase Locking Protocol assumes that a transaction can only be in one of two
phases.
Phase 1 - Growing Phase
 In this phase the transaction can only acquire locks, but cannot release any lock.
 The transaction enters the growing phase as soon as it acquires the first lock it
wants.
 From now on it has no option but to keep acquiring all the locks it would need.
 It cannot release any lock at this phase even if it has finished working with a
locked data item.
 Ultimately the transaction reaches a point where all the lock it may need has
been acquired. This point is called Lock Point.
Phase 2 - Shrinking Phase
 After Lock Point has been reached, the transaction enters the shrinking phase.
 In this phase the transaction can only release locks, but cannot acquire any new
lock.
 The transaction enters the shrinking phase as soon as it releases the first lock
after crossing the Lock Point.
 From now on it has no option but to keep releasing all the acquired locks.
 Initially the transaction is in growing phase, that is the transaction acquires locks as
needed.
 Once the transaction releases lock, it enters the shrinking phase and no more lock
request may be issued.
 Upgrading of lock is not possible in shrinking phase, but it is possible in growing phase.
 The two phase locking protocol ensures serializability.
 There are two different versions of the Two Phase Locking Protocol.
1) Strict Two Phase Locking Protocol
2) Rigorous Two Phase Locking Protocol.
Explain strict two phase locking. Explain its advantage and
disadvantage.
Strict Two Phase Locking Protocol
 In this protocol, a transaction may release all the shared locks after the Lock Point has
been reached, but it cannot release any of the exclusive locks until the transaction
commits or aborts.
 This ensures that any data is written by an uncommitted transaction are locked in
exclusive mode until the transaction commits and preventing other transaction from
reading that data.
 This protocol solves dirty read problem.
Rigorous Two Phase Locking Protocol
In Rigorous Two Phase Locking Protocol, a transaction is not allowed to release any lock
(either shared or exclusive) until it commits. This means that until the transaction
commits, other transaction might acquire a shared lock on a data item on which the
uncommitted transaction has a shared lock; but cannot acquire any lock on a data item
on which the uncommitted transaction has an exclusive lock.
Advantages
 Recovery is very easy.
Disadvantages
 Concurrency is reduced
Explain time stamp based protocol.
Time stamp based protocol
 This protocol uses either system time or logical counter to be used as a time-stamp.
  Every transaction has a time-stamp associated with it and the ordering is determined by
the age of the transaction.
 A transaction created at 0002 clock time would be older than all other transaction,
which come after it.
 For example, any transaction 'y' entering the system at 0004 is two seconds younger
and priority may be given to the older one.
 In addition, every data item is given the latest read and write-timestamp. This lets the
system know, when last read was and write operation made on the data item.
Time stamp ordering protocol
 The timestamp-ordering protocol ensures serializability among transaction in their
conflicting read and writes operations.
 This is the responsibility of the protocol system that the conflicting pair of tasks should
be executed according to the timestamp values of the transactions.
 Time-stamp of Transaction Ti is denoted as TS(Ti).
 Read time-stamp of data-item X is denoted by R-timestamp(X).
 Write time-stamp of data-item X is denoted by W-timestamp(X).
 Timestamp ordering protocol works as follows:
 If a transaction Ti issues read(X) operation:
 If TS(Ti) < W-timestamp(X)
 Operation rejected.
 If TS(Ti) >= W-timestamp(X)
 Operation executed.
 All data-item Timestamps updated.

 If a transaction Ti issues write(X) operation:

 If TS(Ti) < R-timestamp(X)
 Operation rejected.
 If TS(Ti) < W-timestamp(X)
 Operation rejected and Ti rolled back.
 Otherwise, operation executed.
What is deadlock? Explain wait-for-graph. When it occurs?
OR
Define deadlock. Explain wait-for-graph. Explain different
conditions that lead to deadlock.
Deadlock
 A deadlock is a condition when two or more transactions are executing and each
transaction is waiting for the other to finish but none of them are ever finished. So all
the transactions will wait for infinite time and not a single transaction is completed.
Wait-for-graph

Table 1
Held by Wait for

Transaction 1 Transaction 2

Wait for Hold by

Table 2
 In the above figure there are two transactions 1 and 2 and two table’s as table1 and
table 2.
 Transaction 1 hold table 1 and wait for table 2. Transaction 2 hold table 2 and wait for
table 1.
 Now the table 1 is wanted by transaction 2 and that is hold by transaction 1 and same
way table 2 is wanted by transaction 1 and that is hold by transaction 2. Until any one
can’t get this table they can’t precede further so this is called wait for graph. Because
both of these transaction have to wait for some resources.
When dead lock occurs
 A deadlock occurs when two separate processes struggle for resources are held by one
another.
 Deadlocks can occur in any concurrent system where processes wait for each other and
a cyclic chain can arise with each process waiting for the next one in the chain.
 Deadlock can occur in any system that satisfies the four conditions:
1. Mutual Exclusion Condition: only one process at a time can use a resource or
each resource assigned to 1 process or is available.
2. Hold and Wait Condition: processes already holding resources may request new
resources.
3. No Preemption Condition: only a process holding a resource can release it
voluntarily after that process has completed its task or previously granted
resources cannot forcibly taken away from any process.
4. Circular Wait Condition: two or more processes forms circular chain where each
process requests a resource that the next process in the chain holds.
Explain deadlock detection.
Resource-Allocation Graph
 A set of vertices V and a set of edges E.
 V is partitioned into two types:
1. P = {P1, P2, …, Pn}, the set consisting of all the processes in
the system.
 2. R = {R1, R2, …, Rm}, the set consisting of all resource types in the
system.

 request edge – directed edge Pi → Rj

 assignment edge – directed edge Rj → Pi
 Process -
 Resource –
 Process Pi requests resource Rj -
 Process Pi is holding resource Rj
 If graph contains no cycles then no deadlock.
 If graph contains cycles then deadlock.

R1 R3 R1 R3

P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P3

R2 R4 R2 R4
 No cycle (circular chain) created
Cycle (circular chain) created
So no deadlock
(P2, R3, P3, R4, P2) So deadlock

Explain deadlock avoidance methods. OR

Explain methods to avoid deadlock.
Deadlock avoidance
 Deadlock can be avoided if certain information about processes is available to the
operating system before allocation of resources, such as
 Which resources a process will consume in its lifetime.
 Simplest and most useful model requires that each process declare the
maximum number of resources of each type that a process may need.
 The deadlock-avoidance algorithm dynamically examines the resource-allocation
state to ensure that there can never be a circular-wait condition.
 Resource-allocation state is defined by the number of available and allocated
resources, and the maximum demands of the processes.
  For every resource request, the system sees whether granting the request will mean
that the system will enter an unsafe state, meaning a state that could result in deadlock.
 The system then only grants requests that will lead to safe state.
 In order for the system to be able to determine whether the next state will be safe or
unsafe, it must know in advance at any time:
 resources currently available
 resources currently allocated to each process
 resources that will be required and released by these processes in the future
 It is possible for a process to be in an unsafe state but for this not to result in a deadlock.
 The notion of safe/unsafe states only refers to the ability of the system to enter a
deadlock state or not.
 For example, if a process requests A which would result in an unsafe state, but releases
B which would prevent circular wait, then the state is unsafe but the system is not in
deadlock.
 One known algorithm that is used for deadlock avoidance is the Banker's algorithm,
which requires resource usage limit to be known in advance. However, for many
systems it is impossible to know in advance what every process will request. This means
that deadlock avoidance is often impossible.
 Two other algorithms are Wait/Die and Wound/Wait, each of which uses a symmetry-
breaking technique.
 In both these algorithms there exists an older process (O) and a younger process (Y).
Process age can be determined by a timestamp at process creation time. Smaller
timestamps are older processes, while larger timestamps represent younger processes.

Wait/Die Wound/Wait
O needs a resource held by Y O waits Y dies
Y needs a resource held by O Y dies Y waits

Explain deadlock prevention methods. OR

Explain methods to prevent deadlock.
Deadlock prevention
 Deadlock can be prevented by stopping one of the four conditions from occurring that
lead to deadlock.
1. Mutual Exclusion Condition: Removing the mutual exclusion condition means
that no process will have exclusive access (rights) to a resource.
2. Hold and Wait Condition: The hold and wait or resource holding conditions may
be removed by requiring processes to request all the resources they will need
before it begins execution. This advance knowledge is frequently difficult to
satisfy and, in any case, is an inefficient use of resources. Another way is to
require processes to request resources only when it has none. Thus, first they
must release all their currently held resources before requesting all the
 resources they will need for execution. This too is often impractical. It is so
because resources may be allocated and remain unused for long periods. Also, a
process requiring a popular resource may have to wait indefinitely; as such a
resource may always be allocated to some process, resulting in resource
starvation.
3. No Preemption Condition: If a process that is holding some resources requests
another resource that cannot be immediately allocated to it, then all resources
currently being held are released. Preempted resources are added to the list of
resources for which the process is waiting. Process will be restarted only when it
can regain its old resources, as well as the new ones that it is requesting.
4. Circular Wait Condition: Approaches that avoid circular waits include disabling
interrupts during critical sections and using a hierarchy to determine a partial
ordering of resources and resources are requested in the increasing order of the
enumeration.
 7 – Security

What is data security? (Define data security). What are the

objectives while designing secure database?
Data security
 Data security is the protection of the data from unauthorized users.
 Only the authorized users are allowed to access the data.
 Most of the users are allowed to access a part of database i.e., the data that is related to
them or related to their department.
 Mostly, the DBA or head of department can access all the data in the database.
 Some users may be permitted only to retrieve data, whereas others are allowed to
retrieve as well as to update data.
 The database access is controlled by the DBA.
 He/she creates the accounts of users and gives rights to access the database.
 Users or group of users are given usernames protected by passwords.
 The user enters his/her account number (or user name) and password to access the
data from database.
 For example, if you have an account in the "yahoo.com" (a popular website), then you
have to give your correct username and password to access your account of e-mail.
Similarly, when you insert your ATM card into the Automated Teller Machine (ATM), the
machine reads your ID number printed on the card and then asks you to enter your pin
code (or password). In this way you can access your account.
What is the difference between security and integrity?
Data Security Data Integrity
Data security defines a prevention of data Data integrity defines a quality of data, which
corruption through the use of controlled guarantees the data is complete and has a
access mechanisms. whole structure.
Data security deals with protection of data Data integrity deals with the validity of data
Data security is making sure only the people Data integrity is making sure the data is
who should have access to the data are the correct and not corrupt.
only ones who can access the data.
Data security refers to the making sure that Data integrity refers to the structure of the
data is accessed by its intended users, thus data and how it matches the schema of the
ensuring the privacy and protection of data. database.
Authentication/authorization, encryptions and Backing up, designing suitable user interface
masking are some of the popular means of and error detection/correction in data are
data security. some of the means to preserve integrity.

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Explain (Describe) data encryption in detail (brief).

OR Write short note on data encryption

OR Data encryption
 Encryption is a technique of encoding data, so that only authorized user can understand
(read) it.
 The data encryption technique converts readable data into unreadable data by using
some techniques so that unauthorized person cannot read it

Data encryption process

 In above figure sender having data that he/she wants to send his/her data is known as
plaintext.
 In first step sender will encrypt data (plain text) using encryption algorithm and some
key.
 After encryption the plaintext becomes ciphertext.
 This ciphertext is not able to read by any unauthorized person.
 This ciphertext is send to receiver.
 The sender will send that key separately to receiver.
 Once receiver receives this ciphertext he/she will decrypt it using that key send by
sender and decryption algorithm.
 After applying decryption algorithm and key receiver will get original data (plaintext)
that is sended by sender.
 This technique is used to protect data when there a chance of data theft.
 In such situation if encrypted is theft then it cannot be used (read) directly without
knowing the encryption technique and key.
 There are two different method of data encryption
1. Symmetric encryption
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2. Public key encryption

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Explain types of access control methods of data security

OR Explain discretionary access control and mandatory access

control of data security.
 There are two different methods of data access control:-
1. Discretionary access control
2. Mandatory access control
Discretionary access control
 In this method, user is given access rights (privileges) to access database object or data
items such as table or view.
 This method is based on the concept of access rights and mechanisms for giving rights to
user.
 In this method a single user can have different rights on different data items, as well as
different user can have different rights on the same data item.
 SQL support discretionary access control through the GRANT and REVOKE commands.
GRANT
 This command gives rights to user for a data items.
Syntax:-
GRANT privilege ON object TO user [WITH GRANT OPTION]
REVOKE
 This command takes back rights from user for a data items.
Syntax:-
REVOKE privilege ON object FROM user {RESTRICT/CASCADE}
 Privileges are various operations that we will perform on table or view E.g. INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE, SELECT etc.
 Object is table or view or any data item.
 User is the name of user.
 With grant option is used if user wants to pass the rights to other user. Means if a user
get a rights with the grant option then he/she can give this rights to another user.
 When user executes a REVOKE command with the cascade option then it will take back
given rights from all the users who get those rights from this user.
Mandatory access control
 In this method individual user cannot get rights. But all the users as well as all the
objects are classified into different categories. Each user is assigned a clearance level
and each object is assigned a security level.
 A user can access object of particular security level only if he has proper clearance level.
 The DBMS determines whether a given user can read or write a given object based on
some rules.
 This rule contains security level of object and clearance level of the user.
 This rule makes sure that sensitive data can never be passed to a user without necessary

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clearance.

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Components
 The commonly used mandatory access control technique for multi-level security uses
four components as given below
1. Subjects:-Such as users, accounts, programs etc.
2. Objects:-Such as relation (table), tuples (records), attribute (column), view etc.
3. Clearance level:-Such as top secret (TS), secret (S), confidential (C), Unclassified
(U). Each subject is classified into one of these four classes.
4. Security level: -Such as top secret (TS), secret (S), confidential (C), Unclassified
(U). Each object is classified into one of these four classes.
 In the above system TS>S>C>U, where TS>S means class TS data is more sensitive than
class S data.
Rules:-
 A user can access data by following two rules
1. Security property:-
Subject S will read object O if class (S)>=class (O)
2. Star (*) security property:-
Subject S will write object O if class (S) <=class (O)
What is authorization and authentication? OR
What is difference between authorization and authentication?
Authorization Authentication
It is protecting the data to ensure privacy and Authentication is providing integrity control
access control of data. Authorization is giving and security to the data.
access to authorized users.
Authorization is the process of verifies what Authentication is the process of verifying who
you are authorized to do or not to do. you are.
Accessing a file from hard disk is authorization Logging on to a PC with a username and
because the permissions are given to you to password is authentication.
access that file allow you access it that is
authorization.

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