The Errors Analysis of Students’ Grammatical Writing on

Narrative Text
Jamaliah1, Ramlan2, Fauziah3, Irma Suryani4
1,2,3,4
Universitas Jabal Ghafur, Indonesia
[email protected]

Keywords
Abstract
error analysis; grammatical
writing; narrative text.
The purpose of this research was to know both the type of error and
the most dominant error made by students in writing narrative text
at the second grade students of SMK N 1 Sigli. This study is
qualitative research as suggested by Noor (2011). The purpose of
this research is to analyze the errors which actually committed by
students on their writing. This research is a case study which
clarifies the natural circumstance. The writer collect the data by
using a set of written test. The procedures of Error Analysis (EA)
adopted from Corder (1974) as cited in Ellis (2008:48). The data
nanalized by using table of freqency the result showed that the error
made by the students can be categorized into four types of errors.
Those were errors of omission, errors of addition, errors of
misformation, and errors of misordering. Another result showed that
the most dominant error in writing narrative text made by the
students was error of misformation. In describing the type of error, it
can be inferred that there are 25 items of error, which occur in the
students’ sentences.

I. Introduction

Learning English usually involves the four language skills, which support each
other. It means language learning take inside the learner and, as the teachers know to
their frequent frustration, many aspects of it are beyond their pedagogical control,
Jamaliah et,al (2017:220) The writing skill is very important in the education field.
Language is formed by some words or vocabulary. Moreover, vocabulary is existent in
all of language aspects (speaking, writing, reading, and listening), (Farizawati, Ramlan
and L.Tasnim (2020:1) According to Harmer (2001:79) writing is a form of
communication to deliver through or to express feeling through written form. However,
writing is considered to be the most difficult skill to master. In mastering writing, there
are many aspects that must be considered. One of the important aspects is grammar. It is
inevitable that writing cannot be separated from grammar due to the fact that a good
written text must has a grammatical correct and a well organised. Grammar is the
pattern that makes how combined words can be understood. Nevertheless, every
language has its own grammar which makes the students have to master the grammar of
target language before write a text. Many students are still lack in mastering writing. As
there are the differences of two languages; Indonesian and English, it is unavoidable that
they produce errors in many aspects of writing, such as in grammatical and lexical
aspects. As a result, their written text is unreadable.

______________________________________________________________

DOI: https://doi.org/10.33258/birci.v3i3.1115 1826

 Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal)
Volume 3, No 3, August 2020, Page: 1826-1837
e-ISSN: 2615-3076(Online), p-ISSN: 2615-1715(Print)
www.bircu-journal.com/index.php/birci
email: [email protected]

The difficulties applying the rules of the language in writing caused the students
doing error. Acording Sujoko (1989:5), an error ia a noticeable deviation from the adult
grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner. It
occurs when the features of the language is different from the learners’ native language.
The students’ error can be classified into linguistic errors. Dulay et all (1982:146) state that
there are four taxonomies that important to consider, namely the linguistic category
taxonomy, the surface strategy taxonomy, the comparative analysis taxonomy, and the
communicative taxonomy.
It is important to help the students to reduce their errors. It is needed to know the
sources of errors to overcome such problem. Brown (2000:224) mentions two main sources
of errors, namely Interlingua and intralingua. Corder (1971) as cited in Al-Hasan
(2013),Interlingua (negative transfer) errors refer to the learners’ mother tongue habits
interfere them from acquiring the patterns and rules of the second language. On the other
words, the errors reflect to the mother tongue structure. The learners tend to translate
directly from their first language into second language without considering the different
patterns of both languages. Interference or negative transfer may occur at different levels,
such as grammatical, lexical, phonology, and morphology whereas intralingua errors are
the errors which occur because the learners’ hypotheses about the second/foreign language
(Erdogan, 2005). The errors made by the learners do not reflect to the structure of their
native language but it is a result of inadequate to the target language.
Error plays an important role in learning a foreign language. From the error those
students made, one can determine their level of mastery of language system and discover
what they still have to learn. Foreign language teachers should realize errors made by the
students. In an error analysis, there should be at least two stages of activities that should be
carried out. The first is identifying and describing error. Based on surface strategy
taxonomy, there are four types oferror; addition, omission, misformation, and misodering.
Furthermore, to diagnose the causes of problems, there is a systematic way called
Error Analysis (EA). This activity has four working procedures to be used, namely
collecting data, identifying the data, describing error committed and explaining it.
Writing is an important part of skills in English. It is one of tools of communication
or an activity to express ideas, thought, and information into a written form. Lince and
Nunan (2003:88) define writing is a combination of process and product of discovering
ideas which is presented in a readable text on a paper.
Moreover, Harmer (2004:31) states, writing encourage students to focus on accurate
language use because they think as they write. In addition, according to Haynes and
Zacarian (2010:90) learning to write is a developmental process to communicate
meaningfully through written form. Hughes and Schwab (2010:214) also state that, Writing
is difficult because it demands control over ‘technical’ aspects, such as punctuation and
spelling, as well as ‘strategic’ ones like design, organization and register.
However, writing is an essential skill that must be mastered by a language learner
since it has some benefits. As noted by Reinking, Hart, and Osten (1996:3), Writing gives
writers to reflect on and research what they want to communicate, makes communication
more effective, and provides a permanent record of thought, actions, and decisions.
Furthermore, Hilliday in Nunan (1991:84) suggests that writing has evolved in
societies as a result of cultural change creating communicative needs which cannot be
readily met by spoken language. It means that writing is a process of communicating what
a writer thinks which is going to be told on paper to readers who are not physically present.
Writing makes us have to find the best possible way of stating what we mean. Acording to

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Carrolin T. Linse “that writing is the act or art of forming letters and characters on paper in
form of printing or cursive. It may called as an arranging text”.
Another definition of writing skill is also defined by Mayers and Hyland. Mayers
(2005:2) states that, Writing is a way to produce language. Which you do naturally when
you speak. Is speaking to other on paper or a computer screen. Writing is a partly a talent,
but it is a mostly a skill, and like any skill, it improve with practice. Writing is also an
action a process of discovering and organizing your ideas, putting them on a paper, and
reshaping and revising them.
Hyland (2004:5) states that writing is a way of getting things done. To get things
done such as, describing something, telling a story, requesting an overdraft, drafting an
essay, and so on.

II. Review of Literatures

2.1 Types of Writing

There are four categories of writing performance by Brown (2004) that capture the
range of written production. Each category resembles the categories defined for the other
three skills, but these categories, as always, reflect the uniqueness of the skill area.
1) Imitative. To produce written language, the learner must attain skills in the
fundamental, basic tasks of writing letters, words, punctuation, and very brief
sentences. This category includes the ability to spell correctly and to perceive
phoneme-grapheme correspondences in the English spelling system. It is a level a:
which learners are trying to master the mechanics of writing. At this stage, form is
the primary if not exclusive focus, while context and meaning are of secondary
concern
2) Intensive (controlled). Beyond the fundamentals of imitative writing art skills in
producing appropriate vocabulary within a context, collocations and idiom? and
correct grammatical features up to the length of a sentence. Meaning and context are
of some importance in determining correctness and appropriateness, bin most
assessment tasks are more concerned with a focus on form, and are rather strictly
controlled by the test design.
3) Responsive. Here, assessment tasks require learners to perform at a limited discourse
level, connecting sentences into a paragraph and creating a logically connected
sequence of two or three paragraphs. Tasks respond to pedagogical direct fives, lists
of criteria, outlines, and other guidelines. Genres of writing include brie narratives
and descriptions, short reports, lab reports, summaries, brief responses, reading, and
interpretations of charts or graphs. Under specified conditions, the writer begins to
exercise some freedom of choice among alternative forms of expression of ideas.
The writer has mastered the fundamentals of sentence-level grammar and is more
focused on the discourse conventions that will achieve the objectives of the written
text. Form-focused attention is mostly at the discourse Ievel, with a strong emphasis
on context and meaning.
4) Extensive. Extensive writing implies successful management of all the processes and
strategies of writing for all purposes, up to the length of an essay term paper, a major
research project report, or even a thesis. Writers focus on teaching a purpose,
organizing and developing ideas logically, using details to support or illustrate ideas,
demonstrating syntactic and lexical variety, and in many cases, engaging in the
process of multiple drafts to achieve a final product. Focus on grammatical form is
limited to occasional editing or proofreading of a draft.

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2.2 The Purpose of Writing
According to Penny Ur “the purpose of writing, in principle, is the expression of
ideas, the conveying of messages to the reader. So the ideas themselves should arguably be
seen as the most important aspect in the writing”.
It means that when the writers do their writing, of course they have some purposes.
They have to consider the purpose of their writing since this will influence, not only the
type of text they wish to produce, but including the language which they use, and the
information that they choose.
In addition, there are really only four common purposes in writing they are: to
inform, to explain, to persuade, and to amuse others.

a. Writing to Inform
In much of the writing that the writers will do, they will intend simply to inform their
readers about a subject. To inform is to transmit necessary information about the subject to
the readers, and usually this means just telling the readers what the facts are or what
happened. Although informative writing is the simplest kind of writing, it is also one of the
most important, because information lays a foundation for other writing purposes. As the
writers write to inform, they will want to keep two large concerns in mind; selecting the
right information and arranging it effectively.

b. Writing to Explain
Writing to explain means writing to take what is unclear and make it clear. In
explanatory writing, a writer who understands a complex topic must take sure that his
readers understand it as well. All of us use several common methods of explaining
something to another person in our everyday conversation, and these same techniques can
provide basic strategies for organizing an explanation in writing.

c. Writing to Persuade
The most important writing we ever do in our personal life, our work life, and may
be our school life will probably persuasion. Complaints to the rent board about our
landlord, letters of application for jobs, essay on examinations are all likely to involve
writing persuasively. Your task in persuasion is to convince your readers to accept the
main idea, even though it may be controversial.

d. Writing to Amuse Others

Writing to amuse requires that you focus on readers other than yourself. You may
enjoy the experience and take pride in what you accomplish, but you cannot settle for
amusing yourself alone. Writing to amuse gives you an opportunity to bring pleasure to
others. Seize the opportunity and make the most of it. If you find pleasure in writing to
amuse, it will come from knowing that you succeed in bringing pleasure to others. When
write to amuse, your primary object is to make readers enjoy themselves. You can be
funny, but you should also be goodhumored. This means having sympathy for human
frailty rather than a contempt for anyone or anything that seems different from what you
are accustomed to.

2.3 The Definition of Grammar

Grammar has very important role to support writing. Having a good grammar style
of a language will help learners to deliver ideas, messages and feelings either to the
listeners or readers.

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 Brown stated that, (2000:362) grammar is the system of rules governing the
convectional arrangement relationship of word in a sentence. Meanwhile Nunan (2000:13)
stated grammar is an essential resource in using language communicatively. while
acording to Pattel and Jain (2008:17), grammar is an attempt to develop concept, principles
and rules relating to ussage and to the structure of language.
Grammar is categorized as a language component. As a language component,
grammar is related to word-arrangement in a sentence structure, Djiwandono (1996) in
Arifuddin(2007). As branch of linguistics, grammar is the rules in a language for changing
the form of the words and combining them into the sentences. Meanwhile, in the other
statement, grammatical structure is the pattern of arrangement of part of words into
sentences, Lado(1964) in Islam (2004).
Grammar tells us how to construct a sentence (word order, verb and noun system,
modifiers, phrases, clauses and so forth) and discourse rules tell us how to string those
sentences together. Besides, grammar is central of the teaching and learning of languages.
It is also one of the most difficult aspects of language to teach well.

2.4 Understanding Grammar

Carpenter (1999:1) defines “Grammar is an excellent means of training the mind.”
According to Ur (1996) as cited in Chkotua (2012), grammar is a combined of words to
be acceptable which has a meaning. Furthermore, Raimes (1985), as quoted by
Sattayatham (2008), grammar is one of component for producing a clear and effective
writing. In addition, Calderorello and Edwards (1986:14) maintain that understanding
grammar will help the learners to produce a good writing. From the theories above, it is
believed that grammar is very crucial in order to conduct a good writing.

2.5 The Concepts of Error

Making error is unavoidable thing in learning a language. Ellis (1997), cited in
Watcharapunyawong & Usaha (2013) defines errors reflect to the lack of knowledge of a
learner. On the other words, errors occur due to the fact that the learners are not be able
to identify what is corret or incorrect. Furthermore, Norrish (1987: 7) in Ridha (2012),
defines error as a systematic deviation when learner has not learnt something and
consistently get its wrong.
It is necessary to make a distinction between error and mistake. Corder (1967) as
noted in Ridha, defines that error is a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a
native speaker reflects the competence of the learner”, while mistake is “a performance
error that is either random guess or a slip in that it is a failure to utilize a known system
correctly. Thus, it can be concluded that errors occur owing to the fact that learners still
lack of information of target language, and hence it cannot be self corrected.

2.6 Error Analysis

According to Brown (2000:70) errors is a noticeable deviation from the adult
grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner.
according to Fauziah & Ramlan (2020) grammatical error in term of expressing idea and
sentence structures. Meanwhile Spillner (1991:10) said error in the second language are
evidence for exiting language contrast and hence for learning difficulties. It means that
there is something wrong in norms of language performance; the making of errors is so
unavoidable in learning process. Besides, the making of errors is one part of learning and
no one can learn without making errors. Error may happen in teaching learning process. It

1830
is partly because teachers lack in grammar competences As a result students have different
understanding or wrong perception then they keep in their brain.
It is believed that Error Analysis (EA) is very essential in SLA since error is an
unavoidable in learning process. Error Analysis spread in 60’s and 70’s of the previous
century. Error analysis is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors that
committed by the learners. According to Richards and Schmidt (2010:185), Error
Analysis is the study on second or foreign language learning to observe errors made by
learners.
Corder (1974) in Ellis (2008), has pointed out that there are several steps in Error
Analysis, namely collection of data, identification of errors, description of errors,
explanation of errors, and evaluation of errors. Moreover, Crystal (2008:173) defines
error analysis as a technique for identifying, classifying, and systematically interpreting
the unacceptable forms produced by a learner.
Another concept of Error Analysis is given by Brown (1980:160) cited in Hasyim
(2002:43). He defines Error Analysis as the process to observe, analyze, and classify the
deviation of the rules of the second languages and then to reveal the systems operated by
learner.
In addition, Sercombe (2000) in Sawalmeh (2013) explains that EA serves three
aims. Firstly, to find out the level of language proficiency reached by students. Secondly,
to get information about the difficulties faced by a language learner. Thirdly, to know
how people learn a language. Therefore, by doing this activity (EA), it is supposed to
give information for the teachers about their students’ competence and to know what part
the students do error more.

2.7 Source of Error

According to Sujoko (1989:15), there are source that may influence the second
language system, in term of grammar. They are: (1). Interlingua transfer: Before the
system of second language is familiar, the native language is the only linguistic system
in previews experience upon which the learner can draw. Students had never heard
English word, so they have some difficulties in their learning. It means that the second
language learners are strongly influenced by the learners’ firt language. (2). Intralingua
interference: Beside the interlingua transfer from the native language to target language,
there are also error caused by native transfer between elements the target language itself.
This is also called intralingua error or interference, or incorrect generalization of the
rules within the target language. It becomes a major factor in second language learning.
The type of intralingua also called developmental errors. These errors are caused
by interference within the target language itself. Acording to richards (2002:74) qouted
by Haryanto (2007:19), there are four types of intralingua or developmental errors, they
are:

a. Overgeneralization
Overgeneralizati is defined as the use of the previously available strategies in a
new situation. Learners make a new deviant structure on the basis on thier experience of
their structures in target language. They make error, as they want to reduce their
linguistic burdenin using the language. The kind of sentence patterns and rules but
sometimes she or he uses them in different situation, in which particular generalization
does not apply.

1831
b. Ignorance of the Full Restriction
Ignorance of rule restriction related to generalization. Learners make errors
because they fail to observe the restriction of existing structures. They apply of a rules in
a new situation where if should not be applied.

c. Incomplete Applicationof Rules

Learner make errors because they are more interested in communication, so they
think that there is not need for mastering the rules of language. It mean that students try
to translate their own language into English, but they are not aware about its rule.

d. False Hyphothesized Concepts

The errors are caused by the poor gradation of the teaching items. It is derived
from a faulty comprehension or distinction in the target language. From the explanation
above, it can be concluded that grammar has an important role in learning the second
language acquisition. Without correct grammar, the laerners will produce errors and
mistakes in their learning.

2.8 The Types of Error

In the stage of identifying and describing the error in this research, the researcher
used the surface strategy taxonomy. Acording to Dulay et all, (1982:155), there are four
types of errors based on the surface strategy taxonomy; omission, addition,
misformation, and misodering. Therefore, errors are classified into four categories:

a. Omission
Omissin error are characterized by the absence of an item that must appear in a
well-formed phrases or sentence. Any morpheme or word in a sentence is a potential
candidate for omission. However, between content words and function words, the letters
are more frequently omitted by language learner.

b. Addition
Addition errors are opposite of omissions. They are characterized by the presence of
an item, which must not appear in a well- formed utterances.

c. Misinformation
Misinformation are characterized by the use of the wrong form of the morphemes or
structure. While in omission errors is not supplied at all, in misinformation errors the
students supplies something although it is incorrect.

d. Misodering
It is characterized by the incorrect placement of one or more elements in a phrase or
sentence. The error may be made by L1 and L2 learners when they have acquired certain
simple patterns. This taxonomy is used because it is expected to give much promise to the
reseacher for identifying cognitive process that underlies the learner’s construction of the
language.

2.9 The Definition of NarrativeText

Knapp and Watkins (2005:2001) said narrative is simply about entertaining a reading
audience. It also has a powerful social role beyond that of being a medium for
entertainment. In other Hand Elliot (2005:3) said narrative (story ) in the human sciences

1832
should be defined provisionally as discours with a clear sequential other that connect
events in a meaningful way for a definite audience and thus offer insight about the world
and or people‟s experience of it. Meanwhile according to Saefudin (2010:18) narrative is a
story that is created in a constructive format ( as a work of speech, literature, picture, song,
motion pictures, television, video games, theater, musical theater, or dance) that describes
a sequence of fictional or non fictional events. And from cintyre (2006:18) said narrative
as basically a story, of happening or events, either real or imaginary which the narrator
considers interesting or important. Based on explanations, the researcher concludes that
narrative is a text focusing specific participant and to emuse entertain and to deal with
actual or vicarious experience in different ways, narrative deal with problematic events
which lead to crisis or turning of some kind, which in turn find a resolution and narrative is
telling of some true factious event or connected sequences of events. That‟s recounted by a
narrator a narrate ( although there are may be more than one of each ) narratives are
distinguished from description of qualities, states or situations and also freom dramatic
enactment of events. A narrative will consist set of a set of event recounted in aprocess of
narration, in which the events are selected and arranged in a particular order.

2.10 The Generic Structure of Narrative Text

Knap (2005:224) said there are three generic structure in narrative text such as
orientation, sequences of events and resolution.
1. Orientation in the story needs an orientation. Indeed it‟s imposible to tell a story
unless see that there are characters set up in particular time and place who, what,
where and when.
2. Evaluation is the sequence of even stage more complex than orientation. It is explain
behaviour, attidute of the participant.
3. Complication is complication the stage of simple narrative needn‟t be a single
problem or complexity. This stage can also include reflection on the problem and
problem solution.
According to anderson (1997:8) Said there are four generic structure in narrative text
namely orientation, evaluation, complication, resolution.
1. Orientation in which tells the audience about who is in the story, when the story is
taking place and where the action happening.
2. Evaluation It explains the condition, behaviour, and the attitude of the participant.
3. Complication that sets off a chain of events that influences what will happen in the
story.
4. Resolution in which the characters finnaly sort out the complication.

2.11 Grammatical Features

Besides having generic structure, narrative text also use significant grammatical
features that support the form of a narrative text. Knapp (2005:221) said action verb,
temporal connectives, past tense, reflection / evaluations, mental verb, action verb
metaphorically, rhytm, repetition.
Saefudin (2010:19) narrative text has grammatical features such as past tense, noun,
action verb, saying verb, adjective, adverb / adverbial phrase and conjunction.
1. Past tense : most of the sentence s are written in the past tense. The reason is we tell
the story which happened in the past
2. Noun : noun here means the figure, participants, or characters in the story. They can
be human or non- human ( animal, fairy,etc. )
3. Action verbs are verb which indicate the actions done by the character of the story.

1833
4. Saying verbs are verbs which are commonly use to indicate subclause or indicate the
direct utterances said by the character in the story, like : said, replaid,answer, etc.
5. Adjective is a word that modifies something ( person, animal or thing )
6. Adverb / adverbial phrase is a word that modifies verb whereas adverbial phrase is a
range of words in which adverb as core to modify verb.
7. Conjunction is a word used to connect between main clause and subclause.
8. It is used when we want to make complex sentence.

III. Research Method

The method in this study is qualitative research as suggested by Noor (2011). The
purpose of this research is to analyze the errors which actually committed by students on
their writing. This research is a case study which clarifies the natural circumstance. Yin
(2003) states that case study is a research that explains “what”, “how”, and “why”
something happen. In this study, the researcher intends to analyze the data about the types
of errors produced (what) by students and to investigate the causes (why) of errors.

IV. Discussion

In preceding explanation, the data are taken from students’ writing. The writer
classified the students’ grammatical errors in narrative writing. The writer only focused on
four areas, based on surface strategy taxonomy: omission, addition, misformation, and
misordering.

4.1 Error Based on Surface Strategy Taxonomy

a. Errors of Omission
In this case, omission error happened when the students forget some element of the
good sentence. In this research, the writer analyzed orrors of omission found in students’
writing. Based on the data, there are examples of omission errors;

Table 1. Omission Errors

No Error Recognition Recontruction
1 Once upon a time there life....... Once upon a time there lived
2 Every single minute they pray to God Every single minute they prayed to God
3 they dress her beautifully they dressed her beautifully
4 Her parent and all of her friends Her parents and all of her friends
5 Snow Maiden play with her friends Snow Maiden played with her friends
6 her friends ask her to jump on the fire her friends asked her to jump on the fire
7 Her mother try to entertain.... Her mother tried to entertain.......

b. Errors of Addition
Dulay et al. (1982), as qouted by James (1998 p: 50) state that the students not only
error in omission, but also the students usually made error in addition. The addition is
adding something that not important for the sentence. There are five errors in this category,
so the writer shows all the error in the following table.

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 Table 2. Edition Errors
No Error Recognition Recontruction
1 They made a girls from...... They made a girl from...
2 .... , your daughters" ...... , your daughter"
3 their dreamsed never came true their dreams never came true
4 make a new Snow Maidens again make a new Snow Maiden again
5 she refused it becauses one thing she refused it because one thing

c. Error of Misinformation
Misformation is also kind of grammatical error made by the students in writing
narrative text. It is related to Dulay et al, (1982) opinion cited in James (1998, p:50) state
misformation happens if incorrect place wrong order of items. In this type, the writer
found misformation error in students’ writing. There are some examples of misformation
errors based on students’ writing.

d. Error of Misordering
Misordering is also kind of grammatical error made by the second year students in
writing narrative text. It is related Dulay et al., (1982) cited in James (1998, p:50) state that
misordering happens if the word or phrase is incorrect place.

Table 3. Misinformaton Errors

No Error Recognition Recontruction
1 but so far they did not had a baby yet but so far they did not have a baby yet
2 but it never come true but it never came true
3 One day, they go to a snow mountain One day, they went to a snow mountain
4 .. and lefted the snow girl alone.. .... and left the snow girl alone
But her friends kepted on forcing her But her friends kept on forcing her to
5
to jump on. jump on.
6 Finally, she can not do anything, Finally, she could not do anything,

Table 4. Misordering Errors

No Error Recognition Recontruction
1 The morning following The following morning
2 They fire played They played fire
3 Them Poor! Poor them!

Based on the classification, it was counted the total number of errors was 25 errors.
And those consisted of omission errors were 7 items, addition errors were 5 items,
misformation errors were 10 items, and misordering errors were 6 items.

4.2 Findings
The data,the writer found all exiting type of error. They are: omission, addition,
misformation, and misordering.

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 Table 5. The Type and Number of Errors in Each Category made by the Students
Type of Errors Number of Errors Percentage
Omission 7 28%
Addition 5 20%
Misformation 10 40%
Misordering 3 12%
Total 25 100%

V. Conclusion

In describing the type of error, it can be inferred that there are 25 items of error,
which occur in the students’ sentences. They are analyzed based of the surface strategy
taxonomy, it is found that (7) or 28% errors are omission errors, (5) or 20% errors are
addition errors, (10) or 40% errors are misformation errors, and (3) or 12% errors are
misordering errors.

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