Caries Ecology Revisited Lizelia
Caries Ecology Revisited Lizelia
Caries Ecology Revisited Lizelia
Abstract
Dental caries has been described as a chronic disease that progresses slowly in
most individuals. The disease is seldom self limiting and, in the absence of
treatment, caries progresses until the tooth is destroyed. The localized destruction
of the hard tissues, often referred to as the lesion, is the sign or symptom of the
disease. Lesion progression is often depicted on a linear scale ranging from initial
loss of mineral at the ultrastructural level to total destruction of the tooth. In reality,
however, caries lesion development is a highly dynamic series of processes with
alternating periods of progression and arrest/regression. Lesion progression may
be arrested at any stage of lesion development, even at the stage of Frank
cavitation, provided the local environ mental conditions, e.g. biofilm control and
topical fluoride exposure, are favorable. Hence, the clinical stages of caries
represent nothing but historical signs of past caries experience. What may be
perceived clinically as an ‘incipient’ or ‘early’ lesion may in reality turn out to be an
‘aged’ established lesion that has been present in the oral cavity for months or
years. Likewise, carious cavities may have experienced major differences in their
history in the oral cavity. Changes in the progression rate of caries are associated
with alterations of the surface features of the lesions, active non-cavitated enamel
lesions being dull and rough and inactive non-cavitated enamel lesions being shiny
and smooth. These clinical distinctions have been shown to provide a reliable and
valid classification of caries lesion activity. Furthermore, such classification has
offered novel information about caries lesión transition patterns and served as a
useful basis of selecting high-risk patients in randomized clinical trials. There fore,
when trying to understand the clinical dynamics of caries, assessment of the
surface texture of lesions may be a more sensitive parameter than merely
assessing the stage of severity of a lesion as revealed by the presence or absence
of a cavity. From a biochemical point of view, the caries process is much more
complex. Metabolic processes are constantly taking place in the dental plaque as a
result of microbial activity, and this is reflected by continuous, rapid fluctuations in
plaque pH, both when the plaque is starved and fed. Hence, any clinically sound or
carious tooth surface that is covered by an undisturbed plaque may experience
minute mineral losses and mineral gains depending on the metabolic status of the
microflora. The key point is that only when the cumulative result of the de- and
remineralization processes produces a net mineral loss over time may a caries
lesión develop or progress. Such situations are likely to occur when there is a drift
of pH in the biofilm, e.g. as a consequence of increased carbohydrate availability or
reduced salivary clearance. By contrast, when the integrated de and
remineralization processes result in a net mineral gain over time, this may lead to
deposition of minerals in the tooth surface and arrest of lesion development. This
explains why the caries process has been regarded as a ubiquitous and natural
phenomenon. Because of the constantly metabolically active biofilm, these
processes cannot be prevented, but they can be controlled to the extent that caries
does not appear clinically. This new microdynamic concept of caries suggests that
an updated explanation of the microbial ecology of caries must take into
consideration that the caries activity may change over time in response to pH drifts
in the biofilm.
In situ studies have shown that the initial colonizers of newly cleaned tooth
surfaces constitute a highly selected part of the oral microflora, mainly S. sanguinis
, S. oralis and S. mitis 1. Together, these three streptococcal species may account
for 95% of the streptococci and 56% of the total initial microflora. Surprisingly, MS
comprise only 2% or less of the initial streptococcal population, irrespective of the
caries activity of the individual. These observations imply that the vast majority of
the early colonizers on teeth belong to the ‘mitis group’. These bacteria as well as
other viridans group streptococci, except for the MS, are often referred to as the
non-MS, which are genetically distinguished from the MS that belong to the
‘mutans group’. As the microflora ages it shifts from Streptococcus -dominant to
Actinomyces- dominant. The predominant species in mature smooth surface
plaque belong to Actinomyces and Streptococcus , most of which are non-MS. MS
are found in very low numbers. The proportion of MS in plaque covering white spot
lesions in enamel is often higher than at clinically healthy sites, although still rather
low, ranging between 0.001 and 10%. Meanwhile, non-MS and Actinomyces still
remain major bacterial groups in enamel lesions. In fact, it has been shown that in
the absence of
Most non-MS have adhesins [Gibbons, 1989; Kolen- brander, 2000] which adhere
to proteins and sugar chains of acquired pellicles coating the tooth surface. This
seems to be one of the reasons for the dominance of non-MS at the initial stage of
plaque formation. In addition, most oral streptococci produce extracellular
polysaccharides such as glucans and fructans [Banas and Vickerman, 2003;
Whiley and Beighton, 1998]. Polysaccharides can fill the gaps between bacteria
and form the matrix of plaque, and accelerate plaque formation. On the other hand,
MS do not attach efficiently to the acquired pellicle [Nyvad and Kilian, 1990b],
although they have adhesins such as the antigen I/II. Instead, these bacteria have
been emphasized to produce wáter insoluble glucans, which are adhesive and
capable of accelerating bacterial accumulation. However, it should be noted that
glucans only act as additional factors in plaque formation, and that not only MS but
also non-MS can produce glucans. Both non-MS and MS metabolize various
sugars and produce acids. When sugar is supplied in excess, streptococci can
store the extra sugars as intracellular polysaccharides (IPS), and they can utilize
the IPS as an energy source to produce acids when sugar is limited as occurs
between meals. The final pH values of non-MS when grown with sugars are
heterogeneous, ranging from 4 to 5.2, whereas those of MS are more
homogeneous, being around 4. In general, on the basis of final pH values, MS are
more acidogenic and aciduric than non-MS. It should be realized, however, that the
final pH values of non-MS can be much lower tan pH 5.5, the ‘critical’ pH for the
demineralization of enamel. Non-MS have a variety of extracellular glycosidases
that can liberate sugars and amino-sugars from glycoproteins such as the mucin
contained in saliva. Furthermore, all non-MS grow on ami no sugars. This is an
advantage for non-MS in the oral cavity, where salivary glycoproteins are always
available. In addition, most non-MS can utilize arginine or arginine containing
peptides available in saliva through the arginine deiminase system, which
degrades the arginine molecule to ammonia and carbon dioxide with production of
ATP. Overall, this metabolic pathway produces alkali and neutralizes the
intracellular and the environmental pH. Arginine deiminase system is helpful for
non-MS not only to utilize arginine as an energy source but also to survive under
the acidic conditions in the oral cavity. However, most MS do not have these
metabolic features. In summary, non-MS have diverse physiological activities,
suggesting that they are generalists, versatile enough to adapt to various
conditions in supragingival biofilm, and this could be the reason why they are the
dominant streptococci in supragingival biofilm. On the other hand, MS are aciduric
specialists in sugar metabolism and acid production, which make them less
competitive in clinically sound supragingival environments.
It is clear that an ability both to produce acid (acido genicity) and to tolerate a low-
pH environment (acidur ance) is a crucial feature for microorganisms responsable
for caries. Sansone et al. [1993] compared the microbial composition of dental
plaque at clinically healthy sites and white spot lesions and found that non-MS
were dominant at both sites while MS were present at low and similar levels at both
sites. However, the ability of plaque to reduce pH in vitro was significantly greater
at white spot lesions (pH 4.13) than at clinically healthy sites (pH 4.29). These
results suggest that MS are neither a unique causative agent for white spot lesions,
nor a main determinant of the acidogenicity of plaque. In order to evaluate the
acidogenicity of the non-MS, Sansone et al. [1993] further grew these bacteria in
liquid culture media supplemented with 1% glucose and measured the final pH of
the culture media. In agreement with Svensäter et al. [2003], they found that non-
MS are heterogeneous for acidogenicity: some strains lowered the culture pH to
below 4.4, a pH comparable to that produced by MS, whereas for other strains the
pH-lowering. capacity was less pronounced. In addition, the proportion of
acidogenic non-MS was higher at White spot lesions than at clinically healthy sites.
The acidogenic non-MS, identified as S. gordonii , S. oralis , S. mitis and S. angino
sus , were subsequently designated as ‘low-pH’ non-MS, and it was suggested that
the pH lowering capacity of plaque may be related to the proportion of ‘low-pH’
non-MS. Later observations by van Ruyven et al. [2000] have supported this
notion. The question still remains: Which of the non-MS are to be considered ‘low-
pH’ non-MS? Alam et al. [2000] obtained two groups of S. oralis – one comprised
the total S. oralis population in dental plaque, whereas the other comprised
aciduric strains that were able to grow at pH 5.2. They then differentiated these
strains into 15 genotypes on the basis of genetic similarity. The distributions of
genotypes were different between the total bacterial group and the aciduric group;
only some genotypes of S. oralis seemed to be aciduric and to form an aciduric
subpopulation. These results are in line with another study showing that strains of
non-MS differ distinctly by their rate of acid production at decreasing pH; in
particular some strains within S. mitis 1, S. oralis and S. gordonii are capable of
producing acids as rapidly as many S. mutans strains at pH 5.0 and 5.5.
Collectively, it is suggested that the group of ‘low-pH’ non-MS comprise a mosaic
of acidogenic subpopulations of each species of non-MS.
Involvement of Actinomyces.
Most of our knowledge about the role of Actinomyces in caries stems from studies
of root surface caries. How ever, there is no evidence that Actinomyces spp. have
a specific role in root caries. In fact, a review of the literature has concluded that
the basic patterns of microbial colonization are identical on enamel and root
surfaces, structurally as well as microbiologically. As with enamel caries, MS
comprise only a small proportion of the microflora of root surface caries lesions.
van Houte et al. [1996] reported that non-MS and Actinomyces spp. were dominant
in dental plaque covering root surface caries and that the isolated Actinomyces
strains were heterogenous with respect to acidogenicity: strains isolated from root
surface caries were more acidogenic than those from clinically healthy root
surfaces. Mean while, Brailsford et al. [2001] observed that, in subjects with root
surface caries, aciduric bacteria able to grow at pH 4.8 comprised 21.6% of the
total microflora in root surface caries lesions (lactobacilli and Actinomyces were
dominant), whereas aciduric bacteria comprised 10.7% inclinically sound root
surfaces ( Actinomyces dominant). However, in subjects without root surface
caries, aciduric bacteria comprised only 1.4% of total microflora in clinically sound
root surfaces. These findings indicate an association between acidogenic/aciduric
Actinomyces , i.e. ‘low-pH’ Actinomyces and root surface caries. Actinomyces are
as versatile to adapt to the dental biofilm environment as are the non-MS; they
have adhesin mediated adhesion to tooth surfaces, produce acids from various
sugars, and synthesize intracellular and extracellular polysaccharides. In addition,
Actinomyces have a unique glycolytic system in which they utilize high-energy
polyphosphate and pyrophos phate compounds for synthesis of hexokinase and
phos phofructokinase, respectively, acting as phosphoryl donors instead of ATP.
This means that Actinomyces are able to exploit a surplus ATP to synthesize
polyphosphate as an energy reservoir, and salvage energy from pyrophosphate, a
high-energy-phosphoryl-bond-containing byproduct from the metabolism of
polymers such as nucleic acids and glycogens. In addition, Actinomyces are often
ureolytic and can utilize lactate as a carbon source for growth. These diverse
physiological characteristics of Actinomyces seem to be advantageous to survive
and dominate in supragingival plaque.
Non-MS are not only genotypically heterogenous, butthey are also able to change
their physiological characteristics adaptively. Takahashi and Yamada [1999a] have
shown that when these bacteria were exposed to an acidic environment, they
increased their acidogenicity. These bacteria were grown first at pH 7.0 and
afterwards at pH 5.5 for a short time: 30, 60 and 90 min. The bacteria were then
harvested, washed and incubated with glucose, and the final pH values were
measured as a marker of acido genicity. Their acidogenicity or final pH values
varied (pH 4.04–4.33), but after incubation at pH 5.5 for 60 min, all the bacteria
increased their acidogenicity (pH 3.93–4.12).
Non-MS were also able to increase their acidurance adaptively [Takahashi and
Yamada, 1999a]. Bacteria initially grown at pH 7.0 were killed by acid stress in a
strain dependent manner following exposure to pH 4.0 for 60 min (survival rate:
0.0009–71%), but after pre-acidification at pH 5.5 for 60 min, all the bacteria
increased their acidurance (survival rate: 0.4–81%). The biochemical mechanisms
underlying the acid adaptation are considered to involve the following mechanism
an increase in proton impermeability of the cell membrane; (2) induction of proton-
translocating ATPase (H + -ATPase) activity that expels proton from cells; (3)
induction of the arginine deiminase system that produces alkali from arginine or
arginine-containing peptides, and (4) induction of stress proteins that protect
enzymes and nucleic acids from acid denaturation. In non-MS, the increase in
activities of H + - ATPase and arginine deiminase and expression of stress
proteins (homologues of heat shock protein, Hsp60 and Hsp70) were observed
following incubation at pH 5.5. In the oral cavity, acidification of the biofilm due to
frequent sugar intake or poor salivary secretion can be a driving force to enhance
the acidogenicity and acidurance of the non-MS, resulting in establishment of a
more acidic environment. Even if acid adaptation occurs, non MS are still so
heterogeneous with respect to acidurance that the population of more aciduric
strains, i.e. ‘low-pH’ non-MS will increase selectively in this environment. This will
cause a shift in the composition and acidogenic potential of the biofilm, which,
provided the demineral ization/remineralization balance is disturbed over an
extended period of time, leads to dental caries. Similar microbial acid adaptation
and acid selection processes mayoccur in Actinomyces.
If prolonged acidic environments prevail, lesion devel opment (‘net mineral loss’) is
likely to progress. In these environments, more aciduric bacteria such as MS and
lactobacilli may replace the ‘low-pH’ non-mutans bacteria and further accelerate
the caries process (aciduricstage). However, even at this highly aciduric stage, the
mineral balance and composition of the microflora could possibly be reversed by
modification of the acidic environment, e.g. as a result of sugar restriction.
In this scenario, the microbial acid adaptation and the subsequent acid selection of
‘low-pH’ non-mutans bacteria play a crucial role in destabilizing the homeostasis of
the biofilm and facilitating lesion development. More over, once the acidic
environment has been established, the proportion of aciduric bacteria such as MS
and lactobacilli may increase and act as promoters of lesion progression by
sustaining an environment characterized by ‘net mineral loss’. Hence, high
proportions of MS and/or other aciduric bacteria may be considered biomarkers of
sites that undergo particularly rapid caries development. We suggest that this
cascade of events is associated with changes in the Surface texture of the dental
hard tissues from smooth to rough (enamel) or from hard to soft (dentin). Two
decades ago, Carlsson [1986] presented a caries microbiological hypothesis by
which he speculated that ecological changes in the oral flora were determined by
competition for nutrients. Carlsson proposed that at low levels of sugars, the oral
microflora would be dominated by bacteria with a high affinity for sugars (the
‘gleaners’), whereas at consistently higher concentrations of sugars, bacteria with
lower affinity for sugars, but with high growth rates, would be favored (the
‘exploiters’). Under the latter condition the metabolic end products established
acidic environments favoring an outgrowth of aciduric bacteria, the so-called ‘pH-
strategists’. This concept was further developed as the ecological plaque
hypothesis by Marsh, who focused on the dynamic and reversible processes of de-
and remineralization in the plaque by linking between sugar supply, pH change and
microflora shift. We suggest that the ecological concept of caries should be
extended and strengthened by including clinical manifestations of caries lesion
processes, and by detailing the microbial acidadaptation and acid selection
processes.
have detected non mutans aciduric bacteria other than non-MS and Actinomyces
from dental biofilms covering white spot lesions. They found that these bacteria
consisted of various species including lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium .
Interestingly, the samples differed with respect to dominance of particular bacterial
species, suggesting that any bacterial species can participate in the development
of caries as long as they are aciduric and dominant. In this essay we have focused
on the non-MS and the Actinomyces as the major non-mutans aciduric bacteria
because detailed studies have been conducted for these bacteria. However, it
would not be surprising if other non mutans aciduric bacteria were found to be
associated with dental caries. As stated above, it is not the genotype per se, but
the phenotype in a certain environment, i.e. the acidogenic and aciduric potential of
the bacteria, that is conducive to a microbial shift leading to caries.
According to the extended hypothesis, there is a firm association between the de-
and remineralization balance of caries lesions and the overall composition of the
microflora. In the in situ study of Nyvad and Kilian, root surface caries lesions
experiencing the highest mineral loss, as assessed by quantitative
microradiography, were dominated by uniform Actinomyces spp., or a combination
of MS and Lactobacillus spp., whereas lesions experiencing a smaller mineral loss
were associated with a more diverse microbiota including non MS, MS,
Actinomyces, lactobacilli, Bifidobacterium as well as lactate-metabolizing species
( Veillonella spp.). Such differences in the pattern of the microflora in response to
different lesion progression rates not only lend support to the suggested acidogenic
and aciduric stages of bacterial succession in caries, but also conform with the
concept that microbial diversity may exert a protective effect on the dynamic
stability of the biofilm community, recently referred to as the ‘insurance hypothesis’.
Therefore, in the future, if we truly wish to advance the ecological understanding of
caries, it is important to describe the total microbiota of caries lesions by studying
lesions with a known age and history in the oral cavity or, alternatively, employ
clinical caries diagnostic methods that reflect the activity state of lesions.
Revisión de la ecología de la caries: dinámica microbiana y el proceso
de caries .
Resumen
Afectación de Actinomyces.