C Notes

Programming in ‘C ’
PRO GRAM DE VEL O PME NT TOOL S
1.1 Algorithm
Algorithm is a method of representing the step-by-step

logical procedure for solving a problem. According to D.E. Knuth,
a pioneer in the computer science discipline, an algorithm must
possess the following properties
(i) Fitness: An algorithm must terminate in a finite number of

steps
(ii)Definiteness: Each step of the algorithm must be precisely
and unambiguously stated.
(iii) Effectiveness: Each step must be effective, in the same
that it should be
primitive (easily converted into program statement) and can
be performed
exactly in a finite amount of time.
(iv) Generality: The algorithm must be complete in itself so
that it can be used to
solve all problems of a specific type for any input data.
(v) Input / Output: Each algorithm must take zero, one or
more quantities an input data and produce one or more
output values.
An algorithm can be written in English like sentences or in any
standard representation. Sometimes, algorithm written in English like
language is called Pseudo Code.
Example: Suppose we want to find the average of three numbers
Step 1. Read the numbers a, b, c

Step 2. Compute the sum of a, b and c
Step 3. Divide the sum by 3
Step 4. Store the result in variable d
Step 5. Print the value of d
Step 6. End of the program
Formally, an algorithm can be defined as an ordered sequence

of well-defined and effective operations that, when executed,
will always produce a result and eventually terminate in a finite
amount of time.
1.2 Flowchart
Flowchart is diagrammatic representation of an algorithm.

It is constructed using different types of boxes and symbols. Arrows
among themselves to indicate the flow of information and processing
connect all symbols.
Following are the Standard symbols used in drawing
flowcharts.
Oval Terminal
Input/
Parallelogram
output
Document Printout
Rectangle Process
Diamond Decision
Circle Connector
Arrow Flow
Double sided Predefined
Rectangle Process
Important Points in drawing flowcharts

1. Flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow
2. Flowchart should be logically correct
3. Flowchart should be verified for its validity with some test
data
Limitations of flowcharts
1. Flowcharts are difficult to modify. Re-drawing of flowchart
may be necessary
2. Translation of flowchart into computer program is always not
easy
Advantages of flowcharts
1. Logic of program is clearly represented
2. It is easy to follow logically the flow chart
Example: Find out the average of n numbers.
Start
Read N
Count = 0
Sum = 0
Avg = 0
Sum = Sum +
a
Count =
Count+1
Count<
=n
?
True
False
1.3 Introduction
C is a programming language developed at AT & T Bell
Laboratories of USA in 1972. It was designed and written by “Dennis
Ritchie”. C is a powerful general purpose and most popular computer
programming language. C is highly portable i.e., software written for
one computer can be run on another computer. C language is well
suited for structured programming. An important feature of „C‟ is its
ability to extend itself. A C program is basically a collection of
functions.
Historical Development of C
Developed
Year Language Remarks
by
special
International Too general,
ALGOL
characters/symbols. The Committee too abstract
character set is given
below.
Alphabets A, B, C,
…………Z 1960
Hard to learn,
Cambridge
1963 CPL difficult to
University
implement
Martin Could deal
Richards at with only
1967 BCPL
Cambridge specific
University problems
Could deal
Ken Thomson with only
1970 B at AT & T specific
problems
Lost
Dennis Ritchie generality of
1972 C
at AT & T BCPL and B
restored
ALGOL  Algorithmic Language

CPL  Combined Programming Language
BCPL  Basic Combined Programming Language
1.4 Where C Stands

All programming languages can be divided into two categories:
(a) Problem oriented languages or High-level languages:
These languages have been designed to give a better programming
efficiency, i.e., faster program development.
Ex: FORTRAN, BASIC, PASCAL, etc.
(b) Machine oriented languages or Low-level languages: These

languages have been designed to give a better machine efficiency,
i.e., faster program execution.
Ex: Assembly Language and Machine Language.
C stands in between these two categories. That‟s why it is often called
a “Middle Level language”, since it was designed to have both: a
relatively good programming efficiency and relatively good machine
efficiency.
1.5 C Tokens
A token is an atomic unit (smallest indivisible units) in a
program.
The most basic elements in a C program recognized by the
compiler are a single character or a group of characters called C
tokens.
The compiler cannot breakdown the token any further. For
example, the words main, „{„ (brace), „(„ (parenthesis) are all tokens of
C program.
C language has 6 types of tokens.
1. Keywords
Examples: float, int, double, while, for
2. Identifiers
Examples: main, amount
3. Constants
Examples: 12.4, 7894
4. Strings
Examples: “CSM”, “Thursday”
5. Special Symbols
Examples: [,], {, }, (, )
6. Operators
Examples: +, *, /
Steps in learning C language are …
1. Character Set – Alphabets, Digits and Special Symbols
2. Datatypes, Constants, Variables and Keywords
3. Instructions
4. Functions, Program
In C, the alphabet is a set of characters. The words correspond
to constants,
variables, keywords, etc. These are classified into different
datatypes. Further, these are combined with operators to form
expressions, of various types. These are in turn combined to form
instructions. Combining a group of instructions into functions makes a
program.
1.6 The C character set
The C character set includes the upper case letters A to Z, the
lower case a to z, the decimal digits 0 to 9 and certain
a, b, c, ……………z
Digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Special characters/Symbols ~ , . ; : ? „ “ ! ( ) [ ] { } / \ < > = +
-$#@&*%^
Character/Symbol Meaning Character/Symbol Meaning

~ Tilde , Comma
. Period ; Semicolon
? Question Mark : Colon
“ Double Quote „ Apostrophe (single quote)
( Left Parenthesis ) Right Parent hesis
[ Left Bracket ] Right Bracket
{ Left Brac e } Right Brace
/ Slash \ Back Slash
< Less than > Greater than
= Equal to ! Exclamatory Mark
- Minus + Plus
# Hash $ Dolor Sign
& Ampersand * Asterisk (or star)
% Percent ^ Carat
_ Underscore | Vertical Bar
Blank Space
1.7 Identifiers
Identifiers are distinct names given to program elements such as
constants, variables, etc.
An Identifier is a sequence of letters, digits, and the special character
„_‟ (underscore).
(i) It must start with either a letter or underscore. „_‟
(ii) No commas or blanks are allowed within a variable name.
(iii) The upper case and lower case letters are treated as
distinct, i.e., identifiers are case-sensitive.
(iv) An identifier can be of any length.
(v) No special symbol can be used in a variable name.
The following are valid identifiers.
i, income_tax, _pass, n10xy
The following are invalid identifiers.
2module, first program, -pass
1.8 Keywords
Keywords are predefined tokens in C. These are also called
reserved words. Key words have special meaning to the C compiler.
These key words can be used only for their intended action; they
cannot be used for any other purpose. C has 32 keywords.
The standard keywords are
auto break case char const
continue default do double else
enum extern float for goto
if int long register return
short signed sizeof static struct
switch typedef union unsigned void
volatile while
Note that all these keywords are in lowercase.
1.9 Data types

A data type defines a set of values and the operations that can
be performed on them. Every datatype item (constant, variable etc.)
in a C program has a datatype associated with it. C also has a special
datatype called void, which, indicates that any data type, i.e., no data
type, does not describe the data items.
The following are the basic datatypes along with their size
and range
Size (No. of
Data types Description Range
Bytes)
Char Single character 1 0 to 255
Int An integer 2 -32768 to +32767
Float Floating point number 4 -2,147,483,648 to
+2,147,483,647
Double Floating point number 8 Approximately 15 digits of
Precision
Void No data type 0
signed char Character 1 -128 to 127
unsigned char Unsigned character 1 0 to 255
short signed int Short signed integer 2 -32768 to +32767
short unsigned int Short unsigned integer 3 0 to 65535
Long singed int Long signed integer 4 -2,147,483,648 to
+2,147,483,647
Generally, the following rule is true for any compiler to specify the size
of data types:
sizeof(char) <= sizeof(short int) <= sizeof(int) <= sizeof(long int) <= sizeof(float) <= sizeof(double)
There are some other datatypes in C that can be derived from

the basic datatypes. The basic datatypes are often called Primary
datatypes and the derived datatypes are often called Secondary
datatypes.
C Data types
Basic data types Derived data types
char integer float double void array

structure union pointer
1.10 Constants and Variables

A constant is a literal, which remain unchanged during the
execution of a program. A variable is a name that is used to store
data value and is allowed to vary the value during the program
execution.
Constants
A constant is a fixed value that cannot be altered during the
execution of a program. C constants can be classified into two
categories.
(i) Primary Constants
(ii) Secondary Constants
Constants
Primary constants Secondary

constants
Numeric Character Logical Array Structure

Union Pointer
integer float Single char String
C has five types of primary constants. They are integer, float,

char, logical and string. The numeric constants can be preceded by a
minus sign if needed.
Rules for constructing Integer constants
(a) An integer constant must have at least one digit.
(b) It should not contain either a decimal point or exponent.
(c) If a constant is positive, it may or may not be preceded by a plus
sign. If it is a
negative, it must be preceded by a minus sign.
(d) Commas, blanks and non-digit characters are not allowed
in integer constants.
(e) The value of integer constant cannot exceed specified
limits. The valid range is
–32768 to +32767.
Rules for constructing Real constants
Real values are often called floating-point constants. There
are two ways to represent a real constant decimal form and
exponential form.
In exponential form of representation, the real constant is
represented in two parts. The part appearing before „e‟ is called
mantissa, whereas the part following „e‟ is called exponent.
The mantissa part and the exponential part should be
separated by a letter e.
The mantissa part may have a positive or negative sign.
Default sign of mantissa part is positive.
The exponent must have at least one digit, which must be
a positive or negative
integer. Default sign is positive.
Range of real constants expressed in exponential form is –
3.4e38 to 3.4e38.
Rules for constructing Characters constants
(a) A character constant is a single alphabet, a single digit or a
single special symbol
enclosed within single inverted commas. Both the inverted
commas point to the
left. For example, „A‟ is valid character constant whereas A is
not.
(b) The maximum length of a character constant can be 1
character.
Note: Every character has its ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange) value. That means every character is
interchange with integer constant. For example, „A‟ value is 65 and „a‟
value is 97.
String constants
A string constant is a sequence of characters enclosed in double
quotes. The characters may be letters, numbers, blank space or
special characters.
Note that “” is null string or empty string. And the single
string constant “A” is not equivalent to the single character constant
„A‟.
Each string constant must end with a special character „\0‟.
This character is called null character and used to terminate the
string. The compiler automatically places a null „\0‟ character at the
end of every string constant.
Escape sequence
Some non-printing characters and some other characters such as
double quote (“), single quote („), question mark (?) and backslash (\),
require an escape sequence. A list of commonly used backslash
character constants is given below.
Escape Sequence Meaning ASCII value Escape Sequence Meaning ASCII value
\a Bell 7 \r Carriage return 13
\b Back Space 8 \” Double Quote 34
\t Tab 9 \‟ Single Quote 39
\n New line 10 \? Question Mark 63
\v Vertical tab 11 \\ Back Slash 92
\f Form feed 12 \0 Null 0
Variables
A variable can be considered as a name given to the location in
memory. The term variable is used to denote any value that is
referred to a name instead of explicit value. A variable is able to hold
different values during execution of a program, where as a constant is
restricted to just one value.
For example, in the equation 2x + 3y = 10; since x and y can
change, they are variables, whereas 2,3 and 10 cannot change,
hence they are constants. The total equation is known as
expression.
Rules for constructing variable names
(a) The name of a variable is composed of one to several
characters, the first of which must be a letter
(b) No special characters other than letters, digits, and
underscore can be used in
variable name. Some compilers permit underscore as the first
character.
(c) Commas or Blanks are not allowed with in a variable name.
(d) Upper case and Lower case letters are significant. That is
the variable income is
not same as INCOME.
(e) The variable name should not be a C key word. Also it
should not have the same
name as a function that is written either by user or already exist
in the C library.
The following are valid variable names:
Alpha
income
x
fyear_9899
matrix
1.11 C Instructions
There are basically four types of instructions in C:
(a) Type Declaration Instruction
(b) Input/Output Instruction
(c) Arithmetic Instruction
(d) Control Instruction
The purpose of each these instructions is
(a) Type Declaration instruction - to declare the type of
variables used in a C
program
(b) Input/Output instruction - to perform the function of
supplying input
data to a program and obtaining
the output
results from it.
(c) Arithmetic instruction - to perform arithmetic
operations between
constants and variables.
(d) Control instruction - to control the sequence of
execution of
various statements in a C program.
Type Declaration Instruction
This instruction is used to declare the type of variables being
used in the program. Any variable used in the program must be
declared before using it in any statement. The type declaration
statement is usually written ate the beginning of the C program.
Ex: int bas;
float rs, grosssal;
char name,code;
Arithmetic Instruction
A C arithmetic instruction consists of a variable name on the left
hand side of = and variable names & constants on the right hand side
of the =. The variables and constants appearing on the right hand
side of = are connected by arithmetic operators like +, -, *, and /.
Assigning Values
The values can be assigned to variables using assignment
statements.
The general format of assignment statement is…
Variable-name = expression;
where expression may be as simple as a constant or as complex
as an expression.
The operator = is called assignment operator. The left of
assignment operator must be a variable. It should not be a function or
a constant.
1.12 Operators & Expressions

C is extremely rich in built-in operators. An operator is a symbol
that tells the computer to perform certain mathematical or logical
manipulations. Operators are used in program to manipulate data and
variables. The data items that operators act upon are called operands.
Some operators require two operands, while others act upon only one
operand. The operators are classified into unary, binary and ternary
depending on whether they operate on one, two or three operands
respectively.
C has four classes of operators
Arithmetic Operators
Relational Operators
Logical Operators
Bit-wise Operators
In addition, C has some special operators, which are unique to
C, they are
Increment & Decrement Operators
Conditional Operators
Assignment Operators, etc.
Arithmetic Operators
There are five arithmetic operators in C. The following table lists
the arithmetic operators allowed in C:
Operator Meaning
+ Addition
- Subtraction; also for unary minus
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulo division (remainder after integer division)
The modulo division operator % cannot be used on type float or
double. It can be used only on type int and char.
A C arithmetic statement could be of three types.
1. Integer Mode : In this mode, all operands in an arithmetic
statement are either integer constants or integer variables.
2. Real Mode : All operands in an arithmetic statement are
either real constants or real variables.
3. Mixed Mode : Some of the operands in an arithmetic
statement are integer and some of the operands are real.
Relational Operators
Relational Operators are symbols that are used to test the
relationship between two variables or between a variable and a
constant. We often compare two quantities, and depending on their
relation takes certain decisions. These comparisons can be done with
the help of relational operators.
C has six relational operators as shown below.
Operator Meaning
> Greater than
>= Greater than or Equal to
< Less than
<= Less than or Equal to
== Equal to
!= Not equal to
There should not be any space between two characters in an
operator, i.e., <= should not be written as < =.
Logical Operators
Logical Operators are symbols that are used to combine or
negate expressions containing relational operators.
C has three logical operators as defined below.
Operator Meaning
&& Logical AND
|| Logical OR
! Logical NOT
The && and || operators are binary operators, whereas ! is a
unary operator.
OR, is used when at least one of the two conditions must be true
in order for the compound condition to be true.
AND, is used to both conditions must be true in order for the
compound condition to be true.
NOT, is used to reverse the truth-value of its operand.
An expression containing a logical operator is termed as a logical
expression. Like the simple relational expressions, a logical expression
also yields a value of one or zero.
Bitwise operators
C supports a set of bitwise operations. The lowest logical
element in the memory is bit. C allows the programmer to interact
directly with the hardware of a particular system through bitwise
operators and expression. These operators work only with int and
char datatypes and cannot be used with float and double type.
The following table shows the bitwise operators that are
available in C.
Operator Meaning
- One‟s Complement
| Bitwise OR
& Bitwise AND
^ Bitwise Exclusive OR (XOR)
>> Right Shift
<< Left Shift
Increment & Decrement operators
C has two very useful operators for adding and subtracting a
variable. These are the increment and decrement operators, ++
and --
These two operators are unary operators. The increment
operator ++ adds 1 to its operand, and the decrement operator --
subtracts 1 from its operand. Therefore, the following are equivalent
operations.
++i; is equivalent to i = i + 1;
--i; is equivalent to i = i – 1;
These operators are very useful in loops.
Assignment operators
In addition to usual assignment operator =, C has a set of shorthand
operators, that simplifies the coding of a certain type of assignment
statement. It is of the form
var op = exp
where var is a variable, op is a C binary arithmetic operator
and exp is an expression.
The operator += means add the expression on the right to the
variable on the left and the operator -= means subtract the expression
on the right from the variable on the left.
Statement Equivalent Statement

a + = b; a=a+b
a - = b; a = a - b;
a * =b; a = a * b;
a * = b + c; a = a * ( b+ c);
a / = b; a = a / b;
a % = b; a = a % b;
a * = a; a = a * a;
Conditional Operator
C provides a peculiar operator ? : which is useful in reducing the
code. It is ternary operator requiring three operands.
The general format is
exp1 ? exp2 : exp3;
where exp1, exp2 and exp3 are expressions. In the above
conditional expression, exp1 is evaluated first. If the value of exp1 is
non zero (true), then the value returned will be exp2. if the value of
exp1 is zero (false), then the value returned will be exp3.
Hierarchy (precedence) of operators
The priority or precedence in which the operations of an
arithmetic statement are performed is called the hierarchy of
operators.
Each operator has a precedence associated with it. This
precedence is used to determine how an expression involving more
than one operator is evaluated. The operators of at the higher level of
precedence are evaluated first. The operators of the same precedence
are evaluated either from left to right or from right to left, depending
on the level. This is known as the Associativity property of an
operator.
PRECEDENCE OF OPERATORS (Arithmetic operators only)
Operator Description Associativity Rank

* Multiplication Left to right 3
/ Division “ 3
% Modulo “ 3
+ Addition “ 4
- Subtraction “ 4
1.13 Structure of a „C‟ program
C programs consist of one or more functions. Each function
performs a specific task. A function is a group or sequence of C
statements that are executed together.
The following is a simple C program that prints a message on the
screen.
/* A simple program for printing a message */

# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
void main( )
{
clrscr( );
printf(“Welcome to C”);
getch( );
}
Description
The first line
/* A simple program for printing a message */
is a comment line. Comments in the c program are optional and may
appear anywhere in a C program. Comments are enclosed between
/* and */.
The second line
# include <stdio.h>
tells the compiler to read the file stdio.h and include its contents in
this file. stdio.h, one of header files, contain the information about
input and output functions. stdio.h means Standard Input Output
Header file. This file contains the information about printf() function.
The third line
# include <conio.h>
tells the compiler to read the file conio.h and include its contents in
this file. conio.h means Consoled Input Output Header file. This file
contains the information about clrscr() and getch() functions.
The fourth line
void main( )
is the stat of the main program. The word main is followed by a pair
of ordinary parenthesis ( ), which indicates that main is also a
function.
The fifth line
{
the left brace represents the beginning of the program.
The sixth line
clrscr( );
tells the compiler to clear the screen and kept the cursor at left side
corner.
The seventh line
printf( “Welcome to C”);
this function causes its arguments to be printed on the screen on the
computer.
The eight line
getch( );
is reads the single character directly from the keyboard without
printing on the screen.
The ninth line
}
the right brace represents the ending of the program.
The body of the function is enclosed within a pair of braces. This
section contains two parts.
(a) Declaration part.
(b) Executable part.
The following are some of rules to write C programs.
1. All C statements must end with semicolon.
2. C is case-sensitive. That is, upper case and lower case
characters are
different. Generally the statements are typed in lower
case.
3. A C statement can be written in one line or it can split
into multiple
lines.
4. Braces must always match upon pairs, i.e., every
opening brace { must
have a matching closing brace }.
5. Every C program starts with void main( ) function.
6. Comments cannot be nested. For example,
/* Welcome to „C‟ ,/* programming*/ */
7. A comment can be split into more than one line.
1.14 Execution of C Program

Steps to be followed in writing and running a C program.
(a) Creation of Source Program
Create a C program file in various C compilers are available
under MS-DOS, Turbo C Editor etc.
(b) Compilation of the Program
Turbo C compiler is user friendly and provides integrated
program development environment. Thus, selecting key
combination can do compilation. That means press Alt + F9 for
compilation.
(c) Program Execution
In Turbo C environment, the RUN option will do the compilation
and execution of a program. Press Ctrl + F9 for execution the
program.
1.15 Different types of files in C

In C programming language every source file is saved with an
extension of .c. The compiler automatically converts this source file
into machine code at compiling time and creates an executable file.
The machine code is saved with an extension of .obj, and the
executable file is saved with an extension of .exe.
For Example, the source file name is emp.c then the object and
executable files are emp.obj and emp.exe respectively. These two
files (emp.obj and emp.exe files are automatically created by the
compiler at compile time.)
1.16 printf( ) Function: Writing Output Data
The printf( ) function is used to write information to standard
output (normally monitor screen). The structure of this function is
printf(format string, list of arguments);
The format string contains the following:
Characters that are simply printed on the screen.
Specifications that begin with a % sign and define the
output format for
display of each item.
Escape sequence characters that begin with a \ sign
such as \n, \t, \b etc.
Examples
printf(“This is C statement”);
printf(“The number is:%d”,a);
printf(“The number %d is equal to %d”,10,10);
Field type, format specifiers used by printf( )
Character Argument Resulting Output
c Character A single character
d Integer Signed decimal integer
s String Prints character strings
f Floating point Single floating point number
Note: Use a prefix l with %d, %u, %x, %0 to specify long integer (for
example, %ld).
System Ready
Program Code Enter Program
Edit Source Program
Compile Source
C Compiler
Program
Synta x
Errors?
System Library Link with System

Library
Input Data Execute Object

Code
Logic and
Data
1.18 scanf( ) Function: getting user input
The real power of a technical C program is its ability to interact
with the program
user. This means that the program gets input values for variables
from users.
The scanf( ) function is a built-in C function that allows a
program to get user
input from the keyboard. The structure of this function is
scanf(format string &list of arguments);
Examples
scanf(“%d”, &a );
scanf(“%d %c %f ”,&a, &b, &c );
PROG RAMS
Prog.1: To print a message on the screen.
/* Printing a message on the screen */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
printf(“This is my First Program in C ”);
getch();
}
Output
This is my First Program in C
Prog.2: To print our Institute Name.
/* Printing our institute name */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
printf(“Welcome to Millennium Software Solutions”);
getch();
}
Output
Welcome to Millennium Software Solutions
Prog.3: To Display Multiple Statements.
/* Printing our Institute Address*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
printf(“Millennium Software Solutions”);
printf(“\n Visakhapatnam”);
getch();
}
Output
Millennium Software Solutions
Visakhapatnam
Prog.4: To Display a value of single variable
/*Initialization of a variable*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a; /* Declaration */
clrscr();
a = 10; /* Initialization */
printf(“The value is:%d”,a);
getch();
}
Output
The value is:10
Prog.5: To Display values of two variables.
/*Declaration and Initialization of a variables*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a=10,b=20;
clrscr();
printf(“%d is a value,%d is b value”,a,b);
getch();
}
Output
10 is a value,20 is b value
Prog.6: To calculate the sum of two numbers.
/* Sum of two numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a=10,b=20;
clrscr();
printf(“Sum of two numbers is:%d”,a+b);
getch();
}
Output
Sum of two numbers is:30
Prog.7: To calculate all arithmetic operations.

/*All arithmetic operations*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a=4,b=2;
clrscr();
printf(“Sum is:%d”,a+b);
printf(“\nDiff is:%d”,a-b);
printf(“\nProd is:%d”,a*b);
printf(“\nQuo is:%d”,a/b);
printf(“\n Rem is:%d”,a%b);
getch();
}
Output
Sum is:6
Diff is:2
Prod is:8
Quo is:2
Rem is:0
Prog.8: To swap two variables using third variable.
/* Swapping of two variables*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a=10,b=20,c;
clrscr();
printf(“Before swapping:%d,%d”,a,b) ;
c = a;
a = b;
b = c;
printf(“\nAfter swapping:%d,%d”,a,b);
getch();
}
Output
Before swapping:10,20
After swapping:20,10
Prog.9: To initialize all datatypes (int, char, float)
/* Initialization of all datatypes */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a=10;
char i=‟x‟;
float pi=3.14;
clrscr();
printf(“The integer is:%d”,a);
printf(“\nThe char is:%c”,i);
printf(“\nThe float is:%.2f”,pi);
getch();
}
Output
The integer is:10
The char is:x
The float is:3.14
Prog.10: To input a number and display on the screen.
/* Input and display a number */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int n;
clrscr( );
printf(“Enter a number:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
printf(“%d is given by you”,n);
getch( );
}
Output
Enter a number:10 (press Enter)
10 is given by you
Prog.11: To input two numbers and print them.
/* Scanning two numbers and printing 1st method*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int a,b;
clrscr( );
printf(“Enter 2 numbers:”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
printf(“The 2nos are:%d,%d”,a,b);
getch( );
}
Output
Enter 2 numbers:10 20 (press Enter)
The 2nos are:10,20
(OR)
/* Scanning two numbers and printing 2nd method*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int a,b;
clrscr( );
printf(“Enter a value:”);
scanf(“%d”,&a);
printf(“Enter b value:”);
scanf(“%d”,&b);
printf(“The 2nos are:%d,%d”,a,b);
getch( );
}
Output
Enter a value:10 (press Enter)
Enter b value:20 (press Enter)
The 2nos are:10,20
Prog.12:Input two numbers and calculate all arithmetic operations
/* To calculate all arithmetic operations */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int a,b;
clrscr( );
scanf(“%d”,&a);
scanf(“%d”,&b);
printf(“a+b=%d”,a+b);
printf(“\na-b=%d”,a-b);
printf(“\na*b=%d”,a*b);
printf(“\na/b=%d”,a/b);
printf(“\nRem=%d”,a%b);
getch( );
}
Output
Enter a value:4
Enter b value:2
a+b=6
a-b=2
a*b=8
a/b=2
Rem=0
Prog.13: Swapping two numbers with using third variable.
/* Swapping 2variable using third variable */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr( );
scanf(“%d”,&a);
scanf(“%d”,&b);
printf(“Before swapping the values are:%d,%d”,a,b);
c = a;
a = b;
b = c;
printf(“\nAfter swapping the values are:%d,%d”,a,b);
getch( );
}
Output
Enter a value:10
Enter b value:20
Before swapping the values are:10,20
After swapping the values are:20,10
Prog.14: Swapping two numbers without using third variable.
/* Swapping 2variables without using third variable */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr( );
printf(“Enter a and b values:”);
printf(“Before swapping the values are:%d,%d”,a,b);
a = a+b;
b = a-b;
a = a-b;
printf(“\nAfter swapping the values are:%d,%d”,a,b);
getch( );
}
Output
Enter a value:10
Enter b value:20
Before swapping the values are:10,20
After swapping the values are:20,10
Prog.15: To convert the hours into minutes and seconds
/* Conversion of hours into minutes and seconds */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int hr;
clrscr( );
printf(“Enter an hour:”);
scanf(“%d”,&hr);
printf(“minutes=%d”,hr*60);
printf(“\nseconds=%d”,hr*60*60);
getch( );
}
Output
Enter an hour:2
minutes=120
seconds=7200
Prog.16: To convert the years into days and months
/* Conversion of years into days and months */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int y;
clrscr( );
printf(“Enter a year:”);
scanf(“%d”,&y);
printf(“Days=%d”,y*365);
printf(“\nMonths=%d”,y*12);
getch( );
}
Output
Enter a year:2
Days=730
Months=24
Prog.17: To calculate Area and Perimeter of a Rectangle
/* Area and Perimeter of a Rectangle */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int l,b;
clrscr( );
printf(“Enter l and b values:”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&l,&b);
printf(“Area=%d”,2*(l+b));
printf(“\nPerimeter=%d”,l*b);
getch( );
}
Output
Enter l and b values:2 4
Area=12
Perimeter=8
Prog.18: To calculate Area and Perimeter of a Square
/* Area and Perimeter of a Square */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int s;
clrscr( );
printf(“Enter s value:”);
scanf(“%d”,&s);
printf(“Area=%d”,s*s);
printf(“\nPerimeter=%d”,4*s);
getch( );
}
Output
Enter s value:3
Area=9
Perimeter=12
Prog.19: To calculate Area and Circumference of a Circle
/* Area and Circumference of a Circle */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
float r,pi=3.14;
clrscr( );
printf(“Enter radius of a circle:”);
scanf(“%f”,&r );
printf(“Area=%.2f”,2*pi*r);
printf(“\nCircumference=%.2f”,pi*r*r);
getch( );
}
Output
Enter radius of a circle:2
Area=12.56
Circumference=12.56
Prog.20: To calculate total and average of a student.
/* Total and Average calculation */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int stuno,sub1,sub2,sub3;
float tot,avg;
clrscr( );
printf(“Enter stuno:”);
scanf(“%d”,&stuno);
printf(“Enter sub1:”);
scanf(“%d”,&sub1);
tot = sub1 + sub2 + sub3;
avg = tot/3;
printf(“\nTotal=%.2f”,tot);
printf(“\nAverage=%.2f”,avg);
getch( );
}
Output
Enter stuno:101
Enter sub1:65
Enter sub2:65
Enter sub3:65
Total=195.00
Average=65.00
-x-
2. CONTROL STRUCTURES
2.1 Introduction: A C statement consists of keywords, expressions
and other statements. There are two types of statements in C. These
are single statements and compound statements. A compound
statement is a series of statements enclosed with in braces ({}) while
a single statement ends with a semicolon (;).
The control flow statements of a language determine the order in
which the statements are executed.
We also need to be able to specify that a statement, or a group
of statements, is to be carried out conditionally, only if some condition
is true. Also we need to be able to carry out a statement or a group of
statements repeatedly based on certain conditions. These kinds of
situations are described in C using Conditional Control and Loop
Control structures.
A conditional structure can be implemented in C using
(a) The if statement
(b) The if-else statement
(c) The nested if-else statement
(d) The switch statement.
whereas loop control structures can be implemented in C using
(a) while loop
(b) do-while loop
(c) for statement
2.2 The if statement

The if statement is used to control the flow of execution of
statements. The general form of if statement is
if (condition)
statement;
Suppose if it is required to include more than one statement, then a
compound statement is used, in place of single statement. The form
of compound statement is
if (condition)
{
statement1;
statement2;
}
If the condition is true, then the statement/statements will be
executed. If the condition is false, then the statement/statements will
not be executed. A simple condition relates two quantities using
relational operators (==, !=, <, <=, >, >=).
quantity Relation operatorquantity

1 2
The quantities may be variables, constants or expressions.
Example
The following program illustrates whether the number is even or
odd.
/* Even or Odd */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int n;
clrscr( );
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n%2==0)
printf(“It is Even number”);
if(n%2!=0)
printf(“It is Odd number”);
getch( );
}
Output 1
Enter a number:4
It is Even number
Output 2
Enter a number:5
It is Odd number
Note that there is no semicolon between the condition and the
statement i.e., no semicolon following if(n%2==0).
It is important to note that, if the condition is false the
statement is skipped and control goes to the next statement
immediately after if statement.
2.3 The if-else Statement

The general form of if-else statement is…
if (condition)
statement1;
else
statement2;
If the condition is true, then statement1 is executed.
Otherwise if the condition is false, then the statement2 is executed.
Here statements statement1 and statement2 are either simple
statements or compound statements.
That is…
if (condtion)
{
statements /* if block */
}
else
{
statements /* else */
}
Note that only one block will be executed but not both.
Example
Program illustrates the if-else statements.
/* Even or Odd using if-else */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int n;
clrscr( );
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n%2==0)
printf(“Even number”);
else
printf(“Odd number”);
getch( );
}
Output 1
Enter a number:4
Even number
Output 2
Enter a number:5
Odd number
2.4 Nested if-else Statements

When a series of conditions are involved, we can use more than
one if-else statement in nested form. This form is also known as if-
else if-else statements. The general form of if-else if-else statement
is
if (condition)
statements;
else if (condition)
statements;
else
statements;
Note that a program contains number of else if statements and must
be ended with else statement.
Example
Program illustrates the if-else if-else statements.
/* Find the highest of three values */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr( );
printf(“Enter the three values:”);
scanf(“%d%d%d”,&a,&b,&c);
if(a>b && a>c)
printf(“%d is big”,a);
else if(b>a && b>c)
printf(“%d is big”,b);
else
printf(“%d is big”,c);
getch( );
}
Output 1
Enter the three values:3 5 7
7 is big
Output 2
6 is big
Output 3
3 is big
2.5 The Switch Statement – Selecting One Of Many

Alternatives
The Switch statement is an extension of the if-else if-else
statement. The switch makes one selection when there are several
choices to be made. The direction of the branch taken by the switch
statement is based on the value of any int (or int compatible)
variable or expression.
The general form of Switch statement is shown below.
switch (variable)
{
case constant1:statement 1;
“ “ “
“ “ “
“ “ “
case constant n:statement n;
default :statement;
}
The variable following the keyword switch is any C expression
that that will result an integer value.
The break statement used inside each case of the switch,
causes an intermediate exit from the switch statement; and continue
onto the next statement outside the switch statement.
Note: If the break statement is not including, all of the statements at
and below the match will be executed.
The advantage of switch over if is that it leads to a more
structured program and the level of indentation is manageable. C
allows nesting switch statements, i.e., a switch may be a part of a
case.
Example
Program illustrates the switch statement.
/* Words corresponding Numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a number(0-9):”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
switch(n)
{
case 0: printf(“Zero”);
break;
case 1: printf(“One”);
break;
case 2: printf(“Two”);
break;
case 3: printf(“Three”);
break;
case 4: printf(“Four”);
break;
case 5: printf(“Five”);
break;
case 6: printf(“Six”);
break;
case 7: printf(“Seven”);
break;
case 8: printf(“Eight”);
break;
case 9: printf(“Nine”);
break;
default:printf(“More than 9”);
}
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a number (0-9):0
Zero
Output 2
Enter a number (0-9): 10
More than 9
PROG RAMS
Conditional Operators (?:)

Prog.21: To check whether the year is leap or not
/* Inputting year is Leap or not */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int year;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter year:”);
scanf(“%d”,&year);
(year%4==0)?printf(“Leap year”):printf(“Not leap year”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter year:1990
Not leap year
Output 2
Enter year:1996
Leap year
Prog.22: To find the biggest number in two variables
/* Biggest number in two variables */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a,b values:”);
(a>b)?printf(“a is big”):printf(“b is big”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a,b values:3 4
b is big
Output 2
a is big
Prog.23: To check the enter number is single digit or not

/* Single digit or not */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
(n<=9)?printf(“Single digit”):printf(“Not single digit”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a number:5
Single digit
Output 2
Enter a number:12
Not single digit
Prog.24: To check the number is whether even or odd

/* Even or Odd */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int x;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&x);
(x%2==0)?printf(“It is Even Number”):printf(“It is Odd Number”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a number:5
It is Odd Number
Output 2
Enter a number:4
It is Even Number
Prog.25: To check the number is positive, negative or zero.
/* To check whether +ve, -ve or zero */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
(n>0)?printf(“+ve”):(n<0)?printf(“-ve”):printf(“zero”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a number: -2
-ve
Output 2
Enter a number:0
zero
Output 3
Enter a number:5
+ve
Prog.26: Find the highest number in three variables.
/* Biggest number in 3 variables */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a,b,c values:”);
scanf(“%d%d%d”,&a,&b&c);
(a>b && a>c)?printf(“a is big”):
(b>a && b>c)?printf(“b is big”):printf(“c is big”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a,b,c values:3 5 7
c is big
Output 2
a is big
If statement
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int year;
clrscr();
if(year%4==0)
printf(“Leap year”);
if(year%4!=0)
printf(“Not leap year”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter year:1990
Not leap year
Output 2
Enter year:1996
Leap year
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr();
if(a>b)
printf(“a is big”);
if(a<b)
printf(“b is big”);
getch();
}
Output 1
b is big
Output 2
a is big
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n<=9)
printf(“Single digit”);
if(n>9)
printf(“Not single digit”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a number:5
Single digit
Output 2
Enter a number:12
Not single digit
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n>0)
printf(“+ve”);
if(n<0)
printf(“-ve”);
if(n==0)
printf(“zero”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a number: -2
-ve
Output 2
Enter a number:0
zero
Output 3
Enter a number:5
+ve

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
if(a>b && a>c)
if(b>a && b>c)
if(c>a && c>b)
printf(“c is big”);
getch();
}
Output 1
c is big
Output 2
a is big
Output 3
b is big
If-else Statement
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n<=9)
printf(“Single digit”);
else
printf(“Not single digit”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a number:5
Single digit
Output 2
Enter a number:12
Not single digit
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr();
if(a>b)
else
getch();
}
Output 1
b is big
Output 2
a is big
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int year;
clrscr();
if(year%4==0)
printf(“Leap year”);
else
printf(“Not leap year”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter year:1990
Not leap year
Output 2
Enter year:1996
Leap year
Prog.35: To check whether the character is vowel or consonant.
/* Vowel or Consonant */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char x;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a letter:”);
scanf(“%c”,&x);
if(x==‟a‟ || x==‟A‟ || x==‟e‟ || x==‟E‟ || x==‟i‟ ||
x==‟I‟ || x==‟o‟ || x==‟O‟ || x==‟u‟ || x==‟U‟)
printf(“It is Vowel”);
else
printf(“It is Consonant”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a letter:b
It is Consonant
Output 2
Enter a letter:u
It is Vowel
If-else if-else statement

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
if(a>b && a>c)
else if(b>a && b>c)
else
printf(“c is big”);
getch();
}
Output 1
c is big
Output 2
a is big
Output 3
b is big
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n>0)
printf(“+ve”);
else if(n<0)
printf(“-ve”);
else
printf(“zero”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a number: -2
-ve
Output 2
Enter a number:0
zero
Output 3
Enter a number:5
+ve
Prog.38:To calculate the grade of a student.
/* Grade of a student */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
float tot,avg;
clrscr( );
avg = tot/3;
if(avg>=60)
printf(“\nFirst Class”);
else if(avg>=50)
printf(“\nSecond Class”);
else if(avg>=35)
printf(“\nThird Class”);
else
printf(“\nFail”);
getch( );
}
Output 1
Enter stuno:101
Enter sub1:65
Enter sub2:65
Enter sub3:65
Total=195.00
Average=65.00
First Class
Output 2
Enter stuno:105
Enter sub1:30
Enter sub2:65
Enter sub3:65
Total=160
Average=53.34
Second Class
Prog.39:To calculate the grade of a student if passed.
/* Grade of a student if passed*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
float tot,avg;
clrscr( );
avg = tot/3;
if(sub1>=35 && sub2>=35 && sub3>=35)
{
if(avg>=60)
printf(“\nResult:First Class”);
else if(avg>=50)
printf(“\nResult:Second Class”);
else
printf(“\nResult:Third Class”);
}
else
printf(“\nResult:Fail”);
getch( );
}
Output 1
Enter stuno:101
Enter sub1:65
Enter sub2:65
Enter sub3:65
Total=195.00
Average=65.00
Result:First Class
Output 2
Enter stuno:105
Enter sub1:30
Enter sub2:65
Enter sub3:65
Total=160
Average=53.34
Result:Fail
Prog.40:To print the Result of a student.
/* Result of a student*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
float tot,avg;
clrscr( );
avg = tot/3;
if(sub1>=35 && sub2>=35 && sub3>=35)
{
if(avg>=60)
printf(“\nResult:First Class”);
else if(avg>=50)
printf(“\nResult:Second Class”);
else
printf(“\nResult:Third Class”);
}
else
{
if(sub1<35 && sub2>=35 && sub3>=35)
printf(“\nResult:Fail in Sub1”);
else if(sub1>=35 && sub2<35 && sub3>=35)
else if(sub1>=35 && sub2>=35 && sub3<35)
else if(sub1<35 && sub2<35 && sub3>=35)
printf(“\nResult:Fail in Sub1 & Sub2”);
else if(sub1<35 && sub2>=35 && sub3<35)
else if(sub1>=35 && sub2<35 && sub3<35)
else
printf(“\nResult:Fail in all subjects”);
}
getch( );
}
Output 1
Enter stuno:101
Enter sub1:65
Enter sub2:65
Enter sub3:65
Total=195.00
Average=65.00
Result:First Class
Output 2
Enter stuno:105
Enter sub1:30
Enter sub2:65
Enter sub3:65
Total=160
Average=53.34
Result:Fail in Sub1
Output 3
Enter stuno:103
Enter sub1:60
Enter sub2:30
Enter sub3:50
Total=140
Average=46.67
Result:Fail in Sub2
Prog.41:To check whether letter is small, capital, digit or special symbol
/* Small, Capital, Digit or Special Symbol */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char x;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a letter:”);
scanf(“%c”,&x);
if(x>=‟a‟ && x<=‟z‟)
printf(“Small letter”);
else if(x>=‟A‟ && x<=‟Z‟)
printf(“Capital letter”);
else if(x>=‟0‟ && x<=‟9‟)
printf(“Digit”);
else
printf(“Special Symbol”);
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a letter:a
Small letter
Output 2
Enter a letter:C
Capital letter
Output 3
Enter a letter:6
Digit
Output 4
Enter a letter:#
Special Symbol
Switch statement
Prog.42: To check whether the letter is vowel or consonant
/* Vowel or Consonant */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char x;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a char:”);
scanf(“%c”,&x);
switch(x)
{
case „a‟:
case „A‟:
case „e‟:
case „E‟:
case „i‟:
case „I‟:
case „o‟:
case „O‟:
case „u‟:
case „U‟:printf(“Vowel”);
break;
default:printf(“Consonant”);
}
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a char:a
Vowel
Output 2
Enter a char:b
Consonant
Output 3
Enter a char:U
Vowel
Prog.43: To print words corresponding numbers below 9
/* Numbers -> words (0-9)*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a number(0-9):”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
switch(n)
{
case 0:printf(“Zero”);
break;
case 1:printf(“One”);
break;
case 2:printf(“Two”);
break;
case 3:printf(“Three”);
break;
case 4:printf(“Four”);
break;
case 5:printf(“Five”);
break;
case 6:printf(“Six”);
break;
case 7:printf(“Seven”);
break;
case 8:printf(“Eight”);
break;
case 9:printf(“Nine”);
break;
default:printf(“More than 9”);
}
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a number(0-9):3
Three
Output 2
Enter a number(0-9):12
More than 9
Prog.44:To print Day corresponding Number
/* Number corresponding Day */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
switch(n)
{
case 1:printf(“Sunday”);
break;
case 2:printf(“Monday”);
break;
case 3:printf(“Tuesday”)
break;
case 4:printf(“Wednesday”);
break;
case 5:printf(“Thursday”);
break;
case 6:printf(“Friday”);
break;
case 7:printf(“Saturday”);
break;
default:printf(“No week day”);
}
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a number:3
Tuesday
Output 2
Enter a number:9
No week day
Prog.45: To print color name corresponding letter
/* Letter -> color name */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char x;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a char:”);
scanf(“%c”,&x);
switch(x)
{
case „w‟:printf(“w->white”);
break;
case „b‟:printf(“b->black”);
break;
case „l‟:printf(“l->blue”);
break;
case „y‟:printf(“y->yellow”);
break;
case „g‟:printf(“g->green”);
break;
case „r‟:printf(“r->red”);
break;
case „o‟:printf(“o->orange”);
break;
default:printf(“No color”);
}
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter a char:l
l->blue
Output 2
Enter a char:y
y->yellow
Output 3
Enter a char:c
No color
The exit( ) Function

The exit( ) is a function in the standard library of C. This
function causes immediate termination of the program and execution
control return to the operating system. In general, the termination to
exit( ) function is 0 to indicate that termination is normal. Other
arguments may be used to indicate some sort of an error.
Prog.46: To calculate Arithmetic operations depends on user choice.
/* Arithmetic operation depends on user choice*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,choice;
clrscr();
printf(“Welcome to Arithmetic operations”);
printf(“\n--------------------------------\n”);
printf(“\n\t1.Add”);
printf(“\n\t2.Sub”);
printf(“\n\t3.Mul”);
printf(“\n\t4.Div(quo)”);
printf(“\n\t5.Rem”);
printf(“\n--------------------------------\n”);
printf(“\nEnter U r choice here:”);
scanf(“%d”,&choice);
printf(“Enter 2nos:”);
switch(choice)
{
case 1:printf(“\nThe sum is:%d”,a+b);
break;
case 2:printf(“\nThe sub is:%d”,a-b);
break;
case 3:printf(“\nThe Product is:%d”,a*b);
break;
case 4:printf(“\nThe quo is:%d”,a/b);
break;
case 5:printf(“\nThe rem is:%d”,a%b);
break;
default:exit(0);
}
getch();
}
Output 1
Welcome to Arithmetic operations
--------------------------------
1.Add
2.Sub
3.Mul
4.Div(quo)
5.Rem
--------------------------------
Enter U r choice here:1
Enter 2nos:5 4
The sum is:9
Output 2
Welcome to Arithmetic operations
--------------------------------
1.Add
2.Sub
3.Mul
4.Div(quo)
5.Rem
--------------------------------
Enter U r choice here:6
Enter 2nos:3 4
Prog.47: To calculate Arithmetic operations depends on arithmetic operator
/* Arithmetic operations depends on arithmetic operator */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
char ch;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter any arithmetic operator(+,-,*,/,%):”);
scanf(“%c”,&ch);
printf(“Enter 2nos:”);
switch(ch)
{
case „+‟:printf(“\nThe sum is:%d”,a+b);
break;
case „-„:printf(“\nThe sub is:%d”,a-b);
break;
case „*‟:printf(“\nThe Product is:%d”,a*b);
break;
case „/‟:printf(“\nThe quo is:%d”,a/b);
break;
case „%‟:printf(“\nThe rem is:%d”,a%b);
break;
default:exit(0);
}
getch();
}
Output 1
Enter any arithmetic operator(+,-,*,/,%):*
Enter 2nos:4
5
The Product is:20
-x-
3. LOOPS
3.1 Def: A portion of program that is executed repeatedly is called a
loop.
The C programming language contains three different program
statements for program looping. They are
1. For loop
2. While loop
3. Do-While loop
3.2 The For Loop

The for loop is most common in major programming languages.
However, the for loop in languages is very flexible and very powerful.
Generally, the for loop is used to repeat the execution statement for
some fixed number of times.
The general form of for loop is
for(initialization;condition;increment/decrement)
statement;
where the statement is single or compound statement.
initialization is the initialization expression, usually an
assignment to the loop-control variable. This is performed once before
the loop actually begins execution.
condition is the test expression, which evaluated before each
iteration of the loop, which determines when the loop will exist.
increment is the modifier expression, which changes the value
of loop control variable. This expression is executed at the end of
each loop.
Semi colons separate these three sections.
The for loop repeats the execution of the statement as long as
the conditional expression evaluates to true. Once this test condition
becomes false, the for loop will terminate and control resumes to the
statement that immediately following for loop.
The following program illustrates the use of for loop
/* Print 1 to 10 numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
printf(“\n%d”,i);
getch();
}
In this example, the for loop is repeated 10 times.
In for-loop, any or all of the three sections in the parentheses
can be omitted, although the semicolons must remain. If the
conditional expression is omitted, it is assumed to have a value1 and
the loop continues infinitely.
The for statement
for(; ;)
{
statement;
}
is an infinite loop. This can be terminated by using a break
statement or an exit() function.
The comma operator, is the power of the for loop. The general
rule of comma operator is multiple C expressions may be separated by
a comma operator as
expression1, expression2, expression3, ………… and
so on.
Expressions separated by comma operator are evaluated from left to
right. For example, the following for statement initializes the value of
counter1 and counter2 values; and also increments the counter1
and counter2 for each iteration.
for
(counter1=0,counter=1;couter<=10;coutr1++,counter2++)
printf(“\n%d %d”,counter1,counter2);
Of all operations in C the comma operator has the lowest
precedence.
This important feature of loops in C languages is that the
statement in the loop also can be omitted. Generally this type of loops
is used in time-delay programs. For example.
for(i=0,j=5;i<10 && j<50;i++,j=i+j)
printf(“\n%d %d,”i,j);
This loop is repeated as long as the value of 1 is less than 10
and the value of j is less than 50.
The increment and decrement operators are very useful in loops
for incrementing or decrementing the loop-control variable.
3.3 Nested Loops: C allows nested loops, i.e., a loop within a
loop. The nested loops are generally used when we want to run the
program repeated by placing the entire program within a loop such as
while or for loop. In such case, prompt may be included whether to
continue the program or to terminate.
3.4 The While Loop
The while loop is best suited to repeat a statement or a set of
statements as long as some condition is satisfied.
The general form of while loop is
initial expression;
while(conditional-expression)
{
statement;
increment/decrement;
}
where the statement (body of the loop) may be a single
statement or a compound statements. The expression (test condition)
must results zero or non-zero.
First of all, the expression in the while loop is evaluated. If the
result is true (non-zero), then the statement is executed and the
expression is evaluated again. The statements continue executes until
the expression evaluates to false (zero). Then the loop is finished and
the program execution continues with the statement that follows by
body of while loop.
The statement in the while loop is executed zero or more times
depending on the expression. If the expression evaluates to false at
the first time, then the statement is never executed.
3.5 The do-while loop

The structure of do-while loop is similar to while loop. The
difference is that in case of do-while loop the expression is evaluated
after the body of loop is executed. In case of while loop the
expression is evaluated before executing body of loop.
The general form of do-while statement is
do
{
statement;
}while(expression);
where statement is a single statement or compound statement.
In contrast to while loop statement (body of loop), do-while loop is
executed one or more times.
In do-while loop, first the statement is executed and then the
expression is tested. If the expression evaluates to false, the loop
terminates and the execution control transfer to the next statement
that follows it. Otherwise, if expression evaluates to true (non-zero),
execution of the statement is repeated and the it erative process
continues.
In case of do-while loop, the statement is executed at least
once, whereas in case of while loop, the statement may not execute
at all if the expression results false for the first time itself.
PROG RAMS
The for loop
Prog.48: To print the message 10 times.
/* Print a message 10 times */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
printf(“\nMillennium Software Solutions”);
getch();
}
Output
Prog.49: To print 1 to 10 numbers.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
getch();
}
Output
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Prog.50: To print 1 to 10 even numbers.

/* Print even numbers below 10 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
for(i=2;i<=10;i=i+2)
getch();
}
Output
2
4
6
8
10
Prog.51: To print 1 to 10 odd numbers.
/* Print odd numbers below 10 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=10;i=i+2)
getch();
}
Output
1
3
5
7
9
Prog.52: To calculate sum of 10 natural numbers.
/* Sum of first 10 natural numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,sum=0;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
sum = sum + i;
printf(“The sum of 10 natural numbers is:%d”,sum);
getch();
}
Output
The sum of 10 natural numbers is:55
Prog.53: To calculate sum of even numbers below 10.

/* Sum of even numbers below 10 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,sum=0;
clrscr();
for(i=2;i<=10;i=i+2)
sum = sum + i;
printf(“The sum of even numbers is:%d”,sum);
getch();
}
Output
The sum of even numbers is:30
Prog.54: To calculate sum of odd numbers below 10.
/* Sum of odd numbers below 10 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,sum=0;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=10;i=i+2)
sum = sum + i;
printf(“The sum of odd numbers is:%d”,sum);
getch();
}
Output
The sum of odd numbers is:25
Prog.55: To print 1 to n numbers.
/* Print 1 to n numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,n;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter n value:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:5
1
2
3
4
5
Prog.56: To print 1 to n even numbers.
/* Print 1 to n even numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,n;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=2;i<=n;i=i+2)
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:15
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Prog.57: To print 1 to n odd numbers.
/* Print 1 to n odd numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,n;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i=i+2)
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:15
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
Prog.58: To calculate sum of 1 to n numbers
/* Sum of 1 to n numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,n,sum=0;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
sum = sum + i;
printf(“Sum of first %d numbers is:%d”,n,sum);
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:5
Sum of first 5 numbers is:15
Prog.59: To calculate 1 to n even numbers sum
/* Sum of 1 to n even numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,n,sum=0;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=2;i<=n;i=i+2)
sum = sum + i;
printf(“The sum of below %d even numbers is:%d”,n,sum);
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:10
The sum of below 10 even numbers is:30
Prog.60: To calculate 1 to n odd numbers sum
/* Sum of 1 to n odd numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,n,sum=0;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i=i+2)
sum = sum + i;
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:10
The sum of below 10 odd numbers is:25
Prog.61: To calculate factorial of first five natural numbers.
/* Factorial of five */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,fact=1;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=5;i++)
fact = fact * i;
printf(“The factorial is:%d”,fact);
getch();
}
Output
The factorial is:120
Prog.62: To calculate factorial of any number

/* Factorial of any number */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,n;
long int fact =1;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
fact = fact * i;
printf(“Factorial is:%ld”,fact);
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:8
Factorial is:40320
Prog.63: To check the input number is prime or not.
/* Prime or not*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,status=0,i;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n==1)
printf(“It is prime number”);
else
{
for(i=2;i<n;i++)
{
if(n%i == 0)
{
status =1;
break;
}
}
}
if(status == 0)
else
printf(“It is not prime number”);
getch();
}
Prog.64: To print Fibonacci series (1,1,2,3,5,8,13,…………)

/* Fibonacci Series */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int m;
int n0,n1,n2,i;
int count;
clrscr();
n0=1;
n1=1;
printf(“Enter the number of Fibonacci series:”);
scanf(“%d”,&m);
printf(“%d %d”,n0,n1);
for(i=3;i<=m;i++)
{
n2 = n0+n1;
printf(“ %d”,n2);
n0 = n1;
n1 = n2;
}
getch();
}
Output
Enter the number of Fibonacci series: 7
1 1 2 3 5 8 13
Nested For Loop
Pyramids
Prog.65: To print the following format

*
* *
* * *
* * * *
* * * * *
/* *
* *
* * *
* * * *
* * * * * */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=5;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
printf(“* ”);
}
printf(“\n”);
}
getch();
}
Output
*
* *
* * *
* * * *
* * * * *
1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5
/* 1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=5;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
printf(“%d ”,j);
}
printf(“\n”);
}
getch();
}
Output
1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5

1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
/* 1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=5;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
printf(“%d ”,i);
}
printf(“\n”);
}
getch();
}
Output
1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5 5
4 4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2
1
/* 5 5 5 5 5
4 4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2
1 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for(i=5;i>=1;i--)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
}
printf(“\n”);
}
getch();
}
Output
5 5 5 5 5
4 4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2
1

1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
1 2
1
/* 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
1 2
1 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for(i=5;i>=1;i--)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
}
printf(“\n”);
}
getch();
}
Output
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
1 2
1
1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4
5
/* 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4
5 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=5;i++)
{
for(j=5;j>=i;j--)
{
}
printf(“\n”);
}
getch();
}
Output
1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4
5
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2
5 4 3
5 4
5
/* 5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2
5 4 3
5 4
5 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=5;i++)
{
for(j=5;j>=i;j--)
{
}
printf(“\n”);
}
getch();
}
Output
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2
5 4 3
5 4
5

5
5 4
5 4 3
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2 1
/* 5
5 4
5 4 3
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2 1 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for(i=5;i>=1;i--)
{
for(j=5;j>=i;j--)
{
}
printf(“\n”);
}
getch();
}
Output
5
5 4
5 4 3
5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2
5 4 3
5 4
5
/* 5
4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for(i=5;i>=1;i--)
{
for(j=5;j>=i;j--)
{
}
printf(“\n”);
}
getch();
}
Output
5
4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
While Loop
Prog.74 : To print the message 10 times.
/* Print a message 10 times */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1;
clrscr();
while(i<=10)
{
printf(“\nMillennium Software Solutions”);
i++;
}
getch();
}
Output
Prog.75: To print 1 to 10 numbers.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1;
clrscr();
while(i<=10)
{
i++;
}
getch();
}
Output
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Prog.76: To print 1 to 10 even numbers.
/* Print even numbers below 10 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=2;
clrscr();
while(i<=10)
{
i + =2;
}
getch();
}
Output
2
4
6
8
10
Prog.77: To print 1 to 10 odd numbers.

/* Print odd numbers below 10 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1;
clrscr();
while(i<=10)
{
i + =2;
}
getch();
}
Output
1
3
5
7
9
Prog.78: To calculate sum of 10 natural numbers.
/* Sum of first 10 natural numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1,sum=0;
clrscr();
while(i<=10)
{
sum + = i;
i++;
}
printf(“The sum of 10 natural numbers is:%d”,sum);
getch();
}
Output
The sum of 10 natural numbers is:55
Prog.79: To calculate sum of even numbers below 10.

/* Sum of even numbers below 10 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=2,sum=0;
clrscr();
while(i<=10)
{
sum = sum + i;
i +=2;
}
printf(“The sum of even numbers is:%d”,sum);
getch();
}
Output
The sum of even numbers is:30
Prog.80: To calculate sum of odd numbers below 10.
/* Sum of odd numbers below 10 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1,sum=0;
clrscr();
while(i<=10)
{
sum = sum + i;
i +=2;
}
printf(“The sum of odd numbers is:%d”,sum);
getch();
}
Output
The sum of odd numbers is:25
Prog.81: To print 1 to n numbers.
/* Print 1 to n numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1,n;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
while(i<=n)
{
i++;
}
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:5
1
2
3
4
5
Prog.82: To print 1 to n even numbers.
/* Print 1 to n even numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=2,n;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
while(i<=n)
{
i +=2;
}
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:15
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Prog.82: To print 1 to n odd numbers.
/* Print 1 to n odd numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1,n;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
while(i<=n)
{
i + = 2;
}
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:15
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
Prog.83: To calculate sum of 1 to n numbers
/* Sum of 1 to n numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1,n,sum=0;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
while(i<=n)
{
sum + = i;
i++;
}
printf(“Sum of first %d numbers is:%d”,n,sum);
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:5
Sum of first 5 numbers is:15
Prog.84: To calculate 1 to n even numbers sum

/* Sum of 1 to n even numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=2,n,sum=0;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
while(i<=n)
{
sum + =i;
i + =2;
}
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:10
The sum of below 10 even numbers is:30
Prog.85: To calculate 1 to n odd numbers sum
/* Sum of 1 to n odd numbers */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1,n,sum=0;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
while(i<=n)
{
sum + =i;
i + = 2;
}
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:10
The sum of below 10 odd numbers is:25
Prog.86: To calculate factorial of first five natural numbers.
/* Factorial of five */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1,fact=1;
clrscr();
while(i<=5)
{
fact * =i;
i++;
}
printf(“The factorial is:%d”,fact);
getch();
}
Output
The factorial is:120
Prog.87: To calculate factorial of any number

/* Factorial of any number */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1,n;
long int fact =1;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
while(i<=n)
{
fact * = i;
i++;
}
printf(“Factorial is:%ld”,fact);
getch();
}
Output
Enter n value:8
Factorial is:40320
Prog.88: To check the input number is prime or not.
/* Prime or not*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,status=0,i=2;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n==1)
else
{
while(i<n)
{
if(n%i == 0)
{
status =1;
break;
}
i++;
}
}
if(status == 0)
else
printf(“It is not prime number”);
getch();
}
Prog.89: To print Fibonacci series (1,1,2,3,5,8,13,…………)
/* Fibonacci Series */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int m;
int n0,n1,n2,i=3;
int count;
clrscr();
n0=1;
n1=1;
printf(“Enter the number of Fibonacci series:”);
scanf(“%d”,&m);
printf(“%d %d”,n0,n1);
while(i<=m)
{
n2 = n0+n1;
printf(“ %d”,n2);
n0 = n1;
n1 = n2;
i++;
}
getch();
}
Output
Enter the number of Fibonacci series: 7
1 1 2 3 5 8 13
do-while Loop:
Note: Do all above programs using do-while loop syntax .
Syn: initialization;
do
{
statements;
incre / decre;
}while(condition);
-x-
4. ARRAYS
4.1 Def: An Array is a collection of same data type. The
elements of an array are referred by a common name and are
differentiate from one another by their position with in an array. The
elements of an array can be of any data type but all elements in an
array must be of the same type.
The general form of declaring a array is
type array_name[size];
where type is a valid datatype, array_name is the name of the array
and size is the number of elements that array_name contains.
Example:
int A[100],marks[20];
float rates[50];
char name[30];
int A[100];
here int  data type of elements that an array
A  name of array
100  size of an array
The individual elements of an array can be referenced by means of its

subscript (or index)
Suppose A is an array of 20 elements, we can reference each element
as
A[0]  1st element

A[1]  2nd element
A[2]  3rd element
:
:
:
:
A[19]  20th element
Note: Subscript enclosed within parenthesis.
In C subscript starts from 0. That is, if we declare an array of
size n, then we can refer the elements from 0 to (n-1)th element.
Generally Arrays are 3 types. They are
(i) Single Dimensional Array
(ii) Double Dimensional Array
(iii) Multi Dimensional Array
4.2 Single Dimensional Array
The general form of Single Dimensional array is:
datatype variable[size];
Example:
int A[20];
Initialization of arrays during declaration
Similar to other datatypes, the array also can be initialized at the time
of declaration.
int num[5] ={3,2,1,5,4};
char name[15] = {„c‟,‟o‟,‟m‟,‟p‟,‟u‟,‟t‟,‟e‟,‟r‟,‟s‟};
float rate[] = {20.5,15.75,12.34};
The following points can be noted regarding initialization of a n array at the time of declaration:
1. The size of an array can be omitted in the declaration. If the

size is omitted, then
the compiler will reserve the memory location corresponds to
number of
individual elements that includes in the declaration.
2. If the array elements are not given any specific values, they are
supposed to
contain garbage values.
3. C will not allow to specify repetition of an initialization, or to
initialize an ]
element in the middle of an array without supplying all the
preceding values.
The following program illustrates the Initialization of array
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[5] = {4,3,2,1,5},i;
clrscr();
printf(“The elements in an array:”);
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
printf(“%d\n”,i);
getch();
}
Inserting elements into an array

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[5],i;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter 5 elements into an array:”);
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
printf(“The 5 elements are:”);
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
printf(“\n%d”,a[i]);
getch();
}
4.3 Two-Dimensional Array

The general form of Two-Dimensional Arrays is
type array_name[row_size][column_size];
Example:
int a[2][2];
Initializing Two-Dimensional Arrays
Like the one-dimensional arrays, following their declaration with a list
of initial values enclosed in braces may initialize two-dimensional
arrays. For example,
int a[2][2] ={1,2,5,4};
initializes the elements of the first row to zero and the second row to
one. The initialization is done row by row. The above statement can
be equivalently written as
int a[2][2]={{1,2},{5,4}};
We can also initialize a two-dimensional array in the form of a matrix
as shown below:
int a[2][2]= {
{1,2},
{5,4}
};
Program showing two-dimensional arrays

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[2][2],i,j;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter 4 elements into array:”);
for(i=0;i<=1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<=1;j++)
{
scanf(“%d”,&a[i][j]);
}
}
printf(“The 4 elements are:\n”);
for(i=0;i<=1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<=1;j++)
{
printf(“%d ”,a[i][j]);
}
printf(“\n”);
}
getch();
}
5. Handling of Character Strings
As it was mentioned earlier character is stored internally as an
integer. For convenience the C compiler as well as the programmer
treat certain values as characters and manipulate them accordingly.
Like an integer array, a group of characters can be stored in a
character array. These character arrays are often called strings. A
string is an array of characters. There is no string built-in data
type in C. But we can declare string as an array of characters. To
recognize a character array, it should end with a null character („\0‟).
For example, the string SCIENCE would be stored as
„S‟ „C‟ „I‟ „E‟ „N‟ „C‟ „E‟ „\0‟
The length of a string is the number of characters it contains
excluding null character. Hence, the number of locations needed to
store a string is one more than length of string.
In this example, the length of the string is 7. Since, the first null
character in a string is assumed to be the end of a string, more exactly
the length of a string can be defined as the number of non-null
characters between the first character and first null character in a
string.
Declaring and initializing string variables
The general form of declaration of string variable is
char string-name[size];
where, string-name is the name of a string and size is the
maximum number of characters the string-name can contain.
Example:
char name[30];
char designation[25];
char date_of_join[8];
String variables can be initialized at the time of declaration.
Example:
char name[30] = “Millennium”;
char designation[25] = “Computers”;
A string can also be initialized at the time of declaration in the
following ways.
char name[30] = “Millennium”;
or
char name[30] ={„M‟,‟i‟,‟l‟,‟l‟,‟n‟,‟n‟,‟i‟,‟u‟,‟m‟,‟\0‟};
or
char name[] = “Millennium”;
or
char name[] = {„M‟,‟i‟,‟l‟,‟l‟,‟e‟,‟n‟,‟n‟,‟i‟,‟u‟,‟m‟,‟\0‟};
Note that, when initialize a character array by listing its elements, we

must explicitly specify the null terminator. When a character string is
assigned to a character array, C adds the null character at the end of
string automatically.
A two-dimensional array can be initialized to a list of strings. For
example,
char day[7][15] = { “Monday”,
“Tuesday”,
“Wednesday”,
“Thursday”,
“Friday”,
“Saturday”,
“Sunday”
};
Reading and writing strings
The scanf(), printf() function is used with %s with format
specification to read and print a string.
Example:
char str[30];
scanf(“%s”,str);
printf(“%s”,str);
In the case of reading strings, the ampersand (&) is not required
before the string variable name. As mentioned earlier, one of the
limitations of the scanf() function is that it is not capable of holding
multiword strings, even though it can read them.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char line[80];
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a line\n”);
scanf(“%s”,line);
printf(“The entered line is:%s”,line);
getch();
}
While executing this program, if you have typed as
This is a line
Then the output is
The entered line is: This
To overcome this type of situation, we can use gets() function
in place of scanf() function. Similarly puts() function can be used in
place of printf() function.
The gets() function will continue to read and hold a string of
input until it encounters a new line character („\n‟). It will replace the
new line character with a null character („\0‟), thus creating a string.
The above program can be written using gets() and puts() function
as….
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char line[80];
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a line\n”);
gets(line);
puts(“The entered string is:”);
puts(line);
getch();
}
5.1 String handling Functions: string.h

Every C compiler provides a large set of string handling library
functions, which are contained in the header file string.h
The following table shows some of the functions available in
string.h header file.
Function Meaning
strcat() String concatenate. Append one string to anot her. First character of string2
overwrites null character of string1.
strlen() Returns the length of the string not counting the null character.
strlwr() Converts a string to lower case.
strupr() Converts a string to upper case.
strcpy() Copies a string into another.
strcmp() Compares two strings
strrev() Reverses a string.
Note: The functions deal with strings (a string of characters) ending

with null character „\0‟. To use these functions, including the following
line in the program.
#include<string.h>
5.2 strcat() function
The strcat() function concatenates the source string at the end
of the target string. For example “Computing” and “Techniques” on
concatenation would result in string “ComputingTechniques”. The
general form is strcat(string1, string2); strong2 appends to string1
and the first character to string2 overwrites null character of first
string1. This function returns the first argument i.e., string1. The
string2 remains unchanged.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char s1[30],s2[15];
clrscr();
printf(“Enter String1:”);
gets(s1);
printf(“Enter String2:”);
gets(s2);
printf(“The entire string is:%s”,strcat(s1,s2));
getch();
}
Output
Enter String1:Millennium
Enter String2:Software Solutions
The entire string is:MillenniumSoftware Solutions
5.3 strcmp() function:

strcmp(string1, string2);
strcmp() function compares two strings to find out whether
they are same or different. The two strings are compared character by
character until there is a mismatch or end of one of the strings is
reached, whichever occurs first. If the two strings are same, strcmp()
returns a value 0. If they are not same, it returns the numeric
difference between the ASCII values of the first non-matching
characters. That is, it returns less than 0 if string1 is less than string2,
and greater than 0 if string1 is greater than string2.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char s1[25],s2[25];
int c;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter string1:”);
gets(s1);
printf(“Enter string2:”);
gets(s2);
c=strcmp(s1,s2);
if(c>0)
printf(“String1 > String2”);
else if(c<0)
printf(“String2 > String1”);
else
printf(“Both are equal”);
getch();
}
Output
Enter String1:abc
Enter String2:ABC
String1 > String2
5.4 strcpy() function
strcpy(String1, String2);
The strcpy() function is used to copy the character string from
String2 to String1. This function returns the result string String1 the
String2 remains unchanged. String2 may be a character array or a
string constant.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char s1[15],s2[15];
clrscr();
printf(“Enter String1:”)
gets(s1);
printf(“The String2 is:%s”,strcpy(s2,s1));
getch();
}
Output
Enter String1:Millennium
The String2 is:Millennium
5.5 strlen() function

This function counts the number of characters present in a
string. The counting ends at the first null character.
strlen (String1);
The strlen() function returns the length of the argument String1
excluding the null character. The argument may be a string constant.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str[30];
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a string:”);
gets(str);
printf(“The length of a string is:%d”,strlen(str));
getch();
}
Output
Enter a string: Millennium Software Solutions
The length of a string is:29
5.6 strupr(), strlwr(), strrev() functions

The strupr() function is converted the string into upper case
and strlwr() function is converted the string into lower case and
strrev() function prints the entire string in reverse order.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str[15];
clrscr();
gets(str);
printf(“The upper case string is:%s”,strupr(str));
printf(“\nThe lower case string is:%s”,strlwr(str));
printf(“\nThe reverse string is:%s”,strrev(str));
getch();
}
Output
Enter a string:millennium
The upper case string is:MILLENNIUM
The lower case string is:millennium
The reverse string is:muinnellim
6. Functions and Storage Classes

6.1 User-defined Functions
Functions are building blocks of C. Function performs the same set of
instructions on different sets of data or at different portions of a
program. C functions can be classified into two categories, namely
library functions and user-defined functions. main is an example
of user-defined functions. printf and scanf belong to the category of
library functions. The main distinction between these two categories is
that library functions are not required to be written by us whereas a
user-defined function has to be developed by the user at the time of
writing a program.
Advantages of user-defined functions:
1. It facilitates top-down modular programming as shown in fig. In
this programming style, the high level logic of the overall
problem is solved first while the details of each lower-level
function are addressed later.
2. The length of a source program can be reduced by using
functions at appropriate places. This factor is particularly critical
with microcomputers where memory space is limited.
3. As mentioned earlier, it is easy to locate and isolate a faulty
function for further investigations.
4. Many other programs may use a function. This means that a C
programmer can build on what others have already done,
instead of starting over,
Mainfrom scratch.
Program
Function1 Function2 Function3 Function4 Function5
Top-Down modular programming, using functions
The general form of C function is

Return-type Function-name (parameter list)
parameter declaration;
{
Body of function;
}
6.2 Features of Functions:
(a) Function Declaration and prototypes.
(b) Calling functions by value or by reference.
(c) Recursion
6.3 Category of functions:
A function, depending on whether arguments are present or not
and whether a value is returned or not, may belong to one of the
following categories:
Category 1: Functions with no arguments and no return values.
Category 2: Functions with arguments and no return values.
Category 3: Functions with arguments and return values.
Example:
6.3.1 Functions with no arguments and nor return values
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void printline(); Function Declaration
void main()
{
clrscr();
printline();
printf(“This illustrates the use of C functions\n”);
printline();
getch();
} Return Type
Function Name
void printline()
{
int i;
for(i=1;i<=40;i++)
printf(“-”);
printf(“\n”);
}
6.3.2 Arguments but no Return values

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void swap(int,int);
void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr();
swap(a,b); Function Call
getch();
}
void swap(int x, int y) Called Function
{
int z;
z = x;
x = y;
y = z;
printf(“\nAfter swapping:%d,%d”,x,y);
}
Actual arguments: The arguments mentioned in function call are
called as “actual arguments”. For example, in the function call
statement swap(a,b), the two parameters a and b are known as Actual
parameters.
Formal arguments: The arguments in the function declaration are
called as “Formal arguments”. In the function definition swap(int x, int
y), the parameters x and y are known as Formal parameters.
6.3.3 Arguments with Return Values
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int big(int,int);
void main()
{
int a,b,max;
clrscr();
max = big(a,b);
printf(“\nThe biggest number is:%d”,max);
getch();
}
int big(int x, int y)
{
if(x>y)
return x;
else
return y;
}
6.4 Recursion: Recursion is a technique to be used to call itself. In

C, it is possible for the functions to call themselves. A function is
called recursive if a statement with in the body of a function calls the
same function itself.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
long int fact(int);
void main()
{
int n;
long int res;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a positive number:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
res = fact(n);
printf(“The factorial is:%ld”,res);
getch();
}
long int fact(int n)
{
long int f;
if(n==1)
return 1;
else
f = n*fact(n-1);
return f;
}
The following are important points about functions:

1. All C programs must contain atleast one function.
[The main() function serves this rule]
2. A function can return only one value. Thus we should not
specify two values to return.
3. The return type in function declaration is optional. If no return
type is specified it is assumed to be an integer which is default.
4. When a function is not returning any value, void type can be
used as return type.
5. Parameter list is optional.
6. „C‟ provides a statement return
return expression
7. Return statement is used in function definition to communicate
the return value to the calling function.
8. Return statement indicates exit from the function and return to
the point from where the function was invoked.
9. There may be any number of return statements in function
definition, but only one return statement will activate in a
function call.
10. The variable declarations within the function (between
braces { }) are local to the function and are not available outside
the function.
11. If there is no return statement, the program will return to
the calling point after it reaches the end of the function body (}).
12. A function call can be used wherever a variable of same
type is used (except the left side of an assignment statement).
13. There should be one to one correspondence between the
actual and formal parameters in type, order and number.
14. C allows recursion. That is a function can call itself.
15. A C function cannot be defined in another function.
6.5 Functions with Arrays

Like the values of simple variables, it is also possible to pass the
values of an array to a function. To pass an array to a called function,
it is sufficient to list the name of the array, without any subscripts, and
the size of the array as arguments. For example, the call
largest(a,n);
will pass all the elements contained in the array a of size n. The called
function expecting this call must be appropriately defined. The largest
function header might look like:
int largest(array,size);
int array[];
int size;
Program: Sorting of array elements
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
int marks[5];
clrscr();
printf(“Enter 5 sub marks:”);
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
scanf(“%d”,&marks[i]);
printf(“\nMarks before sorting\n”);
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
printf(“%d”,marks[i]);
sort(marks,5);
printf(“\nMarks after sorting\n”);
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
printf(“%d”,marks[i]);
getch();
}
void sort(int x[],int n)
{
int i,j,t;
for(i=1;i<=n-1;i++)
for(j=1;j<=n-1;j++)
if(x[j-1] >= x[j])
{
t = x[j-1];
x[j-1] = x[j];
x[j] = t;
}
}
6.6 Variables and Storage Classes: There are three basic places
in a C program where variables will be declared: inside the function, in
the definition of function parameters, or outside of all functions. These
variables are called local variables, formal parameters, and global
variables respectively.
Local Variables: The body of any function comprises of two parts:
declaration of variables and a set of executable statements. Variables
declared inside a function are called local variables. This name derives
from the fact that a variable inside a function can be used only inside
that function. An attempt on our part or access the local variable of
one function in another, will draw an error from the compiler:
Identifier undefined.
Global Variables: C program consists of three sections namely: the
preprocessor directives, the global variable section and fi nally the
functions. The variables that are declared in the global variable
section are called global variables. While a local variable can be used
only inside a function in which it is declared, a global variable can be
used anywhere in the program.
Block Variables: Yet another place to declare variables is inside any
block: these variables are called block variables and these can be used
only inside that block.
Global Vs Local Variables:
There are a number of differences between global variables and
local variables.
1. Local variables can be used only inside the function or the block
in which they are declared. On the other hand, global variables
can be used throughout the program.
2. The rules of initialization differ. All global variables, in the
absence of explicit initialization, are automatically initialized. A
global int variable begins with the value 0, a global float gets
initialized to 0.0, a global char holds the ASCII null byte, and a
global pointer points to NULL. As against this, local variables do
not get initialized to any specified value, when a value is not
provided. Thus a local variable begins with an unknown value,
which may be different each time.
3. Global variables get initialized only once, before the program
starts executing. But, local variables get initialized each time
the function or block containing their declaration is entered.
4. The initial value that you supply for a global variable must be a
constant, whereas a local variable can contain variables in its
initializer.
5. A local variable loses its value, the moment the function/block
containing it is exited. Global variables retain their values
throughout their execution.
Storage classes:
The storage class of a variable dictates how, when and where
storage will be allocated for the variable. The different storage classes
available are:
1. Auto 2. Register 3. Extern 4. Static
1. Auto: Automatic variables are declared inside a function in
which they are to be utilized. They are created when the function
is called and destroyed automatically when the function is
exited, hence the name automatic. Automatic variables are
therefore private (or local) to the function in which they are
declared. Because of this property, automatic variables are also
refereed to as local or internal variables.
A variable declared inside a function without storage class
specification is, by default, an automatic variable.
One important feature of automatic variables is that their value
cannot be changed accidentally by what happens in some other
function in the program. This assures that we may declare and use
the same variable name in different functions in the same program
without causing any confusion to the compiler.
Program: ILLUSTRATION OF WORKING OF auto VARIABLES
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void function1();
void function2();
void main()
{
int m = 1000;
clrscr();
function2();
printf(“%d\n”,m);
getch();
}
void function1()
{
int m = 10;
}
void function2()
{
int m = 100;
function1();
}
2. Register: It is possible for use to attribute the register storage
class to certain variables. We can tell the compiler that a
variable should be kept in one of the machine‟s registers, instead
of keeping in the memory (where normal variables are stored).
Since a register access is much faster than a memory access,
keeping the frequently accessed variables in the register will lead
to faster execution of programs. This is done as follows:
register int count;
The important point while using register variables is, registers of
CPU do not have addresses. Thus, we should not refer the address of
a register variable.
For example,
The following statement will result an error.
register int i;
scanf(“%d”,&i);
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
register int count;
int sum;
clrscr();
for(count=0;count<10;count++)
sum = sum + count;
printf(“The sum is:%d”,sum);
getch();
}
3. Extern: This is the default storage class for all global variables.
Extern storage class variables get initialized (to zero in the case
of integers) automatically, retain their value throughout the
execution of the program and can be shared by different
modules of the same program. However, assuming “int
intvar;”is present in a.c., to be also to have proper binding with
the same variable, b.c (another file) should have “extern int
intvar”.
Example:
a.c file b.c file
#include<stdio.h> float f = 84.237;
#include<conio.h> extern int intvar;
int intvar; funct(char c, int intvar)
extern float f; {
void main() char c1,c2;
{ :
char ch; :
funct(ch,intvar); }
printf(“%f”,f);
getch();
}
If we intend to share a variable say f, between a.c and b.c files, f
must be declared in both files. Note that it is qualified as extern in
a.c file. The extern qualifier indicated the compiler that f is a variable
of type float for which no memory needs to be allocated and it will be
allocated elsewhere. Note that if a variable is declared as extern, it
must appear as global variable once in another source file.
4. Static: The static storage class has a number of implications
depending upon its usage.
(a) The default storage class for all local variables is auto.
This can be changed to static by prefixing the declaration with
the keyword static as in static int intvar. A local variable with
static storage class is still a local variable as far as its scope is
concerned, it is still available only inside the function in which it
is declared. But certain other properties of the variable change;
It gets initialized to zero automatically, is initialized only once,
(during program startup) and it retains its value throughout the
execution of the program.
(b) When applied to a global variable, the global variable
becomes inaccessible outside the file in which it is declared.
(c) This storage class can be applied to functions too. Similar to
case 2, the functions become inaccessible outside the file.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
function1( );
function1( );
function1( );
getch();
}
void function1()
{
static int n;
n++;
printf(“\nThe value of n is:%d”,n);
}
The output of above program is
The value of n is 1
The value of n is 2
The value of n is 3
Note that the static variable is initialized to zero automatically.
Test the above program without the keyword static to understand the
static storage class clearly.
Storage Type Default initial Scope Life Storage
class value Where
declared
Auto An unpredictable within the only within the until function block Memory
or Local value, which is function or function / block is no longer active
none often called a block where it is
garbage value declared
Register Local Garbage value within the only within the until function block CPU
function or function / block is no longer active registers
block where it is
declared
Static Local Zero within the only within the until program ends, Memory
function or function / block value of the variable
block where it is persists between
declared different function
calls
Extern Global Zero A heat of all All files While any of these Memory
functions including other files are active.
within a file files where That is, as long as
declared the program‟s
extern execution doesn‟t
come to an end
-x -
7. Structures and Unions
7.1 INTRODUCTION
We seen that arrays can be used to represent a group of data items
that belong to the same type, such as int or float. However, if we
want to represent a collection of data items of different types using a
single name, then we cannot use an array. Fortunately, C supports a
constructed data type known as structure, which is a method for
packing data of different types. A structure is a convenient tool
for handling a group of logically related data items. These fields
are called structure elements or members.
7.2 Declaring A Structure
The general form of a structure declaration statement is given below:
struct <structure name>
{
structure element1;
structure element2;
structure element3;
……….
……….
}
Example:
struct book
{
char name[20];
char author[15];
int pages;
float price;
}
Note that the above declaration has not declared any variables.
It simply describes a format called template to represent information.
We can declare structure variables using the tag name anywhere
in the program. For example, the statement
struct book book1, book2,book3;
declares book1, book2, book3 as variables of type struct book.
It is also allowed to combine both the template declaration and
variables declaration in one statement. The declaration
struct book
{
char name[20];
char author[15];
int pages;
float price;
}book1,book2,book3;
is valid. The use of tag name is optional. For example,
struct
{
char name[20];
char author[15];
int pages;
float price;
}book1,book2,book3;
declares book1, book2, book3 as structure variables representing
three books, but does not include a tag name for later use in
declarations.
Note the following points while declaring a structure type:
(a) The closing brace in the structure type declaration must be
followed by a semicolon.
(b) It is important to understand that a structure type
declaration does not tell the compiler to reserve any space in
memory. All a structure declaration does is, it defines the „form‟
of the structure.
(c) Usually structure type declaration appears at the top of the
source code file, before any variables or functions are defined.
7.3 ACCESSING STRUCTURES ELEMENTS
We can assign values to the members of a structure in a number of
ways. As mentioned earlier, the members themselves are not
variables. They should be linked to the structure variables in order to
make them meaningful members. The link between a member and a
variable is established using the member operator „.‟ Which is also
known as „dot operator‟ or „period operator‟. The general form is
Structure-Variable. Structure-Member;
For example,
book1.price;
We can also use scanf to give the values through the keyboard.
scanf(“%s”,book1.name);
scanf(“%d”,&book1.pages);
are valid input statements.
Example:
Program: Defining and Assigning Values to Structure Members
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct personal
{
char name[20];
int day;
char month[10];
int year;
float salary;
};
void main()
{
struct personal person;
clrscr();
printf(“Input values\n”);
scanf(“%s%d%s%d%f”,person.name, &person.day, person.month,
&person.year, &person.salary);
printf(“%s %d %s %d,%.2f\n”,person.name,person.day,
person.month,person.month,person.year,person.salary);
getch();
}
Output
Input Values
Mahesh 15 February 1982 5000
Mahesh 15 February 1982 5000.00
7.4 ARRAYS OF STRUCTURES

We use structures to describe the format of a number of related
variables. For example, in analyzing the marks obtained by a class of
students, we may use a template to describe student name and marks
obtained in various subjects and then declare all the students as
structure variables. In such cases, we may declare an array of
structures, each element of the array representing a structure
variable. For example,
struct class student[100];
defines an array called student, that consists of 100 elements. Each
element is defined to be of the type struct class. Consider the
following declaration:
struct marks
{
int sub1;
int sub2;
int sub3;
}s[5];
Program: Usage of an array of structures
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct book
{
char name[15];
float price;
int pages;
}b[3];
void main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter name, price and pages(3 records):”);
for(i=0;i<=2;i++)
scanf(“%s %f %d”,b[i].name,&b[i].price,&b[i].pages);
printf(“\nThe details are:\n”);
printf(“name\tprice\tpages”);
for(i=0;i<=2;i++)
printf(“\n%s %f %d”,b[i].name,b[i].price,b[i].pages);
getch();
}
linkfloat()
{
float a=0,*b;
b = &a;
a = *b;
}
Now a comment about the program

What is the function linkfloat() doing here? If you don‟t define it you
are bound to get the error “Floating Point Formats Not linked”
with majority of C compilers. What causes this error to occur? When
parsing our source file, if the compiler encounters a reference to the
address of a float, it sets a flag to have the linker link in the floating-
point emulator. A floating point emulator is used to manipulate
floating point numbers in runtime library functions like scanf().
7.5 ARRAYS WITHIN STRUCTURES
C permits the use of arrays as structure members. We have already
used arrays of characters inside a structure. Similarly, we can use
single-or multi-dimensional arrays of type int or float. For example,
the following structure declaration is valid:
struct marks
{
int number;
float sub[3];
}s[2];
7.6 STRUCTURES WITHIN STRUCTURES
Structures within a structure means nesting of structures. Nesting of
structures is permitted in C. Let us consider the following structure
definition:
struct salary
{
char name[20];
char dept[10];
struct
{
int dearness;
int house_rent;
int city;
}allowance;
}employee;
The salary structure contains a member named allowance which itself
is a structure with three members. The members contained in the
inner structure namely dearness, house_rent, and city can be referred
to as
employee.allowance.dearness
employee.allowance.house_rent
employee.allowance.city
7.7 STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
We know that the main philosophy of C language is the use of the
functions. Therefore, it is natural that C supports the passing of
structure values as arguments to functions. There are three methods
by which the values of a structure can be transferred from one
function to another.
The first method is to pass each member of the structure as an
actual argument of the function call. The actual arguments are then
treated independently like ordinary variables. This is the most
elementary method and becomes unmanageable and inefficient when
the structure size is large.
The second method involves passing of a copy of the entire
structure to the called function. Since the function is working on a
copy of the structure, any changes to structure members within the
function are not reflected in the original structure (in the calling
function). It is, therefore, necessary for the function to return the
entire structure back to the calling function. All compilers may not
support this method of passing the entire structure as a parameter.
The third approach employs a concept pointers to pass the
structure as an argument. In this case, the address location of the
structure is passed to the called function. The functi on can access
indirectly the entire structure and work on it. This is similar to the
way arrays are passed to functions. This method is more efficient as
compared to the second one.
In this section, we discuss in detail the second method, while the
third approach using pointers is discussed in the next chapter, where
pointers are dealt in detail.
The general format of sending a copy of a structure to the called
function is:
Function_Name (structure variable name)
The called function takes the following form:
data_type function_name(st_name)
struct_type st_name;
{
………
………
return(expression);
}
The following points are important to note:
1. The called function must be declared for its type, appropriate to
the data type it is expected to return. For example, if it is
returning a copy of the entire structure, then it must be declared
as struct with an appropriate tag name.
2. The structure variable used as the actual argument and the
corresponding formal argument in the called function must be of
the same struct type.
3. The return statement is necessary only when the function is
returning some data. The expression may be any simple
variable or structure variable or an expression using simple
variables.
4. When a function returns a structure, it must be assigned to a
structure of identical type in the calling function.
5. The called function must be declared in the calling function for its
type, if it is placed after the calling function.
Example:
Program: STRUCTURE AS FUNCTION PARAMETERS
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct stores
{
char name[20];
float price;
int quantity;
};
struct stores update(struct stores,float,int);
float mul(struct stores);
void main()
{
float p_increment, value;
int q_increment;
static struct stores item={“XYZ”,25.75,12};
clrscr();
printf(“\nInput increment values:”) ;
printf(“price increment and quantity increment\n”);
scanf(“%f%d”,&p_increment,&q_increment);
item = update(item,p_increment,q_increment);
printf(“\nUpdate values of item”);
printf(“\n\nName:%s”,item.name);
printf(“\nPrice:%.2f”,item.price);
printf(“\nQuantity:%d”,item.quantity);
value = mul(item);
printf(“\nValue of the item=%.2f”,value);
getch();
}
struct stores update(struct stores product, float p, int q)
{
product.price+=p;
product.quantity+=q;
return(product);
}
float mul(struct stores stock)
{
return stock.price*stock.quantity;
}
7.8 UNIONS
Unions are a concept borrowed from structures and therefore follow
the same syntax as structures. However, there is major distinction
between them in terms of storage. In structures, each member has its
own storage location, whereas all the members of a union use the
same location. This implies that, although a union may contain many
members of different types, it can handle only one member at a time.
Like structures, a union can be declared using the keyword union as
follows:
union item
{
int m;
float x;
char c;
}code;
7.9 SIZE OF STRUCTURES

We normally use structures, unions, and arrays to create variables of
large sizes. The actual size of these variables in terms of bytes may
change from machine to machine. We may use the unary operator
sizeof to tell us the size of a structure (or any variable). The
expression
sizeof(struct x)
will evaluate the number of bytes required to hold all the members of
the structure x. If y is a simple structure variable of type struct x,
then the expression
sizeof(y)
would also give the same answer.
-x-
8. Pointers
8.1 INTRODUCTION Pointers are another important feature of C
language. They are a powerful tool and handy to use once they are
mastered. There are a number of reasons for using pointers.
1. A pointer enables us to access a variable that is defined outside
the function.
2. Pointers are more efficient in handling the data tables.
3. Pointers reduce the length and complexity of a program.
4. They increase the execution speed.
5. The use of a pointer array to character strings results in saving
of data storage space in memory.
8.2 ACCESSING THE ADDRESS OF A VARIABLE
The actual location of a variable in the memory is system dependent
and therefore, the address of a variable is not known to us
immediately. We can determine the address of the variable with the
help of the operator & in C. We have already seen the use of this
address operator in the scanf function. The operator & immediately
preceding a variable returns the address of the variable associated
with it. For example,
p = &quantity;
would assign the address to the variable p. The & operator can be
remembered as „address of‟.
Example: Accessing Addresses of variables
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char a;
int x;
float p, q;
clrscr();
a = „A‟;
x = 125;
p = 10.25, q = 18.76;
printf(“%c is stored at address %u”, a, &a);
printf(“\n%d is stored at address %u”, x, &x);
printf(“\n%f is stored at address %u”, p, &p);
printf(“\n%f is stored at address %u”, q, &q);
getch();
}
8.3 DECLARING AND INITIALIZING POINTERS

In C, every variable must be declared for its type. Since pointer
variables contain addresses that belong to a separate data type, they
must be declared as pointers before we use them. The declaration of
a pointer variable takes the following form:
datatype *pt _name;
This tells the compiler three things about the variable pt_name.
1. The asterisk (*) tells the variable pt_name is a pointer variable.
2. pt_name needs a memory location.
3. pt_name points to a variable of type datatype.
For example,
int *p;
declares the variable p as a pointer variable that points to an integer
data type. Remember that the type int refers to the data type of the
variable being pointed to by p and not the type of the value of the
pointer. Similarly, the statement
float *x;
declares x as a pointer to a floating point variable.
Once a pointer variable has been declared, it can be made to point to a
variable using an assignment statement such as
p = &quantity;
which causes p to point to quantity. That is, p now contains the
address of quantity. This is known as pointer initialization. Before a
pointer is initialized, it should not be used.
A pointer variable can be initialized in its declaration itself. For
example,
int x, *p=&x;
is perfectly valid. It declares x as an integer variable and p as a
pointer variable and then initializes p to the address of x. Note
carefully that this is an initialization of p, not *p. And also remember
that the target variable x is declared first. The statement
int *p=&x, x;
is not valid.
8.4 ACCESSING A VARIABLE THROUGH ITS POINTER
Once a pointer has been assigned the address of a variable, the
question remains as to how to access the value of the variable using
the pointer. This is done by using another unary operator * (asterisk),
usually known as the indirection operator. Consider the following
statements:
int quantity, *p, n;
quantity = 179;
p = &quantity;
n = *p;
The first line declares quantity and n as integer variables and p as a
pointer variable pointing to an integer. The second line assigns the
value 179 to quantity and the third line assigns the address of
quantity to the pointer variable p. The fourth line contains the
indirection operator *. When the operator * is placed before a pointer
variable in an expression, the pointer returns the value of the variable
of which the pointer value is the address. In this case, *p returns the
value of the variable quantity, because p is the address of quantity.
The * can be remembered as „value of address‟. Thus the value of n
would be 179.
Example: Program to illustrate the use of indirection operator
„*‟
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int x, y;
int *ptr;
clrscr();
x = 10;
ptr = &x;
y = *ptr;
printf(“Value of x is %d”,x);
printf(“\n%d is stored at address %u”, x, &x);
printf(“\n%d is stored at address %u”, *&x , &x);
printf(“\n%d is stored at address %u”, *ptr, ptr);
printf(“\n%d is stored at address %u”, y, &*ptr);
printf(“\n%d is stored at address %u”, ptr, &ptr);
printf(“\n%d is stored at address %u”, y, &y);
getch();
}
Example: Arithmetic operations on Pointers

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a, b, *p1, *p2;
clrscr();
a = 4;
b = 2;
p1 = &a;
p2 = &b;
printf(“\n Sum = %d”,*p1 + *p2);
printf(“\n Sub = %d”,*p1 - *p2);
printf(“\n Mul = %d”,*p1 * *p2);
printf(“\n Div = %d”,*p1 / *p2);
printf(“\n Rem = %d”,*p1 % *p2);
getch();
}
8.5 POINTERS AND ARRAYS

When an array is declared, the compiler allocates a base address and
sufficient amount of storage to contain all the elements of the array in
contiguous memory locations. The base address is the location of the
first element (index 0) of the array. The compiler also defines the
array name as a constant pointer to the first element.
If we declare p as an integer pointer, then we can make the pointer p
to point to the array x by the following assignment:
p = x;
This is equivalent to
p = &x[0];
When handling arrays, instead of using array indexing, we can use
pointers to access array elements. Note that *(p+3) gives the value
of x[3]. The pointer accessing method is much faster than array
indexing.
Example: Pointers in one-dimensional array
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int *p, sum=0,i;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter 5 elements:”);
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
scanf(“%d”,*(p+i));
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
sum = sum + *p;
printf(“\nThe sum is:%d”,sum);
getch();
}
Pointers can be used to manipulate two-dimensional arrays as well.

We know that in a one-dimensional array x, the expression
*(x + i) or *( p + i)
represents the element x[i]. Similarly, an element in a two-
dimensional array can be represented by the pointer expression as
follows:
*(*(a+i)+j) or *(*(p+i)+j)
8.6 DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION
C language requires the number of elements in an array to be
specified at compile time. But we may not be able to do so always.
Our initial judgment of size, if it is wrong, may cause failure of the
program or wastage of memory space.
Many languages permit a programmer to specify an array‟s size
at run time. The process of allocating memory at run time is known
as dynamic memory allocation. In C language there are four
library routines known as “memory management functions” that
can be used for allocating and freeing memory during program
execution.
Memory Allocation Functions
Function Task
malloc Allocates requested size of bytes and returns a pointer to the
first byte
of the allocated space.
calloc Allocates space for an array of elements, initializes them to
zero and then
returns a pointer to the memory.
Free Frees previously allocated space.
realloc Modifies the size of previously allocated space.
Allocating a Block of Memory
A block of memory may be allocated using the function malloc.
The malloc function reserves a block of memory of specified size and
returns a pointer of type void. This means that we can assign it to
any type of pointer. It takes the following form:
ptr = (datatype *)malloc(byte-size);
ptr is a pointer of type datatype. The malloc returns a pointer (of
datatype) to an area of memory with size byte-size.
Example:
x = (int *) malloc (sizeof(int) * n);
Note: In above example n is always a numeric.
Example: Use of malloc Function
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int *p, n, i;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d”,&n);
p = (int) malloc(sizeof(int)*n);
printf(“\nEnter %d numbers:”,n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf(“%d”,*(p+i));
printf(“\nThe numbers are:”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
printf(“\n%d”,*(p+i));
getch();
}
Allocating Multiple Blocks of Memory
calloc is another memory allocation function that is normally used for
requesting memory space at run time for storing derived data types
such as arrays and structures. While malloc allocates a single block
of storage space, calloc allocates multiple blocks of storage, each of
the same size, and then sets all bytes to zero. The general form of
calloc is:
ptr = (datatype *) calloc (n,elem-size);
The above statement allocates contiguous space for n blocks, each of
size elem-size bytes. All bytes are initialized to zero and a pointer to
the first byte of the allocated region is returned. If there is not
enough space, a NULL pointer is returned.
Releasing the Used Space
Compile-time storage of a variable is allocated and released by the
system in accordance with its storage class. With the dynamic run-
time allocation, it is our responsibility to release the space when it is
not required. The release of storage space becomes important when
the storage is limited. We may release that block of memory for
future use, using the free function:
free(ptr);
ptr is a pointer to a memory block which has already been created by
malloc or calloc.
Altering the Size of a Block
It is likely that we discover later, the previously allocated memory is
not sufficient and we need additional space for more elements. It is
also possible that the memory allocated is much larger than necessary
and we want to reduce it. In both the cases, we can change the
memory size already allocated with the help of the function realloc.
This process is called the reallocation of memory. For example, if the
original allocation is done by the statement
ptr = malloc(size);
then reallocation of space may be done by the statement
ptr = realloc(ptr, newsize);
8.7 POINTERS AND CHARACTER STRINGS

We know that a string is an array of characters, terminated with a null
character. Like in one-dimensional arrays, we can use a pointer to
access the individual characters in a string.
Example: Pointers and Character Strings
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char *str;
int i=0;
clrscr();
gets(str);
while(*str!=‟\0‟)
{
i++;
str++;
}
printf(“\nThe length is:%d”,i);
getch();
}
8.8 POINTERS AND FUNCTIONS

In functions we can pass the duplicate values for the actual
parameters, but we can pass the address of a variable as an argument
to a function in the normal fashion. When we pass addresses to a
function, the parameters receiving the addresses should be pointers.
The process of calling a function using pointers to pass the addresses
of variable is known as call by address.
Example: Pointers as function Parameters
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d %d”,&a,&b);
printf(“\nBefore exchange: a=%d, b=%d”,a, b);
swap(&a,&b);
printf(“\nAfter exchange: a=%d, b=%d”,a, b);
getch();
}
void swap(int *x, int *y)
{
int z;
z = *x;
*x = *y;
*y = z;
}
8.9 POINTERS AND STRUCTURES

We know that the name of an array stands for the address of its zeroth
element. The same thing is true of the names of arrays of structure
variables. Suppose product is an array variable of struct type. The
name product represents the address of its zeroth element. Consider
the following declaration:
struct inventory
{
char name[30];
int number;
}product[3], *ptr;
Example: Pointers to Structure variables
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct invent
{
char name[20] ;
int number;
}product[3], *ptr;
void main()
{
clrscr();
printf(“INPUT\n\n”);
printf(“Enter name and number(3 records):”);
for(ptr = product;ptr<product+3;ptr++)
scanf(“%s %d”,ptr->name,&ptr->number);
printf(“\n\nOUTPUT”);
for(ptr = product;ptr<product+3;ptr++)
printf(“\n%s\t%d”,ptr->name,ptr->number);
getch();
}
8.10 DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION
We may also use malloc to allocate space for complex data
types such as structures. Example:
st_var = (struct store *)malloc(sizeof(struct store));
where st_var is a pointer of type struct store.
9. File Management in C
9.1 INTRODUCTION
A file is a place on the disk where a group of related data is stored.
Like most other languages, C supports a number of functions that
have the ability to perform basic file operations, which include:
Naming a file,
Opening a file,
Reading data from a file,
Writing data to a file, and
Closing a file.
High level I/O functions
Function Name Operation
fopen() Creates a new file for use
Opens an existing file for use.
fclose() Closes a file which has been opened for use.
Getc() Reads a character from a file.
putc() Writes a character to a file.
fprintf() Writes a set of data values to a file.
fscanf() Reads a set of data values from a file.
getw() Reads an integer from a file.
putw() Writes an integer to file.
fseek() Sets the position to a desired point in the file
Ftell() Gives the current position in the file
rewind() Sets the position to the beginning of the file.
9.2 DEFINING AND OPENING A FILE

If we want to store data in a file in the secondary memory, we must
specify certain things about the file, to the operating system. They
include:
1. Filename.
2. Data Structure.
3. Purpose.
Following is the general format for declaring and opening a file:
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen(“filename”, “mode”);
The first statement declares the variable fp as a “pointer to the data

type FILE”. As stated earlier, FILE is a structure that is defined in the
I/O library. The second statement opens the file named filename and
assigns as identifier to the FILE the pointer fp. This pointer which
contains all the information about the file is subsequently used as a
communication link between the system and the program.
The second statement also specifies the purpose of opening this
file. The mode does this job. Mode can be one of the following:
r open the file for reading only.
w open the file for writing only.
a open the file for appending (or adding) data to it.
Note that both the filename and mode are specified as strings. They
should be enclosed in double quotation marks.
When trying to open a file, one of the following things may
happen:
1. When the mode is „writing‟ a file with the specified name is
created if the file does not exist. The contents are deleted, if the
file already exists.
2. When the purpose is „appending‟, the file is opened with the
current contents safe. A file with the specified name is created if
the file does not exist.
3. If the purpose is „reading‟, and if it exists, then the file is opened
with the current contents safe; otherwise an error occurs.
Consider the following statements:
FILE *p1, *p2;
p1 = fopen(“data”,”r”);
p2 = fopen(“results”,”w”);
Many recent compilers include additional modes of operation.
They include:
r+ The existing file is opened to the beginning for both reading
and writing.
w+ Same as w except both for reading and writing
a+ Same as a except both for reading and writing.
We can open and use a number of files at a time. This number
however depends on the system we use.
9.3 CLOSING A FILE
A file must be closed as soon as all operations on it have been
completed. The general form is:
fclose(file_pointer);
9.4 INPUT/OUTPUT OPERATIONS ON FILES

Once a file is opened, reading out of or writing to it is accomplished
using the standard I/O routines that are listed.
The getc and putc Functions
The simplest file I/O functions are getc and putc. These are
analogous to getchar and putchar functions and handle one
character at a time. Assume that a file is opened with mode w and file
pointer fp1. Then, the statement
putc(c, fp1);
writes the character contained in the character variable c to the file
associated with FILE pointer fp1. Similarly, getc is used to read a
character from a file that has been opened in read mode. For
example, the statement
c = getc(fp2);
would read a character from the file whose file pointer is fp2.
The file pointer moves by one character position for every
operation of getc or putc. The getc will return an end-of-file marker
EOF, when end of the file has been reached. Therefore, the reading
should be terminated when EOF is encountered.
Example: Writing to and Reading from a File
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *f1;
char c;
clrscr();
printf(“Data Input\n\n”);
f1 = fopen(“INPUT”, “w”);
while((c=getchar()!=EOF)
putc(c,f1);
fclose(f1);
printf(“\nData Output\n\n”);
f1 = fopen(“INPUT”,”r”);
while((c=getc(f1))!=EOF)
printf(“%c”,c);
fclose(f1);
getch();
}
9.5 The fprintf and fscanf Functions

So far, we have seen functions which can handle only one character or
integer at a time. Most compilers support two other functions, namely
fprintf and fscanf, that can handle a group of mixed data
simultaneously.
The functions fprintf and fscanf perform I/O operations that are
identical to the familiar printf and scanf functions, except of course
that they work on files. The first argument of these functions is a file
pointer which specifies the file to be used. The general form of fprintf
is
fprintf(fp, “control string”, list);
where fp is a file pointer associated with a file that has been opened
for writing. The control string contains output specifications for the
items in the list. The list may include variables, constants and strings.
Example:
fprintf(f1, “%s %d %f”,name,age,7.5);
Here, name is an array variable of type char and age is int variable.
The general format of fscanf is
fscanf(fp, “control string”, list);
This statement would cause the reading of the items in the list from
the file specified by fp, according to the specifications contained in the
control string. Example:
fscanf(f2, “%s %d”, item, &quantity);
Like scanf, fscanf also returns the number of items that are
successfully read. When the end of file is reached, it returns the value
of EOF.
Example: Handling of files with mixed Data Types
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
int number, quantity, i;
float price, value;
char item[10], filename[10];
clrscr();
printf(“Input file name\n”);
scanf(“%s”,filename);
fp = fopen(filename, “w”);
printf(“Input inventory data\n\n”);
printf(“Enter Item name, Number, price and quantity (3 records):\n”);
for(i=1;i<=3;i++)
{
fscanf(stdin, “%s %d %f %d”,item, &number, &price, &quantity);
fprintf(fp, “%s %d %.2f %d”, item, number, price, quantity);
}
fclose(fp);
fprintf(stdout, “\n\n”);
fp = fopen(filename, “r”);
printf(“Item name Number price quantity value\n”);
for(i=1;i<=3;i++)
{
fscanf(fp, “%s %d %f %d”,item, &number, &price, &quantity);
value = price * quantity;
fprintf(stdout, “%-8s %7d %8.2f %8d %11.2f\n”,item, number, price,
quantity, value);
}
fclose(fp);
getch();
}
9.6 COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS

What is a command line argument? It is a parameter supplied to a
program when the program is invoked. This parameter may represent
a filename the program should process. For example, if we want to
execute a program to copy the contents of a file named X_FILE to
another one named Y_FILE, then we may use a command line like
C:\TC>PROGRAM X_FILE Y_FILE
PROGRAM is the filename where the executable code of the program
is stored. This eliminates the need for the program to request the
user to enter the filenames during execution. How do these
parameters get into the program?
We know that every C program should have one main function
and that it marks the beginning of the program. But what we have not
mentioned so far is that it can also take arguments like other
functions. In fact main can take two arguments called argc and argv
and the information contained in the command line is passed on to the
program through these arguments, when main is called up by the
system.
The variable argc is an argument counter that counts the
number of arguments on the command line. The argv is an argument
vector and represents an array of character pointers that point to the
command line arguments. The size of this array will be equal to the
value of argc. For instance, for the command line given above, argc
is three and argv is array of three pointers to strings as shown below:
argv[0] PROGRAM
argv[1] X_FILE
argv[2] Y_FILE
In order to access the command line arguments, we must
declare the main function and its parameters as follows:
main(argc,argv);
int argc;
char *argv[];
The first parameter in the command line is always the program
name and therefore argv[0] always represents the program name.
Example: Command line Arguments
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(argc,argv)
int argc;
char *argv[];
{
FILE *fp;
int i;
char word[15];
clrscr();
fp = fopen(argv[1],"w");
printf("\nNo.of arguments in Command line=%d\n\n",argc);
for(i=2;i<argc;i++)
fprintf(fp,"%s",argv[i]);
fclose(fp);
printf("Contents of %s file\n\n",argv[1]);
fp=fopen(argv[1],"r");
for(i=2;i<argc;i++)
{
fscanf(fp,"%s",word);
printf("%s",word);
}
fclose(fp);
printf("\n\n");
for(i=0;i<argc;i++)
printf("%*s\n",i*5,argv[i]);
getch();
}

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Programming in ‘C ’

PRO GRAM DE VEL O PME NT TOOL S

Algorithm is a method of representing the step-by-step

(i) Fitness: An algorithm must terminate in a finite number of

Example: Suppose we want to find the average of three numbers

Step 1. Read the numbers a, b, c

Formally, an algorithm can be defined as an ordered sequence

Flowchart is diagrammatic representation of an algorithm.

Important Points in drawing flowcharts

Example: Find out the average of n numbers.

ALGOL  Algorithmic Language

1.4 Where C Stands

(b) Machine oriented languages or Low-level languages: These

Character/Symbol Meaning Character/Symbol Meaning

Note that all these keywords are in lowercase.

1.9 Data types

There are some other datatypes in C that can be derived from

Basic data types Derived data types

char integer float double void array

1.10 Constants and Variables

Primary constants Secondary

Numeric Character Logical Array Structure

integer float Single char String

C has five types of primary constants. They are integer, float,

1.12 Operators & Expressions

Statement Equivalent Statement

Operator Description Associativity Rank

/* A simple program for printing a message */

1.14 Execution of C Program

1.15 Different types of files in C

Program Code Enter Program

Edit Source Program

System Library Link with System

Input Data Execute Object

Prog.7: To calculate all arithmetic operations.

2.2 The if statement

quantity Relation operatorquantity

2.3 The if-else Statement

2.4 Nested if-else Statements

2.5 The Switch Statement – Selecting One Of Many

Conditional Operators (?:)

Prog.22: To find the biggest number in two variables

/* Biggest number in two variables */

Prog.23: To check the enter number is single digit or not

Prog.24: To check the number is whether even or odd

Prog.26: Find the highest number in three variables.

/* Biggest number in 3 variables */

Prog.31: Find the highest number in three variables.

If-else if-else statement

/* Small, Capital, Digit or Special Symbol */

The exit( ) Function

/* Arithmetic operations depends on arithmetic operator */

3.2 The For Loop

3.5 The do-while loop

Prog.50: To print 1 to 10 even numbers.

Prog.53: To calculate sum of even numbers below 10.

Prog.62: To calculate factorial of any number

Prog.64: To print Fibonacci series (1,1,2,3,5,8,13,…………)

Nested For Loop

Prog.65: To print the following format