Data and Computer

Communications
Protocol Architecture, TCP/IP, and
Internet-Based Applications

Lecture slides by Sohail A. Jabbars

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Protocol Architecture, TCP/IP, and
Internet-Based Applications

„ To destroy communication completely, there must

be no rules in common between transmitter and
receiver—neither of alphabet nor of syntax —On
Human Communication, Colin Cherry

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Basic Concepts
„ For Successful communication, two
systems must follow a common set of
rules for generating and interpreting
messages.
„ The set of rules to be followed is very
complex
„ Layered approach provides a viable
approach to deal the complex problem
„ The communications functions are
partitioned into a hierarchical set of layers
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Layered Approach
„ A complex problem is divided into a number
of pieces of manageable and
comprehensible size
„ It provides structured modular approach
„ Each module can be developed and tested
independently
„ Allows easy enhancement and
implementation of the functions of a
particular layer without affecting other
layers.
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Some basic Principles followed in
Layering
„ Use of optimum number of layers
„ Put similar functions in the same layer
„ Create a layer where there is need for different
levels of abstraction
„ Allow changes of functions to be made within a layer
without affecting others
„ Create layers boundaries for each layer with its
upper and lower
„ Choose layer boundaries to minimize information
flow across the boundaries
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Layers and Interfaces
„ System interconnection rules are
modularized in terms of a series of layers
of functions, say N layers
„ Each layer contains a group of related
functions
„ A layer below layer n and a layer above
layer n are layer(n-1) and layer(n+1) ,
respectively
„ Between each pair of adjacent layers there
is an interface
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Æ
„ The boundaries between adjacent layers in the
same system are called Interfaces.
„ To request or receive indications of a service,
peer entities exchange messages called
Service Primitives.
„ The services between adjacent layers in the OSI
architecture are expressed in terms of Primitives
and Parameters.
„ A Primitive specifies the function to be
performed and the Parameters are used to pass
data and control information.

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Æ
„ A service provider delivers services to a
service user at an interface called a Service
Access Point (SAP).
„ A SAP is the point at which an entity provides
a service to a user entity in the layer above
„ Interface defines which primitive services the
lower layer offers the upper layer
‰ Layer n provides services to the Layer(n+1)
through services access points
‰ Each layer adds value to the services provided by
lower layers

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 Service User, Service Provider, and SAP Interaction

SAPs at Different OSI Layers

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Entity and Protocols
„ Data Communication occurs between
two entities in different systems
„ Entity is something which capable of
sending, processing and receiving
information
‰ For communication to take place the
entities should follow an agreed upon
protocol

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Æ
„ A Protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communication
„ The Key features of protocols are (It defines
– What, How and When):
1. Syntax: Refers to the structure or format of
data
2. Semantics: The way the bit pattern are
interpreted and actions taken based on the
interpretation
3. Timing: Specifies when data can be sent and
how fast it can be sent

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For Example:
„ When computers, terminals, and/or other data
processing devices exchange data, the procedures
involved can be quite complex. eg. file transfer.
There must be a data path between the two
computers. But also need:
‰ Source to activate communications Path or inform
network of destination
‰ Source must check destination is prepared to receive
‰ File transfer application on source must check
destination file management system will accept and
store file for his user
‰ May need file format translation
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Æ
„ Instead of implementing the complex logic for
this as a single module, the task is broken up into
subtasks, implemented separately.
„ In a protocol architecture, the modules are
arranged in a vertical stack, each layer in the stack
performs a related subset of the functions.
„ It relies on the next lower layer to perform more
primitive functions. It provides services to the
next higher layer.
„ The peer layers communicate using a set of rules
or conventions known as a Protocol.

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Simplified Network Architecture
„ In general terms, communications can be said to
involve three agents:
‰ Applications (eg. file transfer)
‰ Computers (eg. PCs & servers) and
‰ Networks.
„ These applications, and others, execute on computers that can
often support multiple simultaneous applications. Computers
are connected to networks, and the data to be exchanged are
transferred by the network from one computer to another.
‰ Thus, data transfer involves first getting the data to the
computer in which the application resides and then
getting the data to the intended application within the
computer.

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Æ Can think of partitioning these tasks
into 3 layers as shown.

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Æ
„ The File Transfer Module contains all of the logic
that is unique to the file transfer application, such as
transmitting passwords, file commands, and file
records.
„ The Communication Service Module is concerned
with assuring that the two computer systems are
active and ready for data transfer and for keeping
track of the data that are being exchanged to assure
delivery.
„ The logic for dealing with the network is placed in a
separate Network Access Module. If the network
to be used is changed, only the network access
module is affected.
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Protocol Architecture

„ Instead of a single module for performing

communications, there is a structured set of
modules that implements the communication
function.
‰ That structure is referred to as a Protocol
Architecture.

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Protocol Architecture and Networks

„ Figure 2.2

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Protocols in Simplified Architecture

„ Figure 2.3

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Æ Application Layer

„ Application Layer contains the logic needed

to support the various user applications.
„ For each different type of application, such as
file transfer, a separate module is needed
that is peculiar to that application.
„ The sending application generates a block of
data and passes this to the transport layer

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Æ Transport Layer
„ The transport layer may break this block into two
smaller pieces to make it more manageable.
„ To each of these pieces the transport layer appends
a transport header, containing protocols control
information.
„ The combination of data from the layer and the
control information is known a a Protocol Data Unit
(PDU). In transport layer case, it is referred to as a
Transport PDU (TPDU).
„ The header in each transport PDU contains control
information to be used by the peer transport protocol
at computer B.
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Æ
„ Examples of items that may be stored in
header at transport layer level, include the
followings:
‰ Destination SAP: When the destination transport
layer receives the transport PDU, it must know to
who the data are to be delivered.
‰ Sequence number: The transport protocol is
sending a sequence of PDUs, it numbers them
sequentially so that if they arrive out of order, the
destination transport entity may reorder them.

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Æ
‰ Error-detection code: The sending transport
entity may include a code that is a function of the
contents of the remainder of the PDU. The
receiver transport protocol performs the same
calculations and compared the result with the
incoming code. A discrepancy result if there has
been some error in transmission.
„ The next step for the transport layer to hand
each PDU over to the network layer, with
instructions to transmit it to the destination
computer.

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Æ Network Access Layer
„ Network access protocol appends a network
access header to the data it receives from the
transport layer, creating a network access
PDU (NPDU).
„ Examples of the items that may be stored in
the header include the following:
‰ Destination Computer address: the network
must know to who the data are to be delivered.
‰ Facilities requests: such as priority

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Operation of Protocol Architecture

„ Figure 2.5

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TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
„ The TCP/IP protocol architecture is the result of
a protocol research and development
conducted on the experimental packet
switched Network.
„ ARPANET funded by the US Defense
Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA)
„ Generally referred to as the TCP/IP protocol
Suite.
„ Protocol suite comprises a large collection of
protocols that has been issued as internet
standard by the Internet Architecture Board
(IAB)
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TCP/IP Layers
„ The TCP/IP model organized the
communication task into five relatively
independent layers
„ No official model but a working one
‰ Application layer
‰ Host-to-host, or transport layer
‰ Internet layer
‰ Network access layer
‰ Physical layer

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Physical Layer
„ The physical layer covers the physical
interface between a data transmission device
(e.g., workstation, computer) and a
transmission medium or network.
„ This layer is concerned with specifying the
characteristics of
‰ transmission medium
‰ signal levels
‰ data rates
‰ other related matters
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Network Access Layer
„ Exchange of data between an end system
and attached network
„ concerned with issues like :
‰ destination address provision
‰ invoking specific services like priority
„ The specific software used at this layer depends
on the type of network to be used; different
standards have been developed for circuit
switching, packet switching (e.g., frame relay),
LANs (e.g., Ethernet), and others.

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Internet Layer (IP)

„ Routing functions across multiple networks

„ For systems attached to different networks
„ Using IP protocol
„ Implemented in end systems and routers
‰ A router is a processor that connects two
networks and whose primary function is to relay
data between them.

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Transport Layer (TCP)

„ Common layer shared by all applications

„ Provides reliable delivery of data
„ In same order as sent
„ Commonly uses TCP

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Application Layer

„ The application layer contains the logic

needed to support the various user
applications.
„ For each different type of application, such as
file transfer, a separate module is needed
that is peculiar to that application

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Operation of TCP and IP

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Addressing Requirements

„ Two levels of addressing required

„ Each host on a subnet needs a unique global
network address
‰ Its IP address
„ Each application on a (multi-tasking) host
needs a unique address within the host
‰ Known as a port/SAP

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Operation of TCP/IP

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Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

„ Usual transport layer is (TCP)

„ Provides a reliable connection for transfer of data
between applications
„ A TCP segment is the basic protocol unit
„ TCP tracks segments between entities for duration
of each connection

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TCP Header

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User Datagram Protocol
(UDP)
„ An alternative to TCP
„ No guaranteed delivery
„ No preservation of sequence
„ No protection against duplication
„ Minimum overhead
„ Adds port addressing to IP

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UDP Header

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IP Header

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IPv6 Header

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TCP/IP Applications

„ have a number of standard TCP/IP

applications such as
‰ Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
‰ File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
‰ Telnet

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Some TCP/IP Protocols

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OSI

„ Open Systems Interconnection

„ developed by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO)
„ has seven layers
„ is a theoretical system delivered too late!
„ TCP/IP is the de facto standard

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OSI Layers

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OSI v TCP/IP

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Standardized Protocol Architectures

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 Service Primitives and Parameters

„ Define services
between adjacent
layers using:
‰ Primitives to specify
function performed
‰ Parameters to pass data
and control info

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Primitive Types
REQUEST A primitive issued by a service user to invoke some
service and to pass the parameters needed to specify
fully the requested service
INDICATION A primitive issued by a service provider either to:
indicate that a procedure has been invoked by the peer
service user on the connection and to provide the
associated parameters, or
notify the service user of a provider-initiated action
RESPONSE A primitive issued by a service user to acknowledge or
complete some procedure previously invoked by an
indication to that user
CONFIRM A primitive issued by a service provider to acknowledge
or complete some procedure previously invoked by a
request by the service user

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Traditional vs. Multimedia
Applications
„ traditionally Internet dominated by info
retrieval applications
‰ typically using text and image transfer
‰ eg. email, file transfer, web
„ see increasing growth in multimedia
applications
‰ involving massive amounts of data
‰ such as streaming audio and video

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Elastic and Inelastic Traffic

„ elastic traffic
‰ can adjust to delay & throughput changes over a
wide range
‰ eg. traditional “data” style TCP/IP traffic
‰ some applications more sensitive though
„ inelastic traffic
‰ does not adapt to such changes
‰ eg. “real-time” voice & video traffic
‰ need minimum requirements on net arch

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Summary

„ introduced need for protocol architecture

„ TCP/IP protocol architecture
„ OSI Model & protocol architecture
standardization
„ traditional vs multimedia application needs

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