Fundamentals of Numerical control Prepared by Samuel G.

CHAPTER ONE
1. FUNDAMENTALS OF NUMERICAL CONTROL
1.1 Introduction to Computer Aided Design (CAD)
1.1.1 Product Design

Product design is a critical function in the production system. The quality of the product design is probably
the single most important factor in determining the commercial success and societal value of a product. If
the product design is poor, no matter how well it is manufactured, the product is very likely doomed to
contribute little to the wealth and well-being of the firm that produced it. If the product design is good, there
is still the question of whether the product can be produced at sufficiently low cost to contribute to the
company’s profits and success. One of the facts of life about product design is that a very significant portion
of the cost of the product is determined by its design. Design and manufacturing cannot be separated in the
production system. They are bound together functionally, technologically, and economically.

The Design process

The general process of design is characterized as an iterative process consisting of six phases: (1)
recognition of need, (2) problem definition, (3) synthesis, (4) analysis and optimization, (5) evaluation, and
(6) presentation. These six steps, and the iterative nature of the sequence in which they performed, are
depicted in Figure 23.2(a). Recognition of need (1) involves the realization by someone that a problem
exists which could be solved by a thoughtful design. This recognition might mean identifying some
deficiency in a current machine design by an engineer or perceiving some new product opportunity by a
salesperson. Problem definition (2) involves a thorough specification of the item to be designed. This
specification includes the physical characteristics, function, cost, quality, and operating performance.

Synthesis (3) and analysis (4) are closely related and highly interactive. Consider the development of a
certain product design: Each of the subsystems of the product must be conceptualized by the designer,
analyzed, improved through this analysis procedure, redesigned, analyzed again, and so on. The process is
repeated until the design has been optimized within the constraints imposed on the designer. The individual
components are then synthesized and analyzed into the final product in a similar manner.

Evaluation (5) is concerned with measuring the design against the specifications established in the problem
definition phase. This evaluation often requires the fabrication and testing of a prototype model to assess
operating performance, quality, reliability, and other criteria. The final phase in the design procedure is the
presentation of the design. Presentation (6) is concerned with documenting the design by means of
drawings, material specifications, assembly lists, and so on. In essence, documentation means that the
design database is created.

1.1.2 Computer-aided Design (CAD)

Computer-aided design (CAD) is defined as any design activity that involves the effective use of computer
systems to create, modify, analyze, optimize, and document an engineering design. CAD is most commonly
associated with the use of an interactive computer graphics system, referred to as a CAD system.

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Geometric modeling

Geometric modeling involves the use of a CAD system to develop a mathematical description of the
geometry of an object. The mathematical description, called a geometric model, is contained in computer
memory. This permits the user of the CAD system to display an image of the model on a graphics terminal
and to perform certain operations on the model. These operations include creating new geometric models
from basic building blocks available in the system, moving and reorienting the images on the screen,
zooming in on certain features of the image, and so forth. These capabilities permit the designer to construct
a model of a new product (or its components) or to modify an existing model. There are various types of
geometric models used in CAD. One classification distinguishes between two-dimensional (2-D) and three-
dimensional (3-D) models. Two dimensional models are best utilized for designing flat objects and building
layouts. In the first CAD systems developed in the 1970s, 2-D systems were used principally as automated
drafting systems. They were often used for 3-D objects, and it was left to the designers to properly construct
the various views as they would have done in manual drafting. Three-dimensional CAD systems are capable
of modeling an object in three dimensions according to user instructions. This is helpful in conceptualizing
the object since the true 3-D model can be displayed in various views and from different angles. Geometric
models in CAD can also be classified as wire-frame models or solid models. A wire-frame model uses
interconnecting lines (straight line segments) to depict the object as illustrated in Figure 23.3(a). Wire-
frame models of complicated geometries can become somewhat confusing because all of the lines depicting
the shape of the object are usually shown, even the lines representing the other side of the object. These so-
called hidden lines can be removed, but even with this improvement, wire-frame representation is still often

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confusing. It is rarely used today. In solid modeling, Figure 23.3(b), an object is modeled in solid three
dimensions, providing the user with a vision of the object that is similar to the way it would be seen in real
life. More important for engineering purposes, the geometric model is stored in the CAD system as a 3-D
solid model, providing a more accurate representation of the object. This is useful for calculating mass
properties, in assembly to perform interference checking between mating components, and in other
engineering calculations. Two other features in CAD system models are color and animation. The value of
color is largely to enhance the ability of the user to visualize the object on the graphics screen. For example,
the various components of an assembly can be displayed in different colors, permitting the parts to be more
readily distinguished. And animation capability permits the operation of mechanisms and other moving
objects to be displayed on the graphics monitor.

Engineering analysis

After a particular design alternative has been developed, some form of engineering analysis must often be
performed as part of the design process. The analysis may take the form of stress–strain calculations, heat
transfer analysis, or dynamic simulation. The computations are often complex and time consuming, and
before the advent of the digital computer, these analyses were usually greatly simplified or even omitted in
the design procedure. The availability of software for engineering analysis on a CAD system greatly
increases the designer’s ability and willingness to perform a more thorough analysis of a proposed design.
The term computer-aided engineering (CAE) applies to engineering analyses performed by computer.
Examples of CAE software in common use on CAD systems include:

 Mass properties analysis. This involves the computation of such features of a solid object as its
volume, surface area, weight, and center of gravity. It is especially applicable in mechanical design.
Prior to CAD, determination of these properties often required painstaking and time-consuming
calculations by the designer.
 Interference checking. This CAD software examines 3-D geometric models consisting of multiple
components to identify interferences between components. It is useful in analyzing mechanical
assemblies, chemical plant piping systems, and similar multicomponent designs.
 Tolerance analysis. Software for analyzing the specified tolerances of a product’s components is
used (1) to assess how the tolerances may affect the product’s function and performance, (2) to
determine how tolerances may influence the ease or difficulty of assembling the product, and (3)
to assess how variations in component dimensions may affect the overall size of the assembly.
 Finite element analysis. Software for finite element analysis (FEA), also known as finite element
modeling (FEM), is available for use on CAD systems to aid in stress–strain, heat transfer, fluid
flow, and other computations. Finite element analysis is a numerical analysis technique for

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determining approximate solutions to physical problems described by differential equations that
are very difficult or impossible to solve. In FEA, the physical object is modeled by an assemblage
of discrete interconnected nodes (finite elements), and the variable of interest (e.g., stress, strain,
temperature) in each node can be described by relatively simple mathematical equations. Solving
the equations for each node provides the distribution of values of the variable throughout the
physical object.
 Kinematic and dynamic analysis. Kinematic analysis studies the operation of mechanical linkages
and analyzes their motions. A typical kinematic analysis specifies the motion of one or more driving
members of the subject linkage, and the resulting motions of the other links are determined by the
analysis package. Dynamic analysis extends kinematic analysis by including the effects of the mass
of each linkage member and the resulting acceleration forces as well as any externally applied
forces.
 Discrete-event simulation. This type of simulation is used to model complex operational systems,
such as a manufacturing cell or a material handling system, as events occur at discrete moments in
time and affect the status and performance of the system. For example, discrete events in the
operation of a manufacturing cell include parts arriving for processing and a machine breakdown
in the cell. Performance measures include the status of any given machine in the cell (idle or busy),
average length of time parts spend in the cell, and overall cell production rate. Current discrete
event simulation software includes animated graphics capability that enhances visualization of the
system’s operation.

Design evaluation and review

Some of the CAD features that are helpful in evaluating and reviewing a proposed design include the
following:

 Automatic dimensioning. These routines determine precise distance measures between surfaces on
the geometric model identified by the user.
 Error checking. This term refers to CAD algorithms that are used to review the accuracy and
consistency of dimensions and tolerances and to assess whether the proper design documentation
format has been followed.
 Animation of discrete-event simulation solutions. Discrete-event simulation was described earlier
in the context of engineering analysis. Displaying the solution of the discrete-event simulation in
animated graphics is a helpful means of presenting and evaluating the solution. Input parameters,
probability distributions, and other factors can be changed to assess their effect on the performance
of the system being modeled.
 Plant layout design scores. A number of software packages are available for facilities design that
is, designing the floor layout and physical arrangement of equipment in a facility. Some of these
packages provide one or more numerical scores for each plant layout design, which allow the user
to assess the merits of the alternative with respect to material flow, closeness ratings, and similar
factors.

The traditional procedure in designing a new product includes fabrication of a prototype before approval
and release for production. The prototype serves as the “acid test” of the design, permitting the designer
and others to see, feel, operate, and test the product for any last-minute changes or enhancements of the
design. The problem with building a prototype is that it is traditionally very time consuming; in some cases,

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months are required to make and assemble all of the parts. Motivated by the need to reduce this lead time
for building the prototype, engineers have developed several new approaches that rely on the use of the
geometric model of the product residing in the CAD data file. Two of these approaches are rapid prototyping
and virtual prototyping.

 Rapid prototyping (RP) is a family of fabrication technologies that allow engineering prototypes
of solid parts to be made in minimum lead time; the common feature of these technologies is that
they produce the part directly from the CAD geometric model. This is usually done by dividing the
solid object into a series of layers of small thickness and then defining the area shape of each layer.
For example, a vertical cone would be divided into a series of circular layers, the circles becoming
smaller and smaller toward the vertex of the cone. The RP processes then fabricate the object by
starting at the base and building each layer on top of the preceding layer to approximate the solid
shape. The fidelity of the approximation depends on the thickness of each layer. As layer thickness
decreases, accuracy increases. There are a variety of layer-building processes used in rapid
prototyping. One process, called stereolithography, uses a photosensitive liquid polymer that cures
(solidifies) when subjected to intense light. Curing of the polymer is accomplished using a moving
laser beam whose path for each layer is controlled by means of the CAD model. A solid polymer
prototype of the part is built up of hardened layers, one on top of another. Another RP process,
called selective laser sintering, uses a moving laser beam to fuse powders in each layer to form the
object layer by layer; work materials include polymers, metals, and ceramics. When used to
produce parts rather than prototypes, the term additive manufacturing is used for these processing
technologies.
 Virtual prototyping, based on virtual reality technology, involves the use of the CAD geometric
model to construct a digital mock-up of the product, enabling the designer and others to obtain the
sensation of the real product without actually building the physical prototype. Virtual prototyping
has been used in the automotive industry to evaluate new car style designs. The observer of the
virtual prototype is able to assess the appearance of the new design even though no physical model
is on display. Other applications of virtual prototyping include checking the feasibility of assembly
operations, for example, parts mating, access and clearance of parts during assembly, and assembly
sequence.

Automated Drafting

The fourth area where CAD is useful (step 6 in the design process) is presentation and documentation.
CAD systems can be used to prepare highly accurate engineering drawings when paper documents are
required. It is estimated that a CAD system increases productivity in the drafting function by about fivefold
over manual preparation of drawings.

CAD Workstations

The CAD workstation and its available features have an important influence on the convenience,
productivity, and quality of the designer’s output. The workstation includes a graphics display terminal and
one or more user input devices. It is the principal means by which the system communicates with the
designer. Two CAD system configurations are depicted in Figure 23.4: (1) engineering workstation and (2)
PC-based CAD system. The distinction between the two categories is becoming more and more subtle.

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An engineering workstation is a stand-alone computer system that is dedicated to one user and capable of
executing graphics software and other programs requiring high-speed computational power. The graphics
display is a high-resolution monitor with a large screen. As shown in the figure, engineering workstations
are often networked to permit exchange of data files and programs between users and to share plotters and
data storage devices. PC-based CAD systems are the most widely used CAD systems today. They consist
of a personal computer with a high performance CPU and high-resolution graphics display screen. The
computer is equipped with a large random access memory (RAM), math coprocessor, and large-capacity
hard disk for storage of the large applications software packages used for CAD. PC-based CAD systems
can be networked to share files, output devices, and for other purposes. CAD software products are based
on the graphics environment of Microsoft Windows, and CAD software is also available for Apple’s Mac
operating system. Although desktop computers are most widely used, some designers prefer laptop PCs to
accomplish their creative and analytical tasks.

Managing the product Design

The output of the creative design process includes huge amounts of data that must be stored and managed.
These functions are often accomplished in a modern CAD system using product data management. A
product data management (PDM) system consists of computer software that provides links between users
(e.g., designers) and a central database, which stores design data such as geometric models, product
structures (e.g., bills of material), and related records. The software also manages the database by tracking
the identity of users, facilitating and documenting engineering changes, recording a history of the
engineering changes on each part and product, and providing similar documentation functions.

The PDM system is usually considered to be a component of a broader process within a company called
product lifecycle management (PLM), which is concerned with managing the entire life cycle of a product,
starting with the initial concept for it, continuing through its development and design, prototype testing,
manufacturing planning, production operations, customer service, and finally its end-of-life disposal. PLM
is a business process that begins with product design, but its scope is much broader than product design.

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Implementing PLM involves the integration of product and production data, business procedures, and
people. Compared with manual design and drafting methods, computer-aided design and management
systems provide many advantages, including the following:

 Increased design productivity. The use of CAD helps the designer conceptualize the product and
its components, which in turn helps reduce the time required by the designer to synthesize, analyze,
and document the design. The result is a shorter design cycle and lower product development costs.
 Increased available geometric forms in the design. CAD permits the designer to select among a
wider range of shapes, such as mathematically defined contours, blended angles, and similar forms
that would be difficult to create by manual drafting techniques.
 Improved quality of the design. The use of a CAD system permits the designer to do a more
complete engineering analysis and to consider a larger number and variety of design alternatives.
The quality of the resulting design is thereby improved.
 Improved design documentation. The graphical output of a CAD system results in better
documentation of the design than what is practical with manual drafting. The engineering drawings
are superior, with more standardization among the drawings, fewer drafting errors, and greater
legibility. In addition, most CAD packages provide automatic documentation of design changes,
which includes who made the changes, as well as when and why the changes were made.
 Creation of a manufacturing database. In the process of creating the documentation for the product
design (geometric specification of the product, dimensions of the components, materials
specifications, bill of materials, etc.), much of the required database to manufacture the product is
also created.
 Design standardization. Design rules can be included in CAD software to encourage the designer
to utilize company-specified models for certain design features— for example, to limit the number
of different hole sizes used in the design. This simplifies the hole specification procedure for the
designer and reduces the number of drill bit sizes that must be inventoried in manufacturing.

1.2 Introduction to Computer-aided Manufacturing (CAM)

1.2.1 Manufacturing planning

CAM applications for manufacturing planning are those in which the computer is used indirectly to support
the production function, but there is no direct connection between the computer and the process. The
computer is used to provide information for the effective planning and management of production activities.
The following list surveys the important applications of CAM in this category:

 Computer-aided process planning (CAPP). Process planning is concerned with the preparation of
route sheets that list the sequence of operations and work centers required to produce the product
and its components.

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 CAD/CAM NC part programming. For complex part geometries, CAD/CAM part programming
represents a much more efficient method of generating the control instructions for the machine tool
than manual part programming.
 Computerized machinability data systems. One of the problems with operating a metal cutting
machine tool is determining the speeds and feeds that should be used for a given operation.
Computer programs are available to recommend the appropriate cutting conditions for different
materials and operations (e.g., turning, milling, and drilling). The recommendations are based on
data that have been compiled either in the factory or laboratory that relate tool life to cutting
conditions.
 Computerized work standards. The time study department has the responsibility for setting time
standards on direct labor jobs performed in the factory. Establishing standards by direct time study
can be a tedious and time-consuming task. There are several commercially available computer
packages for setting work standards. These computer programs use standard time data that have
been developed for basic work elements that comprise any manual task. The program sums the
times for the individual elements required to perform a new job in order to calculate the standard
time for the job.
 Cost estimating. The task of estimating the cost of a new product has been simplified in most
industries by computerizing several of the key steps required to prepare the estimate. The computer
is programmed to apply the appropriate labor and overhead rates to the sequence of planned
operations for the components of new products. The program then adds up the individual
component costs from the engineering bill of materials to determine the overall product cost.
 Production and inventory planning. The production and inventory planning functions include
maintenance of inventory records, automatic reordering of stock items when inventory is depleted,
production scheduling, maintaining current priorities for the different production orders, material
requirements planning, and capacity planning.
 Computer-aided line balancing. Finding the best allocation of work elements among stations on an
assembly line is a large and difficult problem if the line is of significant size. Computer programs
are available to assist in the solution of the line-balancing problem.

1.2.2 Manufacturing Control

The second category of CAM applications is concerned with computer systems to control and manage the
physical operations in the factory. These applications include the following:

 Process monitoring and control. Process monitoring and control is concerned with observing and
regulating the production equipment and manufacturing processes in the plant. The applications of
computer process control are pervasive in modern automated manufacturing systems, which
include transfer lines, assembly systems, CNC machine tools, robotics, material handling, and
flexible manufacturing systems.
 Quality control. Quality control includes a variety of approaches to ensure the highest possible
quality levels in the manufactured product.
 Shop floor control. Shop floor control refers to production management techniques for collecting
data from factory operations and using the data to help control production and inventory in the
factory.

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 Inventory control. Inventory control is concerned with maintaining the most appropriate levels of
inventory in the face of two opposing objectives: minimizing the investment and storage costs of
holding inventory, and maximizing service to customers.
 Just-in-time production systems. Just in time (JIT) refers to a production system that is organized
to deliver exactly the right number of each component to downstream workstations in the
manufacturing sequence just at the time when that component is needed. JIT is one of the pillars of
lean production. The term applies not only to production operations but also to supplier delivery
operations as well.

1.2.3 CAD/CAM

CAD/CAM denotes the integration of design and manufacturing activities by means of computer systems.
The method of manufacturing a product is a direct function of its design. With conventional procedures
practiced for so many years in industry, engineering drawings were prepared by design draftsmen and later
used by manufacturing engineers to develop the process plan. The activities involved in designing the
product were separated from the activities associated with process planning. Essentially a two-step
procedure was used, which was time-consuming and duplicated the efforts of design and manufacturing
personnel. CAD/CAM establishes a direct link between product design and manufacturing engineering. It
is the goal of CAD/CAM not only to automate certain phases of design and certain phases of manufacturing,
but also to automate the transition from design to manufacturing. In the ideal CAD/CAM system, it is
possible to take the design specification of the product as it resides in the CAD database and convert it
automatically into a process plan for making the product. Much of the processing might be accomplished
on a numerically controlled machine tool. As part of the process plan, the NC part program is generated
automatically by the CAD/CAM system, which downloads the program directly to the machine tool. Hence,
under this arrangement, product design, NC programming, and physical production are all implemented by
computer.

1.3 Introduction to Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

Computer-integrated manufacturing includes all of the engineering functions of CAD/CAM, but it also
includes the firm’s business functions that are related to manufacturing. The ideal CIM system applies
computer and communications technology to all the operational functions and information-processing
functions in manufacturing from order receipt through design and production to product shipment. The
scope of CIM, compared with the more limited scope of CAD/CAM, is depicted in Figure 23.5. Also shown
are the components of CAD, CAM, and the business functions.

The CIM concept is that all of the firm’s operations related to production are incorporated in an integrated
computer system to assist, augment, and automate the operations. The computer system is pervasive
throughout the firm, touching all activities that support manufacturing. In this integrated computer system,
the output of one activity serves as the input to the next activity, through the chain of events that starts with
the sales order and culminates with shipment of the product. Customer orders are initially entered by the
company’s salesforce or directly by the customer into a computerized order entry system. The orders
contain the specifications describing the product. The specifications serve as the input to the product design
department. New products are designed on a CAD system. The components that comprise the product are
designed, the bill of materials is compiled, and assembly drawings are prepared. The output of the design
department serves as the input to manufacturing engineering, where process planning, tool design, and

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similar activities are accomplished to prepare for production. Process planning is performed using CAPP.
Tool and fixture design is done on a CAD system, making use of the product model generated during
product design. The output from manufacturing engineering provides the input to production planning and
control, where material requirements planning and scheduling are performed using the computer system,
and so it goes, through each step in the manufacturing cycle. Full implementation of CIM results in the
automation of the information flow through every aspect of the company’s manufacturing organization.

Enterprise resource planning (ERP) refers to a software system that integrates the data and operations of a
company through a central database. In effect, ERP implements computer-integrated manufacturing. It also
includes all of the business functions of the organization that are not related to manufacturing, such as
accounting, finance, and human resources.

1.4 Fundamentals of NC Technology

Numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable automation in which the mechanical actions of a
machine tool or other equipment are controlled by a program containing coded alphanumeric data. The
alphanumeric data represent relative positions between a work head and a work part as well as other
instructions needed to operate the machine. The work head is a cutting tool or other processing apparatus,
and the work part is the object being processed. When the current job is completed, the program of
instructions can be changed to process a new job. The capability to change the program makes NC suitable
for low and medium production. It is much easier to write new programs than to make major alterations in
the processing equipment. Numerical control can be applied to a wide variety of processes. The applications
divide into two categories: (1) machine tool applications, such as drilling, milling, turning, and other metal
working; and (2) other applications, such as assembly, rapid prototyping, and inspection. The common
operating feature of NC in all of these applications is control of the work head movement relative to the
work part.

1.4.1 Basic Components of an NC system

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An NC system consists of three basic components: (1) a part program of instructions, (2) a machine control
unit, and (3) processing equipment. The general relationship among the three components is illustrated in
Figure 7.1. The part program is the set of detailed step-by-step commands that direct the actions of the
processing equipment. In machine tool applications, the person who prepares the program is called a part
programmer. In these applications, the individual commands refer to positions of a cutting tool relative to
the worktable on which the work part is fixtured. Additional instructions are usually included, such as
spindle speed, feed rate, cutting tool selection, and other functions. The program is coded on a suitable
medium for submission to the machine control unit. For many years, the common medium was 1-in wide
punched tape, using a standard format that could be interpreted by the machine control unit. Today, punched
tape has largely been replaced by newer storage technologies in modern machine shops. These technologies
include magnetic tape, diskettes, and electronic transfer of part programs from a computer.

In modern NC technology, the machine control unit (MCU) is a microcomputer and related control
hardware that stores the program of instructions and executes it by converting each command into
mechanical actions of the processing equipment, one command at a time. The related hardware of the MCU
includes components to interface with the processing equipment and feedback control elements. The MCU
also includes one or more reading devices for entering part programs into memory. Software residing in the
MCU includes control system software, calculation algorithms, and translation software to convert the NC
part program into a usable format for the MCU. Because the MCU is a computer, the term computer
numerical control (CNC) is used to distinguish this type of NC from its technological ancestors that were
based entirely on hardwired electronics. Today, virtually all new MCUs are based on computer technology.
The third basic component of an NC system is the processing equipment that performs the actual productive
work (e.g., machining). It accomplishes the processing steps to transform the starting workpiece into a
completed part. Its operation is directed by the MCU, which in turn is driven by instructions contained in
the part program. In the most common example of NC, machining, the processing equipment consists of
the worktable and spindle as well as the motors and controls to drive them.

1.4.2 Applications of NC

The operating principle of NC has many applications. There are many industrial operations in which the
position of a work head must be controlled relative to a part or product being processed. The applications
divide into two categories: (1) machine tool applications and (2) other applications. Most machine tool
applications are associated with the metalworking industry. The other applications comprise a diverse group
of operations in other industries. It should be noted that the applications are not always identified by the
name “numerical control”; this term is used principally in the machine tool industry.

1. Machine tool applications

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The most common applications of NC are in machine tool control. Machining was the first application of
NC, and it is still one of the most important commercially.

Machining operations and NC Machine tools. Machining is a manufacturing process in which the
geometry of the work is produced by removing excess material. Control of the relative motion between a
cutting tool and the workpiece creates the desired geometry. Machining is considered one of the most
versatile processes because it can be used to create a wide variety of shapes and surface finishes. It can be
performed at relatively high production rates to yield highly accurate parts at relatively low cost.

There are four common types of machining operations: (a) turning, (b) drilling, (c) milling, and (d) grinding,
shown in Figure 7.9. Each of the machining operations is carried out at a certain combination of speed,
feed, and depth of cut, collectively called the cutting conditions. The terminology varies somewhat for
grinding. These cutting conditions are illustrated in Figure 7.9 for turning, drilling, and milling. Consider
milling. The cutting speed is the velocity of the milling cutter relative to the work surface, m/min (ft/min).
This is usually programmed into the machine as a spindle rotation speed, rev/min. Cutting speed can be
converted into spindle rotation speed by means of the equation

(7.1)

where N = spindle rotation speed, rev/min; v = cutting speed, m/min (ft/min); and D = milling cutter
diameter, m (ft). In milling, the feed usually means the size of the chip formed by each tooth in the milling
cutter, often referred to as the chip load per tooth. This must normally be programmed into the NC machine
as the feed rate (the travel rate of the machine tool table). Therefore, feed must be converted to feed rate as

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(7.2)

where fr = feed rate, mm/min (in/min); N = spindle rotational speed, rev/min; n t = number of teeth on the
milling cutter; and f = feed, mm/tooth (in/tooth). For a turning operation, feed is defined as the lateral
movement of the cutting tool per revolution of the workpiece, mm/rev (in/rev). Depth of cut is the distance
the tool penetrates below the original surface of the work, mm (in). For drilling, depth of cut refers to the
depth of the hole. These are the parameters that must be controlled during the operation of an NC machine
through motion or position commands in the part program.

Each of the four machining processes is traditionally carried out on a machine tool designed to perform that
process. Turning is performed on a lathe, drilling is done on a drill press, milling on a milling machine, and
so on. The following is a list of the common material-removal CNC machine tools along with their typical
features:

 NC lathe, either horizontal or vertical axis. Turning requires two-axis, continuous path control,
either to produce a straight cylindrical geometry (straight turning) or to create a profile (contour
turning).
 NC boring mill, horizontal or vertical spindle. Boring is similar to turning, except that an internal
cylinder is created instead of an external cylinder. The operation requires continuous path, two-axis
control.
 NC drill press. This machine uses point-to-point control of a work head (spindle containing the
drill bit) and two axis (x–y) control of a worktable. Some NC drill presses have turrets containing
six or eight drill bits. The turret position is programmed under NC control, allowing different drill
bits to be applied to the same work part during the machine cycle without requiring the machine
operator to manually change the tool.
 NC milling machine. A milling machine requires continuous path control to perform straight cut or
contouring operations.
 NC cylindrical grinder. This machine operates like a turning machine, except that the tool is a
grinding wheel. It has continuous path two-axis control, similar to an NC lathe.

Numerical control has had a profound influence on the design and operation of machine tools. One of the
effects is that the proportion of time spent by the machine cutting metal is significantly greater than with
manually operated machines. This causes certain components such as the spindle, drive gears, and feed
screws to wear more rapidly. These components must be designed to last longer on NC machines. Secondly,
the addition of the electronic control unit has increased the cost of the machine, requiring higher equipment
utilization. Instead of running the machine during only one shift, which is the typical schedule with
manually operated machines, NC machines are often operated during two or even three shifts to obtain the
required economic payback. Third, the increasing cost of labor has altered the relative roles of the human
operator and the machine tool. Instead of being the highly skilled worker who controlled every aspect of
part production, the NC machine operator performs only part loading and unloading, tool-changing, chip
clearing, and the like. With these reduced responsibilities, one operator can often run two or three NC
machines. The functions performed by the machine tool have also changed. NC machines are designed to
be highly automatic and capable of combining several operations in one setup that formerly required several
different machines. They are also designed to reduce the time consumed by the noncutting elements in the
operation cycle, such as changing tools and loading and unloading the work part. These changes are best

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exemplified by a new type of machine that did not exist prior to the development of NC: the machining
center, which is a machine tool capable of performing multiple machining operations on a single workpiece
in one setup. The operations involve rotating cutters, such as milling and drilling, and the feature that
enables more than one operation to be performed in one setup is automatic tool-changing.

NC application Characteristics.

In general, NC technology is appropriate for low-to-medium production of medium-to-high variety product.

1. Batch production. NC is most appropriate for parts produced in small or medium lot sizes (batch sizes
ranging from one unit up to several hundred units). Dedicated automation would not be economical for
these quantities because of the high fixed cost. Manual production would require many separate machine
setups and would result in higher labor cost, longer lead time, and higher scrap rate.

2. Repeat orders. Batches of the same parts are produced at random or periodic intervals. Once the NC part
program has been prepared, parts can be economically produced in subsequent batches using the same part
program.

3. Complex part geometry. The part geometry includes complex curved surfaces such as those found on
airfoils and turbine blades. Mathematically defined surfaces such as circles and helixes can also be
accomplished with NC. Some of these geometries would be difficult if not impossible to achieve accurately
using conventional machine tools.

4. Much metal needs to be removed from the work part. This condition is often associated with a complex
part geometry. The volume and weight of the final machined part is a relatively small fraction of the starting
block. Such parts are common in the aircraft industry to fabricate large structural sections with low weights.

5. Many separate machining operations on the part. This applies to parts consisting of many machined
features requiring different cutting tools, such as drilled and/or tapped holes, slots, flats, and so on. If these
operations were machined by a series of manual operations, many setups would be needed. The number of
setups can be reduced significantly using NC.

6. The part is expensive. This factor is often a consequence of one or more of preceding factors 3, 4, and 5.
It can also result from using a high-cost starting work material. When the part is expensive, and mistakes
in processing would be costly, the use of NC helps to reduce rework and scrap losses. Although these
characteristics pertain mainly to machining, they are adaptable to other production applications as well.

3. NC for other Metalworking processes.

NC machine tools have been developed for other metalworking processes besides machining. These
machines include the following:

 Punch presses for sheet metal hole punching. The two-axis NC operation is similar to that of a drill
press except that holes are produced by punching rather than drilling. Different hole sizes and
shapes are implemented using a tool turret.
 Presses for sheet metal bending. Instead of cutting sheet metal, these systems bend sheet metal
according to programmed commands.

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 Welding machines. Both spot welding and continuous arc welding machines are available with
automatic controls based on NC.
 Thermal cutting machines, such as oxy-fuel cutting, laser cutting, and plasma arc cutting. The stock
is usually flat; thus, two-axis control is adequate. Some laser cutting machines can cut holes in
preformed sheet metal stock, requiring four- or five-axis control.
 Tube bending and wire bending machines. Automatic tube and wire bending machines are
programmed to control the location (along the length of the stock) and the angle of the bend.
Important tube bending applications include frames for bicycles and motorcycles. Wire bending
applications include springs and paper clips.
 Wire EDM. Electric discharge wire cutting operates in a manner similar to a band saw, except that
the saw is a small diameter wire that uses sparks to cut metal stock that is positioned by an x–y
positioning table.

4. Other NC applications

The operating principle of NC has a host of other applications besides metalworking. Some of the machines
with NC-type controls that position a work head relative to an object being processed are the following:

 Rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing. These include a number of processes that add
material, one thin layer at a time, to construct a part. Many of them operate by means of a work
head that is manipulated by NC over the partially constructed part. Some processes use lasers to
cure photosensitive liquid polymers (stereolithography) or fuse solid powders (selective laser
sintering); others use extruder heads that add material (fused deposition modeling).
 Water jet cutters and abrasive water jet cutters. These machines are used to cut various materials,
including metals and nonmetals (e.g., plastic, cloth), by means of a fine, high-pressure, high-
velocity stream of water. Abrasive particles are added to the stream in the case of abrasive water
jet cutting to facilitate cutting of more difficult materials (e.g., metals). The work head is
manipulated relative to the work material by means of numerical control.
 Component placement machines. This equipment is used to position components on an x–y plane,
usually a printed circuit board. The program specifies the x- and y-axis positions in the plane where
the components are to be located. Component placement machines find extensive applications for
placing electronic components on printed circuit boards. Machines are available for either through-
hole or surfacemount applications as well as similar insertion-type mechanical assembly
operations.
 Coordinate measuring machines. A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is an inspection
machine used for measuring or checking dimensions of a part. A CMM has a probe that can be
manipulated in three axes and that identifies when contact is made against a part surface. The
location of the probe tip is determined by the CMM control unit, thereby indicating some dimension
on the part. Many coordinate measuring machines are programmed to perform automated
inspections under NC.
 Wood routers and granite cutters. These machines perform operations similar to NC milling for
metal machining, except the work materials are not metals. Many wood cutting lathes are also NC
machines.
 Tape laying machines for polymer composites. The work head of this machine is a dispenser of
uncured polymer matrix composite tape. The machine is programmed to lay the tape onto the

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surface of a contoured mold, following a back-and-forth and crisscross pattern to build up a required
thickness. The result is a multilayered panel of the same shape as the mold.
 Filament winding machines for polymer composites. These are similar to the preceding machine
except that a filament is dipped in uncured polymer and wrapped around a rotating pattern of
roughly cylindrical shape.

1.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of NC

NC yields many advantages over manual production methods. These advantages translate into economic
savings for the user company. However, NC involves more sophisticated technology than conventional
methods, and there are costs that must be considered to apply the technology effectively.

Advantages of NC.

The advantages generally attributed to NC, with emphasis on machine tool applications, are the following:

 Nonproductive time is reduced. NC reduces the proportion of time the machine is not cutting metal.
This is achieved through fewer setups, less setup time, reduced workpiece handling time, and
automatic tool changes on some NC machines, all of which translate into labor cost savings and
lower elapsed times to produce parts.
 Greater accuracy and repeatability. Compared with manual production methods, NC reduces or
eliminates variations due to operator skill differences, fatigue, and other factors attributed to
inherent human variabilities. Parts are made closer to nominal dimensions, and there is less
dimensional variation among parts in the batch.
 Lower scrap rates. Because greater accuracy and repeatability are achieved, and because human
errors are reduced, more parts are produced within tolerance. The ultimate goal in NC is zero
defects.
 Inspection requirements are reduced. Less inspection is needed when NC is used because parts
produced from the same NC part program are virtually identical. Once the program has been
verified, there is no need for the high level of sampling inspection that is required when parts are
produced by conventional manual methods. Except for tool wear and equipment malfunctions, NC
produces exact replicates of the part each cycle.
 More complex part geometries are possible. NC technology has extended the range of possible part
geometries beyond what is practical with manual machining methods. This is an advantage for
product design in several ways:
 Engineering changes can be accommodated more gracefully. Instead of making alterations in a
complex fixture so that the part can be machined to the engineering change, revisions are made in
the NC part program to accomplish the change.
 Simpler fixtures. NC requires simpler fixtures because accurate positioning of the tool is
accomplished by the NC machine tool. Tool positioning does not have to be designed into the jig.
 Shorter manufacturing lead times. Jobs can be set up more quickly and fewer setups are required
per part when NC is used. This results in shorter elapsed time between order release and completion.
 Reduced parts inventory. Because fewer setups are required and job changeovers are easier and
faster, NC permits production of parts in smaller lot sizes. The economic lot size is lower in NC
than in conventional batch production. Average parts inventory is therefore reduced.

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 Less floor space. This results from the fact that fewer NC machines are required to perform the
same amount of work compared to the number of conventional machine tools needed. Reduced
parts inventory also contributes to less floor space requirements.
 Operator skill requirements are reduced. Workers need fewer skills to operate an NC machine than
to operate a conventional machine tool. Tending an NC machine tool usually consists only of
loading and unloading parts and periodically changing tools. The machining cycle is carried out
under program control. Performing a comparable machining cycle on a conventional machine
requires much more participation by the operator and a higher level of training and skill.

Disadvantages of NC

There are certain commitments to NC technology that must be made by the machine shop that installs NC
equipment, and these commitments, most of which involve additional cost to the company, might be seen
as disadvantages. These include the following:

 Higher investment cost. An NC machine tool has a higher first cost than a comparable conventional
machine tool. There are several reasons why: (1) NC machines include CNC controls and
electronics hardware; (2) software development costs of the CNC controls manufacturer must be
included in the cost of the machine; (3) more reliable mechanical components are generally used
in NC machines; and (4) NC machine tools often possess additional features not included on
conventional machines, such as automatic tool changers and part changers (Section 14.2.3).
 Higher maintenance effort. In general, NC equipment requires more maintenance than conventional
equipment, which translates to higher maintenance and repair costs. This is due largely to the
computer and other electronics that are included in a modern NC system. The maintenance staff
must include personnel who are trained in maintaining and repairing this type of equipment.
 Part programming. NC equipment must be programmed. To be fair, it should be mentioned that
process planning must be accomplished for any part, whether or not it is produced by NC. However,
NC part programming is a special preparation step in batch production that is absent in conventional
machine shop operations.
 Higher utilization of NC equipment. To maximize the economic benefits of NC, some companies
operate multiple shifts. This might mean adding one or two extra shifts to the plant’s normal
operations, with the requirement for supervision and other staff support.

1.5 Actuators
In industrial control systems, an actuator is a hardware device that converts a controller command signal
into a change in a physical parameter. The change in the physical parameter is usually mechanical, such
as a position or velocity change. An actuator is a transducer, because it changes one type of physical
quantity, such as electric current, into another type of physical quantity, such as rotational speed of an
electric motor. The controller command signal is usually low level, and so an actuator may require an
amplifier to strengthen the signal sufficiently to drive the actuator. Most actuators can be classified into one
of three categories, according to the type of amplifier: (1) electric, (2) hydraulic, and (3) pneumatic. Electric
actuators are most common; they include electric motors of various kinds, solenoids, and electromechanical
relays. Electric actuators can be either linear (output is linear displacement) or rotational (output is angular
displacement). Hydraulic actuators use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command signal. The
available devices provide either linear or rotational motion. Hydraulic actuators are often specified when

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large forces are required. Pneumatic actuators use compressed air (typically “shop air” in the factory) as
the driving power. Again, both linear and rotational pneumatic actuators are available. Because of the
relatively low air pressures involved, these actuators are usually limited to relatively low-force applications
compared with hydraulic actuators. This section is organized into two topics: (1) electric motors, and (2)
other types of actuators, including some that are powered electrically. The coverage is not comprehensive.
Its purpose is to provide an introductory treatment of the different types of actuators available to implement
automation and process control.

Electric Motors

An electric motor converts electrical power into mechanical power. Most electric motors are rotational. The
motor consists of two basic components, a stator and a rotor. The stator is the ring-shaped stationary
component, and the rotor is the cylindrical part that rotates inside the stator. The rotor is assembled around
a shaft that is supported by bearings, and the shaft can be coupled to machinery components such as gears,
pulleys, leadscrews, or spindles. Electric current supplied to the motor generates a continuously switching
magnetic field that causes the rotor to develop torque and rotate in its attempt to align its poles with the
opposite poles of the stator. The details relating to type of current (alternating or direct), how the
continuously switching magnetic field is created, and other aspects of the motor’s construction give rise to
a great variety of electric motors. The simplest and most common classification is between direct current
(DC) motors and alternating current (AC) motors. Within each category, there are several subcategories.
Four types that are used in automation and industrial control are discussed here: (1) DC motors, (2) AC
motors, (3) stepper motors, and (4) linear motors.

1. DC Motors

DC motors are powered by a constant current and voltage. The continuously switching magnetic field is
achieved by means of a rotary switching device, called a commutator, which rotates with the rotor and picks
up current from a set of carbon brushes that are components of the stator assembly. Its function is to
continually change the relative polarity between the rotor and the stator, so that the magnetic field produces
a torque to continuously turn the rotor. Use of a commutator is the traditional construction of a DC motor.
This is a disadvantage because it results in arcing, worn brushes, and maintenance problems. A special type
of DC motor avoids the use of the commutator and brushes. Called a brushless DC motor, it uses solid-
state circuitry to replace the brushes and commutator components. Elimination of these parts has the added
benefit of reducing the inertia of the rotor assembly, allowing higher speed operation.

The preceding model of DC servomotor operation neglects certain losses and inefficiencies that occur in
these motors (similar losses occur in all electric motors). These losses include brush contact losses at the
commutator, armature losses, windage (air drag losses at high rotational speeds of the rotor), and
mechanical friction losses at the bearings. The model also neglects the dynamics of motor operation. In
fact, the inertial characteristics of the motor itself and the load that is driven by it, as well as any transmission
mechanisms (e.g., gearbox), would play an important role in determining how the motor operates as a
function of time. Despite their limitations, the equations do illustrate one of the significant advantages of
a DC servomotor: its ability to deliver a very high torque at a starting velocity of zero. In addition, it is a
variable-speed motor, and its direction of rotation can be readily reversed. These are important
considerations in many automation applications where the motor is called upon to frequently start and stop
its rotation or to reverse direction.

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Although DC motors have several attractive features, they have two important disadvantages: (1) the
commutator and brushes used to conduct current from the stator assembly to the rotor result in maintenance
problems with these motors, and (2) the most common electrical power source in industry is alternating
current, not direct current.

2. AC Motors

In order to use AC power to drive a DC motor, a rectifier must be added to convert the alternating current
to direct current. For these reasons, AC motors are widely used in many industrial applications. They do
not use brushes, and they are compatible with the predominant type of electrical power. Alternating current
motors operate by generating a rotating magnetic field in the stator, and the rotational speed of the rotor
depends on the frequency of the input electrical power. The rotor is forced to turn at a speed that depends
on the rotating magnetic field. AC motors can be classified into two broad categories: synchronous motors
and induction motors.

Synchronous motors operate by energizing the rotor with alternating current, which generates a magnetic
field in the gap separating the rotor and the stator. This magnetic field creates a torque that turns the rotor
at the same rotational speed as the magnetic forces in the stator. The term synchronous derives from the
fact that the rotor rotation is synchronized with the AC frequency in steady-state operation. Synchronous
motors cannot start by themselves from zero speed; they require a device, sometimes called an exciter, to
initiate rotation of the rotor when power is first supplied to the motor. The exciter, which may be an electric
motor itself, accelerates the rotational speed of the rotor so that it can be synchronized with that of the
stator’s rotating magnetic field.

Induction motors are probably the most widely used motors in the world, due to their relatively simple
construction and low manufacturing cost. In the operation of this motor type, a magnetic field is induced
(hence the term induction) in the rotor from the stator. Because of this feature, the rotor in most induction
motors does not need electrical current from an external power supply. Thus, no brushes or other means of
connection are required for the rotating component of an induction motor. Unlike synchronous motors,
induction motors operate at speeds that are slower than the synchronous speed. The steady-state rotational
speed depends on the load that the motor is driving. In fact, if the rotor speed were equal to the synchronous
speed of the stator magnetic field, then no induced voltage and no torque would be generated in the rotor.
By the same reasoning, when AC power is first applied to an induction motor, the induced magnetic field
and torque are maximum, so no exciter is needed to start the motor turning.

Both synchronous motors and induction motors operate at constant speeds. Most of their applications are
those in which running at a fixed speed is required. This is a disadvantage in many automation applications
because frequent speed changes are often necessary with much starting and stopping. The speed issue is
sometimes addressed by using adjustable-frequency drives (called inverters) that control the cycle rate of
the AC power to the motor. Motor speed is proportional to frequency, so changing the frequency changes
the motor speed. Advances in solid-state electronics have also improved speed control for AC motors, and
they are now competitive in some applications traditionally reserved for DC motors.

3. Stepper Motors

Also called step motors and stepping motors, this motor type provides rotation in the form of discrete
angular displacements, called step angles. Each angular step is actuated by a discrete electrical pulse. The

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total angular rotation is controlled by the number of pulses received by the motor, and rotational speed is
controlled by the frequency of the pulses.

The typical torque–speed relationships for a stepper motor are shown in Figure 6.4. As in the DC
servomotor, torque decreases with increased rotational speeds. And because rotational speed is related to
pulse frequency in the stepper motor, torque is lower at higher pulse rates. As indicated in the figure, there
are two operating modes, locked-step and slewing. In the locked-step mode, each pulse received by the
motor causes a discrete angular step to be taken; the motor starts and stops (at least approximately) with
each pulse. In this mode the motor can be started and stopped, and its direction of rotation can be reversed.
In the slewing mode, usually associated with higher speeds, the motor’s rotation is more or less continuous
and does not allow for stopping or reversing with each subsequent step. Nevertheless, the rotor does respond
to each individual pulse; that is, the relationship between rotating speed and pulse frequency is retained in
the slewing mode. Stepper motors are used in open-loop control systems for applications in which torque
and power requirements are low to modest. They are widely used in machine tools and other production
machines, industrial robots, x–y plotters, medical and scientific instruments, and computer peripherals.
Probably the most common application is to drive the hands of analog quartz watches.

4. Rotary-to-linear Motion Conversion

Rotary-to-linear Motion Conversion Mechanisms

The motor types discussed above, all produce rotary motion and apply torque. Many actuator applications
require linear motion and the application of force. A rotating motor can be used in these applications by
converting its rotary motion into linear or translational motion. The following are some of the common
conversion mechanisms used for this purpose:

 Leadscrews and ball screws. The motor shaft is connected to a leadscrew or ball screw, which have
helical threads throughout their lengths. A lead nut or ball nut is threaded onto the screw and
prevented from rotating when the screw rotates; thus, the nut is moved linearly along the screw.
Direction of linear motion depends on the direction of rotation of the screw.
 Pulley systems. The motor shaft is connected to the driver wheel in a pulley system, around which
a belt, chain, or other flexible material forms a loop with an idler wheel. As the motor shaft rotates,
the flexible material is pulled linearly between the pulley wheels.
 Rack and pinion. The motor shaft is connected to a pinion gear that is mated with a rack, which is
a straight gear with tooth spacings that match those of the gear. As the gear is rotated, the rack is
moved linearly. These arrangements are depicted in Figure 6.5.
 Of the three categories, the use of leadscrews and ball screws is most common in machine tools,
industrial robots, and other automation applications. A gear reduction box is often inserted between
the motor shaft and the screw to reduce speed and increase torque and precision. Ball screws are to
leadscrews as ball bearings are to conventional sliding bearings. Rack-and-pinion mechanisms are
found in gear systems, for example, rack-and-pinion steering in automobiles. Pulley systems are
common in material transport equipment such as belt and chain conveyors and hoists. Belt-driven
pulley systems can also be used for positioning.

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Linear Motors

A linear electric motor provides a linear motion directly; it does not require a rotary-to-linear conversion.
Its operation is similar to that of rotary electric motors, except that the ring-shaped stator and cylindrical-
shaped rotor are straight rather than circular. The rotor, known as the forcer in linear motor terminology,
consists of wire windings encased in a non-conducting material such as epoxy, and the magnetic field that
drives the forcer consists of a series of magnets contained in a straight track, which corresponds to the
stator. Just as a rotary motor requires bearings to align the rotor inside the stator, creating a small air gap
between them, a linear motor requires straight guideways that support the forcer and maintain a gap between
it and the magnetic track. Linear encoders can be used to indicate the position and speed of the forcer along
the track, just as rotary encoders are used to determine angular position and speed of a rotary motor. Unlike
a rotary motor, in which the rotor rotates inside a stationary stator, a linear motor can be designed so that
either the forcer or the track moves. The usual application in positioning systems is for the forcer to move
relative to a stationary track, because the mass of the forcer is less than the mass of the track. The
disadvantage of this arrangement is that a flexible cable apparatus must be connected to the moving forcer.
This flexible cable apparatus is not required in linear motors that move the track relative to a fixed forcer.
Linear motors are available in three styles: flat, U-channel, and cylindrical, pictured in Figure 6.6. The flat
style consists of a straight, flat track, along which the forcer moves. The U-channel design has a track whose
cross section consists of two parallel rails connected at the base to form a “U.” The forcer moves inside the
two rails and is supported mechanically by two straight ways at the top of the rails. In the cylindrical style,
the forcer is a round shaft that moves linearly inside a housing containing the magnets. The housing serves
the purpose of the track in this design.

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Applications of linear motors include mechanical and electronic assembly, metrology, and laser positioning.
They are sometimes used as alternatives to rotary motors with linear motion converters, where they often
compare favorably in terms of accuracy, repeatability, acceleration, speed, and ease of installation. One
limitation is that they should not be used where vertical lifting is required, because if power to the motor is
lost, gravity would cause any load that had been lifted to fall.

5. Other Types of Actuators

There are other types of electrical actuators in addition to motors. These include solenoids and relays, which
are electromagnetic devices like electric motors, but they operate differently. There are also actuators that
operate using hydraulic and pneumatic power.

Electrical actuators other than Motors.

A solenoid consists of a movable plunger inside a stationary wire coil, as pictured in Figure 6.7. When a
current is applied to the coil, it acts as a magnet, drawing the plunger into the coil. When current is switched
off, a spring returns the plunger to its previous position. Linear solenoids of the type described here are
often used to open and close valves in fluid flow systems, such as chemical processing equipment. In these
applications, the solenoid provides a linear push or pull action. Rotary solenoids are also available to
provide rotary motion, usually over a limited angular range (e.g., neutral position to between 25° and 90°).

An electromechanical relay is an on–off electrical switch consisting of two main components, a stationary
coil and a movable arm that can be made to open or close an electrical contact by means of a magnetic field
that is generated when current is passed through the coil. The reason for using a relay is that it can be
operated with relatively low current levels, but it opens and closes circuits that carry high currents and/or
voltages. Thus, relays are a safe way to remotely switch on and off equipment, which requires high electrical
power.

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Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators.

These two categories of actuators are powered by pressurized fluids. Oil is used in hydraulic systems, and
compressed air is used in pneumatic systems. The devices in both categories are similar in operation but
different in construction due to the differences in fluid properties between oil and air. Some of
the differences in properties, and their effects on the characteristics and applications of the two types of
actuators, are listed in Table 6.4. Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators that provide either linear or rotary
motion are available. The cylinder, illustrated in Figure 6.8, is a common linear-motion device. The cylinder
is basically a tube, and a piston is forced to slide inside the cylinder due to fluid pressure. Two types are
shown in the figure: (a) single acting with spring return and (b) double acting. Although these cylinders
operate in a similar way for both types of fluid power, it is more difficult to predict the speed and force
characteristics of pneumatic cylinders because of the compressibility of air in these devices.

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