INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL

ENGINEERING

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS – I
By
G . Anil Kumar
Assistant Professor
 Unit – 1
Analysis of Perfect Frames

6-2
 Contents
Introduction Trusses Made of Several Simple Trusses
Definition of a Truss Sample Problem 6.3
Simple Trusses Analysis of Frames
Analysis of Trusses by the Method of Frames Which Cease to be Rigid When
Joints Detached From Their Supports
Joints Under Special Loading
Conditions Sample Problem 6.4
Space Trusses Machines
Sample Problem 6.1
Analysis of Trusses by the Method of
Sections
 Introduction
• For the equilibrium of structures made of several
connected parts, the internal forces as well the external
forces are considered.

• In the interaction between connected parts, Newton’s 3rd

Law states that the forces of action and reaction
between bodies in contact have the same magnitude,
same line of action, and opposite sense.

• Three categories of engineering structures are considered:

a) Frames: contain at least one one multi-force
member, i.e., member acted upon by 3 or more
forces.
b) Trusses: formed from two-force members, i.e.,
straight members with end point connections
c) Machines: structures containing moving parts
designed to transmit and modify forces.
Definition of a Truss
• A truss consists of straight members connected at
joints. No member is continuous through a joint.

• Most structures are made of several trusses joined

together to form a space framework. Each truss
carries those loads which act in its plane and may
be treated as a two-dimensional structure.

• Bolted or welded connections are assumed to be

pinned together. Forces acting at the member ends
reduce to a single force and no couple. Only two-
force members are considered.

• When forces tend to pull the member apart, it is in

tension. When the forces tend to compress the
member, it is in compression.
Definition of a Truss

Members of a truss are slender and not capable of

supporting large lateral loads. Loads must be applied at
the joints.
Definition of a Truss
Simple Trusses
• A rigid truss will not collapse under
the application of a load.

• A simple truss is constructed by

successively adding two members and
one connection to the basic triangular
truss.

• In a simple truss, m = 2n - 3 where

m is the total number of members
and n is the number of joints.
Analysis of Trusses by the Method of
•Joints
Dismember the truss and create a freebody
diagram for each member and pin.

• The two forces exerted on each member are

equal, have the same line of action, and
opposite sense.

• Forces exerted by a member on the pins or

joints at its ends are directed along the member
and equal and opposite.

• Conditions of equilibrium on the pins provide

2n equations for 2n unknowns. For a simple
truss, 2n = m + 3. May solve for m member
forces and 3 reaction forces at the supports.

• Conditions for equilibrium for the entire truss

provide 3 additional equations which are not
independent of the pin equations.
Joints Under Special Loading
Conditions
• Forces in opposite members intersecting in
two straight lines at a joint are equal.
• The forces in two opposite members are
equal when a load is aligned with a third
member. The third member force is equal
to the load (including zero load).
• The forces in two members connected at a
joint are equal if the members are aligned
and zero otherwise.
• Recognition of joints under special loading
conditions simplifies a truss analysis.
Space Trusses
• An elementary space truss consists of 6 members
connected at 4 joints to form a tetrahedron.

• A simple space truss is formed and can be

extended when 3 new members and 1 joint are
added at the same time.

• In a simple space truss, m = 3n - 6 where m is the

number of members and n is the number of joints.

• Conditions of equilibrium for the joints provide 3n

equations. For a simple truss, 3n = m + 6 and the
equations can be solved for m member forces and
6 support reactions.

• Equilibrium for the entire truss provides 6

additional equations which are not independent of
the joint equations.
 Sample Problem
SOLUTION:
6.1
• Based on a free-body diagram of the
entire truss, solve the 3 equilibrium
equations for the reactions at E and C.

• Joint A is subjected to only two unknown

member forces. Determine these from the
joint equilibrium requirements.

• In succession, determine unknown

member forces at joints D, B, and E from
joint equilibrium requirements.
Using the method of joints, determine
the force in each member of the truss. • All member forces and support reactions
are known at joint C. However, the joint
equilibrium requirements may be applied
to check the results.
Sample Problem
SOLUTION:
6.1
• Based on a free-body diagram of the entire truss,
solve the 3 equilibrium equations for the reactions
at E and C.
 MC  0
 2000 lb24 ft   1000 lb12 ft   E 6 ft 
E  10,000 lb 

 Fx  0  C x Cx  0

 Fy  0  2000 lb - 1000 lb  10,000 lb  C y

C y  7000 lb 
Sample Problem 6.1

• Joint A is subjected to only two unknown

member forces. Determine these from the
joint equilibrium requirements.

2000 lb FAB FAD FAB  1500 lb T

 
4 3 5 FAD  2500 lb C

• There are now only two unknown member

forces at joint D.
FDB  FDA FDB  2500 lb T

FDE  2 53 FDA FDE  3000 lb C
Sample Problem 6.1
• There are now only two unknown member
forces at joint B. Assume both are in tension.
 Fy  0  1000  54 2500  54 FBE
FBE  3750 lb FBE  3750 lb C

 Fx  0  FBC  1500  53 2500  53 3750

FBC  5250 lb FBC  5250 lb T

• There is one unknown member force at joint

E. Assume the member is in tension.
 Fx  0  53 FEC  3000  53 3750
FEC  8750 lb FEC  8750 lb C
Sample Problem 6.1
• All member forces and support reactions are
known at joint C. However, the joint equilibrium
requirements may be applied to check the results.

 Fx   5250  53 8750  0 checks 

 Fy  7000  54 8750  0 checks 
Analysis of Trusses by the Method of
Sections
• When the force in only one member or the
forces in a very few members are desired, the
method of sections works well.

• To determine the force in member BD, pass a

section through the truss as shown and create
a free body diagram for the left side.

• With only three members cut by the section,

the equations for static equilibrium may be
applied to determine the unknown member
forces, including FBD.
 Trusses Made of Several Simple
Trusses• Compound trusses are statically
determinant, rigid, and completely
constrained.
m  2n  3

• Truss contains a redundant member

and is statically indeterminate.
m  2n  3

• Additional reaction forces may be

necessary for a rigid truss.

• Necessary but insufficient condition

non-rigid rigid for a compound truss to be statically
determinant, rigid, and completely
m  2n  3 m  2n  4 constrained,
m  r  2n
 Sample Problem 6.3
SOLUTION:
• Take the entire truss as a free body.
Apply the conditions for static equilib-
rium to solve for the reactions at A and L.
• Pass a section through members FH,
GH, and GI and take the right-hand
section as a free body.
• Apply the conditions for static
equilibrium to determine the desired
member forces.
Determine the force in members FH,
GH, and GI.
 Sample Problem 6.3
SOLUTION:
• Take the entire truss as a free body.
Apply the conditions for static equilib-
rium to solve for the reactions at A and L.

 M A  0  5 m 6 kN   10 m 6 kN   15 m 6 kN 

 20 m 1 kN   25 m 1 kN   25 m L
L  7.5 kN 
 Fy  0  20 kN  L  A
A  12.5 kN 
Sample Problem 6.3
• Pass a section through members FH, GH, and GI
and take the right-hand section as a free body.

• Apply the conditions for static equilibrium to

determine the desired member forces.
MH  0
7.50 kN 10 m   1 kN 5 m   FGI 5.33 m   0
FGI  13.13 kN
FGI  13.13 kN T
Sample Problem
FG 8 m
6.3
tan     0.5333   28.07
GL 15 m
 MG  0
7.5 kN 15 m   1 kN 10 m   1 kN 5 m 
  FFH cos  8 m   0
FFH  13.82 kN
FFH  13.82 kN C

GI 5m
tan   2  0.9375   43.15
HI
3
8 m 
ML  0
1 kN 10 m   1 kN 5 m   FGH cos  10 m   0
FGH  1.371 kN
FGH  1.371 kN C
Analysis of Frames
• Frames and machines are structures with at least one
multiforce member. Frames are designed to support loads
and are usually stationary. Machines contain moving parts
and are designed to transmit and modify forces.
• A free body diagram of the complete frame is used to
determine the external forces acting on the frame.
• Internal forces are determined by dismembering the frame
and creating free-body diagrams for each component.
• Forces on two force members have known lines of action
but unknown magnitude and sense.
• Forces on multiforce members have unknown magnitude
and line of action. They must be represented with two
unknown components.
• Forces between connected components are equal, have the
same line of action, and opposite sense.
Frames Which Cease To Be Rigid When
Detached From Their Supports
• Some frames may collapse if removed from
their supports. Such frames can not be treated
as rigid bodies.
• A free-body diagram of the complete frame
indicates four unknown force components which
can not be determined from the three equilibrium
conditions.
• The frame must be considered as two distinct, but
related, rigid bodies.
• With equal and opposite reactions at the contact
point between members, the two free-body
diagrams indicate 6 unknown force components.
• Equilibrium requirements for the two rigid
bodies yield 6 independent equations.
 Sample Problem
SOLUTION:
6.4
• Create a free-body diagram for the
complete frame and solve for the support
reactions.
• Define a free-body diagram for member
BCD. The force exerted by the link DE
has a known line of action but unknown
magnitude. It is determined by summing
moments about C.
Members ACE and BCD are • With the force on the link DE known, the
connected by a pin at C and by the sum of forces in the x and y directions
link DE. For the loading shown, may be used to find the force
determine the force in link DE and the components at C.
components of the force exerted at C
on member BCD. • With member ACE as a free-body,
check the solution by summing
moments about A.
Sample Problem
SOLUTION:
6.4
• Create a free-body diagram for the complete frame
and solve for the support reactions.
 Fy  0  Ay  480 N Ay  480 N 

 M A  0  480 N100 mm   B160 mm 

B  300 N 

 Fx  0  B  Ax Ax  300 N 

Note:
  tan 1 150
80  28.07
 Sample Problem 6.4
• Define a free-body diagram for member
BCD. The force exerted by the link DE has a
known line of action but unknown
magnitude. It is determined by summing
moments about C.

 M C  0  FDE sin  250 mm   300 N 60 mm   480 N 100 mm 

FDE  561 N FDE  561 N C

• Sum of forces in the x and y directions may be used to find the force
components at C.
 Fx  0  C x  FDE cos  300 N
0  C x   561 N  cos  300 N C x  795 N

 Fy  0  C y  FDE sin   480 N

0  C y   561 N  sin   480 N C y  216 N
 Sample Problem 6.4
• With member ACE as a free-body, check
the solution by summing moments about A.

 M A  FDE cos 300 mm   FDE sin  100 mm   C x 220 mm 

  561cos 300 mm    561sin  100 mm    795220 mm   0

(checks)
Machines
• Machines are structures designed to transmit
and modify forces. Their main purpose is to
transform input forces into output forces.

• Given the magnitude of P, determine the

magnitude of Q.

• Create a free-body diagram of the complete

machine, including the reaction that the wire
exerts.

• The machine is a nonrigid structure. Use

one of the components as a free-body.

• Taking moments about A,

a
 M A  0  aP  bQ Q P
b
 Unit -2
Energy theorems & Three
Hinged Arches

6 - 30
 Potential Energy and
Energy Conservation
• Work
• Kinetic Energy
• Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
• Gravitational Potential Energy
• Elastic Potential Energy
• Work-Energy Theorem
• Conservative and
Non-conservative Forces
• Conservation of Energy
 Definition of Work W
• The work, W, done by a constant force on an object is
defined as the product of the component of the force
along the direction of displacement and the magnitude
of the displacement

W  ( F cos q )x
– F is the magnitude of the force
– Δ x is the magnitude of the
object’s displacement
– q is the angle between F and x
 Work Done by Multiple Forces
• If more than one force acts on an object, then the
total work is equal to the algebraic sum of the work
done by the individual forces

Wnet  Wby individual forces

– Remember work is a scalar, so
this is the algebraic sum

Wnet  Wg  WN  WF  ( F cos q )r

 Kinetic Energy and Work
• Kinetic energy associated with the motion of an
object 1 2
KE  mv
2
• Scalar quantity with the same unit as work
• Work is related to kinetic energy
1 2 1
mv  mv0 2  ( Fnet cos q )x Units: N-m or J
2 2
xf
  F  dr
xi

Wnet  KEf  KEi  KE

 Work done by a Gravitational Force
• Gravitational Force
– Magnitude: mg
1 2 1
– Direction: downwards to the Wnet  mv  mv0
2

2 2

Earth’s center
• Work done by Gravitational
Force
W  F r cosq  F  r

Wg  mgr cos q
 Potential Energy
• Potential energy is associated with the
position of the object
• Gravitational Potential Energy is the
energy associated with the relative
position of an object in space near the
Earth’s surface
• The gravitational potential energy
PE  mgy
– m is the mass of an object
– g is the acceleration of gravity
– y is the vertical position of the mass relative
the surface of the Earth
– SI unit: joule (J)
 Reference Levels
• A location where the gravitational potential
energy is zero must be chosen for each problem
– The choice is arbitrary since the change in the potential
energy is the important quantity
– Choose a convenient location for the zero reference
height
• often the Earth’s surface
• may be some other point suggested by the problem
– Once the position is chosen, it must remain fixed for
the entire problem
 Work and Gravitational
Potential Energy
• PE = mgy
• Wg  F y cos q  mg ( y f  yi ) cos180
 mg ( y f  yi )  PEi  PE f
• Units of Potential
Energy are the same as
those of Work and
Kinetic Energy
Wgravity  KE  PE  PEi  PE f
 Extended Work-Energy Theorem
• The work-energy theorem can be extended to include
potential energy:
Wnet  KEf  KEi  KE
Wgrav ity  PEi  PEf
• If we only have gravitational force, then Wnet  Wgravity
KE f  KEi  PEi  PE f
KE f  PE f  PEi  KEi
• The sum of the kinetic energy and the gravitational potential
energy remains constant at all time and hence is a conserved
quantity
 Extended Work-Energy Theorem
• We denote the total mechanical energy by

E  KE  PE
• Since KE f  PE f  PEi  KEi

• The total mechanical energy is conserved and remains the

same at all times

1 2 1 2
mvi  mgyi  mv f  mgy f
2 2
 Problem-Solving Strategy
• Define the system
• Select the location of zero gravitational potential
energy
– Do not change this location while solving the problem
• Identify two points the object of interest moves
between
– One point should be where information is given
– The other point should be where you want to find out
something
 Platform Diver
• A diver of mass m drops from a
board 10.0 m above the
water’s surface. Neglect air
resistance.
• (a) Find is speed 5.0 m above
the water surface
• (b) Find his speed as he hits
the water
 Platform Diver
• (a) Find his speed 5.0 m above the water
surface
1 2 1
mvi  mgyi  mv2f  mgy f
2 2
1
0  gyi  v 2f  mgy f
2
v f  2 g ( yi  y f )

 2(9.8m / s 2 )(10m  5m)  9.9m / s

• (b) Find his speed as he hits the water

1
0  mgyi  mv2f  0
2
v f  2 gyi  14m / s
 Spring Force
• Involves the spring constant, k
• Hooke’s Law gives the force
 
F  kd
– F is in the opposite direction of
displacement d, always back
towards the equilibrium point.
– k depends on how the spring was
formed, the material it is made
from, thickness of the wire, etc. Unit:
N/m.
 Potential Energy in a Spring
• Elastic Potential Energy: 1 2
– SI unit: Joule (J)
PEs  kx
2
– related to the work required to
compress a spring from its equilibrium
position to some final, arbitrary,
position x
• Work done by the spring
xf 1 2 1 2
Ws   (kx)dx  kxi  kx f
xi 2 2
Ws  PEsi  PEsf
 Extended Work-Energy Theorem
• The work-energy theorem can be extended to include
potential energy:
Wnet  KEf  KEi  KE
Wgrav ity  PEi  PEf Ws  PEsi  PEsf
• If we include gravitational force and spring force, then
Wnet  Wgravity  Ws
( KE f  KEi )  ( PE f  PEi )  ( PEsf  PEsi )  0

KE f  PE f  PEsf  PEi  KEi  KEsi

 Extended Work-Energy Theorem
• We denote the total mechanical energy by
E  KE  PE  PEs

• Since ( KE  PE  PEs ) f  ( KE  PE  PEs )i

• The total mechanical energy is conserved and remains the

same at all times
1 2 1 1 1
mvi  mgyi  kxi2  mv2f  mgy f  kx2f
2 2 2 2
 A block projected up a incline
• A 0.5-kg block rests on a horizontal, frictionless surface. The
block is pressed back against a spring having a constant of k
= 625 N/m, compressing the spring by 10.0 cm to point A.
Then the block is released.
• (a) Find the maximum distance d the block travels up the
frictionless incline if θ = 30°.
• (b) How fast is the block going when halfway to its maximum
height?
 A block projected up a incline
• Point A (initial state): vi  0, yi  0, xi  10cm  0.1m
• Point B (final state): v f  0, y f  h  d sin q , x f  0

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mvi  mgyi  kxi  mv f  mgy f  kx f
2 2 2 2
1 2
2
kxi  mgy f  mgd sin q
1
2 kxi
2
d
mg sin q
0.5(625 N / m)(0.1m) 2

(0.5kg)(9.8m / s 2 ) sin 30
 1.28m
 A block projected up a incline
• Point A (initial state): vi  0, yi  0, xi  10cm  0.1m
• Point B (final state): v f  ?, y f  h / 2  d sin q / 2, x f  0
1 2 1 1 1
mvi  mgyi  kxi2  mv2f  mgy f  kx2f
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 h k 2
kxi  mv f  mg ( ) xi  v 2f  gh
2 2 2 m
h  d sin q  (1.28m) sin 30  0.64m
k 2
vf  xi  gh
m
 ......  2.5m / s
 Types of Forces
• Conservative forces
– Work and energy associated with
the force can be recovered
– Examples: Gravity, Spring Force, EM
forces
• Nonconservative forces
– The forces are generally dissipative
and work done against it cannot
easily be recovered
– Examples: Kinetic friction, air drag
forces, normal forces, tension
forces, applied forces …
 Conservative Forces
• A force is conservative if the work it does on an
object moving between two points is independent of
the path the objects take between the
W  PE
g  PE points
i  mgy  mgy
f i f

– The work depends only upon the initial and final positions
of the object
– Any conservative force can have a potential energy function
associated with it
– Work done by gravity
– Work done by spring force s si sf
1
2
i
1
W  PE  PE  kx  kx
2

2
2
f
 Nonconservative Forces
• A force is nonconservative if the work it does on an
object depends on the path taken by the object
between its final and starting points.
– The work depends upon the movement path
– For a non-conservative force, potential energy can NOT
be defined
– Work done by a nonconservative force
 
Wnc   F  d   f k d  Wotherforces

– It is generally dissipative. The dispersal

of energy takes the form of heat or sound
 Extended Work-Energy Theorem
• The work-energy theorem can be written as:
Wnet  KEf  KEi  KE
Wnet  Wnc  Wc
– Wnc represents the work done by nonconservative forces
– Wc represents the work done by conservative forces
• Any work done by conservative forces can be accounted for by
changes in potential energy W  PE  PE
c i f

– Gravity work Wg  PEi  PE f  mgyi  mgy f

1 2 1 2
– Spring force work Ws  PEi  PE f  kxi  kx f
2 2
 Extended Work-Energy Theorem
• Any work done by conservative forces can be accounted for
by changes in potential energy
Wc  PEi  PE f  ( PE f  PEi )  PE
Wnc  KE  PE  ( KE f  KEi )  ( PE f  PEi )
Wnc  ( KE f  PE f )  ( KEi  PEi )
• Mechanical energy includes kinetic and potential energy
1 1
E  KE  PE  KE  PEg  PEs  mv2  mgy  kx2
2 2
Wnc  E f  Ei
 Problem-Solving Strategy
• Define the system to see if it includes non-conservative forces
(especially friction, drag force …)
• Without non-conservative forces
1 2 1 1 1
mv f  mgy f  kx2f  mvi2  mgyi  kxi2
2 2 2 2
• With non-conservative forces Wnc  ( KE f  PE f )  ( KEi  PEi )
1 1 1 1
 fd  Wotherforces  ( mv2f  mgy f  kx2f )  ( mvi2  mgyi  kxi2 )
2 2 2 2
• Select the location of zero potential energy
– Do not change this location while solving the problem
• Identify two points the object of interest moves between
– One point should be where information is given
– The other point should be where you want to find out something
 Conservation of Mechanical Energy
 A block of mass m = 0.40 kg slides across a horizontal frictionless
counter with a speed of v = 0.50 m/s. It runs into and compresses a
spring of spring constant k = 750 N/m. When the block is momentarily
stopped by the spring, by what distance d is the spring compressed?
W  ( KE  PE )  ( KE  PE )
nc f f i i

1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 2
mv f  mgy f  kx2f  mvi2  mgyi  kxi2 0  0  kd  mv  0  0
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 m 2
0  0  kd 2  mv2  0  0 d v  1.15cm
2 2 k
Changes in Mechanical Energy for conservative forces

 A 3-kg crate slides down a ramp. The ramp is 1 m in length and

inclined at an angle of 30° as shown. The crate starts from rest at the
top. The surface friction can be negligible. Use energy methods to
determine the speed of the crate at the bottom of the ramp.
1 1 1 1
 fd  Wotherforces  ( mv2f  mgy f  kx2f )  ( mvi2  mgyi  kxi2 )
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
( mv2f  mgy f  kx2f )  ( mvi2  mgyi  kxi2 )
2 2 2 2

d  1m, yi  d sin 30  0.5m, vi  0

y f  0, v f  ?
1
( mv2f  0  0)  (0  mgyi  0)
2
v f  2 gyi  3.1m / s
Changes in Mechanical Energy for Non-conservative forces

 A 3-kg crate slides down a ramp. The ramp is 1 m in length and

inclined at an angle of 30° as shown. The crate starts from rest at the
top. The surface in contact have a coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.15.
Use energy methods to determine the speed of the crate at the bottom
of the ramp.
1 1 1 1
 fd  Wotherforces  ( mv2f  mgy f  kx2f )  ( mvi2  mgyi  kxi2 )
2 2 2 2
1 2 N
 k Nd  0  ( mv f  0  0)  (0  mgyi  0)
2
fk
k  0.15, d  1m, yi  d sin 30  0.5m, N  ?
N  mg cos q  0
1 2
 k dmg cos q  mv f  mgyi
2
v f  2 g ( yi  k d cos q )  2.7m / s
Changes in Mechanical Energy for Non-conservative forces

 A 3-kg crate slides down a ramp. The ramp is 1 m in length and

inclined at an angle of 30° as shown. The crate starts from rest at the
top. The surface in contact have a coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.15.
How far does the crate slide on the horizontal floor if it continues to
experience a friction force.
1 1 1 1
 fd  Wotherforces  ( mv2f  mgy f  kx2f )  ( mvi2  mgyi  kxi2 )
2 2 2 2
1
 k Nx  0  (0  0  0)  ( mvi2  0  0)
2
k  0.15, vi  2.7m / s, N  ?
N  mg  0
1
  k mgx   mvi2
2
2
v
x  i  2.5m
2 k g
 Block-Spring Collision
• A block having a mass of 0.8 kg is given an initial velocity vA = 1.2 m/s to the
right and collides with a spring whose mass is negligible and whose force
constant is k = 50 N/m as shown in figure. Assuming the surface to be
frictionless, calculate the maximum compression of the spring after the
collision.
1 2 1 1 1
mv f  mgy f  kx2f  mvi2  mgyi  kxi2
2 2 2 2

1 2 1 2
mvmax  0  0  mvA  0  0
2 2

m 0.8kg
xmax  vA  (1.2m / s)  0.15m
k 50 N / m
 Block-Spring Collision
• A block having a mass of 0.8 kg is given an initial velocity vA = 1.2 m/s to the
right and collides with a spring whose mass is negligible and whose force
constant is k = 50 N/m as shown in figure. Suppose a constant force of
kinetic friction acts between the block and the surface, with µk = 0.5, what is
the maximum compression xc in the spring.

1 1 1 1
 fd  Wotherforces  ( mv2f  mgy f  kx2f )  ( mvi2  mgyi  kxi2 )
2 2 2 2
1 1
 k Nd  0  (0  0  kxc2 )  ( mvA2  0  0)
2 2
N  mg and d  xc
1 2 1 2
kxc  mvA   k mgxc
2 2
25xc2  3.9 xc  0.58  0 xc  0.093m
 Energy Review
• Kinetic Energy
– Associated with movement of members of a system
• Potential Energy
– Determined by the configuration of the system
– Gravitational and Elastic
• Internal Energy
– Related to the temperature of the system
 Conservation of Energy
• Energy is conserved
– This means that energy cannot be created nor
destroyed
– If the total amount of energy in a system changes,
it can only be due to the fact that energy has
crossed the boundary of the system by some
method of energy transfer
 Ways to Transfer Energy
Into or Out of A System
• Work – transfers by applying a force and causing a
displacement of the point of application of the force
• Mechanical Waves – allow a disturbance to propagate
through a medium
• Heat – is driven by a temperature difference between two
regions in space
• Matter Transfer – matter physically crosses the boundary of
the system, carrying energy with it
• Electrical Transmission – transfer is by electric current
• Electromagnetic Radiation – energy is transferred by
electromagnetic waves
 Connected Blocks in Motion
• Two blocks are connected by a light string that passes over a frictionless
pulley. The block of mass m1 lies on a horizontal surface and is connected to
a spring of force constant k. The system is released from rest when the
spring is unstretched. If the hanging block of mass m2 falls a distance h
before coming to rest, calculate the coefficient of kinetic friction between
the block of mass m1 and the surface.
 fd  Wotherforces  KE  PE
1
PE  PE g  PE s  (0  m2 gh)  ( kx2  0)
2
1
 k Nx  0  m2 gh  kx2
2
N  mg and xh 1
m2 g  kh
1
  k m1 gh  m2 gh  kh2 k  2
2 m1 g
 Power
• Work does not depend on time interval
• The rate at which energy is transferred is important
in the design and use of practical device
• The time rate of energy transfer is called power
• The average power is given by

W
P
ttransfer is work
– when the method of energy
 Instantaneous Power
• Power is the time rate of energy transfer. Power is
valid for any means of energy transfer
• Other expression W Fx
P   Fv
t t
• A more general definition of instantaneous power
  
W dW dr 
P  lim  F  F v
t 0 t dt dt
 
P  F  v  Fv cos q
 Units of Power
• The SI unit of power is called the watt
– 1 watt = 1 joule / second = 1 kg . m2 / s3
• A unit of power in the US Customary system is
horsepower
– 1 hp = 550 ft . lb/s = 746 W
• Units of power can also be used to express
units of work or energy
– 1 kWh = (1000 W)(3600 s) = 3.6 x106 J
 FORM ACTIVE STRUCTURE
SYSTEM
Non rigid, flexible matter, shaped in a
certain way & secured at the ends which can
support itself and span space.

Form active structure systems develop at

their ends horizontal stresses.

The bearing mechanism of a form active

systems rests essentially on the material form.
 Arch
 A curved structure designed to carry loads across a gap mainly by
compression.
 The mechanical principle of the arch is precisely the same as that of the
portal frame. The straight pieces of material joined by sharp bends are
smoothened into a continuous curve. This increases the cost of construction
but greatly reduces the stresses.

 The geometry of the curve further affects

the cost and stresses. The circular arch is
easiest to construct, the catenary arch is the
most efficient.
 Arches can be three pinned, two pinned or
rigid.
Arch Terminology
 It is important to minimize the arch THRUST so as to reduce the
dimensions of the tie rod, or to ensure that the soil will not move under the
pressure of the abutments.

 The THRUST is proportional to the total LOAD & to the SPAN, and
inversely proportional to the RISE of the arch.

 In arches rise to span ratio should not be less than 1/8

 Riser minimum should be 1/8 of the span & 2/3rd maximum.

 Lesser rise takes compression but not tensile load.

 In masonry design the arch is heavy &
loaded by the weight of walls, its shape is
usually the funicular of the dead load, &
some bending is introduced in it by live
loads.

 In large steel arches, the live load represents

a greater share of the total load &
introduces a large amount of bending but it
is seldom in view of the tensile strength of
steel.

 The SHAPE of the arch may be chosen to

be as close as possible to the FUNICULAR
of the heaviest loads, so as to minimize
BENDING.
 The arch thrust is absorbed by a tie-rod
whenever the foundation material is not
suitable to resist it.

 When it must allow the free passage of

traffic under it, its thrust is asorbed either by
buttresses or by tie-rods buried under
ground.

 The stationary or moving loads carried by

the arch are usually supported on a
horizontal surface.

 This surface may be above or below the

arch, connected to it by compression struts
or tension hangers.
MATERIALS USED

STEEL-takes more tension

WOOD-both evenly

CONCRETE-takes more compression

LOAD APPLICATIONS
FUNICULAR ARCHES – CONCENTRATED LOADS

 The sum total of all rotational effects produced about any such location by
the external and internal forces must be zero. In three hinged arch having a
non-funicular shape, this observation is true only at three hinged conditions.
 The external shear at a section is balanced by an internal resisting shear
force that is provided by vertical component of the internal axial force.
DESIGN OF ARCH STRUCTURES

The first important consideration when designing a brick arch is whether

the arch is structural or non-structural. That is, will the arch be required to
transfer vertical loads to abutments or will it be fully supported by a steel
angle. While this may seem obvious, confusion often develops because of
the many configurations of arch construction. To answer this question,
one must consider the two structural requirements necessary for a brick
arch to adequately carry vertical loads. First, vertical loads must be
carried by the arch and transferred to the abutments. Second, vertical load
and lateral thrust from the arch must be resisted by the abutments.
If either the arch or the abutment is deficient, the arch must be considered as
non-structural and the arch and its tributary load must be fully supported by a
steel angle or plates. Alternately, reinforcement may be used to increase the
strength of either or both the arch and the abutments.

[A] DESIGNING FOR LOAD VARIATIONS

 One of the most significant aspect of the modern arch is that it can be
designed to sustain some amount of variation in load without either changing
shape or experiencing damage.
 The shape of an arch is initially determined as a response to its primary
loading condition (e.g.: parabolic for uniformly distributed loads)
[B] SUPPORT ELEMENTS

A basic issue is that whether or not to absorb the horizontal thrusts by some
interior element (a tie rod or by the foundations). When it is functionally
possible the rods are frequently used.
The rod is a tension element and highly efficient to take up the outward arch
thrusts.
Usually there is less need to support an arch on the top of vertical elements,
the use of buttressing elements is generally preferable as head room has to be
maintained.
[C] CHOICE OF END CONDITIONS

 There are 3 primary types of arches used that are normally described in
terms of end conditions :-

Three hinged arch

Fixed end arch

Two hinged arch

Different end conditions are preferable with respect to different

phenomenon.
The presence of hinges is very important when supports, settlements and
thermal expansions are considered.
 Lateral Behavior Of Arches
 To deal with behaviour of arch in the lateral
direction, there are two methods-
 Provide fixed base connections
 Commonly used is by relying on members
placed transversely to the arch.
# a pair of arches is stabilized through use of
diagonal elements.
# interior arches are stabilized by being
connected to the end arches by connecting
transverse members

 Lateral buckling can be solved by laterally bracing arches with other

elements.
Flashing
 In residential construction, the presence of eaves, overhangs and small
wall areas above openings will reduce the potential for water penetration
at arch locations. However, flashing at an arch is just as important as over
any other wall opening.

 Flashing an arch can be difficult, depending on the type of arch and the
type of flashing material. Jack arches are the easiest to flash because they
are flat.

 Flashing may be placed below the arch on the window framing for
structural arches or above the steel lintel for non-structural arches.

 Alternately, flashing may be placed in the mortar joint above the arch or
keystone. Attachment of the flashing to the backing and end dams should
follow standard procedures.

 A segmental or semi-circular arch is more difficult to flash properly. This

is because flashing materials such as metal flashings are very rigid and
may be hard to work around a curved arch.
Construction Concerns
Both structural and non-structural arches must be properly supported
throughout construction. Premature removal of the temporary support for a
structural arch may result in a collapse of the arch. This is most often due to
the introduction of lateral thrust on the abutment before proper curing has
occurred. Out-of-plane bracing is required for all arches. In veneer
construction, it is provided by the backup material through the wall ties.
Arches that are not laterally braced may require increased masonry thickness
or reinforcements to carry loads perpendicular to the arch plane. Arches may
be constructed of special shapes or regular units. Mortar joints may be tapered
with uncut regular units.

Alternately, regular units may be cut to

maintain uniform joint thickness. In
general, use of specially shaped brick that
result in uniform joint thickness will be
more aesthetically pleasing. Many brick
manufacturers offer such specially-shaped
arch units.
FAILURE MODES
1. Rotation of the arch about the abutment-
Rotation occurs when tension develops in the arch. Tension can be
reduced by increasing the depth or rise of the arch. If tension
develops in the arch, reinforcement can be added to resist the tensile
forces.

2. Sliding of the arch at the skewback-

Sliding of the arch will depend on the angle of skewback (measured

from horizontal) and the vertical load carried by the arch.
Reinforcement can be added to avoid sliding at the skewback, as the
reinforcement acts as a shear key.

3. Crushing of the masonry-

Crushing will occur when compressive stresses in the arch exceed

the compressive strength of the brick masonry. If compressive
stresses are too large, the arch must be redesigned with a shorter
CORRECTIVE MEASURES AND
DESIGN CHANGES
 Arches have horizontal restraints and these are responsible for their
superior structural performance.

 During the night the arch shortens and during the day, it elongates. Similar
problems are created by moisture movement in concrete as the concrete
absorbs water and then dries out again. The stresses caused by temperature
and moisture movement in arches are often much greater than the stresses
caused by the live load, and thus they cannot be ignored.
EARLY CURVED ARCHES
 Structure was often made more stable by the
superimposition of additional weight on its
top, thus firming up the arch.

 SHAPE OF ARCH is not chosen for purely

structural reasons. The HALF CIRCLE,
used by the Romans, has convenient
construction properties that justify its use.

 Similarly, the POINTED gothic arch has

both visual & structural advantages, while
the arabic arch, typical of the mosques & of
some venetian architecture is ‘incorrect’
from a purely structural viewpoint.
 Notre-Dame Cathedral- Fine example
of Gothic architecture, built in mid-13th
century. Ornate west entrance shows the
use of arches in early building
construction. (Chartres, France)

Notre-Dame Cathedral- (South entrance)

Note the use of heavy ornate pinnacles to
increase the stability of the piers against
overturning from horizontal thrust
component of the arch. (Chartres, France)

King's College Chapel- One of the finest

examples of medieval architecture in England.
Built in 1446-1515, Fan vaulting in the ceiling is
essentially a series of pointed arches that require
external buttresses to react to the horizontal
thrust. (Cambridge, England)
APPLICATIONS & ADVANTAGES
 Roman & romanesque architecture are immediately recognized by the
circular arch motif. Romans were pioneers in the use of arches for bridges,
buildings, and aqueducts. This bridge, the Ponte Fabricio in Rome, spans
between the bank of the River Tiber and Tiber Island. Built in 64 B.C.
(Rome, Italy.)
 The gothic high rise arch & the buttresses required to absorb its thrust are
typical of one of the greatest achievements in architectural design.
 Roman circular arches spanned about 100’ & medieval stone bridges up to
180’.
 The NEW RIVER GORGE BRIDGE in west virginia, the longest steel
arch spans 1700’ (1986).
 The largest single arch span in reinforced concrete built to date is the
1280feet span KRK BRIDGE , yugoslavia.

 Combinations of trussed arches with cantilevered half arches connected by

trusses were built to span as much as 1800feet in THE QUEBEC BRIDGE
in 1917.

 To this day no other

structural element is as
commonly used to span
large distances as the
arch.
 Unit – 3
Propped Cantilever
and Fixed Beams
 Beam
• Structural member that carries a load that is
applied transverse to its length
• Used in floors and roofs
• May be called floor joists, stringers, floor
beams, or girders
 Chasing the Load
• The loads are initially
applied to a building
surface (floor or roof).
• Loads are transferred to
beams which transfer the
load to another building
component.
 Static Equilibrium
• The state of an object in which the forces
counteract each other so that the object
remains stationary
• A beam must be in static equilibrium to
successfully carry loads
 Static Equilibrium
• The loads applied to the beam (from the roof
or floor) must be resisted by forces from the
beam supports.
• The resisting forces are called reaction forces.

Applied Load

Reaction Reaction
Force Force
 Reaction Forces
• Reaction forces can be linear or rotational.
– A linear reaction is often called a shear reaction (F or R).
– A rotational reaction is often called a moment reaction
(M).
• The reaction forces must balance the applied forces.
 Beam Supports
The method of support dictates the types of
reaction forces from the supporting members.
 Beam Types
Simple

Continuous

Cantilever
Moment
(fixed at one end)
 Beam Types
Fixed

Moments at each end

Propped – Fixed at one end; supported at other

Overhang
 Simple Beams
Applied Load

BEAM
DIAGRAM

Applied Load

FREE BODY
DIAGRAM
Note: When there is no applied
horizontal load, you may
ignore the horizontal reaction
at the pinned connection.
Fundamental Principles of Equilibrium

The sum of all vertical forces acting

Fy 0 on a body must equal zero.
The sum of all horizontal forces
acting on a body must equal zero.
Fx 0 The sum of all moments (about any
point) acting on a body must equal
zero.

M p 0
 Moment
• A moment is created when a force tends to
rotate an object.
• The magnitude of the moment is equal to the
force times the perpendicular distance to the
force (moment arm).
F
M
 d  moment arm

M  F  d
 Calculating Reaction Forces
Sketch a beam diagram.
 Calculating Reaction Forces
Sketch a free body diagram.
 Calculating Reaction Forces
Use the equilibrium equations to find the magnitude of the reaction
forces.
– Horizontal Forces
– Assume to the right is positive

F x 0
 Calculating Reaction Forces
• Vertical Forces
• Assume up is positive +

F y 0 Equivalent
Concentrated Load

Equivalent
Concentrated Load
 Calculating Reaction Forces
• Moments
• Assume counter clockwise rotation is positive

+
( FyB  20 ft )  ( 4000 lb  6 ft )  ( 13, 000 lb 10 ft )  ( FyA  0 )  0

( 20 ft )FyB  24,000 ft  lb  130,000 ft  lb  0  0

( 20 ft )FyB  154,000 ft  lb
A B
154,000 ft  lb
FyB  0=
20 ft = 7700 lb
FyB  7,700 lb
 Calculating Reaction Forces
• Now that we know , we can use the
previous equation to find .

0 =
9300 lb = = 7700 lb
 Shear Diagram

0 =
9300 lb = = 7700 lb

Shear at a point along the

beam is equal to the
reactions (upward) minus
the applied loads
(downward) to the left of
that point.
 Moment Diagram

Kink in
moment
curve 1400lb
x  215
. ft
650 ft
lb
 Moment Diagram
4000 lb

P M
0 =

9300 lb = 2.15’

M  ( 4000lb )( 215 . ft )  ( 815

. ft )  ( 650 lbft )( 815 2 )  ( 9300lb )( 815
. ft
. ft )  0

M  M max  45608 ft  lb
Moment Diagram
Moment Diagram
A
B

= 2.15 ft
 Beam Analysis
• Example : simple beam with a uniform load,
w1= 1090 lb/ft
• Span = 18 feet

Test your understanding: Draw the shear and moment

diagrams for this beam and loading condition.
 Shear and Moment Diagrams

Shear

Moment

Max. Moment = 44,145l ft-lb Max. Shear = 9,810 lb

 Unit – 4
Slope Deflection &
Moment Distribution Method
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD - AN OVERVIEW

• 7.1 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD - AN OVERVIEW

• 7.2 INTRODUCTION
• 7.3 STATEMENT OF BASIC PRINCIPLES
• 7.4 SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
• 7.5 SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS
• 7.6 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD FOR STRUCTURES
HAVING NONPRISMATIC MEMBERS
 7.2 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD -
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC PRINCIPLES

7.1 Introduction
(Method developed by Prof. Hardy Cross in 1932)
The method solves for the joint moments in continuous beams and
rigid frames by successive approximation.

7.2 Statement of Basic Principles

Consider the continuous beam ABCD, subjected to the given loads,
as shown in Figure below. Assume that only rotation of joints occur
at B, C and D, and that no support displacements occur at B, C and
D. Due to the applied loads in spans AB, BC and CD, rotations
occur at B, C and D.
150 kN
15 kN/m 10 kN/m
3m

A B C D
I I I
8m 6m 8m
 In order to solve the problem in a successively approximating manner,
it can be visualized to be made up of a continued two-stage problems
viz., that of locking and releasing the joints in a continuous sequence.

7.2.1 Step I
The joints B, C and D are locked in position before any load is
applied on the beam ABCD; then given loads are applied on the
beam. Since the joints of beam ABCD are locked in position, beams
AB, BC and CD acts as individual and separate fixed beams,
subjected to the applied loads; these loads develop fixed end
moments.

-80 kN.m 15 kN/m -80 kN.m -112.5kN.m 10 kN/m

112.5 kN.m -53.33 kN.m 53.33 kN.m
3m
150 kN

A B C
8m B C D
6m 8m
 In beam AB
Fixed end moment at A = -wl2/12 = - (15)(8)(8)/12 = - 80 kN.m
Fixed end moment at B = +wl2/12 = +(15)(8)(8)/12 = + 80 kN.m

In beam BC
Fixed end moment at B = - (Pab2)/l2 = - (150)(3)(3)2/62
= -112.5 kN.m
Fixed end moment at C = + (Pab2)/l2 = + (150)(3)(3)2/62
= + 112.5 kN.m

In beam AB
Fixed end moment at C = -wl2/12 = - (10)(8)(8)/12 = - 53.33 kN.m
Fixed end moment at D = +wl2/12 = +(10)(8)(8)/12 = + 53.33kN.m
 7.2.2 Step II

Since the joints B, C and D were fixed artificially (to compute the the fixed-
end moments), now the joints B, C and D are released and allowed to rotate.
Due to the joint release, the joints rotate maintaining the continuous nature of
the beam. Due to the joint release, the fixed end moments on either side of
joints B, C and D act in the opposite direction now, and cause a net
unbalanced moment to occur at the joint.

150 kN
15 kN/m 10 kN/m
3m

A B C D
I I I
8m 6m 8m

Released moments -80.0 +112.5 -112.5 +53.33 -53.33

Net unbalanced moment -53.33
+32.5 -59.17
7.2.3 Step III

These unbalanced moments act at the joints and modify the joint moments at
B, C and D, according to their relative stiffnesses at the respective joints. The
joint moments are distributed to either side of the joint B, C or D, according to
their relative stiffnesses. These distributed moments also modify the moments
at the opposite side of the beam span, viz., at joint A in span AB, at joints B
and C in span BC and at joints C and D in span CD. This modification is
dependent on the carry-over factor (which is equal to 0.5 in this case); when
this carry over is made, the joints on opposite side are assumed to be
fixed.
7.2.4 Step IV
The carry-over moment becomes the unbalanced moment at the joints
to which they are carried over. Steps 3 and 4 are repeated till the carry-
over or distributed moment becomes small.
7.2.5 Step V
Sum up all the moments at each of the joint to obtain the joint
moments.
 7.3 SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
In order to understand the five steps mentioned in section 7.3, some words
need to be defined and relevant derivations made.

7.3.1 Stiffness and Carry-over Factors

Stiffness = Resistance offered by member to a unit displacement or rotation at a

point, for given support constraint conditions

MA MB A clockwise moment MA is
A applied at A to produce a +ve
B
A qA bending in beam AB. Find qA
and MB.
RA RB
L
E, I – Member properties
 Using method of consistent deformations

MA
A fAA
B B
A L L
A

1 L3
M A L2 
A   f AA
3EI
2EI
Applying the principle of
consistent deformation,
3M A
 R f 0 R  
A A AA A 2L
M A L R A L2 M A L 4EI M A 4EI
qA    M A  q A ; hence kq  
EI 2EI 4EI L qA L
Stiffness factor = kq = 4EI/L
 Considering moment MB,

MB + MA + RAL = 0
MB = MA/2= (1/2)MA

Carry - over Factor = 1/2

7.3.2 Distribution Factor

Distribution factor is the ratio according to which an externally applied
unbalanced moment M at a joint is apportioned to the various members
mating at the joint

+ ve moment M M
A B MBC C
A C
MBA

B I2
I1 MBD
L2
L1 I3
L3 At joint B
M - MBA-MBC-MBD = 0
D D
i.e., M = MBA + MBC + MBD

 4 E1 I1   4 E2 I 2   4 E3 I 3 
        q B
 L1   L2   L3 
 K BA  K BC  K BD q B
M M
 qB  
K BA  K BC  K BD   K
 K BA 
M BA  K BAq B    M  ( D.F ) BA M
K 
 
Similarly
 K 
M BC   BC  M  ( D.F ) BC M
K 
 
 K BD 
M BD   M  ( D.F ) BD M
K 
 
7.3.3 Modified Stiffness Factor
The stiffness factor changes when the far end of the beam is simply-
supported.

MA qA

A B

L
RA RB

As per earlier equations for deformation, given in Mechanics of Solids

text-books.
M AL
qA 
3EI
M 3EI  3  4 EI 
K AB  A    
qA L  4  L 
3
 ( K AB ) fixed
4
 7.4 SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS -

7.4.1 Solve the previously given problem by the moment

distribution method
7.4.1.1: Fixed end moments
wl 2 (15)(8) 2
M AB   M BA     80 kN.m
12 12
wl (150)(6)
M BC   M CB     112.5 kN.m
8 8
wl 2 (10)(8) 2
M CD   M DC     53.333 kN.m
12 12

7.4.1.2 Stiffness Factors (Unmodified Stiffness)

4EI (4)(EI )
K AB  K BA    0.5EI
L 8
4EI ( 4)(EI )
K BC  K CB    0.667EI
L 6
 4EI  4
K CD    EI  0.5EI
 8  8
4EI
K DC   0.5EI
8
7.4.1.3 Distribution Factors

K 0.5EI
DF  BA
  0. 0
AB K BA  K wall 0.5   (wall stiffness)
K BA 0.5EI
DFBA    0.4284
K K 0.5EI  0.667EI
BA BC
K 0.667EI
DF  BC
  0.5716
BC K BA  K BC 0.5EI  0.667EI
K CB 0.667EI
DF    0.5716
CB K K 0.667EI  0.500EI
CB CD
K 0.500EI
DF  CD
  0.4284
CD K K 0.667EI  0.500EI
CB CD
K
DF  DC  1.00
DC K
DC
7.4.1.4 Moment Distribution Table
Joint A B C D
Member AB BA BC CB CD DC
Distribution Factors 0 0.4284 0.5716 0.5716 0.4284 1
Computed end moments -80 80 -112.5 112.5 -53.33 53.33
Cycle 1
Distribution 13.923 18.577 -33.82 -25.35 -53.33
Carry-over moments 6.962 -16.91 9.289 -26.67 -12.35
Cycle 2
Distribution 7.244 9.662 9.935 7.446 12.35
Carry-over moments 3.622 4.968 4.831 6.175 3.723
Cycle 3
Distribution -2.128 -2.84 -6.129 -4.715 -3.723
Carry-over moments -1.064 -3.146 -1.42 -1.862 -2.358
Cycle 4
Distribution 1.348 1.798 1.876 1.406 2.358
Carry-over moments 0.674 0.938 0.9 1.179 0.703
Cycle 5
Distribution -0.402 -0.536 -1.187 -0.891 -0.703

Summed up -69.81 99.985 -99.99 96.613 -96.61 0

moments
 7.4.1.5 Computation of Shear Forces

15 kN/m 10 kN/m
150 kN

B C
A D
I I I
8m 3m 3m 8m

Simply-supported 60 60 75 75 40 40
reaction
End reaction
due to left hand FEM 8.726 -8.726 16.665 -16.67 12.079 -12.08

End reaction
due to right hand FEM -12.5 12.498 -16.1 16.102 0 0

Summed-up 56.228 63.772 75.563 74.437 53.077 27.923

moments
 7.4.1.5 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

52.077
75.563
2.792 m
56.23

27.923
3.74 m 74.437
63.77

S. F. D.
Mmax=+38.985 kN.m
Max=+ 35.59 kN.m
126.704 31.693
35.08

48.307
-69.806 3.74 m
84.92 98.297 2.792 m

-99.985 -96.613
B. M. D
Simply-supported bending moments at center of span

Mcenter in AB = (15)(8)2/8 = +120 kN.m

Mcenter in BC = (150)(6)/4 = +225 kN.m

Mcenter in AB = (10)(8)2/8 = +80 kN.m

 7.5 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD FOR
NONPRISMATIC MEMBER (CHAPTER 12)

The section will discuss moment distribution method to analyze

beams and frames composed of nonprismatic members. First
the procedure to obtain the necessary carry-over factors,
stiffness factors and fixed-end moments will be outlined. Then
the use of values given in design tables will be illustrated.
Finally the analysis of statically indeterminate structures using
the moment distribution method will be outlined
 7.5.1 Stiffness and Carry-over Factors

Use moment-area method to find the stiffness and carry-over factors of

the non-prismatic beam.

PA MA
MB
A

B


qA
PA  ( K A ) AB  A M A  Kq AB q A
M B  C AB M A
CAB= Carry-over factor of moment MA from A to B
 qA (= 1.0)
MA MB qB (= 1.0)

B A
B

MA(KA) MA=CBAMB
MB=CABMA =CBAKB MB(KB)
=CABKA
(a) (b)

Use of Betti-Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem requires that the work

done by loads in case (a) acting through displacements in case (b) is
equal to work done by loads in case (b) acting through displacements in
case (a)

M A (0)  M B (1)  M A (1.0)  M B (0.0)

CAB K A  CBA K B
 7.5.2 Tabulated Design Tables

Graphs and tables have been made available to determine fixed-end

moments, stiffness factors and carry-over factors for common
structural shapes used in design. One such source is the Handbook of
Frame constants published by the Portland Cement Association,
Chicago, Illinois, U. S. A. A portion of these tables, is listed here as
Table 1 and 2

Nomenclature of the Tables

aA ab = ratio of length of haunch (at end A and B to the length
of span
b = ratio of the distance (from the concentrated load to end A)
to the length of span
hA, hB= depth of member at ends A and B, respectively
hC = depth of member at minimum section
 Ic = moment of inertia of section at minimum section = (1/12)B(hc)3,
with B as width of beam
kAB, kBC = stiffness factor for rotation at end A and B, respectively
L = Length of member
MAB, MBA = Fixed-end moments at end A and B, respectively; specified in
tables for uniform load w or concentrated force P

hA  hC hB  hC
rA  rB 
hC hC

k AB EI C k BA EI C
Also KA  , KB 
L L
 Unit - 5
Influence Lines For Statically
Determinate Structures

142
 3. INFLUENCE LINES FOR STATICALLY DETERMINATE
STRUCTURES - AN OVERVIEW

• Introduction - What is an influence line?

• Influence lines for beams
• Qualitative influence lines - Muller-Breslau Principle
• Influence lines for floor girders
• Influence lines for trusses
• Live loads for bridges
• Maximum influence at a point due to a series of
concentrated loads
• Absolute maximum shear and moment
143
 3.1 INTRODUCTION TO INFLUENCE LINES
• Influence lines describe the variation of an analysis variable (reaction,
shear force, bending moment, twisting moment, deflection, etc.) at a point (say at
C in Figure 6.1) ..
… …

C
A B
• Why do we need the influence lines? For instance, when loads pass over a structure,
say a bridge, one needs to know when the maximum values of
shear/reaction/bending-moment will occur at a point so that the section may be
designed

• Notations:
– Normal Forces - +ve forces cause +ve displacements in +ve directions
– Shear Forces - +ve shear forces cause clockwise rotation & - ve shear force
causes anti-clockwise rotation

– Bending Moments: +ve bending moments cause “cup holding water”

deformed shape 144
 3.2 INFLUENCE LINES FOR BEAMS

• Procedure:
(1) Allow a unit load (either 1b, 1N, 1kip, or 1 tonne) to move over beam
from left to right
(2) Find the values of shear force or bending moment, at the point under
consideration, as the unit load moves over the beam from left to right
(3) Plot the values of the shear force or bending moment, over the length of
the beam, computed for the point under consideration

145
3.3 MOVING CONCENTRATED LOAD

3.3.1 Variation of Reactions RA and RB as functions of load position

1
x
A B

C
10 ft

3 ft
MA =0
(RB)(10) – (1)(x) = 0
RB = x/10
RA = 1-RB
1 = 1-x/10
x

A B
C
RA=1-x/10 RB = x/10

A
C
RA=1-x/10 RB = x/10 146
RA occurs only at A; RB occurs only at B

1
Influence
1-x/10
line for RA
x 10-x

x/10 1.0
Influence line
for RB
x 10-x

147
3.3.2 Variation of Shear Force at C as a function of load position
0 < x < 3 ft (unit load to the left of C)

x 1.0

C B
A
3 ft

RA = 1-x/10 RB = x/10
10 ft

x/10

Shear force at C is –ve, VC =-x/10

148
3 < x < 10 ft (unit load to the right of C)

C B
A
3 ft

RA = 1-x/10 RB = x/10

RA = 1-x/10 C

1 Shear force at C is +ve = 1-x/10

0.7
+ve

-ve 0.3
Influence line for shear at C 1

149
3.3.3 Variation of Bending Moment at C as a function of load position
0 < x < 3.0 ft (Unit load to the left of C)

C B
A
3 ft

RA = x/10
RA = 1-x/10
10 ft

x/10 x/10

(x/10)(7) (x/10)(7)
C

x/10 x/10

Bending moment is +ve at C

150
3 < x < 10 ft (Unit load to the right of C)

1
x ft

C B
A
3 ft

RA = 1-x/10 RA = x/10

10 ft

1-x/10

(1-x/10)(3) 1-x/10

1-x/10
(1-x/10)(3) (1-x/10)(3)
C

Moment at C is +ve

(1-7/10)(3)=2.1 kip-ft
Influence line for bending
Moment at C
+ve

151
 3.4 QUALITATIVE INFLUENCED LINES - MULLER-BRESLAU’S
PRINCIPLE

• The principle gives only a procedure to determine of the influence line of a

parameter for a determinate or an indeterminate structure
• But using the basic understanding of the influence lines, the magnitudes
of the influence lines also can be computed
• In order to draw the shape of the influence lines properly, the capacity of the
beam to resist the parameter investigated (reaction, bending moment, shear
force, etc.), at that point, must be removed
• The principle states that:The influence line for a parameter (say, reaction, shear
or bending moment), at a point, is to the same scale as the deflected shape of
the beam, when the beam is acted upon by that parameter.
– The capacity of the beam to resist that parameter, at that point, must be
removed.
– Then allow the beam to deflect under that parameter
– Positive directions of the forces are the same as before
152
3.5 PROBLEMS - 3.5.1 Influence Line for a Determinate Beam by
Muller-Breslau’s Method

Influence line for Reaction at A

153
 3.5.2 Influence Lines for a Determinate Beam by Muller-
Breslau’s Method

Influence Line for

Influence Line for Shear at C
Bending Moment at C

154
3.5.3 Influence Lines for an Indeterminate Beam by Muller-
Breslau’s Method

Influence Line for

Shear at E

Influence Line for Bending Moment at E 155

 3.6 INFLUENCE LINE FOR FLOOR GIRDERS
Floor systems are constructed as shown in figure below,

156
3.6 INFLUENCE LINES FOR FLOOR GIRDERS (Cont’d)

157
 3.6 INFLUENCE LINES FOR FLOOR GIRDERS (Cont’d)

3.6.1 Force Equilibrium Method:

Draw the Influence Lines for: (a) Shear in panel CD of
the girder; and (b) the moment at E.

x
A´ B´ C´ D´ E´ F´

A B C D E F

5 spaces @ 10´ each = 50 ft

158
3.6.2 Place load over region A´B´ (0 < x < 10 ft)
Find the shear over panel CD
VCD= - x/50
At x=0, VCD = 0
At x=10, VCD = -0.2 C D F
Shear is -ve RF=x/50

Find moment at E = +(x/50)(10)=+x/5 F

E
At x=0, ME=0
At x=10, ME=+2.0 +ve moment RF=x/50

159
 Continuation of the Problem

-ve
0.2

I. L. for VCD

2.0
+ve

I. L. for ME

160
 Problem Continued -
3.6.3 Place load over region B´C´ (10 ft < x < 20ft)

VCD = -x/50 kip

At x = 10 ft
VCD = -0.2
C F
At x = 20 ft D
VCD = -0.4 Shear is -ve
RF = x/50

ME = +(x/50)(10) D F
E
= +x/5 kip.ft
Moment is +ve RF = x/50
At x = 10 ft, ME = +2.0 kip.ft
At x = 20 ft, ME = +4.0 kip.ft

161
x
B´ C´

-ve
0.2 0.4

I. L. for VCD

+ve 4.0
2.0

I. L. for ME

162
 3.6.4 Place load over region C´D´ (20 ft < x < 30 ft)

When the load is at C’ (x = 20 ft)

C D
Shear is -ve
RF=20/50
VCD = -0.4 kip =0.4

When the load is at D´ (x = 30 ft)

A
B C D
RA= (50 - x)/50 Shear is +ve
VCD= + 20/50
= + 0.4 kip
163
ME = + (x/50)(10) = + x/5

Load P
x
E
+ve moment RF= x/50
D´
A´ B´ C´

A B C +ve
0.2
-ve 0.4 D

I. L. for VCD

+ve

2.0 4.0 6.0

I. L. for ME
164
 3.6.5 Place load over region D´E´ (30 ft < x < 40 ft)

VCD= + (1-x/50) kip

A E
B C D

RA= (1-x/50) Shear is +ve

ME= +(x/50)(10)
= + x/5 kip.ft
E
Moment is +ve
RF= x/50
At x = 30 ft, ME = +6.0
At x = 40 ft, ME = +8.0

165
 Problem continued

A´ B´ C´ D´ E´

0.4 +ve 0.2

I. L. for VCD
8.0
+ve 6.0
2.0 4.0

I. L. for ME

166
 3.6.6 Place load over region E´F´ (40 ft < x < 50 ft)

VCD = + 1-x/50 At x = 40 ft, VCD= + 0.2

At x = 50 ft, VCD = 0.0

x 1.0

A
B E
C D
RA= 1-x/50 Shear is +ve
ME= + (1-x/50)(40) = (50-x)*40/50 = +(4/5)(50-x)

A
B C D E F
Moment is +ve
RA=1-x/50 At x = 40 ft, ME= + 8.0 kip.ft
At x = 50 ft, ME = 0.0 167
 x 1.0

A´ B´ C´ D´ E´ F´

0.4
+ve 0.2

-ve 0.4
0.2
I. L. for VCD

2.0 6.0 +ve 8.0

4.0

I. L. for ME

168
 3.7 INFLUENCE LINES FOR TRUSSES

Draw the influence lines for: (a) Force in Member GF; and
(b) Force in member FC of the truss shown below in Figure below

G F E

20 ft
10(3)1/3
600
A D
B C

20 ft 20 ft 20 ft

169
 Problem 3.7 continued -
3.7.1 Place unit load over AB

(i) To compute GF, cut section (1) - (1)

(1)
G F E

1-x/20 1 x/20
x
600
A
B C D
(1)
RA= 1- x/60 RD=x/60

Taking moment about B to its right,

At x = 0,
(RD)(40) - (FGF)(103) = 0
FGF = 0
FGF = (x/60)(40)(1/ 103) = x/(15 3) (-ve)
At x = 20 ft
FGF = - 0.77

170
 PROBLEM 3.7 CONTINUED -
(ii) To compute FFC, cut section (2) - (2)
(2)
G F E

x 1
x/20
1-x/20 300
reactions at nodes 600

A B C D
(2)
RA =1-x/60 RD=x/60
Resolving vertically over the right hand section
FFC cos300 - RD = 0
FFC = RD/cos30 = (x/60)(2/3) = x/(30 3) (-ve)

171
At x = 0, FFC = 0.0
At x = 20 ft, FFC = -0.385

20 ft
I. L. for FGF
-ve
0.77

-ve I. L. for FFC

0.385

172
 PROBLEM 3.7 Continued -
3.7.2 Place unit load over BC (20 ft < x <40 ft)

[Section (1) - (1) is valid for 20 < x < 40 ft]

(i) To compute FGF use section (1) -(1)

(1)
G F E

(40-x)/20
x 1 (x-20)/20

reactions at nodes
A D
20 ft B C
(1)
RA=1-x/60 (x-20) (40-x) RD=x/60

Taking moment about B, to its left,

(RA)(20) - (FGF)(103) = 0
FGF = (20RA)/(103) = (1-x/60)(2 /3)

At x = 20 ft, FFG = 0.77 (-ve)

At x = 40 ft, FFG = 0.385 (-ve)
173
 PROBLEM 6.7 Continued -
(ii) To compute FFC, use section (2) - (2)
Section (2) - (2) is valid for 20 < x < 40 ft
G F (2)
E
(40-x)/20 (x-20)/20

1 FFC
x
300
600

A B C D
(2)
RA =1-x/60 RD=x/60

Resolving force vertically, over the right hand section,

FFC cos30 - (x/60) +(x-20)/20 = 0
FFC cos30 = x/60 - x/20 +1= (1-2x)/60 (-ve)
FFC = ((60 - 2x)/60)(2/3) -ve

174
At x = 20 ft, FFC = (20/60)(2/ 3) = 0.385 (-ve)
At x = 40 ft, FFC = ((60-80)/60)(2/ 3) = 0.385 (+ve)

-ve

0.77 0.385
I. L. for FGF

0.385

-ve

I. L. for FFC

175
 PROBLEM 3.7 Continued -
3.7.3 Place unit load over CD (40 ft < x <60 ft)

(i) To compute FGF, use section (1) - (1)

(1)
G F E
(x-40) 1 (60-x)
x
(60-x)/20 (x-40)/20

A D
20 ft B C
(1)
reactions at nodes
RA=1-x/60 RD=x/60

Take moment about B, to its left,

(FFG)(103) - (RA)(20) = 0
FFG = (1-x/60)(20/103) = (1-x/60)(2/3) -ve

At x = 40 ft, FFG = 0.385 kip (-ve)

At x = 60 ft, FFG = 0.0
176
 PROBLEM 3.7 Continued -
(ii) To compute FFG, use section (2) - (2)

reactions at nodes
G F E
(60-x)/20
(x-40)/20
FFC
1
x
300
600

A B C D
x-40 60-x
(2)
RA =1-x/60 RD=x/60

Resolving forces vertically, to the left of C,

(RA) - FFC cos 30 = 0

FFC = RA/cos 30 = (1-x/10) (2/3) +ve

177
At x = 40 ft, FFC = 0.385 (+ve)
At x = 60 ft, FFC = 0.0

-ve

0.385 I. L. for FGF

0.770

+ve

-ve
0.385
I. L. for FFC

178
 3.8 MAXIMUM SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
UNDER A SERIES OF CONCENTRATED LOADS

P1 P2 P3 P4
a1 a2 a3

x
PR= resultant load

P1 P2 P3 P4
a1 a2 x
a3
C.L.
B C D
A E
x
L/2 PR= resultant load RE
RA L

Taking moment about A,

RE  L = PR [L/2 - ( x  x)]
PR
RE  ( L / 2  x  x) 179
L
 Taking moment about E,
R A  L  PR  [ L / 2  ( x  x)]
PR
RA  ( L / 2  x  x)
L

M D  R A  ( L / 2  x)  P1 (a1  a2 )  P2  a2
PR
 ( L / 2  x  x)( L / 2  x)  P1 ( a1  a2 )  P2  (a2 )
L
dM D
0
dx
P P
0  R ( L / 2  x  x)  R ( L / 2  x)(1)
L L
P
 R [( L / 2)  x  x  ( L / 2)  x]
L
i.e., x  2 x  0
x  2x
x
x
2

The centerline must divide the distance between the resultant of

all the loads in the moving series of loads and the load considered
under which maximum bending moment occurs.
180