International Journal of Technology (2018) 8: 1579-1587

ISSN 2086-9614 © IJTech 2018

ASSESSMENT OF COMPOSTING TECHNOLOGIES FOR ORGANIC WASTE

MANAGEMENT

Junidah Abdul Shukor1, Mohd Faizal Omar1*, Maznah Mat Kasim1, Mohd Hafiz Jamaludin2,
Mohd Azrul Naim3
1
School of Quantitative Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Agro Based Industry, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, 17600 Jeli, Kelantan, Malaysia
3
Kulliyyah of Science, International Islamic University Malaysia, 25200 Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia

(Received: July 2018 / Revised: September 2018 / Accepted: December 2018)

ABSTRACT
Organic waste disposal in landfills has created various environmental issues, such as
greenhouse gas emissions and leachate. Awareness of this issue has resulted in diverting landfill
to compost. Thus, there is a need to develop an analytical tool to select the best composting
technology. Therefore, this paper reviews a range of assessment steps designed to evaluate
specific sustainability criteria (environmental, social, economic, and technical) for organic
waste management to select the most suitable composting technology. Due to the complexity of
conflicting criteria and alternatives in composting technology, a multi-criteria decision-making
(MCDM) technique is suggested to ensure the quality of the decision-making process. As an
additional benefit, the synthesis results via the MCDM tool will be more credible when seeking
validation by stakeholders.

Keywords: Composting; Composting criteria; Decision making; Organic waste

1. INTRODUCTION
Organic waste or green waste can be defined as organic material that is easily biodegradable
(Kadir et al., 2016). Organic material is derived from natural sources. Essentially, any residual
kitchen waste (vegetable peelings, food, tea bags, and egg shells), agro-waste (food and
beverage processing waste, dairy products, animal waste, and crops), grass clippings, dried
leaves, and timber can degrade naturally (Hartono et al., 2015; Ng & Yusoff, 2015; Kadir et al.,
2016). The process of degradation is performed by microbial (fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes,
and protozoa) and invertebrate (insects and earthworm) organisms, which digest and break
down the organic matter (Basri et al., 2005; Fauziah & Agamuthu, 2009; Kadir et al., 2016).
Due to the ability of organic waste to degrade naturally, dumping it into landfills is the most
common waste disposal method. Unfortunately, various studies have indicated the undesirable
environmental impacts of using landfills to manage the disposal of organic waste (Manfredi et
al., 2009; Fauziah & Agamuthu, 2010). Leachate contamination in surface and groundwater,
infestation by pests, and the emission of greenhouse gases are some effects of organic waste
disposed into landfills (Manfredi et al., 2009; Fauziah & Agamuthu, 2010). These effects
contribute to global warming and environmental pollution.
The awareness of environmental issues has encouraged society to find other alternatives to
manage the organic waste disposal process instead of landfills. The composting process can be
used for biological decomposition, and this technology has the potential to manage organic
*
Corresponding author’s email: [email protected], Tel. +604-928-4772, Fax. +604-928-4756
Permalink/DOI: https://doi.org/10.14716/ijtech.v9i8.2754
1580 Assessment of Composting Technologies for Organic Waste Management

waste, transform it into valuable agricultural products, and minimize pollution (Basri et al.,
2005; Hartono et al., 2015; Kadir et al., 2016). However, several important aspects need to be
considered before implement composting technology. These include sources of waste feedstock
in terms of quantity (small scale like home composting, medium scale, or large scale
composting) and quality (moisture content and nutrient content) (Basri et al., 2005; Fauziah &
Agamuthu, 2009; Zabaleta et al., 2014; Hartono et al., 2015; Ng & Yusoff, 2015), technology
set-up in terms of site location and area required (Basri et al., 2005; Zabaleta et al., 2014),
required operational skill, and capital and operating costs (Basri et al., 2005; Malakahmad et al.,
2017). Besides these, the quality of the compost end-product also needs to be taken into
consideration (Zabaleta et al., 2014). Most of these aspects or criteria vary with composting
technology. Composting can be performed using different methods or systems, such as the
static pile system (Ilham & Esa, 2017; Lim et al., 2017), windrow system (Zaini et al., 2015;
Ilham & Esa, 2017), in-vessel system (Zaini et al., 2015; Ilham & Esa, 2017; Malakahmad et
al., 2017), and vermicomposting system (Fauziah & Agamuthu, 2009).
Therefore, selecting the best composting technology is not a straightforward process. Specific
decisions must be made based on these various criteria. The decision maker needs to understand
the assessment steps required to make the best decision and to identify the specific weaknesses
and strengths of that decision. This procedure can decrease the probability of mistakes and risk
during the process planning and execution phases. Additionally, assessment activities will help
the decision maker to evaluate each technology proposed so that the optimal alternative can be
identified (Zurbrügg et al., 2014; Abdullah, 2015).

2. METHODS
This paper critically reviews some assessment steps for decision making when choosing
between various courses of action. Each alternative can be viewed from different dimensions
that represent various criteria. These criteria can be arranged in a hierarchical manner. Some of
these criteria are associated with several sub-criteria. Based on the sustainability of each aspect
or criteria, the decision maker can then identify the best tool or method (Triantaphyllou et al.,
1998; Zurbrügg et al., 2014).
2.1. Assessment Criteria
Assessing the available composting techniques for organic waste management is complex and
complicated. While most waste management models consider environmental and economic
aspects, very few consider social and technical aspects. The emphasis in social and technical
aspects in the decision-making process has developed in recent years (Ghinea & Gavrilescu,
2010). Therefore, to ensure the sustainability of the decision support framework regarding
composting technology for organic waste management, all four criteria (environmental,
economic, social, and technical) need to be evaluated (Zurbrügg et al., 2014; Zaini et al., 2015;
Bababola, 2015; Coelho et al., 2017). Table 1 shows a simplified set of criteria and sub-criteria
as a basis of assessment for selecting a suitable composting technology based on previous
studies. Alternative criteria and sub-criteria can be determined from many sources, such as an
expert in the field, the literature, and secondary information (Samah et al., 2010; Georgiadis et
al., 2013).
Shukor et al. 1581

Table 1 The criteria and sub-criteria description and overview

Study Description
Food and
Solid waste Solid waste
biodegradable waste Solid waste
management management Organic waste
management management
(Nouri et al., 2014); (Samah et al., composting (Zaini
(Bababola, 2015); (Louis et al., 2007);
Waste management 2010); et al., 2015);
Waste management Waste management
Criteria Sub-Criteria Description alternatives: Waste management Waste management
alternatives: alternatives: landfill,
incinerator, landfill, alternatives: alternatives:
Anaerobic incinerator,
composting, and incinerator, windrow and in-
digestion, composting, and
recycling. composting, and vessel composting.
incinerator, and transfer.
LCA and MCDM recycling. MCDM (AHP)
composting. MCDM
(TOPSIS) MCDM (AHP)
MCDM (AHP)
Odor (air pollution) Bad odor can cause uncomfortable * * * *
conditions and attract pest (ecosystem
quality)
Pathogens Easily grow inside the organic waste * *
Environmental if treatment process is not properly
Protecting public health, managed
natural resources, and Water pollution Leachate can harm rivers located near * * * *
environmental caused by leachate the composting area
sustainability Water supply for The distance of centre from water * *
composting process sources, and the weather
Public health Effect of process on nearby * * * *
businesses or residents
Resources Additional energy requirements * *
Capital costs Costs for setting up the * * * * *
treatment/management facility
Economy
Operation costs Costs needed during the composting * * * *
Costs and benefits
process
needed to use the
Marketing of end The end product can bring profit and * * *
technology
product added value for customers
Recovery rate Assessed as secondary raw materials * *
Authorities Management group responsible for * * * *
Social
SWM
To improve working
Labor The workers who perform * * *
conditions, earnings,
treatment/manage the process onsite
and access to social
Civil awareness Responsibility and participation in the *
services
waste management program
Machine/ Needed to operate the treatment * *
Technical equipment facility
The level and ability of Maintenance Including machine, equipment, and *
technology applied site conditions
during the process Time to complete Duration to complete the process or * *
the process amount that can be processed
LCA: Life cycle analysis, MCDM: Multi criteria decision-making, TOPSIS: Technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution, AHP: Analytic Hierarchy Process, SWM: Solid waste management
1582 Assessment of Composting Technologies for Organic Waste Management

2.2. Assessment Tools

In solid waste management, there are several types of decision support frameworks; the most
widely used are life-cycle assessment (LCA), cost-benefit analysis (CBA), and multi-criteria
decision making (MCDM) (Consultant, 2012; Zurbrügg et al., 2014; Coelho et al., 2017). LCA
is an analytical assessment of the environmental performance of products or services over their
whole life cycle, including resource consumption, production, utilization, and disposal
(Zurbrügg et al., 2014). Therefore, LCA only considers potential environmental aspects when
evaluating waste management systems (Allesch & Brunner, 2014; Nouri et al., 2014) and
ignores other decision-making options, such as the economic and social effects.
CBA is a monetary valuation method, the main goal of which is to maximize economic
efficiency (Zurbrügg et al., 2014). CBA analyzes costs and benefits, including economic
aspects, natural resources, and environmental impacts due to waste minimization, waste
recycling, and the by-products of waste treatment (Ghinea & Gavrilescu, 2010).
In contrast, assessment via MCDM considers more than just two pillars of sustainability,
focusing on environmental, economic, social, and technical aspects (Zaini et al., 2015; Coelho
et al., 2017). Because it analyzes multiple conflicting criteria, MCDM is regarded as a complete
method and the most effective decision support framework when evaluating existing or
potential alternatives (Allesch & Brunner, 2014; Corelho et al., 2017).
2.3. Multi-Criteria Decision Making
MCDM is a decision support framework that has the ability to assess and evaluate multiple
conflicting criteria (as shown in Table 1) for decision making in organic waste management.
MCDM utilizes a multi-level hierarchical structure consisting of objective criteria, sub-criteria,
and alternatives for the selection of an appropriate waste management technology. In fact,
MCDM provides a convenient, faster way to make the most accurate decision.
One potential MCDM tool that can be applied in the assessment method is the pairwise
comparison of each alternative to the others for all proposed criteria. Each MCDM tool uses a
different methodology to conduct a pairwise comparison (Martowibowo & Riyanto, 2011). To
develop an MCDM model, the following four steps are commonly used:
1. Determine the work objective:
The goal and scope of the assessment must be defined based on the issues or problems
collected from stakeholders, such as the government, operators, citizens, and
researchers. There are two types of objective:
(i) The goal of the overall assessment affects which methodology should be chosen for
the evaluation.
(ii) The objective of the investigation refers to each criteria and sub-criteria.
2. Defining the theoretical framework:
The theories and research concepts influence the scope of assessment, which can assist
with selecting the criteria and alternatives. Details on the issue are gathered by
reviewing the literature (books, journals, reports, etc.) and interviewing experts and
stakeholders (Samah et al., 2010).
3. Determining the relevant criteria, sub-criteria, and possible solutions or alternatives
(Allesch & Brunner, 2014):
Each key aspect or criterion is broken down into sub-criteria based on experts’ and
stakeholders’ judgements (Georgiadis et al., 2013).
4. Data collection and data processing:
Each criterion must be evaluated via quantitative or qualitative indicators, and the
Shukor et al. 1583

experts, decision makers, and stakeholders will act as the evaluators. They will use
numerical values to represent the weight or degree of importance of each criterion
(Nasrin & Susanna, 2013; Zaini et al., 2015) when assessing the technologies.
Sometimes data normalization is necessary for comparability among indicators when
presented with different units or scales (Coelho et al., 2017). The results of the data
analysis can be presented as a ranking of criteria according to their importance (Nasrin
& Susanna, 2013; Zaini et al., 2015).

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Regarding composting technology for organic waste management, various alternatives have
been identified, such as the static pile, windrow, in-vessel, and vermicomposting systems. By
using MCDM, two or more alternative approaches can be proposed and various angles based on
the four key aspects (environmental, economic, social, and technical) can be gathered in order
to achieve the assessment objective. The comparison and ranking of alternatives based on
criteria and sub-criteria should be analyzed with local stakeholders and experts via qualitative
and/or quantitative analysis.
3.1. Environmental Aspects
3.1.1. Air pollution
Bad odors can cause uncomfortable conditions and attract pests (Zaini et al., 2015). A good
composting operation should not generate offensive odors (Kalbasi et al., 2006). Odors result
from specific compounds that are produced before materials arrive at the composting site,
during composting treatment, or during compost handling and preparation. Bad odors are
caused by the high acidity of the compounds, uncontrolled temperatures, aeration, moisture, and
bulk density/porosity of compounds during treatment (Ma et al., 2013).
3.1.2. Water pollution
Leachate is a dark brown liquid that is released during the composting process when humid
compounds are dissolved from the compost. Leachate is rich in soluble nutrients. Therefore,
leachate cannot evaporate as steam, but it will drain down towards the ground (Amin et al.,
2014). Leachate can harm rivers, lakes, or ponds located near the composting facility (Kalbasi
et al., 2006; Zaini et al., 2015).
3.1.3. Pathogens
It is very easy for pathogens to grow inside the organic waste if the composting process is not
properly managed (Zaini et al., 2015). These bacterial pathogens can be killed during
degradation of organic compounds by keeping the temperature in compost systems between
45°C and 70°C (Sunar et al., 2009).
3.1.4. Public health
Airborne particles emitted from composting operations, especially from large-scale composting
facilities, can impact the health of workers and nearby residents. These airborne particles, also
known as organic dust, can come from live or dead bacteria, may be toxins produced by
microbes, or can be particles of plant or animal origin. The health effects include respiratory
symptoms, mucosal membrane irritation, skin disease, and inflammatory and immune system
response (Harrison, 2007; Samah et al., 2010).
3.1.5. Water supply
During the composting process, the reactivity of microbes in the composting system cause
increased temperatures and decreased moisture content (Rama & Vasanthy, 2014; Anwar et al.,
2015; Zaini et al., 2015). Therefore, this process is controlled by adding water (Ilham & Esa,
2017).
1584 Assessment of Composting Technologies for Organic Waste Management

3.2. Economic Aspects

3.2.1. Variable costs
Variable costs are needed to develop the composting facility (Zaini et al., 2015). including
operational costs. These also include the costs needed during the treatment process and depend
on the composting technology, transportation costs, and labor costs (Kalbasi et al., 2006; Zaini
et al., 2015). The scale of the operation affects the variable costs.
3.2.2. Fixed costs
Fixed costs are the initial investments in the machinery/system, facilities, and equipment
needed for waste handling. These costs depend on the types and size of the system (Kalbasi et
al., 2006).
3.2.3. Marketability
Composting provides a nature-based business opportunity to generate income from its by-
product, bio-fertilizer (Ilham & Esa, 2017). The compost can be applied directly to soil and
contains nutrients such as potassium, nitrate, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and chloride to
encourage plant growth (Khan & Ishaq, 2011). Therefore, its marketability depends on the
volume and quality of compost as well as the consumer demand.
3.3. Social Aspects
3.3.1. Civil awareness
Community involvement in waste segregation before disposal is poor (Samah et al., 2010).
However, according to Ilham and Esa (2017), some communities in urban areas are aware of
this issue and have been practicing waste separation and setting up composting centers within
their neighborhoods.
3.3.2. Authorities
A management group must be responsible for the solid waste management (Zaini et al., 2015).
Legislation can be used to categorize solid waste in terms of recyclable waste, garden waste,
and residual waste, which can modify societal attitudes (Ilham & Esa, 2017).
3.3.3. Labor
Labor includes the workers who oversee the composting process onsite (Zaini et al., 2015).
Among others, this study also considered determine what sort of training will be necessary to
perform the waste management, law and regulation for works, and occupational safety and
health (Bababola, 2015).
3.4. Technical Aspects
3.4.1. Machinery/Equipment
The machinery should be easy to use and operate (Zaini et al., 2015). However, the type of
machinery depends on composting system, waste capacity, and transportation system to manage
waste from residents/businesses to location of centre and also the equipment to handle the
compost (Kalbasi et al., 2006).
3.4.2. Maintenance
Maintenance depends on composting system includes any needed aspect troubleshoot for waste
management, such as machines and equipment operation, and site conditions management, in
order to ensure the composting operation performs safely (Zaini et al., 2015). It involves cost
evaluation. There are options to done internally or contract out to a maintenance company
especially for machinery, equipment and transportation maintenance.
3.4.3. Location
When determining location, considerations must be made for the distance from the
system/facilities to the waste generation site (should involve minimal travel and be convenient
for material handling). The area where the system is set up should be away from sensitive water
Shukor et al. 1585

resources such as streams, ponds, and wells. The size of the system should be based on waste
capacity and the system set-up location (Kalbasi et al., 2006).
3.4.4. Duration of processing time
A shorter period to complete the composting process is preferred in order to reduce large
volumes of waste in a shorter time (Zaini et al., 2015). The processing time also affects the
operational costs (Kalbasi et al., 2006).
3.4.5. Processing conditions
The type of waste affects the quality and quantity of the compost, and it is essential to ensure
that the nutrient contents of the compost are valuable for agricultural use (Anwar et al., 2015).
Most widely used co-composted materials are animal manures together with agro-waste in
order to reduce heavy metals reduction and gain a maximum nutrient content in compost which
is suitable for soil amendment.
3.4.6. Compost quality
In terms of nutrient contents, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, sulfur, sodium, and magnesium
are required for agriculture (Khan & Ishaq, 2011; Rama & Vasanthy, 2014). Different
composting methods affect the nutrient status of the compost and its effects on soil content
(Kadir et al., 2016).

4. CONCLUSION
MCDM can be applied in any discipline to make effective and accurate decisions based on various
evaluation criteria. This study focused on how the MCDM approach can be used to choose the best
composting technology for organic waste. However, the assessment step (basic step as mention in
section 2.3, the four steps commonly used: (1) Determine of work objective; (2) Define theoretical
framework; (3) Determine relevant of criteria, sub-criteria, and alternative or possible solution; and (4)
Data collection and data processing) is fundamental not specifically for technology selection, but rather
expansion knowledge of decision maker system. Using the MCDM system can result in improved
outcomes and more comprehensive support for the decision makers. As an additional benefit, the
synthesis results made using MCDM will be more convincing and valid to the stakeholders.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support and assistance from UUM Collaboration 1+3
Research Grant (S/O Code: 14036) for this research and the cooperation of research teams from
IIUM, UMK, and D&Y Coldchain Venture. M.H.J was supported by Niche Research Grant
Scheme from Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia (grant number:
R/NRGS/A07.00/00413A/004/2014/000150) and M.A.N was supported by Research Matching
Scheme of IIUM (grant number: RMGS17-004-0030).

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