achining

Fundamentals
From Basic to Advanced Techni,q ues

by
John R. Walker

Publisher
The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc.
Tinley Park, lliinois
 Mad1ini11~ Fumfam,~1wh

Copyright 2000
by
THE GOODHEART-WILLCOX COMPANY, INC.
Previous Editions Copyright 1998, 1993, 1989, 1981, 1977, 1973

All rights resen,ed. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieYal system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of The Goodheart-Willcox
Company, Inc. Manufactured in the United States of America

Library of Congress Card Catalog Number 99-17776

International Standard Book Number 1-56637-662-9

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 00 03 02 01 00

Cover photo @vVestlight (K. Tiedge)

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Walker. John R.
Machin•ng Fundarner.tals: from basic tc advanced techniques/
by John R. Walker

p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 1-56637-662-9
1. Machine-shop practice. 2. Machining.
I. Titie.
TJ1160.W25 2000
671.3'5--dc21

99-17776
CIP
 Int o u tion

Machinists are highly skilled men and women. They use drawings, hand tools,
precision measuring tools, drilling machines, grinders, lathes, milling machines,
and other specialized machine tools to shape and finish metal and nonmetal parts.
Machinists must have a sound understanding of basic and advanced machining
technology, which includes:
• Proficiency in safely operating machine tools of various types (manual, auto-
matic, and computer controlled).
• Knowledge of the working properties of metals and nonmetals.
• The academic skills (math, science, English, print reading, metallurgy, etc.)
needed to make precision layouts and machine set-ups.
Machining Fundamentals provides an introduction to this important area of
manufacturing technology. The text explains the "how, why, and when" of numer-
ous machining operations, set-ups, and procedures. Through it, you will learn how
machine tools operate and when to use one particular machine instead of another.
The advantages and disadvantages of various machining techniques are discussed,
along with their suitability for particular applications.
Machining Fundamentals details the many common methods of machining and
shaping parts to meet given specifications. It also covers newer processes such as
laser machining and welding, water-jet cutting, high-energy-rate forming (HERF),
cryogenics, chipless machining, electrical discharge machining (EDM), electro-
chemical machining (ECM), robotics, and rapid prototyping. The importance of
computer numerical control (CNC) in the operation of most machine tools, and its
role in automated manufacturing is explored thoroughly.
This new edition of Machining Fundamentals has many features that make it
easy to read and understand. A numbering system for headings has been adopted
to make it easier to locate information in a chapter. Learning objectives are
presented at the beginning of each chapter, along with a list of selected technical
terms important to understanding the material in that chapter. Throughout the
book, technical terms are highlighted in bold italic type as they are introduced and
defined. Several hundred of these terms are also listed and defined in a Glossary of
Technical Terms at the end of this text. Review questions covering the content taught
are presented at the end of each chapter.
Color is employed extensively in this new edition to enhance understanding
and to emphasize safety precautions. A consistent color coding has been employed
in the hundreds of line illustrations (most made especially for the text) to help you
visualize more clearly the machining operations and procedures. Many of the black
and white photographs in the text have been replaced with new, full-color photos
showing the most current types of equipment and processes.
Machining Fundamentals is a valuable guide to anyone interested in machining,
since the procedures and techniques presented have been drawn from all areas of
machining technology.
John R. Walker
 Machini g Fundamentals Color Ke
Colors are used throughout Machining Fundamentals to indicate various materials or equipment
features. The follmving key shows what each color represents.

D Metals ( su rlaces)
D Rulers and measuring devices

I I Metals (in section) Direction or force arrows,

dimensional information

Machines/machine parts
D Fasteners

Tools Abrasives

1- i
Cutting edges
I[_ I
_ _J
D Fluids

Work-holding and tool-holding devices

D Miscellaneous

IMPORTANT SAFETY NOTICE

Work procedures and shop practices described in this book are
effective, but generai, methods of performing gfren operations.
Always use special tools and equipment as recommended. Carefully
follow all safety warnings and cautions (they are printed in red type
for greater legibility). Note that these warnings are not exhaustive.
Proceed ·with care and under proper supeffision to minimize the risk
of personal injury or injury to others. Also follow specific equipment
operating instructions.
This book contains the most complete and accurate information
that could be obtained from various authoritative sources at the time
of publication. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher cannot assume respon-
sibility for any changes, errors, or omissions.
 g
Contents

Chapter I. An Introduction to
Machining Technology . . . . . . . .. . .. . . I I
1.1 The Evolution of Machine Tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2 Basic Machine Tool Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . .. . . 14
1.3 Nontraditional Machining Processes .... . ... . .......... . .... 17
1.4 Automating the Machining Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 The Evolving Role of the Machinist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Chapter 2. Shop Safety. ... . .... . . . .... . .. . . . 23

2.1 Safety in the Shop . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 23
2.2 General Machine Safety .. .................. .. .... _.. _____ 26
2.3 General Tool Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 27
2.4 Fire Safety . ........... .................... .. ............. 27

Chapter 3. Understanding Drawings . .... . .. . .. 29

3.1 Dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . 31
3.2 Information Included on Drawings .... . . ____ . .. ........ ... . 32
3.3 Types of Prints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . .. ... . . ..... . 37
3.4 Types of Drawings Used in the Shop ..... ..... . . .. . . . . ..... . 38
3.5 Parts List ............................ ....•. . . .... ...... . 38
3.6 Drawing Sizes ....................... .. . ... . . . ..... .... . 38
3.7 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing ..... . .... .. ..... . 41

Chapter 4. Measurement ........... . . . ..... SS

4.1 The Rule . . ........... ................. . ............... 55
4.2 The Micrometer Caliper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3 Vernier Measuring Tools . ....... ....... ........... , .. ..... 63
4.4 Gages ............... ............................ ...... 67
4.5 Dial Indicators ........ ....................... . .. ... ..... 70
4.6 Other Gaging Tools . . . . . ....................... .... ..... 71
4.7 Helper Measuring Tools ............ • .... ...... ..... ... ... 75

Chapter 5. Layout Work .... . .... . .......... 81

5 .1 Making Lines on Metal . ........ .. . .. ....... ...... .... .. . - 81
5.2 Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.3 Measuring Angles .. .................................... 85
5.4 Simple Layout Steps .. _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.5 Layout Safety . . . ............. ............. ..•.. .. _89
 M th111lnt Fu11rl;mwur.al

Chapter 6. Hand Tools . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . ... 91

6.1 Clamping Devices . . . ....... . . . .. . .............. ....... .. 91
6.2 Pliers .............. ... . ... ... .. . . , ..... . ...... ........ . 92
6.3 ,vrenches ............ . .. .. ... .. . .. ,. ........ . .......... . 93
6.-1 Scre,vdrh·ers................... ........... .............. 99
6.5 Striking Tools . ....... ......... ........... ............. . 101
6.6 Chisels .. ....... ........... ... .. . .... ................. 102
6.7 Hacksaw . .... . ........... ..... ...• .. ... . ......... . .... 104
6.8 Files ...... . ............ .......... ............. . ....... 107
6.9 Reamers ............. .......... ............. . . . ....... 112
6.10 Hand Threading .. ••.... .. .. .... ............ _.. ......... 114
6.11 Hand Polishing .. . , ••....... ..................... .. .... 122

Chapter 7. Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I2 7
7.1 Threaded Fasteners ................ .....•............... 127
7.2 N onthreaded Fastening Devices... ••....... .. ........ .. ... 133
7.3 AdhesiYes .................... ..... .. , , , .. . . . ... ..... .. 138
7.4 Fastener Safety ............... . , • , , .••. . . .. ... .... ...... 140

Chapter 8. Jigs and Fixtures . .... . .... .. . .. .... 143

8.1 Jigs .... ... ............... ..... . ............. ..... ...... 143
8.2 Fixtures ... ............... ..... .. . .. ..... .. .. . . ....... , . 145
8.3 Jig and Fixture Construction . ... .. .. . .. .... . . .... .. . .. ... .. 146

Chapter 9. Cutting Fluids . . . ...... . ......... 149

9.1 Types of Cutting Fluids ........ .. ..... . ... . .. ..... . ... .. . 149
9.2 Application of Cutting Fluids ... .. ..... . ... . .. ..... ...... . 150

Chapter I0. Drills and Drilling Machines ....... 153

10.1 Drilling Machines . .............. . ......... , •.... . ...• .. 153
10.2 Driil Press Safety . .. •••. , ...... ........ .... , , ........... 157
10.3 Drills ........... ................... ...... . . ... , ....... 158
10.4 Drill-holding Devices ........... .......•.... .... ........ 163
10.3 Work-holding Devices . .. ... ... ........•.... . ............ 164
10.6 Cutting Speeds and Feeds . .... , , , .. , , , , , ............•.... 167
10.7 Cutting Compounds ..... ..... . .. . . ...... ..... .. _.... . .. 168
10.8 Sharpening Drills ........ ... .. ..... ...... ... ............ 170
10.9 Drilling ....... .......•••..... ........ .. ... ............ 173
10.10 Countersinking ................ ........ . .. • ............ 176
10.11 Counterboring . , , .. .. . ... .... . .... ...... __ . .... . , , , .. . , 177
10.12 Spotfacing . . ,., ...... . ..................... ... ...... ,,, 178
10.13 Tapping .. ......•... ... . . .................• . ........... 178
10.14 Reaming . .. .......... , .. . . ............. ,, ......... .. . . 180

Chapter I I. Offhand Grinding .... .. . . ......... 183

11.1 Abrasive Belt Grinders ..... ... ..... . .............. .. .... 183
11.2 Bench and Pedestal Grinders .. .... .... • .................. 183
11.3 Grinding Wheels .......... .. , , .... ... .................. 185
11.4 Abrasive Belt and Grinder Safety ..................... . .... 186
11.5 Using a Dry-type Grinder ........................... . .... 187
11 .6 Using a \Vet-type Grinder ........................... . .... 188
11.7 Portable Hand Grinders . .• ..................... ......... 188
able oi Contents

Chapter 12. Sawing and Cutoff Machines . . . . . . . I91

12.1 Metal-cutting Saws ........... .......................... 191
12.2 Reciprocating Power Hacksaw .. .......................... 191
12.3 Power Band Saw ............. . . .... •.. ..... .. .......... 194
12.4 Using Reciprocating and Band Saws .... ...... ............. 196
12.5 Circular Metal-cutting Saws . . . . . . . .................... 197
12.6 Power Saw Safety . ..... .. . .... . .......... ... ........... 197

Chapter 13. The Lathe . ..................... 20 I

13.1 Lathe Size ..................... . . ......... .... ......... 201
13.2 Major Parts of a Lathe . . . . . . . . . ........................ 202
13.3 Preparing Lathe for Operation . ........................... 208
13.4 Cleaning the Lathe . .... .. .... . .•..................... . .. 209
13.5 Lathe Safety . ... . .. ......... .............. . ............ 209
13.6 Cutting Tools and Tool Holders .. .... .. .... .. , , ... . ... .... 211
13.7 Cutting Speeds and Feeds ..... .......................... 220
13.8 Work-holding Attachments. ... ......................... 222
13.9 Turning Work Between Centers . .. ... ..... .... .. .......... 223
13.10 Using Lathe Chucks. . . . . . . . . . . ....................... . 231
13.11 Facing Stock Held in Chuck . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. . .. 236
13.12 Plain Turning and Turning to a Shoulder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
13.13 Parting Operations................... ..•..•.. . . . . . . .. ... 237

Chapter 14. Cutting Tapers and

Screw Threads on the Lathe .. . .... 241
14.1 Taper Turning ... .... ...... ....... ... . . ............... . . 241
14.2 Calculating Tailstock Setover .......................... . 244
14.3 Measuring Tailstock Setover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
UA Cutting a Taper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . 246
14.5 Measuring Tapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . ...... . ....... ... 248
14.6 Cutting Screw Threads on the Lathe .......... . . ...... . . 250

Chapter IS. Other Lathe Operations .......... 261

15. 1 Boring on a Lathe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... ... 261
15.2 Drilling and Reaming on a Lathe . ... ......• .... . ........ .. 263
15.3 Knurling on a Lathe. .. ..... . ... . . ... ......... . ..... . ... 265
15.4 Filing and Polishing on a Lathe . . . . . . . . . . • • • . . . . .. . ... . . 267
15.5 Steady and Follower Rests ... .. . . . . . . ....•. .. . .. ....... .. 268
15.6 Mandrels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ... . . . .... ... ... ........ . 270
15.7 Grinding on the Lathe .. . . . .... .... . ... . ..... . .... ..... .. 270
15.8 Milling on a Lathe .................... . ... .. ... ... ..... . 272
15.9 Special Lathe Attachments . .......... . .... . ... .. . ....... . 272
15.10 Industrial Applications of the Lathe . . . . .... ... ... ........ . 274

Chapter 16. Broaching Operations ....... . .... 281

16.1 Advantages of Broaching . . . . . . .. , , , .... .. ... . ...... . . . , . 283
16.2 Keyway Broaching . ...... .... ............ ..... ...... ... . 283
Chapter 17. The Milling Machine . . . . . .. . . .. . . . 285
17.1 Types of Milling Machines .... ..... .. .. . ....... .. .. ...... 286
17.2 Milling Safety Practices . . ... ....... . . ......... .... . ..... . 292
17.3 Milling Operations..... . . . ...... .. . .... . ... .... . .. .... . . 293
17.4 Milling Cutters .. .. ...... ..... . .. . ................ ..... . 293
17.5 Types and Uses of :Milling Cutters . ............ , , . . ........ 296
17.6 Methods of Milling ... .. ....... ..... ............... .. ... 304
17.7 Holding and DriYing Cutters .. . . ...........•........ .. ... 304
17.8 Milling Cutting Speeds and Feeds . .... ............... .. ... 308
17.9 Cutting Fluids .............. .. ... . ...... . . ..... . . ..... . 310
17.10 Milling Work-holding Attachments .. ... .. .. .... ... . . .. . .. . 310

Chapter 18. Milling Machine Operations . .. . .... 317

18.1 Milling Operations ... ... ........ .. .................. •.. . 317
18.2 Vertical ~ g :Machine .... .. .. ... ... , , , ... ....... ...... 317
18.3 Vertical Milling Machine Operations . ..... .. . ...... ........ 317
18.4 :Milling Machine Care . .. . ........ . •. . . .. . ... . .. . . . ... ... 326
18.5 Horizontal Milling Machine Operations .. .. ... , .. . ...... ... 328
18.6 Slitting. .. . ... . . . .................. ... ..... .. .......... 337
18.7 Slotting . . . .. . . ......... .. ..... . ... ..... ...... ......... 339
18.8 Drilling and Boring on a Horizontal Milling Machine . ... .... . 339
18.9 Cutting a Spur Gear . . .. . ..... .. . . .. ... ... . . . ... . .. . . ... . 340
18.10 Cutting a Bevel Gear ................ . .. .. .. . .. . . ....... . 346
18.11 Precautions When Operating a Milling Machine ...... . .... .. . 349
18.12 Industrial Applications .. .......... . ......... . . ...... . .. . 349

Chapter 19. Precision Grinding . .... . .. ,... .. .. 353

19.1 Types of Surface Grinders . . . . . .. .... . ........... ..... .. .. 353
19.2 Work-holding Devices... .. . . ....... . ...... ..... . . .... 356
19.3 Grinding ·w heels . .. . ... ..... . .... . . ..... .. ..... ........ 358
19.4 Cutting Fluids (Coolants) .. . . . .. ... ... .. ... ..... .. •.... .. 362
19.5 Grinding Applications ... . .. .. .. . . ... ... ....... . . . .. .. ... 364
19.6 Grinding Problems ............ ...... . .... . ..... .. .. . . .. 366
19.7 Grinding Safety ... . .. . ... . . .. ...... ...... . .. . ... .. .... . 367
19.8 UniYersal Tool and Cutter Grinder .. ...... ........ . . . .. ... 368
19.9 Tool and Cutter Grinding Wheels .... . .. . . .. . .... .. .... .. . 368
19.10 Cylindrical Grinding ............... . . . .. . . . . . . .. ... . .... 373
19.11 Internal Grinding . ... .. . ..... . ..... . . ................... 375
19.12 Centerless Grinding . . . .... ... . . ...•••........... ........ 376
19.13 Form Grinding .. . .. .. . .. .. . . . ........................ . . 377
19.14 Other Grinding Techniques ... . ....................... . . . 378

Chapter 20. Band Machining . . ... .. . .. . .... . . 383

20.1 Band Machining AdYantages .......................... .. . 383
20.2 Band Blade Selection .... .. . ....... ....... ......... . ..... 384
20.3 Welding Blades . ... ... ... . ... ......... ................. 387
20.4 Band Machine Preparation .. ......... ....... ............. 388
20.5 Band Machining Operations . . ............................ 390
20.6 Band Machine Power Feed .. .. . ... . .......... . .. ... ...... 393
20.7 Other Band Machining Applications ..................... .. 393
20.8 Troubleshooting Band :Machines . . . . . . . . . . ...... ..... 396
20.9 Band Ylachining Safety ... . ... . . .. ......... . ..•...... . ... 397
i_it_bl_e _of_ C
_o_n_te_n_ts_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ll
Chapter 21 . Computer Numerical Control . . ... . 399
21.1 Computer-aided Machining Technology .. .... , ..... .... . .. . 399
21.2 Positioning with Numerical Control . .. . . . .... ...... .... .. . 401
21.3 NC Movement Systems ..... ....... .......... .... ..... .. . 404
21.4 Programming NC Machines . ....... ... ....... ...•. ... • .. . 408
21.5 Computer Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. •... . 412
21.6 Adaptive Control. ......... ..• ........ . . .... ... ... .. . .. . 413
21.7 NC and the Future ......... . .. ... .... ....... .. ..... . .. . . 413
21.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of NC ......... . .. .... . . .. . 415

Chapter 22. Automated Manufacturing ...... . . . 423

22.1 Flexible Manufacturing System .... .. .. ..... ....... ... . , , . 424
22.2 Robotics ....................... .. . • ....... .... .... . .. . 424
22.3 Safety In Automated Manufacturing . ..... ........ .. ... .. . . 428
22.4 Rapid Prototyping Techniques ..... ....... ....... ... . . ... . 428
22.5 The Future of Automated Manufacturing . • ...... .... ... . . , . 433

Chapter 23. Quality Control . . . .... . .... . .... 435

23.1 The History of Quality Control .. ... .. . . ...... . , . . . ...... . 435
23.2 Classifications of Quality Control .... ..... .. . . .. . . ... .. .. . 436
23.3 Nondestructive Testing Techniques .... . ... . ... .... ....... . 437
23.4 Other Quality Control Techniques . . ..... . . ... .. . .... ... .. . 448

Chapter 24. Metal Characteristics .. . ......... 4S I

24.1 Classifying Metals . ..........•.•..... .... ... ... .. .... , . , 451
24.2 Ferrous Metals .... ... .... ........ ...... .... ... . ... .. ... 452
24.3 Nonferrous Metals . ... ..... .. ... .. ,,, ... ... . .. . . .... . .. , 458
24.4 Copper-based Alloys . ................. ... ... .. ... ....... 461
24.5 High-temperature Metals ...........••••. ... . . ... ... . . .. . 462
24.6 Rare Metals ............ , . , ............ ... .. . ..... , , .... 463

Chapter 25. Heat Treatment of Metals .. . ...... 467

25.1 Heat-treatable Metals ......... ..... ........ ...... ....... 467
25.2 Types of Heat Treatment ....... ................ . . ........ 467
25.3 Heat Treatment of Other Metals . . . .. ...... .. . , .. , .. , . .. .. .. 472
25.4 Heat-treating Equipment ...... , . , . .. ...... .. , , , . . ... . .. . 473
25.5 Hardening Carbon Steel ....... ....... ...... , • . . . . . . . . . . 475
25.6 Tempering Carbon Steel ......... , .................... .. . 477
25.7 Case Hardening Low-carbon Steel. ........ ... , , .......... . 478
25.8 Hardness Testing ............... ....... .. .. . ....... ... .. . 479
25.9 Heat-treating Safety ........... .... ...... .. .......... . ... . 486

Chapter 26. Metal Finishing . ...... . ......... 489

26.1 Quality of Machined Surfaces... . ... . ...... . .. ...... .... .. 489
26.2 Other Metal Finishing Techniques ... . ...... . .. ... ..... .... 492

Chapter 27. Electromachining Processes .. . .... 503

27.1 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) .... ............ ..... 503
27.2 Electrical Discharge Wire Cutting (EDWC) . ......... . .. .. . .. 506
27.3 Electrochemical Machining (ECM) ........ .... . ...... • . . . .. 507
 M ad1infng f:.in~famentafs

Chapter 28. Nontraditional

Machining Techniques . . . . .. . . .. . . . 5 I I
28.1 Chemical Machining ............ ..... . ............ .. . ... 511
28.2 Hydrodynamic Machining (HDM) ..... . .. ... ........ . , . .. 516
28.3 Ultrasonic Machining ......... ...... .. .... __ ..... .. • , ... 517
28.4 Electron Beam Machining (EBM) ... ... . ... .. . .. , , , , , , . , , , • 519
28.5 Laser Beam Machining ........ ....... . _........... , , , , , . 521

Chapter 29. Other Processes ., . . .. . . . .... . .... 525

29.1 Machining Plastics .............. .• ..... ........ . ........ 525
29.2 Chipless Machining ................. •.... .. ............ 531
29.3 Powder Metallurgy .... . ............ ..... ............... 532
29.4 High-energy-rate Forming (HERF) ........................ 537
29.5 Cryogenic Applications ................................. 543

Chapter 30. Occupations in

Machining Technology. . . . .. . . . . . . . 54 7
30.1 Machining Job Categories .................... ............ 547
30.2 Preparing to Find a Job in Machining Technology . . . .. . . ..... 553
30.3 How to Get a Job ..................... , ..... ... . . . ...... 554

Reference Section .... . .... . .... . .... . . . .. . . 557

Glossary of Technical Terms . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. 593
Index . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . .. . l!I .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. , • , • • • ,. 6I5
 Chapter I

n t rod cti t
•
achi gTechnolo

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
0 .... how 1111 lt 11 machine technology
~ tI t · , rl 1 ,

0 Give a brief explanation of the evolution of

machine tools.
0 . I 'I I I \ )I l 1,1 I 11111 f,
processes.
1 Explain how CNC machining equipment

I' I
0 I t JI ., tl1t.: 1 Ir. ~ I n ham--.l

IMPORTANT TERMS
band machining machinist
computer numerical milling machine
control (CNC) numerical control (NC)
drill press precision grinding
lathe skill standards
machine tools

Figure 1-1. Machine tools have made it possible to manufac-

A study of technology will show that industry
ture parts with the precision and speed necessary tor low-cost
has progressed from the time when everything was mass production. Without machine tools, most products on the
made by hand to the present fully automated man- market today would not be available or affordable.
ufacturing of products. Machine tools have played (Courtesy of SURFCAM by Surfware)
an essential role in all technological advances.
Without machine tools, Figure 1-1, there would
be no airplanes, automobiles, television sets, or
computers. Many of the other industrial, medical, no country can hope to compete successfully in a
recreational, and domestic products we take for global economy without making use of the most
granted would not have been developed. For exam- advanced machine tools.
ple, if machine tools were not available to manufac- There is one very important point that must be
ture tractors and farming implements, farmers emphasized concerning modern manufacturing
might still be plowing with oxen and hand-forged technology. The high-paying skilled jobs in manu-
plowshares. facturing, such as tool-and-die making and preci-
It is difficult to name a product that does not sion machining, require aptitudes comparable to those
require, either directly or indirectly, the use of a of college graduates. Jobs that require few or no skills
machine tool somewhere in its manufacture. Today, have almost disappeared.

m
 LI THE EVOLUTION OF by a person or animal ·walking on a treadmill.
MACHINE TOOLS Power ,ms transmitted from the wheel to one or
Machine tools are the class of machines which, more machines by a belt and pulley system.
taken as a group, can reproduce themselves (manu- When inventor James Watt first experimented
facture other machine tools). There are many varia- with his steam engine, the need for perfectly bored
tions of each type of machine tool, and they are cylinders soon became apparent. This brought
available in many sizes. Tools range from those about the development of the first true machine tool.
small enough to fit on a bench top to machines It was a form of the lathe and ,,·as called a "boring
weighing several hundred tons. mill," Figure 1-2. The ·water-powered tool ,vas
The evolution of machine tools is somewhat developed in 1774 by Englishman John "\Vilkinson.
akin to the old question, "\Vhich came first, the This machine was capable of turning a cylinder
chicken or the egg?" You could also ask, "How 36" in diameter to an accuracy of a "thin-worn
could there be machine tools ·when there were no shilling"(an English coin). Howe,Ter, operation of
machine tools to make them?" the boring mill, like all metal cutting lathes at the
time, ·was hampered by the lack of tool control. The
"mechanic" (the first machinist) had to unbolt and
I. I. I Early Machine Tools reposition the cutting tool after each cut.
The first machine tools, the bow lathe and bow About 1800, the first lathe capable of cutting
drill, ·were hand-made. They have been dated back accurate screw threads was designed and construct-
to about 1200 BC. Lntil the end of the 17th Century, ed by Henry Maudslay, an English master
the lathe could only be used to turn softer materials, mechanic and machine toolmaker. As shown in
such as wood, ivory, or at most, soft metals like lead Figure 1-3, a hand-made screw thread ·was geared to
or copper. All of them were human-powered. the spindle and moved a cutting tool along the
Eventually, the bmv lathe ,vith its reciprocating work. Maudslay also deYised a slide rest and fitted
(back-and-forth) motion gave way to treadle power, it to his lathe. It allm,·ed the cutting tool to be accu-
which made possible work rotation that was contin- rately repositioned after each cut. Maudslay's lathe
uous in one direction. Later, machines "·ere pow- is considered the "granddaddy" of all modern chip-
ered by a "great wheel" turned by flowing ·water or making machine tools.

Casting being machined

\.

Figure 1~2. The first true machine tool is thought to be the boring mill invented by John Wilkinson in 1774. It enabled James Watt to
complete the first successful steam engine. The boring bar was rigidly supported at both ends, and was rotated by waterpower. It
could bore a 36H diameter cylinder to an accuracy of Jess than 1/16'~ (DoALL Co.)
Chapter I An Introduction t:o MachiningTe~hnology

Figure 1-3. Henry Maudsfay's screw-cutting latne. This Figure 1-4. One of the first practical mifling machines manufac-
machine too{, constructed on a heavy frame, combined a mas- tured in America. Eli Whitney used it and similar machines to
ter lead screw and a movable slide rest. The lead screw had to mass-produce musket parts that were interchangeable.
be changed when a different thrsad pitch was required. (DoALL Co.)
(DoALL Co.)

In retrospect, the Industrial Revolution could Whitney had another problem, however. His
not have taken place if there had not been a cheap, ideas were used in several armories producing gun
convenient source of power: the steam engine. Until parts. There was no standard of measurement at
the advent of the steam engine, industry had to that time, so parts made in one armory were not
locate near sources of water power. This was often interchangeable with parts in another armory. It
some distance from raw materials and workers. was not until the mid-1860s that the United States
With cheap power, industry could locate where adopted a standard measuring system.
workers were plentiful and where the products they By 1875, basic machine tools such as the lathe,
produced were needed. The steam engine, in tum, the milling machine, and the drill press, Figure 1-5,
would not have been possible without machine were capable of attaining accuracies of one one-
tools. Until the boring mill and lathe were devel- thousandth of an inch. America was well on its way
oped to the point where metal could be machined to becoming the greatest industrial nation in the
with some degree of accuracy, there could be no world.
steam engine.
The milling machine was the next important
development in machine tools. It also evolved from I. I .2 Power Sources
the lathe. In 1820, Eli Whitney, an American inven- As machine tools were improved, so was the
tor and manufacturer, devised a system to mass pro- way they were powered. At first, the changes were
duce muskets (guns). Whitney began using a very slow, taking hundreds of years. The great
milling machine, Figure 1-4, to make interchange- changes have come only in the last 150 years or so.
able musket parts. Until then, muskets were made •· Hand power. The bow lathe and bow drill are
individually by hand, so parts from one musket examples. Direction of rotation changed at
would not fit in another. Whitney's milling machine each stroke of the bow.
even had power feed, but it had one defect. There • Foot power. A treadle or a treadmill made pos-
was no provision to raise the worktable. The part sible continuous rotation of the work in one
had to be raised by shimming after each cut. Since direction.
each machine was used to produce the same part ., Animal pawer. Treadmills were used to power
again and again, this shortcoming was not a great early devices for boring cannon barrels.
problem. It wasn't too much later that this p roblem Human foot power was not sufficiently
was corrected. strong for this work.
 Mach11 ,111 : FumJ:1111 .... ut.ib

Nlo, 2 UPIHC>IT IDIIILt,,, k,- . •l~LINC f,1A.O~Hltl,

Figure 1-5. Illustrations of Pratt & Whitney machine tools from an 1876 advertisement. Built from heavy iron castings, the machines
were driven by overhead pulleys and belting. A central steam engine or large electric motor powered the overhead pulleys in facto-
ries until the 1920s.

• Water power. Not always dependable as a

power source, because of lack of water during
dry seasons.
• Steam power. The first real source of depend-
able power. A centrally located steam engine
turned shafts and overhead pulleys that were
belted to the individual machines.
• Central electrical power. Large electric motors
simply replaced the steam engines. Pm-ver
transmission to the machines did not change.
• Individual electrical power. Motors were built
into the indhidual machine tools. Overhead
belting was eliminated.

1.2 BASIC MACHINE TOOL

OPERATION
Almost all machine tools have evolved from the Figure 1-6. A modem lathe using digital technology to perform
lathe, Figure 1-6. This machine tool performs one of operations such as maintaining a constant surface speed, auto-
the most important machining operations. It oper- matic threading cycle, automatic radius cutting, and taper turn-
ates on the principle of work being rotated against ing. Note the safety shield that moves with the carriage. Except
those tools that perform nontraditional machining operations, all
the edge of a cutting tool, Figure 1-7. Many other machine tools have evolved from the lathe. (Harrison1Rem
operations-drilling, boring, threadcutting, millir..g, Sales, Inc.)
and grinding--can also be performed on a lathe.
The most advanced version of the lathe is the CNC
tuming center, Figure 1-8. See Chapters 13-15 for 1.2. l Drill Press
basic lathe operations, ar.d Chapters 21 and 22 for A drill press, Figure 1-9, rotates a cutting tool
automated machining. (drill) against the material with sufficient pressure
C!lapter I An lr1i:l'oduci:ion to MachiningTechno!ogy

Wor!<
rotation

Figure 1-7. The lathe operates on the principle of the work

being rotated against the edge of a cutting tool.

Figure 1-9. A typical 20" variable-speed gear head drill press

with power teed. It can drill holes up to 1 1/2" in diameter in cast
iron. (Willis Machinery and Tools Corp.)

Figure 1-8. Slant bed CNC Jatne with hydraulic chucking

and an electronically indexed 12 station turret.
(Clausing Industrial, Inc.)

to cause the tool to penetrate the material. It is

primarily used for cutting round holes. See
Figure 1-10. Drill presses are available in many ver-
sions. Some are designed to machine holes as small
as 0.0016" (0.04 mm) in diameter. See Chapter 10.

I .2.2 Grinding Machines

Grinding, Figure 1-11, is an operation that
removes metal by rotating a grinding wheel or abra-
sive belt against the work. The process falls into two
basic categories:
• Offhand grinding. Work that does not require
great accuracy is hand-held and manipulated Figure 1-10. A drill press operates by rotating a cutting tool
until ground to the desired shape. See (drill) against the material with sufficient pressure to cause the
Chapter 11. tool to penetrate the material.
 Machining Fm1damentais

be held to close tolerances, eliminating or minimiz-

ing many secondary machining operations. See
Chapter 20.
I .2.4 Milling Machine
A milling machine rotates a multitoothed cutter
into the work, Figure 1-13. A wide variety of cutting
operations can be performed on milling machines.
See Chapters 17 and 18.

Figure 1-11. Grinding is a cutting operation, like turning, drilling,

milling, or sawing. However. instead of the one, two, or multiple-
edge cutting tools used in other applications, grinding employs
an abrasive tool composed of thousands of cutting edges.

• Precision grinding. Only a small amount of

material is remo\·ed with each pass of the
grinding wheel, so that a smooth, accurate
surface is generated. Precision grinding is a
finishing operation. See Chapter 19.

I .2.3 Sand Machines

Band machining, Figure 1-12, is a ,videly
employed technique that makes use of a continuous A
........
e---_ _
Work travel
>
saw blade. Chip removal is rapid and accuracy can

End mill
rotation

B
Figure 1-13. Milling removes material by rotating a multitoothed
cutter into the work. A-With peripheral milling, the surface
Figure 1-12. Band machining makes use of a continuous saw being machined is parallel to periphery of the cutter. B-End
blade, with each tooth functioning as a precision cutting tool. mills have cutting edges on the circumference and the end.
Ch~cit:.,·1 I Au limoduc1 cm tu Miu:h1111n Ti dino Cl&Y

1.2.5 Broaching Machines • Chemical blanking. A material removal

Broaching machines are designed to push or method in which chemicals are employed to
pull a multitoothed cutter across the work, Figure 1- produce small, intricate, ultrathin parts by
14. Each tooth of the broach (cutting tool) removes etching away unwanted material.
only a small amount of the material being • Hydrodynamic machining (HDM). A comput-
machined. er-controlled technique that uses a 55,000 psi
water jet to cut complex shapes with mini-
mum waste. The work can be accomplished
with or without abrasives added to the jet.
• Ultrasonic machining. A method that uses
ultrasonic sound waves and an abrasive slur-
ry to remove metal.
• Electron beam machining (EBM). A thermo-
Tool travel
electric process that focuses a high-speed
beam of electrons on the workpiece. The heat
that is generated vaporizes the metal.
• Laser machining. The laser produces an
intense beam of light that can be focused onto
an area only a few microns in diameter. It is
useful for cutting and drilling.
• Hexapods. CNC has made possible uncon-
ventional machine tools that use new work-
positioning and tool-positioning concepts.
See Figure 1-15. These tools, already available
to industry, utilize the same movement prin-
ciples developed for the flight simulators that
train aircraft pilots. They offer basic advan-
Figure 1-14. A broach is a multitoothed cutting toof that moves tages in stiffness, accuracy, speed, dexterity,
against the work. Each tooth removes only a small portion of the and scaling (making larger or smaller ver-
material being machined. The cutting operation may be on a sions of the same part).
vertical or horizontal plane.

1.3 NONTRADITIONAL 1.4 AUTOMATING THE

MACHINING PROCESSES MACHINING PROCESS
There are a number of machining operations In the late 1940s, the United States Air Force was
that have not evolved from the lathe. They are clas- searching for ways to increase production on com-
sified as nontraditional machining processes. These plex parts for the new jet aircraft and missiles then
processes include: going into production.
• Electrical discharge machining (EDM). An The Parsons Corporation, a manufacturer of air-
advanced machining process that uses a fine, craft parts, had developed a two-axis technique for
accurately controlled electrical spark to erode generating data to check helicopter blade airfoil pat-
metal. terns. This system used punched-card tabulating
• Electrochemical machining (ECM). A method equipment. To determine the accuracy of the data, a
of material removal that shapes a workpiece pattern was mounted on a Bridgeport milling
by removing electrons from its surface atoms. machine. With a dial indicator in place, the X and Y
In effect, ECM is exactly the opposite of points were called out to a machinist operating the
electroplating. machine's X-axis handwheel and another machinist
• Chemical milling. A process in which chemi- who controlled the Y-axis handwheel. With enough
cals are employed to etch away selected por- reference points established, the generated data
tions of metal. proved accurate to ±0.0015" (0.038 mm).
 1.4. I The Development of Numerical Control
Parsons realized that the technique might also
be deYeloped into a two-axis, or even three-axis,
machining system. With an Air Force contract to
manufacture a contoured integrally stiffened air-
craft wing section, the Parsons Corporation subcon-
tracted with the Servomechanism Laboratory at the
~fassachusetts Institute of Technology to design a
three-axis machining system. MIT eventually took
o,·er the entire NC de,·elopment project.
By 1952, MIT had designed a control system and
mounted it on a vertical spindle machine tool. The
system operated on instructions coded in the binary
number system on punched (perforated) tape.
Programming required the use of an
early computer upon which MIT was also
experimenting.
Later in that year, MIT demonstrated the first
machine tool capable of executing simultaneous
cutting tool movement on three axes. Since mathe-
matical information ,ms the basis of the concept,
MIT coined the term numerical control (NC). The
first NC machines became available to industry by
A
late 1935.

B
Figure 1-15. New machine tool concept, the hexapod, seems to defy almost eve,y preconception about what a machine tool should
be. A-The hexapod uses an entirely new concept for cutting tool movement and work positioning, with six degrees of freedom pro-
vided by a framework of variable length struts. (Renaissance Design. Inc.) B-The hexapod can be configured to perform multiple
functions such as milling, drilling, tapping, polishing. grinding. welding, and even mechanical assembly.
 1.4.2 Computer Numerical Control
In the mid-1970s, with the introduction of the
microchip, the use of onboard computers on indi-
vidual machine tools became possible. This led to
the introduction of computer numerical control
(CNC), Figure 1-16.
CNC machine tools are much easier to use than
manually controlled machines. They have menu-
selectable displays, advanced graphics (the multi-
function screen displays the full operational data as
a part is being machined), and a word address for-
mat for programming. The program is made up of
sentence-like commands. Programs can be entered
at the machine, or may be downloaded by direct
line from an external computer. Programs on
punched tapes are rarely used. A modern CNC
horizontal machining center (HMC) is shown in
Figure 1-17.
A CNC machine tool offers:
• Accuracy. It is capable of producing consistent
Figure 1-16. CNC machine tools are equipped with on-board
and accurate workpieces. computers that permit computer-aided or manual programming.
• Repeatability. It is able to produce any number Afl controls needed for complete machine operation are in one
of identical workpieces once a program is location. A CRT screen displays all important machining infor-
verified. mation, such as the tool path. (Giddings & Lewis, Inc.)

ORI ON''ii:lii

Figure 1-17. A state-of-the-art CNC horizontal machining center (HMC) with multiaxis capabilities. It can handle a wide range ot work-
piece sizes and materials. The center is fitted with a multiple pallet work storage system (foreground) that automatically transfers work-
pieces into and out of the machine upon command from the CNC unit. (Giddings & Lewis, Inc.)
m Ma1;hlr11n1 Fund.imer1t,1b

• Flexibility. Changeover to running another • Operate in hazardous and harsh environ-

type of part requires only a short period of ments.
nonproductive machine downtime. • Perform operations that would be tedious for
The use of robotic systems for loading and a human operator.
unloading permits some machine tools to operate • Handle heavv materials.
unattended during the entire machining cycle. • Position parts with great repetitive precision.
Robots also have many other industrial applica- The automotive industrv makes extensive use of
tions, Figure 1-18. They can: robots in the manufacture and assembly of motor
vehicles, Figure 1-19.

1.5 THE EVOLVING ROLE OF THE

MACHINIST
In recent years, the number of highly skilled
machinists has been in decline. C:NC machine tools
have compensated for this trend to some degree.
Since these machines operate under programmed
control, the men and women ·who use them do not
require the same level of skill or training as a skilled
machinist.
However, because of these same CNC machine
tools, the demand for machinists has not dimin-
Figure 1-18. A robot is a programmable, muitifunctional manip-
ulator designed to move material, tools, or speciaiized devices
ished. Machinists understand machining technolo-
through programmed motions for the performance of a variety gy and what machine tools are capable of accom-
of tasks. This robot is deburring a complex part following plishing. For these reasons, they make the best pro-
machining operations. (Fanuc Robotics) grammers and setup personnel.

Figure 1-19. The automotive industry makes extensive use of robots for positioning parts, welding, painting, and performing quality
control tasks.
Chapter I P.n introduction '!:c •fac:hiningTechnology

There is still another reason for the high demand TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
for machinists: although CNC equipment is found Please do not write in this text. Write your
in almost all machine shops, surveys answers on a separate sheet of paper.
consistently show that there is still considerable
work being produced on conventional manually 1. One of the first machine tools, the bow lathe:
operated machine tools. a. Could only turn softer materials.
Whether planning an NC program or preparing b. Has been dated back to about 1200 BC.
to produce work on a conventional machine tool, a c. Eventually gave way to treadle power.
machinist must make many decisions and determi- d. None of the above.
nations on how to manufacture a part in the most e. All of the above.
economical way. The machinist must: 2. The Industrial Revolution could not have taken
• Make a thorough study of the print. place without the cheap, convenient power of
• Determine the machining that must be done. the _ _ _ _.
• Ascertain tolerance requirements.
• Plan the machining sequence. 3. List seven power sources in the order they
• Determine how the setup will be made. have evolved over the last 150 years or so.
• Select the machine tool, cutter(s), and other 4. Almost all machine tools have evolved from
tools and equipment that will be needed. the _ _
• Calculate cutting speeds and feeds.
• Select a proper cutting fluid for the material 5. Jobs such as tool-and-diemaking and precision
being machined. machining require aptitudes comparable to
All of this is possible because of the skill, knowl- those of
edge, and experience of the machinist. Essentially, a a. High school graduates.
machinist is able to visualize the machining program. b. College graduates.
When NC and CNC came along, most machinists c. High school equivalency graduates.
quickly adapted to the new technology because they d. All of the above
were already experienced in machining technology. e. None of the above.
6. Eli Whitney's mass-production system for
1.5. I Acquiring Machining Skills and Knowledge muskets had a major problem because _ _.
The skills and knowledge needed by the a. There were no skilled workers
machinist are not acquired in a short time. It nor- b. There was no good source of power.
mally requires taking part in a multiyear salaried c. There was no standard of measurement.
apprentice program. In addition to machine tool d. All of the above.
training under an experienced machinist, the pro- e. None of the above.
gram also involves related subjects such as English, 7. What occurred in the mid-1860s that was very
algebra, geometry, trigonometry, print reading, safe- important to the development of machining
ty, production techniques, and CNC principles and technology in the United States?
programming. Refer to Chapter 30 for additional
information on machining technology occupations. 8. List four types of nontraditional machining
The National Tooling and Machining Association, processes and briefly describe their operation.
with the aid of the metalworking industry, has 9. The introduction of the microchip in the mid-
developed three levels of skill standards reflecting 1970s led to the introduction of machine
industry skill requirements. A major goal of the tools.
Metalworking Skills Standards program is perfor-
mance testing. The standards will provide skilled 10. List four industrial applications of robots.
workers with certification that will afford them
industry recognition.
m

The role of the computer in manufacturing has expanded greatly in recent years. In addition to computer numerical control of machine
tools, many production operations include computer-controlled robotic assembly fines like this one. (Giddings & Lewis, Inc.)
 Chapter 2

o Safe

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 2.1 SAFETY IN THE SHOP

Keep the shop clean. Metal scraps should be
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: placed in the scrap bin. Never allow them to remain
Give reasons why shop safety is important. on the bench or floor.
0 Explain why it is important to develop safe Exercise extreme care when you are machining
work habits. unfamiliar materials. For example, magnesium
0 Recognize and correct chips burn with great intensity under certain condi-
practices. tions. Applying water to the burning magnesium
0 Apply safe work chips only intensifies the fire. Machining equipment
in a machine shop. can be damaged beyond repair and very serious
) Select the appropriate fire bums can result.
a particular type of fire. Inhaling fumes or dust from some of the newer
space-age and exotic materials can cause serious
respiratory ailments. Do not machine a material
until you know what it is and how it should be
IMPORTANT TERMS handled.
An approved-type respirator and special protec-
adequate ventilation tive clothing must be worn when machining some
ar,proved-type respirator protective materials. Machines must be fitted with effective
back injuries vacuum systems as needed.
combustible materials The shop is a place to work, not play. It is not a
electrocution place for horseplay. A "joker" in a machine shop is

Shop safety is not something to be studied at the

start of a training program and then forgotten; most
accidents are caused by carelessness or by not
observing safety rules. Remember this when your
instructor insists on safe work practices. If you are
diligent and follow instructions with care, machin-
ing operations can be safe and enjoyable. Safe work
practices should become a force of habit!
Since it is not possible to include e:very safety
precaution, the safety practices in this chapter are
general. Safety precautions for specific tools and
machines are described in the text where they
apply, along with the description and operation of Figure 2-1. None of the pilots in this precision ffying team would
the equipment. Refer to Figure 2-1. think of taking off to give a ffight demonstration until all the
Study all safety rules carefully and constantly plane's systems were in safe operating condition. In the same
apply them. When in doubt about any task, get way, you should never operate a machine tool until you have
help! Do not take chances! determined that it is in safe operating condition.

m
a walking hazard to everyone. Daydreaming also Keep hand tools in good condition. Store tools
increases your chances of injury. in such a ,,·ay that people cannot be injured while
If you have been ill and are using medication, they are remoYing the tools from the tool panel or
check with your doctor or school clinic to determine storage rack
whether it is safe for you to operate machinery. For Use care when handling long sections of metal
example, many cold remedies recommend that you stock - accidentally contacting a light fixture with
do not operate machinery while taking the medica- the stock, for example, could cause severe electrical
tion because of possible drmvsiness. burns or even death by electrocution (electric cur-
Avoid using compressed air to remove chips rent passing through body tissues). An electric
and cutting oil from machines. Flying chips can shock has been compared to "being hit by a truck"
cause serious eye injuries. Also, oil that has been When moving heavy machine accessories or
vaporized by the stream of air can ignite, resulting large pieces of metal stock, always secure help. The
in painful burns and property damage. back injuries that result from improper lifting are
Oily rags must be placed in an approved usually long-term injuries!
safety container (a metal can with metal lid). See Dress properly for working around machinery
Figure 2-2. Rags or waste used to clean machines severe injuries or even death can result if clothing,
will also haYe metal slh·ers embedded in them, pos- hair, or jewelry gets caught in moving parts. AYoid
ing an .additional hazard. Placing them in a safety wearing loose-fitting sweaters or similar clothing
contaiiler will help make sure they will not be used that could catch in machinery. A snug-fitting shop
again. Dispose of the rags daily. This will minimize coat or apron can be worn to protect your street
the possibility of spontaneous combustion (ignition clothes, Figure 2-3. Keep sleeYes rolled up. Rings
by rapid oxidation or burning of oil ·without an and other jewelry should be removed before work-
external source of heat). ing around machinery. If you have long hair, wear a
cap or use other means of containing it.
For jobs where dust and fumes are a hazard,
ensure adequate ventilation. Return solvents and
oils to proper storage after use. Wipe up spilled oil
or solvent right away. If the spill area is extensive,
use an approved-type oil absorbent. See Figure 2-4.

Figure 2-2. Oily rags used for cleaning machines or soaking up

spills should be placed in an approved safety container like this Figure 2-3. This trainee is properly dressed for the job she is
one to minimize fire hazards. The container should be emptied doing. She is wearing approved eye protection and a snug-
daily and contents disposed of properly. fitting apron. The machine was carefully checked before she
(Justrite Manufacturing Company) began to operate it. (Millersville Universityj
 sand castings, plastics, and some grinding opera-
tions. A disposable dust mask is not suitable in areas
where machining operations produce a mist of oil
or coolants. An approved-type respirator must be
worn in such situations. See Figure 2-6. Suitable
personal protective equipment must also be worn
when handling sharp, hot, or contaminated
materia!s.

Figure 2-4. This worker in a manufacturing plant is using a

special oil-absortJent material to wrap a leaking machine
component. Note that the material, which is packaged in roll
Figure 2-6. Whenever fine airborne mists of oil, coolant, or
form, has also been used to soak up oil on the machine base
and floor. (3M Company)
other materials are present, an approved respirator Is required.
This spray painter is wearing a respirator supplied with clean air
through a tube from a central source. It is also important to use
proper eye protection, such as the safety glasses worn by this
Wear appropriate safety equipment, Figure 2-5. worker. (3M Company)
In noisy areas, use earplugs or another type of hear-
ing protection. Disposable plastic gloves will protect
your hands when handling oils, cutting fluids, or
solvents. Wear a dust mask when machining Take no chances! Always protect your eyes.
produces airborne particles, such as those from Eyesight that has been damaged or destroyed can-
not be replaced. Wear safety glasses, goggles, or face
shields approved by OSHA (the United States
Occupational Safety and Health Administration).
Wear eye protection whenever you are in the
shop. Protective eyewear should be used when con-
ditions call for it. It is good practice to have your
own personal safety glasses. The cost is reasonable.
Your instructor can help you determine the style
best suited for your needs, Figure 2-7. If you wear
glasses, special safety lenses are available that can
be ground to your prescription. Your eye doctor or
optician can help get them.
Know your job! It is foolish and disastrous to
Figure 2-5. Wear appropriate safety equipment. Shown are
approved eye protection, an apron to protect clothing, plastic
operate machines without first receiving proper
gloves for handling oils and solvents, a hearing protector, instruction. If you are not sure what must be done,
earplugs, and a dust mask. or how a task should be performed, get help.
Figure 2-7. Safety glasses are available in a number of styles.
The model at left is similar to regular eyeglasses, but has
"wings" at each side and on top to guard against flying particles.
The goggle-style model at right fits tightly against the face and
can be wom over regular eyeglasses.

2.1. I Safety Aids

Awareness barriers, while they all do not pro-
vide physical protection from machine hazards,
serve to remind the operator of an area that is dan- Figure 2-9. Many CNC machine tools use sliding shields over
gerous. In simplest form, a barrier may be nothing the machining area to protect the machinist from flying chips
more than red or yellow lines painted on the floor. and vaporized coolant. (Bridgeport Machines, Inc.)
More complex barriers stop the machine when a
light beam or electronic beam is broken by someone
entering the danger area.
1V.Cachine shields, Figure 2-8, provide protection
from flying chips and splashing cutting fluids or Many different types of warning signs,
coolants. Many CNC machine tools are fitted with Figure 2-10, are used to notify workers of potential
large sliding shields that cover the entire machining hazards. No Smoking signs must be posted in areas
area, Figure 2w9. where inflammable or combustible materials are
used and stored.

2.2 GENERAL MACHINE SAFETY

• Never operate a machine until all guards are
in place!
• Always stop your machine to make adjust-
ments or measurements! Resist the urge,
·while the machine is running, to touch a
surface that has been machined. Severe lacer-
ations can result.
• Keep the floor around your machine clear of
oil, chips, and metal scrap.
• It is considered an unsafe practice to talk to
anyone while you are operating a machine.
You might become distracted and injure
yourself, or someone else.
• Never attempt to remove chips or cuttings
with your hands or while the machine is
operating. Use a brush, Figure 2-11. Pliers are
one of the safest ·ways to remove long, stringy
chips from a lathe. Better still, learn hmv to
Figure 2-8. Specially designed saf(j]ty shields are available for grind the cutting tool to break chips off in
almost all machine tools. They should always be in place before shorter pieces. This is explained later in the
the machine is operated. text.
'Chapter 2 ER
• Secure prompt medical attention for any cut,
bruise, scratch, bum, or other injury. No
matter how minor the injury may appear,
report it to your instructor!

2.3 GENERAL TOOL SAFETY

•· Never carry sharp-pointed tools in your pockets!
When using sharp tools, lay them on the
bench in such a way that you will not
injure yourself when you reach for them,
Figure 2-12.
• Make sure tools are properly sharpened,
EQUIPMENT: PFLEGER No. 3 in good condition, and fitted with suitable
handles.
PROCESS: SINTERtNG
MATERIAL: BRONZE & PHENOLOCITE

_...

Figure 2-12. Arrange sharp pointed tools on the bench in a way

that they will not injure you when you reach to pick them up.
PEBSONALJ!AOTECTIVE: Pl1HB.;
GOGGLES. RUBBER GLOVES
2.4 Fl RE SAFETY
Combustible materials are classified into four
categories, Figure 2-13. Extinguishers should have
color-coded symbols to identify their appropriate-
Figure 2-10. Signs can remind workers to be alert for potential ness for a particular type of fire.
hazards. (/desco Corp.) Class A Fires. Those involving ordinary com-
bustible materials-paper, wood, textiles, etc. They
require the cooling and quenching effect of water, or
solutions containing a large percentage of water. Do
not use Class A extinguishers on Class C and D fires.
Class B Fires. Flammable liquid and grease fires
require the blanketing or smothering effects of dry
chemicals or carbon dioxide.
Class C Fires. Electrical equipment fires require
nonconducting extinguishing agents that will
smother the flames. Do not use Class A extinguish-
ers on electrical fires.
Class D Fires. Extinguishers containing specially
prepared heat-absorbing dry powder are used on
flammable metals, such as magnesium and lithium.
Figure 2-11. Use a brush, not your hands, to remove accumu- Do not use Class A extinguishers on flammable
lated chips! metal fires.
,, Ordinary Flammable Electrical Combustible
combustibles liquids equipment metals

-•
Figure 2-13. Symbols coded by color and shape identify the four classifications of fire and the extinguishers that can be used on
them.

2.4, I Dealing with a Fire 4. Oily rags should be placed in a safety

Know what to do in case of a fire! Be familiar with container to prevent _ _.
the location of your building's fire exits and how :,. Why should compressed air not be used to
they are opened. Be aware of alternate escape clean chips from machine tools?
routes.
In some situations, students are trained in the 6. Kever attempt to operate a machine until
use of fire extinguishers by the local fire depart-
ment. If you are one of those students, make sure 7. Always stop machine tools before making
that you know ·where the fire extinguishers are and
located. If you have not receiYed such training, get
out of the fire area immediatelv. 8. Use a _ _ to remove chips and shavings, not
your _ _.
SPECIAL SAFETY NOTE: Think before acting! It
costs nothing, and you may be saved from painful 9. When working in an area contaminated with
injury that could result in a permanent disability. If dust or solvent fumes, be sure there is _ _.
you think it tiring to sit through an hour-long class A(n) _ _ should also be worn when working
in school, think what it would be like to spend your in a dusty area.
entire life in a wheelchair!
10. Secure prompt _ _ for any cut, bruise,
scratch, or burn.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Please do not write in this text. Write your 11. Get help when moYing _ _ .
answers on a separate sheet of paper. 12. What should you do before operating a
1. Why is shop safety so important? machine tool if you are taking medication of
any sort?
2. Most shop accidents are caused by _ _.
13. \Vhy is it necessary to take special precautions
3. Safety glasses should be worn: when handling long sections of metal stock?
a. most of the time.
b. only ·when working on machines.
c. the entire time you are in the shop.
d. none of the above.
 Chapter 3

Understanding Drawings

It would not be possible for industry to manu-

LEARNING OBJECTIVES facture a complex product without using drawings.
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: Drawings show the craft worker what to make and
0 Read drawings that are dimensioned in identify the standards that must be followed so the
fractional inches, decimal inches, and in various parts will fit together properly. The result-
metric units. ing parts will also be interchangeable with similar
0 Explain the information found on a typical components on equipment already in service.
drawing. Drawings range from a simple freehand sketch,
0 Describe how detail, subassembly, and Figure 3-2, to detailed drawings for complex prod-
assembly drawings differ. ucts, Figure 3-3.
0 Point out why drawings are numbered.
0 Explain the basics of geometric dimension-
ing and tolerancing.
3.0~
,~15
1
75. r
IMPORTANT TERMS
actual size
American National
Standards Institute
revisions
scale drawings
SI Metric
..-----©-b. ·1 51

bill of materials US Conventional

dual dimensioning working drawings 0 .75, 2 HOLES
geometric dimensioning
and tolerancing SPACER
Many products manufactured today are an MATERIAL· STEEL AISI 1020
assembly of parts supplied by a number of different
industries. These industries may be in distant geo- Figure 3-2. Some drawings are as simple as this freehand
graphic locations, Figure 3-1. sketch.

----~-,11111--111-.---=---
:

,,

Figure 3-1. Thousands of drawings were required in the design and construction of this vertical takeoff and landing aircraft. Standards
and specifications had to be exact because components were manufactured in several geographic locations.
(Bell Helicopter Textron/Boeing Helicopters)

m
[ml.__________________________________M_.i_;_r,:_,<1_:1-_,g_?_:_,:::_d_2_rn_':l_n_ta_!s
Symbols, lines, and figures are employed to giYe Institute, better known as Al"\JSI. The symbols, lines,
drawings meaning, Figure 3-4. They have been and figures on dra"·ings are known as the "language
standardized so they have the same meaning wher- of industry."
eYer drawings are made and used. Periodically, ANSI changes standard drawing
These symbols, lines, and figures have been symbols. Craft workers must be familiar with past
devised by the American National Standards and present practices because only recently made

END PLATE, L.H.- 81B76

, NUT, SPECIAL-A22345
\ WASHER-A22346
SHAFT - B!BBI
\ \ \ \RING, Fl8ER(3 REQ'Dl-A22347
\ \ \ \ PISTON-81877 No.. 2 TAPER PIN
,.,,...,,.......+-..........,,...\\ \ . rCLEVIS- B1882

// f
r;
LsEAL(2 REQ'Dl-A 2234g
BOLT(2REQ'D)-A22350
LSPRING-A22351
SPACER-A2234B
CYLINDER-B187B

/
ff.!1/
/
i
BACK PLATE-B1879
BUSHING-81880
SEAL,COMP.-A22~53
L BALL CHECK-A22352 /__ SEAL, RUBBER (2 REO Dl-A22354
END PLATE,R.H.-B1875 .....,~---,------------t
JRW
, . . . . IY
WALKER JNCUSTRIES
~TE2-3-XX T:1'1..E:

=•.,.--~--1 HYDRAULIC ASSEMBLY

t:a
••
LJ I C.LE FULL 1....... . NO.

'"'"' I OF19 B1883

Figure 3-3. Each manufactured product may require dozens of drawings, one for each part. Even the smallest screw; washer, or pin
may require a drawing.

Dimension lines are capped at each end~

with an arrowhead. They are used
to indicate distances.

Extension lines indicate

points from which the___....-
"-.,._
II 3.00
1·so----r ·-.75-
A-,
..,
~1.00
0.5OTHRU
r1,
L...J IIJ.75 ~ .37
2 HOLES

?5--!·.
dimensions are given. : . - - - ----1- - - - - - - + - - - - , ' - - , i - - - - - - r - - 1

Hidden object lines ------ ____ 1 __

represent edges of the
object that are hidden
from view.
Centerlines are light
lines that locate centers
of symmetrical objects,
like holes, circles, etc.

Visible object lines are used - - - - - - - - - ' Section lines indicate the area or section cut
to outline edges of the Cutting plane lines are used to show where
by the cutting plane line. They also may indicate
object that can be seen. an object has been cut (theoretically) in order
the general classification of material from which
to show the interior features more clearly. the object is to be made.
Figure 3-4. Many types of lines, symbols, and figures are used to give a drawing exact meaning.
 UnderstanC:ing ~r;::.wings

drawings will follow the new standards. It is too workers will need to understand drawings dimen-
expensive to revise the millions of drawings made sioned in more than one system.
before the new standards were devised. Figure 3-5
shows past and present metalworking symbols. 3.1. I Fractional Dimensioning
Lines are used to draw views that fully describe Drawings using fractional dimensioning usu-
the object to be manufactured. In addition, the ally show objects that do not require a high degree
drawing usually includes other information needed of precision in their manufacture. Greater precision
to make the product. Details often show threads, for is indicated when dimensions are given in decimal
example. Figure 3-6 shows several methods of parts of an inch.
showing threads on a drawing.
3. I .2 Dual Dimensioning
3.1 DIMENSIONS Dual dimensioning is a system that employs the
A proper drawing includes all dimensions (sizes US Conventional ("English") system of fraction
or measurements) in proper relation to one another. or decimal dimensions and metric dimensions on
The dimensions are needed to produce the part or the same drawing, Figure 3-8. If the drawing is
object. intended primarily for use in the United States, the
Until recently, drawings were only dimensioned decimal inch will appear above the metric dimen-
in decimal or fractional parts of an inch, Figure 3-7. sion, as in Figure 3-9A. The reverse is true if the
However, some industries in the United States are in drawing is to be used in a metric-oriented country,
the process of converting to the metric system of as in Figure 3-9B. Some companies place the metric
measurement. During this transition period, craft dimension within brackets, as in Figure 3-9C.

STANDARD SYMBOLS USED IN DIMENSIONING

New Old

~.,,. ~ . ' 2 R $1.25DIA.

~R.62

~·50TH R Ur .10
~. 12 .50DRILL
SPOTFACE x .1 9 DEEP
1..-J,p1.12
~OUNTERBO~ DEPTH OR
(OR SPOTFACE) SYMBOL
.50 DIA.

-=
SYMBOL

~l[?a 1.12 S'FACE x .19 DP

tf>SO r .5e
~ .50 DRILL, .56 DEEP
~ - - - - · " , 90°
/COUNTERSINK
I81 DIA. x 90~ RCOUNTERSINK
SYMBOL

mm
.50 DIA x .66 D.P.

~
.81 DIA. x 90° C'SINK

@f...
•
50THRU
•• 76 C'DRILL
T.37
~6 .50 DIA. THRU
C'DRILL x .37 D.P.

•1~ ~
Figure 3-5. Standard ANSI symbols are changed periodically. You must be familiar with both the old and new symbols because either
may be used on the drawings. Compare these examples.
 M.ad,irnng Fuod.imt:ntal~

---4~---~

ff3$E r:
..,.
__,___ I i----

e //,..}t' \ ,1
' .

,~,,,
1
\\ i JJ
\ I ~

!
I
&/202
-
r
1

' A

____ 4.500 _ _ _ _ _.. ,

Simplified representation
F ------.I
1.966
9
1.968 ~ . 4 B

L
i - - 1

l.r l
71.968

1.....-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __.

Figure 3-.7•. Dimensional styles. A-Fractional dimensions do

not require· tolerances closer than :r:1104H. B-Decimal dimen-
sions normally have.tolerances of ±0.010H or 0.015".
Detailed representation

3.2 INFORMATION INCLUDED ON

DRAWINGS
Drawings contain additional information to
inform the machinist of the material to be used,
required surface finish, tolerances, etc. It is impor-
tant for you to be familiar with this information.

3.2. I Materials
The general classification of materials to be used
Schematic representation in the manufacture of an object may be indicated
by the type of section line on the drawing or
Figure 3-6. Methods employed to depict threads on drawings.
plan, Figure 3-11. Exact material specification
Only one type will be found on a drawing. The simplified version
is the most common style. is included in a section of the title block,
Figure 3-12(A). Sometimes, the material specifica-
tion may be found in the notes shmvn elsewhere on
3.1.3 Metric Dimensioning the drawing.
With metric dimensioning, all of the dimensions
on the drawing are in the SI Metric system, usually 3.2.2 Surface Finishes
in millimeters. However, until there is full conver- The quality of the surface finish (degree of sur-
sion to metric in the United States, a conversion face smoothness) is important in the manufacture of
chart (equivalents for millimeter and inch dimen- many products. The smoothness of the bore of an
sions) will appear on the drawing, Figure 3-10. engine cylinder is an example. Usually, the more
Chapter 3 Understanding Drawings

"4I - 20UNC-2 x .37 ~-!51 DEEP,

.26 ~-1l CLEARANCE DRILL WAS l.!50 [38.1
D
1-23
! APP
RJW

:sr
1"9.

325 _ _ _ _---i
NOTES- [82.45

1. '-et~] FINISH ALL OVER.

2. BREAK ALL SHARP EDGES 0.01 [0.5]MAX.
3. DIMENSIONS IN []ARE MILLIMETERS.

----------1 ~~.: ii, ~-=-;. To ..,.sUlllll.....,rn

APP-
0
_A_e_c_,.
...E,..
FGH
R"s· __E_C_K_W_Y_E_ZE
__E_C_O_R_P._....
CLAMP, ALIGNMENT
D 4!1878
NEXTAHI'
--
CODE
MAURIAI.
ALUMINUM 8 B123456
APPL- 6061- T4 SCALE HET I

Figure 3-8. Dual-dimensioned drawing. 1-A metric thread size has not been given. There is no metric thread that is equal to this
size fractional thrsad. 2-There Is no metric reamer equal to this size.

1233 31.318
31.318 I• 1233

Note that should appear Note that should appear 10.9

on drawing- on drawing-
INCH MILLIMETER
MIL.1.IMETER INCH
or or
INCH/MILLIMETER MIL.1.IMETER/INCH
A B

f--1233 [31.318]---j METRIC

Conversion
chart
Note that should appear
on drawing- lN..ESS OTHERWISE Sf'f:Cf'lEl>-
DIM. ARE IN MILLIMETERS.
DIMENSIONS IN [ ] ARE 0.3 lOI... ON MACH. DIM. xxxxx
MILLIMETERS ...._. FULL '" ~RW

C CAST IRON, GM 14-M

Figure 3-9. Indicating inch and millimeter dimensions on a dual- 712

10.H
dimensioned drawing. A-When the drawing is to be used in
the United States, the inch value appears on top. B-When the
drawing is to be used primarily in a country that uses the Figure 3-10. A drawing using metric units of measure-
metric system, the millimeter value appears on top. ment. Until the United States has fully converted to metric
C--Sometimes, brackets are used to indicate the metric equiv- measurement, a conversion chart will usually appear on the
alent on a drawing to be used in the United States. drawing.
 Machining Fundamentals

Cast iron and general Steel Bronze, brass, and

use for all materials copper

Conventional view

Transparent materials- Aluminum alloys Rubber, plastic

plastic, glass
!
,---, ,-1 ,--, ' '
,----I ,,--------, ,--I i
i
,--, ,--> ~
I
,---, ,,----J' r--' I
I
Sectional view Cork, felt, etc. Coil windings, Wood: A-End grain
electromagr.ets B-With grain

Figure 3-11. Sectional views make a drawing easier to understand because internal details are shown more clearly. Various
materials are identified with unique section lines. However, many section views use general section lining regardless of the material
being used.

REVISIONS
DESCllll"IION DATE
A WAS 5116-IBUNC-2 W8T

__ ..._______
______ ___ __________
......., ...,_,..~..._
...:,-w,a_..,. ___ ,. _ _

IP•---·-
- _ _ -...a.,_,
..., ..,,..
ff - - ....
....__ _ _

r.1.625---'
, i-1.187
II I_ I .562
\(F) Revisions

_r

lb.266THRU
1-J lb.391
;.265
3 HOLES

(D) Scale (H) Drawing

number
(E) Next assembly
NOTES- lb1506 .812~ (G) Name of object
I. REMOVE BURRS. :7503 V4-20UNC-2
2. BREAK· SHARP EDGES ,OIO MAX. @
3. FINISH 1'e/ ALL OVER EXCEPT AS
NOTED.

ni. . . . . . .
...,,.,=-==--=~ TaUIIARCU OJI:
~-ll i--- =-=-- 12-23 CHEM!
U.LAan

(8) Tolerances - a== =--===--;; 1---+{:::: : : :

FUCTIONI :t 1111
:.c
.AIICil.D~D--•

IIATDIIAL

(A) Material - --JS~~i ALUMINUM 6061-T4

to be used

Figure 3-12. A great deal of information is contained in the drawing's title block. The components highlighted here are standard on
most drawings.
"':hapter 3 Under:ib.mling Draw!ngs

superior (smoother) the finish of a machined sur-

face, the more expensive it is to manufacture.
In the past, symbols were employed to indicate
machined surfaces, Figure 3-13. These symbols may
still be found on some older drawings. With so
many machining techniques now in use, symbols
such as these do not indicate, in sufficient detail, the
quality of the surface finish required on a part.

APPROX. 3/16

t Figure 3-15. A surface roughness comparison standard is

used to check whether a milled surface meets the required
Figure 3·13. These are older-style finish marks. They do not specifications.
indicate the degree of smoothness required; they simply spec-
ify that the surface is machined. Finish marks of these types are
still found on older drawings.

The method presently used provides more

complete surface information. Shown in Figure
3-14, a check mark and number are used to indicate
surface roughness in microinches or micrometers. A
microinch is one-millionth of an inch (0.000001.). A
micrometer (micron) is one-millionth of a meter
(0.000001 m) and is abbreviated µm.

Figure 3-16. Surface roughness is best determined with

a profilometer or electronic surface roughness gage. The
probe on the unit is moved across the work and measures
surface roughness electronically. A digital display presents the
m68Sured roughness value in microinches or micrometers.
(Federal Products Co.)

Figure 3·14. Current surlace fimsh marks. The number indi-

cates the degree of smoothness in microinches-the larger the
Tolerances are allowances, either oversize or
number, the rougher the finish. undersize, that are permitted when machining or
making a part. Refer again to Figure 3-12(B).
Acceptable tolerances are shown on drawings in
A machinist compares surface finishes to several different ways.
required specifications by using a surface roughness When the dimension is given in fractional inch
comparison standard as a guide, Figure 3-15. If the units, the permissible tolerances can be assumed to
surface finish is critical, as it is in some jet engine be ±1 / 64", unless otherwise indicated.
components, the finish is measured electronically The symbol "±" means that the machined sur-
with a device called a profilometer, Figure 3-16. face can be plus (larger) or minus (smaller) by the
dimension that follows and still be acceptable. In the
3.2.3 Tolerances example above, the dimension may be up to 1 / 64"
The control of dimensions to achieve interchange- larger or smaller than the dimension given on the
able manufacturing is known as tolerancing. This drawing. This "plus and minus" tolerance is called a
controls the size of the features of a part. A standard bilateral tolerance.
system of geometric dimensioning and tolerancing If it is permissible to machine the part larger, but
has been established. not smaller, the dimension on the drawing might
~
l'Q;..11..______________Mc.~hir-ing
_ f-ur:c!~rr.enca•s
__
read 3.2.4 Quantity of Units
2 1/2 + 1/64
Also shown on the dravdng is the number of parts
If only a minus tolerance is permitted, the dimen- (quantity) needed in each assembly. Refer to Figure
sion might read / 3-12(C). A work order, included with the job infor-
2 1/2 - 1 64 .
mation received by the shop, gives the total number
When the tolerance is only plus or only minus (one of units to be manufactured. This facilitates order-
direction), it is called a unilateral dimension. ing the necessary materials, and ·will help in deter-
Dra·wings dimensioned in decimal inches usu-
mining the most economical way to manufacture
allv indicate that the work must be machined more
the pieces.
pr~cisely than dimensioning in fractional inches.
The part can be used as long as the machined
dimensions measure within these limits. Cnless 3.2.5 Drawing Scale
otherwise indicated, the tolerances can be assumed Drawings made other than actual size (1:1) are
to be ±0.001". called scale drawings. The scale is usually shown
A plus tolerance may be shown as: in a section of the title block, Figure 3-12(0). A
2.300 + .001 or 2.501 drawing made one-half size would have a scale of
2.500 1:2 (one-to-two). A scale of 2:1 (two-to-one) would
A minus tolerance may be shm,·n as: mean that the drawing is twice the size of the actual
part.
2.300 - .001 or 2.500
2.499 3.2.6 Assembly or Subassembly
Metric tolerances are presented in the same way Assembly or subassembly information is neces-
as decimal tolerances, Figure 3-17. sary to correctly fit the rnrious parts together. The

50.0
49.B
!8.0 ----+- - - MO (/)85.0
_ 10,0 r0104.o
8.0
"J.7
--~-- I ,r 00.66-8.90
6 HOLES EQUALLY SPACED

062.0

UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED-

J --10.0
' M36 x 4.0-6H/6g
DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS IJ
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED- M_E_T_RI......
,....I C!
t0.5 TOL. ON MACHINED DIM.
± 1.0 TOL.ON CASTING DIM.

,.,. 12 JULY l9XX ECK WYE ZEE co

0
jFF" 'tJ" .GF...,___-'-------=--a-·---t
. , - JRW FLANGE I ADAPTOR
M'Pft<JVED :J. 'r.Jf'f
C4-45678
NEXT ASS'Y CODE CAST iRON .,,..,.., ii !Wu-. B23-134689
APPUCATION GM-14N •::.•• FULL SHEET 3 of 8

Figure 3-17. A metric detail drawing. 1-Note that metric thread specifications are different from the more familiar UNG (coarsej and
UNF (fine) series threads. The fetter "M" denotes standard metric screw threads. The 36 indicates the nominal thread diameter in
millimeters. The 4.0 denotes thread pitch in millimeters. The 6H and 6g are tolerance class designations. 2-To avoid possible mis-
understanding, metric is shown on the drawing in large letters.
Chapter 3 Unrlerstanding Crawings

term application is sometimes used in place of the • Microfilm process. This is a technique in
t.erm next assembly, Figure 3-12(E). which the original drawing is reduced by
photographic means. Finished negatives can
3.2. 7 Revisions be stored in roll form or on cards, Figure 3-18.
Revisions indicate what changes were made to To produce a working print, the microfilm
the original drawing and when they were made. image is retrieved from files and enlarged
Refer again to Figure 3-12(F). onto photographic paper. The print is dis-
carded or destroyed when it is no longer
3.2.8 Name of the Object needed. Microfilms can also be viewed on a
reader (machine for making enlarged projec-
A portion of the title block provides this infor-
tion on display screen). This technique is still
mation. It tells the machinist the correct name of the
widely employed for the storage of older
piece, Figure 3-12(G).
drawings that would be too expensive to con-
vert to computer data.
3.3 TYPES OF PRINTS
The original drawings are seldom used in the
shop because they might be lost, damaged, or
destroyed. On many jobs, several sets of plans are
required. There are several methods of duplicating
original drawings:
• Blueprints. The term blueprint is often used to
refer to all types of prints. An actual blueprint
has white lines on a blue background.
However, the blueprint process is seldom
used today because of the time required to
make a print.
• Diazo process. These are direct positive Figure 3-18. The small negative on the microfilm aperture card
copies (dark lines on a white background) of is enlarged by a photographic process to the desired print size
on a microfilm reader/printer. The enlarged print can be verified
the original drawing. They are often referred
or confirmed on the view screen.
to as whiteprints or bluelines.
• Xerographic (electrostatic) process. This pro-
cess makes a copy of the original drawing. • Computer-generated prints. The prints are
The print can be enlarged or reduced in size if generated on a plotter (automatic drafting
necessary. Full color copies can be made on machine) from information stored electroni-
some xerographic machines. cally in computer memory, Figure 3-19.

Figure 3-19. Computer-generated print. Left-Many companies now use computer-aided design and drafting (CAD) techniques to
prepare drawings. (Autodesk, Inc.) Right-Prints are generated on a plotter from CAD-developed information.
(Hewlett-Packard Marketing Communications)
 This same information can also be used to On large or complex products, subassembly
control machine tools, using CAM (computer- drawings are used to show the assembly of a small
aided manufacturing). When these methods portion of the completed object, Figure 3-22.
are used, the overall manufacturing technique Some assembly and subassembly dravd.ngs are
is called CIM (computer-integrated manufac- shown as exploded pictorial drawings (a drawing
turing). More information on computers in ,vith parts separated, but in proper relationship).
manufacturing will be included in later One is shown in Figure 3-23.
chapters. In most instances, a detail drawing provides
information on just one item. However, if the mech-
3.4 TYPES OF DRAWINGS USED anism is small in size or if it is composed of only a
IN THE SHOP few parts, the detail and assembly drawings may
appear on the same sheet, Figure 3-24.
Working drawings, also called prints, establish
the standards for the product and show the craft
worker what to make. There are two major kinds of
3.5 PARTS LIST
working drawings: Parts are identified by circled numbers and are
• Detail drawings. These consist of a drawing listed in a note. Some drawings will also include a
(usually rnultiview) of the part with dimen- parts list or bill of materials listing all of the parts
sions and other information for making the used in the assembly. See Figure 3-25.
part, Figure 3-20.
• Assembly drawings. These drawings shmv 3.6 DRAWING SIZES
where and how the parts, described on detail Most firms centralize the preparation and stor-
drawings, fit into the completed assembly. age of drawings in the engineering department.
See Figure 3-21. Generally, engineers and drafters prepare drawings

.50(TYP.}
li t:)07 MAX. RUNOUT AFTER
SHAFT IS MACHINED
1

R.50
(TYP.)
I

0.i87 T.687
L......J0.375 •.500
'-"'0.437x 90"

~562.,
I . . . II:
L.-.o5 x 45° (TYP.,
NOTES
I. MACHINING DONE AFTER WELDING
AND HEAT TREAT.
2. REMOVE ALL SHARP EDGES R.01 MAX.

CENTER HCi...E
PERMISSIBLE
SECTION A-A

Figure 3-20. A detail drawing contains all of the information needed to produce the part.
C:hapt e:- J Un~erstar.ding Dr...vti~gs

JAW FACE, 2 REQ'D

l/4-20lK-2 x 5/8 LG
FLAT HD. MACH. SCW. 2REQ'D
STATIONARY J/JW

l/4-20UNC-2 x l/2L..G.
Rll HD. MACH. SCW. 2 REQ'D

END PUI.TE

SCREW

GUI~ BAR. PRESS FIT

TO MOVABLE JAW 2PLACES

COLLAR
DRILL AND REAM
FOR A No. 0 TAPER
PIN AT ASSEMBLY

Figure 3-21. An assembly drawing shows how various parts fit together..

CRANKSHAFT PULLEY
D31-34567 C4-10357

l/4-20UNC-2 x I l/4LG
HEX. HD. CAP SCREW
4REQ'D

NEXT ASSEMBLY D31-34578, ENGINE l/4-20UNC-2 x l/2LG.

HEX. HO. CAP SCREW
4REQ'D

B12-56793

Figure 3-22. A subassembly drawing contains the assembly of only a portion of the entire product.
m Hachining Ftmdamentals

OJ 575510 - SPRING

L!J 585792 - FLAT WASHER

0 9422299 - NUT

0 395586- PIN

ill 9422277 - NUT

[]_] 1363524 -BUMPER
I 7 1 395578 - ARM ASM
:a I 391350-PAD

[;jjjl EXISTING PART

<§> LUBRICATE WITH 9985038 GREASE

,& 35 - 45 LB-FT ~ INSTALL WITH IDENTJFJCA TION

(LETTERS, FACING OUTWARD
&_ 16 - 26 LB-FT TOWARD LEFT HAND SIDE OF CAR

Figure 3-23. Exploded pictorial drawings are often used with semiskilled workers who have received a minimum of training in print
reading. (General Motors Corp.)

\0.68 'r-.37
\ I l-.12
-----4.00-----

t ' _
PEEN
~~TLY
RE\/Oll/ES
ON SCREW)
PIN. PRESS FIT
TO SCREW JOINING CAP TO
SCREW
CAP

BODY
-10.125

2.0

I
#
.i25REAM i/i6x45°
------
L 3/8-16UNC-2
0.245
-----r
J
BODY

C-CLAMP ASSEMBLY
_j
-.Clx45° SCREW
NOTE-
PIN
1. BREAK ALL SHARP EDGES
.01 MAX.
2. FINISH o/ALL OVER.
1

Figure 3-24. A detail and assembly drawing on the same sheet.

Chapter 3 Understanding CrQwings

PARTS LIST
Na Nome Quon.
I CRANKCASE I
2 CRANKSHAFT I
3 CRANKCASE COVER I
4 CYLINDER 2
A 5 PISTON 2

Al776 NUT BRASS 6

Al9B5 BOLT BRASS 6
81765 PLATE ALUMINUM 2
B1767 CYLINDER CAST IRON 2
PtNa Nome Material Quon.
BILL OF MATERIALS
B
Figure 3-26. A high degree of precision is needed to produce
Figure 3-25. A list of parts and materials is normally included the parts used in this engine. The tolerances allowed for the
with the drawings for a project. A-A typical, but partial, parts shape and location of features on the parts must not be
list. B-An example of a partial bill of materials. exceeded. (Buick Div. of GMC)

on standard-size sheets. Tiris simplifies the stocking,

handling, and storage of the completed drawings. Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing is a
Standard sizes for drawing sheets include the system that provides additional precision compared
following: to conventional dimensioning. It ensures that parts
US CONVENTIONAL SHEET SIZES can be easily interchanged.
A size= 81/2" x 11" Only a brief introduction to geometric dimen-
B size= 11" X 17" sioning and tolerancing is included in this text.
C size= 17" x 22" Detailed information can be found in the publica-
D size = 22" x 34" tion ASME Yl 4.SM-1994.
E size = 34" x 44"
3. 7.1 Definitions
SI METRIC SHEET SIZES
A4 size = 210 X 297 mm Geometric characteristic symbols are employed
A3 size = 297 X 420 mm to provide clarity and precision in communicating
A2 size = 420 X 594 mm design specifications. See Figure 3-27. These sym-
Al size = 594 x 841 mm bols are standardized by the American Society of
AO size= 841 x 1189 mm Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Geometric tolerance
is a general term that refers to tolerances which con-
Also, for convenience in filing and locating trol form, profile, orientation, location, and runout.
drawings in storage, each drawing has an identify- A basic dimension is a numerical value denot-
ing number, Figure 3-12(H). ing the exact size, profile, orientation, or location of
a feature. The true position of a feature is its theo-
retically exact location as established by basic
3.7 GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING dimensions. A reference dimension is a dimension
AND TOLERANCING provided for information only. It is not used for pro-
Conventional tolerancing is appropriate for duction or inspection purposes. See Figure 3-28.
many products. However, for accurately machined Datum is an exact point, axis, or plane. It is the
parts, the amount of variation (tolerances) in form origin from which the location or geometric charac-
(shape and size) and position (location) may need to teristic of features of a part is established. It is iden-
be more strictly defined. This definition provides tified by a solid triangle with an identifying letter.
the precision needed to allow for the most econom- See Figure 3-29. Feature is a general term applied to
ical rp.anufacture of parts. See Figure 3-26. a physical portion of a part, such as a surface, pin,
m M ad:inii~g ~~undamentals

ASME
Symbol for:
Y14.5
i Straightness
Flatness D
Circularity 0
Cylindricity IY
Profiie of a line n -1~--12.2so1--1-- 0.500±.002
Profile of a surface 0
Basic dimensions
A!l-around profile ..-e-
Angularity L
2.250 t---•
I
i Perpendicularity ..L 1'4-----t

Parallelism II
Position $
Concentricity/coaxia! ity ©
Symmetry
i --
-
Circular runout i ·1
Total runout I ·u
At maximum material condition @
I
At least material condition I © True position
; Regard!ess cf featu re size NONE
I Projected tolerance zone ®
Diameter
0
Basic dimension []QJ
Reference dimension (30)
Datum feature ~
Datum target @
X
L
Target point
Dimension origin G-+ ll.625±.001 (875)
Feature control frame $100.s@!AIBICI
Reference)
Conical taper ~
dimension
Slope c::::.......
Counterbore/spotface L_J Figure 3-28. Basic dimensions are usually indicated by being
enclosed in a rectangular frame. They are not toleranced. True
Countersink
V position is the theoretical exact location of feature. It is estab-
Depth/deep ~ lished by basic dimensions. Reference dimensions are not used
Square (shape) for production or inspection purposes. On a drawing, they are
D shown enclosed in parentheses.
Dimension not to scale 15
Number of times/places ax
Arc length ~
Radius R hole, or slot. A datum feature is the actual feature of
Spherical radius SR a part used to establish a datum. See Figure 3-30.
Spherical drameter S0 1\-laximum material condition (1Wi\1C) is the con-
·Maybe filled dition in which the size of a feature contains the
maximum amount of material within the stated lim-
Figure 3-27. Symbols used to specify positional and form toler-
its of size. Examples include a minimum hole diam-
ances in geometric dimensioning. (American National eter and maximum shaft diameter, both of which
Standards Institute) result in the greatest possible amount of material
Chapte:" 3 Understanding Drawings
m
_______r !o~,u~
identification
symbol
t
25.75 +- MMC
25.50

*
0 21.50 MMC
27.45
21.25 ----
[27.25~ MMC

Figure 3-29. Datums are exact points, axes, or planes from

which features of a part are located.
Figure 3--31. Maximum material condition (MMC) indicates that
the size of a feature contains the maximum amount of material
within the stated tolerance limits.

Part

Datum plane
(theoretically t
25.75
exact)
Datum feature 25.50 - LMC
I t
LMC
LMC 27.45 ~
r-21.257

Simulated datum
(surface of manufacturing
or verification equipment)

Figure 3--30. A datum feature is a physical feature on a part

used to establish a datum. Figure 3-32. Least material condition (LMC) indicates that the
size of a feature contains the least amount of material within the
stated limits of size.

being used. See Figure 3-31. MMC is indicated by an

M within a circle.
Least material condition (LMC) is the condition
in which the size of a feature contains the least
I• 2.754
2756-·t 2.1242 ~ 6
~2.1

I.______ J . - .
amount of material within the stated tolerance
limits. Examples include a maximum hole diameter
and a minimum shaft diameter. See Figure 3-32.
I.MC is indicated by an L within a circle.
Regardless of feature size (RFS) specifies that
the size of a feature tolerance must not be exceeded.
RFS is assumed for all geometric tolerances unless
~.749
.752 j~}~_I__F4
otherwise specified.
The maximum and minimum sizes of a feature
are called the limits of size. See Figure 3-33. The
E3 ~:~g
measured size of a part after it is manufactured is Figure 3-33. Limits of size are the maximum and minimum
the actual size. sizes of a feature.
m__________________________________ M_ac_h_i_n_in_g_F_u_n_d_am_e_n_ta_ls

3.7.2 Application of Geometric Dimensioning that contains the datum reference letter. All letters but
and Tolerancing I, 0, and Q may be used. A rectangular frame with
Datum identification symbol. A datum identify- the datum reference letter preceded and followed
ing symbol, Figure 3-34, consists of a square frame by a dash may be found on older drawings.
Feature control frame. A feature control frame is
used ,vhen a location or form tolerance is related to
a datum. It contains the geometric symbol, allo,\'-
A able tolerance, and the datum reference letter(s). It is
connected to an extension line of the feature, a
leader running to the feature, or below a leader-
directed note of the feature, Figure 3-35.
A Datum references indicated on the right end of
the feature control frame are read from left to right.
The letters signify datum preference. They establish
three mutually perpendicular planes, Figure 3-36.
A

-------------....j~
Geometric Tertiary
characteristic datum
symbol reference

Diameter symbol Secondary

(when used)
B I-A-I Zone descriptor
datum
reference

Figure 3-34. Datum points and surfaces are identified by a Geometric tolerance Primary datum
datum identification symbol. A-Datum identification symbols reference
used on new drawings. 8-This type of datum symbol is not Material condition
used currently, but is still found on old drawings. A symbol

//'O.O6 !A i 07,9-8.1
8 HOLES EQUALLY SPACED
l-$!0O.14 ®!Alc@I

~85.0

7.6

· 30.0-l
7.4 I
!
I 29.9 I I
J-40. _ __ 060.1 _ _ _~ 5

39 j 59.1 I
_ _ _ 50.1~
49.8
- - · - - - - - - - 1 ~\-- - - l • l
B DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS

Figure 3-35. A feature control frame is employed when a location or form tolerance is related to a datum. A-Components of a fea-
ture control frame. B-Feature control frames are used to specify tolerances on this drawing.
Chapter 3 Understanding Drawings g
~
I
Drawing callout

.005 WIDE TOLERANCE ZONE

Figure 3-36. Datum references are perpendicular planes. The

first datum referenced is the primary datum, followed by the
Jnterpretation
secondary and tertiary datums.
Figure 3-38. The flatness geometric form tolerance specifies
the two parallel planes within which a surface must lie.
3. 7.3 Form Geometric Tolerances
Form geometric tolerances control flatness,
straightness, circularity (roundness), and cylindricity. - .005
They are indicated by the symbols shown in Figure
3-37. Form tolerances control only the variation per-
mitted on a single feature and are used when form
variation is less than that permitted by size tolerance.
7
9J
.____ _ _____._j_
Drawing callout
Straightness

/ / Flatness
.005 ~IDE TOLERANCE zo: J
I

·7
0 c;rcularity (roundness)
Interpretation

/:Y Cylindricity
Figure 3-39. A straightness geometric form tolerance estab-
lishes a tolerance zone of uniform width along a straight line. All
elements of the surface must lie within this zone.
Figure 3-37. Form geometric symbols.

Flatness is a measure of the variation of a surface Circularity is characterized by any given cross
perpendicular to its plane. The flatness geometric section taken perpendicular to the axis of a cylinder
tolerance specifies the two parallel planes within or a cone, or through the common center of a
which all points of a surface must lie, Figure 3-38. sphere. A circularity (roundness) geometric toler-
Straightness describes how closely the surface ance specifies a tolerance zone bounded by two con-
of an object is to a line. A straightness geometric tol- centric circles, indicated on a plane perpendicular to
erance establishes a tolerance zone of uniform the axis of a cylinder or a cone, within which each
width along a line. All elements of the surface must circular element must lie. It is a single cross-sec-
lie within this zone, Figure 3-39. tional tolerance. See Figure 3-40.
m Mach::i!r::g F l!nl'.llamer.ti.us

0 .005 3. 7.4 Profile Geometric Tolerances

A profile geometric tolerance controls the out-
line or contour of an object and can be represented
by an external view or by a cross section through the
object. It is a boundary along the true profile in
which elements of the surface must be contained.
The symbols used to indicate profile tolerances are
shown in Figure 3-42.
Drawing callout

~ ~l.,___
t ~--.-1,-I Profile of a line

l .005 WIDE TOLERANCE ZONE L.. 0 Profile of a surface

Interpretation
Figure 3-40. A circularity geometric toferance specifies a toler-

~
ance zone bounded by two concentric circles on a plane per-
pendicular to the axis of a cylinder or cone, within which each
circular element must lie. All-around

Cylindricity represents a surface in which all Figure 3-42. Profile geometric tolerance symbols. When a tol-
points are an equai distance from a common center. erance is specified for all sides of an object, the "all-around"
The cylindricity geometric tolerance establishes a symbol is used.
tolerance zone that controls the diameter of a cylin-
der throughout its entire length. It consists of two
concentric cylinders within which the actual surface
must lie. This tolerance covers both the circular and A profile line geometric tolerance is a hvo-dimen-
longitudinal elements. See Figure 3-41. sional (cross-sectional) tolerance zone extending
along the length of the element. It is located using
lY .005 basic dimensions, Figure 3-43.
The profile surface geometric tolerance is three-
dimensional and extends along the length and
width of the surface. For proper orientation of the
profile, a datum reference is usually required,
Figure 3-44.

3. 7.5 Orientation Geometric Tolerances

Drawing callout
Orientation geometric tolerances control the
degree of parallelism, perpendicularity, or angular-
.005 WIDE TOLERANCE ZONE ity of a feature with respect to one or more datums.
z There are three orientation tolerances, Figure 3-45.
Angularity is concerned with the position of a

Interpretation
_J surface or axis at a specified angle to a datum plane
or axis. The specified angle must be other than 90°.
An angularity geometric tolerance establishes a toler-
ance zone defined by hvo parallel lines, planes, or a
Figure 3-41. The cylindricity geometric tolerance establishes a cylindrical zone at a specified basic angle other than
tolerance zone that controls the diameter of a cylinder through- 90". The line elements, surface, or axis of the consid-
out its entire length. ered feature must lie within this zone, Figure 3-46.
 Unc!er~tanc'.!ng Or-awings

x---Y
A "

Drawing callout Interpretation

Figure 3-43. A profile line geometric tolerance is a two-dimensional tolerance zone extending along the length of the considered
element.

x________v_!
Drawing callout Interpretation

Figure 3-44. The profile surface geometric tolerance is three-dimensional and extends along the length and width of the surface.

A perpendicularity geometric tolerance specifies a

L. Angularity tolerance zone at right angles to a given datum or
axis. It is described by two parallel lines, planes, or
a cylindrical tolerance zone. The line, surface, or
_J_ Perpendicularity
axis of the considered feature must lie within this
zone, Figure 3-47.
Parallelism describes how close all elements of
a line or surface are to being parallel (equidistant) to

II Parallelism
a given datum plane or axis. A parallelism geometric
tolerance is a tolerance zone defined by two lines
parallel to a datum within which the elements of a
Figure 3-45. Orientation geometric tolerance symbols. surface or axis must lie, Figure 3-48.
" ~
.005 WIDE ANGULARITY
RANCE ZONE
POSSIBLE ORIENTATION
Machining Fundami'!nta!s

OF THE SURFACE
'

A Drawing callout Interpretation

.005 WIDE TOLERANCE

POSSIBLE ORIENTATION~ ZONE
OF THE FEATURE AXIS~",,

;;J/'
.Yr""
'-'---- ~---- J_
........ ...
B Drawing callout Interpretation

Figure 3-46. An angularity geometric tolerance establishes a tolerance zone defined by two parallel Jines, planes, or a cylindrical zone
at a specified basic angle other than 90". A-Angularity of a surface. B-Angularity of an axis.

POSSIBLE ORIENTATl.7N
OF THE SURFACE
1..LI .oos j A j .005 WIDE TOLERANCE-+{ r'°:
ZONE i 1/
1
11

Drawing callout
I Interpretation

Figure 3-47. The line, surface, or axis of a considered feature must lie within the perpendicularity geometric tolerance zone.
Chapter 3 Understanding Drawings
m
II .005 A 3. 7.6 Location Geometric Tolerances
Location geometric tolerances are employed to
establish the location of features and datums. They
define the zone within which the center, axis, or cen-
ter plane of a feature may vary from a true (theoret-

_ __t ically exact) position. Location tolerances are also

known as positional tolerances and include position,
concentricity, and symmetry. See Figure 3-49.
Drawing callout Basic dimensions establish the true position of a
feature from specified datums and related features.
,005 WIDE TOLERANCE ZONE A positional geometric tolerance establishes how far a
feature may vary from its true position, Figure 3-50.
POSSIBLE ORIENTATION Concentricity defines the relationship between
OF THE SURFACE the axes of two or more of an object's cylindrical fea-
tures. A concentricity geometric tolerance is expressed

-$- Position

Interpretation

Figure 3-48. A parallelism geometric tolerance is a tolerance

zone defined by two lines parallel to a datum within which the
© Concentricity

Symmetry
elements of a surface or axis must lie.
Figure 3-49. Location or positional tolerance symbols.

fl) 1.000 t.002

l•I 0.004 8 !A IB IC I
Qjl.002
.998

1.002
.998
!-----.......,____ _ _J_ ~~___.

~
L,.002 500
.,.,_.998
_______ j:495
~L.......-.lo...~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56% MORE
--,------,- .004 AREA

''
{~ =t.004 !lJ.OOV

Conventional location Positional geometric

tolerance zone tolerance zone

Figure 3-50. A positional geometric tolerance establishes how tar a feature may va,y from its true position.
m
as a cylindrical tolerance zone. The axis or center
Machining Fundamentals

point of this zone coincides ,dth a datum axis,

Figure 3-51.
Since this tolerance is sometimes difficult and
time-consuming to yerify, runout or positional geo-
metric tolerances are often used instead.
Symmetry indicates equal or balanced propor-
tions on either side of a central plane or datum,
Figure 3-52. A symmetry geometric tolerance is a zone
Symmetrical double tab
within which the symmetrical surfaces align with
the datum of a center plane or axis, Figure 3-53.

3. 7. 7 Runout Geometric Tolerances

There are two types of runout geometric toler-
ances-total runout and circular runout. These tol- -----,---+--+-----
erances are indicated by the symbols shmn1 irt
Figure 3-54. Runout tolerances are used to control
runout of surfaces around or perpendicular to a
datum axis.
Total runout controls circularity, straightness, Symmetrical double slot
angularity, and cylindricity of a part when Figure 3-52. Symmetry indicates equal or balanced proportions
applied to surfaces rotated around a datum axis, on either side of a central plane.
Figure 3-55. The entire surface must lie ,dthin the
tolerance zone.

@0.002 A

Drawing callout

EXTREME LOCATIONAL \ ~~ DIAMETER EXTREME ATTITUDE

VARIATION
VARIA,...
J-IO_N_ _ _ _,_, - - - - \ :RANCE ZONE

\ I\
\_AXIS OF
AXIS OF DATUM A AXIS OF
THIS SURFACE THIS SURFACE
Interpretation

Fig ure 3-51. A concentricity geometric tolerance is expressed as a cylindrical tolerance zone. The axis or center point of this zone
coincides with a datum axis.
Chapter 3 Understanding Drawings
ffl
.003 AB
r-@
------
Drawing callout

.003 WIDE SYMMETRY

DATUM CENTER TOLERANCE ZONE _..I
PLANE A
DATUM PLANE B - . I

EXTREME POSITION] ...___ _,

OF FEATURE CENTER PLANE
Interpretation

Figure 3-53. A symmetry geometric tolerance is a zone within which the symmetrical surfaces align with the datum of a center plane
or axis.

/ Circular runout U Total runout

Figure 3-54. Runout geometric tolerance symbols. Arrows may be filled or unfilled.

1/ .003 G H

Drawing callout

DIAL INDICATOR

0--
ROTATE PART 360° l \_ DATUM AXIS
.003 RUNOUT TOLERANCE
ZONE
Interpretation
Figure 3-55. Total runout controls circularity, straightness, angularity, and cylindricity of a part when applied to surfaces rotated around
a datum. The entire surface must lie within the tolerance zone.
11 Machining Fundamentals

Circular runout is applied to features indepen- 3. 7.8 Summary

dently and controls circularity of a single circular Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing is far
cross section, Figure 3-56. The tolerance is measured more involved than described on the preceding
bv the full indicator movement (FIM) of a dial indica- pages. As you progress in machining technology,
tor ,vh~n it is placed at several positions as the part you should consider purchasing a text on the sub-
is rotated. ject, studying a copy of ASME Y14.5M-1994, or
enrolling in a class on geometric dimensioning and
tolerancing.

/ .002 Y

/ .001 Y

Drawing callout

DATUM AXIS

OJ:_,.\. . __
I

PART ROTATES 360° SINGLE CIRCULAR

ELEMENT
Interpretation

Figure 3-56. Circular runout controls circularity of a single circular cross section.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE .:,. Hm\· can surface roughness of a machined part
Please do not write in the text. ·write vour be checked against specifications on the draw-
answers on a separate sheet of paper. ing? How can it be measured electronically?
1. Drawings are used to: 6. When tolerances are plus and minus, it is
a. Show, in multiview, what an object looks called a tolerance.
like before it is made.
b. Standardize parts. 7. When tolerances are only plus or only minus, it
c. Show "·hat to make and the sizes to is called a tolerance.
make it. 8. Tolerances are:
d. All of the above. a. The different materials that can be used.
e. None of the above. b. Allowances in either oversize or under-
2. The symbols, lines, and figures that make up a size that a part can be made and still be
dra,ving are frequently called the _ _. acceptable.
c. Dimensions.
3. A microinch is of an inch.
d. All of the aboYe.
4. A micrometer is of a meter. e. None of the above.
_::=_1:_.ap_te_'!'_3_ _u_n_d_e_rs_t_an_d_il'l_g_D_ra_w_.in_g_1:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ II
9. Drawings made other than actual size are 13. What does an assembly drawing show?
called _ _ 14. Why are standard size drawing sheets used?
10. A subassembly drawing differs from an assem- 15. All dimensions have a tolerance except _ _
bly drawing by: dimensions.
a. Showing only a small portion of the com-
plete object. 16. Dimensions placed between parentheses are
b. Making it possible to use smaller dimensions.
drawings. 17. When is a feature control frame employed?
c. Showing the object without all needed
dimensions. 18. Sketch the form geometric tolerance symbols
d. All of the above. and indicate what they mean.
e. None of the above. 19. Define the term maximum material condition
11. Why are prints used in place of the original (MMC). Use a sketch if necessary.
drawings? 20. Define the term least material condition (LMC).
12. The craft worker is given all of the information Use a sketch if necessary.
needed to make a part on a _ _ drawing.
Extremely accurate measurements of small parts (up to son x 30" x 27" or 762 mm x 762 mm x 686 mm) can be done on the shop
floor by a bridge-type coordinate measuring machine like this one. The CMM is computer-controlled, and can make repeated mea-
surements with an accuracy of 0.00012n (0.003 mm). (Giddings & Lewis, Inc.)
 Chapter 4

Measurement

meter, etc.), called the International System of

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Units (abbreviated SI). A micrometer is one-
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: millionth of a meter (0.000001 m).
0 Measure to 1 / 64H (0.5 mm) with a steel rule. All of the familiar measming tools are available
0 Measure to 0.0001"' (0.002 mm) using a with scales graduated in metric units, Figure 4-1. An
Vernier micrometer caliper. SI Metric (millimeter) rule is compared with con-
0 Measure to 0.001 ~ (0.02 mm) using Vernier ventional fractional and decimal rules in Figure 4-2.
measuring tools. Metric-based measuring tools should offer no prob-
0 Measure angle; to 0°5' using Ft universal lems for the user. As a matter of fact, they are often
Vernier bevel. - easier to read than inch-based measuring tools.
0 Identify and use various types of gages Although you will measure in very tiny units
found in a machine shop. when you go to work in industry, you must first
0 Use a dial indicator. learn to read a rule to 1/64" and 0.5 mm. Then,
0 Employ the various helper measuring tools you can progress through 1/1000" (0.001") and
found in a machine shop. 1/100 mm (0.01 mm) by learning to use micrometer
and Vernier-type measuring tools. Finally, you
can progress to 1/10,000" (0.0001") and 1/500 mm
(0.002 mm) by using the Vernier scale on some
IMPORTANT TERMS micrometers.
dial indicators metrology
gage blocks micrometer caliper
gaging steel rule
graduations Vernier caliper
helper measuring tools
International System of
Units
Without some form of accurate measurement,
modern industry could not exist. The science that
deals with systems of measurement is called
metrology. Today, industry can make measurements
Figure 4-1. This rule can be used to make measurements in
accurate to one microinch (one-millionth of an inch). both US Conventional and SI Metric units.
If a microinch were as thick as a dime, one inch
would be as high as four Empire State Buildings
(about 5000' total). An engineer once estimated,
with tongue in cheek, that a steel railroad rail sup-
ported at both ends would sag one-millionth of an 4.1 THE RULE
inch when a "fat horsefly" landed on it in the The steel rule, often incorrectly called a scale, is
middle. the simplest of the measuring tools found in the
In addition to using US Conventional units of shop. Figure 4-2 shows the three basic types of rule
measure (inch, foot, etc.), industry is gradually graduations. A few of the many rule styles are
converting to metric units of measure (millimeter, shown in Figure 4-3.

II
 m t-fa..-:hinktg r-undamentals

4.1. I Reading the Rule (US Conventional)

A careful study of the enlarged rule section will
show the different fractional divisions of the inch
from 1/8 to 1/64, Figure 4-4. The lines representing
the diYisions are called graduations. On many rules,
every fourth graduation is numbered on the 1/32
edge, and every eighth graduation on the 1/64
edge.
To become familiar with the rule, begin by mea-
suring objects on the 1/8 and 1/16 scales. Once you
become comfortable ,dth these scales, begin using
the 1/32 and 1/64 scales. Practice until you can
Fractional inch quickly and accurately read measurements. Some
rules are graduated in lOths, 20ths, 50ths, and
' I lO0ths. Additional practice will be necessary to read
69L9!ito!i:1;1
these rules.
50
123456789 123456789 123456789
3 I
Fractional measurements are always reduced to
the lowest terms. A measurement of 14/16" 1s
Decimal inch reduced to 7 /8", 2/8" becomes 1/4", and so on.

Figure 4-2. Compare the metric (millimeter-graduated) rule with

4.1.2 Reading the Rule (Metric)
the more familiar rules graduated in fractional and decimal inch Most metric rules are divided into millimeter
units. or one-half millimeter graduations. They are

6" !ilaal rule

Rute w1lh adjustabfe hook

Narrow rule Small rules with holder

Figure 4-3. Many different types of rules are used to make measuring quicker and more accurate. (L. S. Starrett Co.)
 ______________I'm
Chapter 4 Measurement

numbered every 10 mm. See Figure 4-5. The mea-

,.
• Wipe steel rules with an oily cloth before stor-
surement is determined by counting the number of ing. This will prevent rust. If the rule is to be
millimeters. stored for a prolonged period, coat it with
wax or rust preventative.
• Clean the rule with steel wool to keep the
graduations legible.
• Make measurements and tool settings from
the 1" line (10 mm line on a metric rule) or
other major graduations, rather than from the
end of the rule.
• Store rules separately. Do not throw them in a
drawer with other tools.
• Use the rule with care to protect the ends from
nicks and wear.
• Use the correct rule for the job being done.

4.2 THE MICROMETER CALIPER

A Frenchman, Jean Palmer, devised and
patented a measuring tool that made use of a screw
thread, making it possible to read measurements
quickly and accurately without calculations. It
incorporated a series of engraved lines on the sleeve
and around the thimb~e. The device, called Systeme
Palmer, is the basis for the modem micrometer
Figure 4-4. These are the fractional graduations found on a caliper, Figure 4·6.
rule. Measurements are taken by counting the number of
graduations.

245.5 mm

Figure 4-5. Most metric rules are graduated in millimeters and

haff-millimeters. They are available in a variety of sizes.

4.1.3 Care of the Rule

The steel rule is precision-made and, like all
tools, its accuracy depends upon the care it receives.
Here are a few suggestions:
• Use the rule for measurements only. Do not
adjust screws or open paint cans with it. Be
careful not to bend your rule.
• Keep the rule clear of moving machlnery.
Never use it to clean metal chips as they form
Figure 4-6. The micrometer caliper, past and present.
on the cutting tool. This is extremely danger- A-A drawing of the Systeme Palmer measuring device.
ous and will ruin the rule. B-These modem micrometer calipers operate on the same
• Avoid laying other tools on the rule. principle as the original 1848 invention.
 t-': achining l~undamentals

The micrometer caliper, also known as a "mike,"

is a precision tool capable of measuring to 0.001" or
0.01 mm. \Nhen fitted with a Vernier scale, it vdll
read to 0.0001" or 0.002 mm.

4.2. I Types of Micrometers

Micrometers are produced in a vdde yariety of
models. Digital display is included in many
micrometers, making measuring easier. Some of the
most popular models are the following: A
• An outside micrometer measures external
diameters and thickness, Figure 4-7.

Figure 4-8. Inside micrometers. A-A conventional inside

Figure 4-7. This digital outside micrometer can be used to micrometer. B-The caliper jaws on this inside micrometer
measure in both US Conventional and SI Metric units. allow quick and accurate measurements. The divisions on the
(Mitutoyo/MTI Corp.) sleeve are numbered in the reverse order of a conventional out-
side micrometer. (L. S. Starrett Co.)

• An inside micrometer has many uses, includ-

ing measuring internal diameters of cylin-
ders, rings, and slots. The range of a
conventional inside micrometer can be
extended by fitting longer rods to the
micrometer head. The range of a jaw-type
inside micrometer is limited to 1" or 25 mm.
The jaw-type inside micrometer has a scale
graduated from right to left. See Figure 4-8.
• A micrometer depth gage measures the depths
of holes, slots, and projections. See Figure 4-9.
The measuring range can be increased by
changing to longer spindles. Measurements
are read from right to left.
• A screw-thread micrometer has a pointed
spindle and a double-V anvil shaped to con-
tact the screw thread, Figure 4-10. It measures
the pitch diameter of the thread, which equals Figure 4-9. A standard micrometer depth gage.
the outside (major) diameter of the thread
minus the depth of one thread. Since each
thread micrometer is designed to measure
only a limited number of threads per inch, a • A chamfer micrometer will accurately
set of thread micrometers is necessarv to mea- measure countersunk holes and other
sure a full range of thread pitches. " chamfer-type measurements. With fastener
Chapter 4 Meuurement

The line engraved lengthwise on the sleeve is

divided into 40 equal parts per inch (corresponding
to the number of threads per inch on the spindle).
Each vertical line equals 1/40", or 0.025". Every
fourth division is numbered, representing 0.100",
0.200", etc.
The beveled edge of the thimble is divided into
25 equal parts around its circumference. Each divi-
sion equals 1/1000" (0.001"). On some micrometers,
every division is numbered, while every fifth divi-
sion is numbered on others.
The micrometer is read by recording the highest
number on the sleeve (1 = 0.100, 2 == 0.200, etc.). To
this number, add the number of vertical lines visible
between the number and thimble edge (1 = 0.025,
2 = 0.050, etc.). To this total, add the number of thou-
Figure 4-1O. This screw thread micrometer can measure sandths indicated by the line that coincides with the
threads as wide as 718'~ (L. S. Starrett Co.) horizontal sleeve line.

tolerances so critical on some aerospace and

other applications, it is important that coun-
tersunk holes and tapers on fasteners meet
specifications. A chamfer micrometer makes it
possible to check these critical areas.
Special micrometers are available for other
applications. These micrometers are devised to 0.458"
handle nonstandard measurement tasks.
Example 1
4.2.2 Reading an Inch-Based Micrometer
A micrometer uses a very precisely made screw Add the readings from the sleeve and the thimble:
thread that rotates in a fixed nut. The screw thread 4 large graduations: 4 x 0.100 = 0.400
is ground on the spindle and is attached to the 2 small graduations: 2 X 0.025 = 0.050
thimble. The spindle advances or recedes from the 8 thimble graduations: 8 x 0.001 = 0.008
anvil as the thimble is rotated. See Figure 4-11. The Total mike reading == 0.458"
threaded section has 40 threads per inch; therefore,
each revolution of the thimble moves the spindle
1/40" (0.025").

Example 2

Add the readings from the sleeve and the thimble:

2 large graduations: 2 x 0.100 = 0.200
3 small graduations: 3 X 0.025 = 0.075
Frame
14 thimble graduations: 14 x 0.001 = 0.014
Figure 4-11. Basic parts of a micrometer caliper. Total mike reading = 0.289"
 • I

0 5
i

.I ''
0

Example3
0.0002

Add the readings from the

3 large graduations:
2 small graduations:
sleeve and the thimble:
3 x 0.100 = 0.300
2 X 0.025 = 0.050
i~20
~~
"" -------
3 thimble graduations: 3 X 0.001 = 0.003 0.0120
Total mike reading = 0.333"
4.2.3 Reading a Vernier Micrometer 0.2000
0.0750
On occasion, it is necessary to measure more 0.0120
precisely than 0.001". A Vernier micrometer caliper 0.0002
Reading is 0.2872"
is used in these situations. This micrometer has a
third scale around the sleeYe that will furnish the Figure 4-13. How to read a Vernier micrometer caliper. Add the
1/10,000" (0.0001'') reading. See Figure 4-12. total reading in thousandths, then observe which of the lines on
the Vernier scale coincides with a line on the thimble. In this
case, it is the second line, so 0.0002 is added to the reading.

0
' 30
I

25

Figure 4-12. A Vernier micrometer caliper includes a Vernier

scale on the sleeve.

The Vernier scale has 11 parallel lines that

occupy the same space as 10 lines on the thimble.
The lines around the sleeye are numbered 1 to 10.
The difference between the spaces on the sleeve and
those on the thimble is one-tenth of a thousandth of
5.00
an inch. 0.50
To read the Vernier scale, first obtain the thou- 0.28
sandths reading, then observe ,-vhich of the lines on Reading is 5. 78 mm
the Vernier scale coincides (lines up) with a line on
the thimble. Only one of them can line up. If the line Figure 4-14. To read a metric micrometer, add the total reading
is 1, add 0.0001 to the reading; if line 2, add 0.0002 to in millimeters visible on the sleeve to the reading of hundredths
of a millimeter, indicated by the graduation on the thimble. Note
the reading, etc. See Figure 4-13. that the thimble reading coincides with the longitudinal line on
the micrometer sleeve.
4.2.4 Reading a Metric~Based Micrometer
The metric-based micrometer is read as shown tional inch-based micrometer, reading the metric-
in Figure 4-14. If you are able to read the conven- based tool will offer no difficulties.
_C_h_apt
_ e_r_4_ _M
_e_a_s_u re
_ m_e_n_t_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ m
,
4.2.5 Reading a Metric Vernier Micrometer
Metric Vernier micrometers are read in the same
way as standard metric micrometers. However,
using the Vernier scale on the sleeve, an additional
reading of two-thousandths of a millimeter can be
obtained, Figure 4-15.

0.004mm

7.000 mm

0.310 mm

0.500 mm 7.000
0.500
0.310
0.004
Reading is 7.814 mm

Figure 4-15. Reading a metric-based Vernier micrometer

caliper. To the regular reading in hundredths of a millimeter
(0.01), add the reading from the Vernier scale that coincides
with a line on the thimble. Each line on the Vernier scale is equal
to two thousandths of a millimeter (0.002 mm).

4.2.6 Using the Micrometer

The proper way to hold a micrometer when
making a measurement is shown in Figure 4-16. The
work is placed into position, and the thimble
rotated until the part is clamped lightly between the
anvil and spindle. Guard against excessive pressure,
which will cause an erroneous reading. Some
micrometers have features to help regulate pressure: B
• A ratchet stop is used to rotate the spindle.
When the pressure reaches a predetermined Figure 4-16. Proper technique of handling a micrometer.
amount, the ratchet stop slips and prevents A-Use ve,y fight pressure when turning the thimble. 8-When
further spindle turning. Uniform contact the piece being measured must also be held, position the
pressure with the work is ensured, even if dif- micrometer as shown, with a finger in the micrometer frame.
ferent people use the same micrometer. Refer
again to Figure 4-11.
• A friction thimble may be built into the upper results as the ratchet stop but permits one-
section of the thimble. This produces the same handed use of the micrometer.
 • A lock nut is used when several identical reverse order of the graduations on an outside
parts are to be gaged. Refer again to Figure micrometer. See Figure 4-18. The graduations under
4-11. The nut locks the spindle into place. the thimble must be read, rather than those that are
Gaging parts with a micrometer locked at the exposed.
proper setting is an easy way to determine
whether the pieces are sized correctly.

4.2.7 Reading an Inside Micrometer

To get a correct reading with an inside microm-
eter, it is important that the tool be held square 0
across the diameter of the work. It must be posi-
tioned so that it will measure across the diameter on
the exact center, Figure 4-17.

Figure 4-18. A micrometer depth gage. When making mea-

surements with a depth gage, remember that the graduations
are in reverse order. This gage indicates a depth of 0.250.

4.2. 9 Care of a Micrometer

Micrometers are precision instruments and
must be handled v.-ith care. The following tech-
niques are recommended:
• Place the micrometer on the work carefully so
the faces of the anvil and spindle will not be
damaged. The same applies when removing
the tool after a measurement has been made.
• Keep the micrometer clean. Wipe it with a
slightly oiled cloth to prevent rust and tar-
nish. A drop of light oil on the screw thread
will keep the tool operating smoothly.
• Avoid "springing" a micrometer by applying
too much pressure when you are making a
measurement.
• Clean the am·il and spindle faces before use.
This can be done with a soft cloth or by lightly
closing the jaws on a clean piece of paper and
dra\\ing the paper out.
• Check for accuracy by closing the spindle
Figure 4-17. Using an inside micrometer. Extension rods can
be added to increase the tool's measuring range. gently on the anvil and note lvhether the zero
line on the thimble coincides \\ith the zero on
the sleeve. If they are not aligned, follow the
Measurement is made by holding one end of the manufacturer's recommended adjustments.
tool in place and then "feeling" for the maximum • Avoid placing a micrometer where it may fall
possible setting by moving the other end from left to on the floor or have other tools placed on it.
right, and then in and out of the opening. The mea- • If the micrometer must be opened or closed a
surement is made when no left or right movement is considerable distance, do not "tvfirl" the
felt, and a slight drag is noticeable on the in-and-out frame; gently roll the thimble with your palm.
swing. It may be necessary to take seYeral readings See Figure 4-19.
and average them. • Never attempt to make a micrometer reading
until a machine has come to a complete stop.
4.2.B Reading a Micrometer Depth Gage • Clean and oil the tool if it is to be stored for
Be sure to read a micrometer depth gage cor- some time. If possible, place the micrometer
rectly. The graduations on this measuring tool are in in a small box for protection.
Chapter 4 Measurement

Figure 4-19. Micromerers musr be rreared carefully. Rolt the

micrometer thimble on the palm of your hand ff the instrument
must be opened or closed a considerable distance.

4.3 VERNIER MEASURING TOOLS

The Vernier principle of measuring was named
for its inventor, Pierre Vernier, a French mathe-
matician. The Vernier caliper can make accurate
measurements to 1/1000" (0.001'') and 1/50 mm
(0.02 mm). See Figure 4-20.

Figure 4-21. Vernier calipers can be used to make both internal

and external measurements. (L. S. Starrett Co.)

The following measuring instruments may

include a Vernier scale:
• Height and depth gages are used for layout
work and to inspect the locations of features.
See Figure 4-22.
• Gear tooth calipers are used to measure gear
teeth and threading tools, Figure 4-23.
• Universal Vernier bevel protractors are used
for the layout and inspection of angles,
Figure 4-24.
Figure 4·20. Vernier calipers can be usea to maKe ve,y accu- Vernier measuring tools, with the exception of
rate measurements. A-Standard Vernier caliper. 8-Modem the Vernier bevel protractor consist of a graduated
1
digital calipers are easier to read than mechanical instruments.
beam with fixed jaw or base and a Vernier slide
assembly. The Vernier slide assembly is composed
The design of the tool permits measurements to of a movable jaw or scribe, Vernier plate, and clamp-
be made over a large range of sizes. It is manufac- ing screws. The slide moves as a unit along the
rured as a standard item in 6", 12", 24", 36", and 48" beam.
lengths. SI Metric Vernier calipers are available in Unlike other Vernier measuring tools, the beam
150 mm, 300 mm, and 600 mm lengths. The 6", 12", of the Vernier caliper is graduated on both sides.
150 mm, and 300 mm sizes are most commonly One side is for making outside measurements, the
used. Unlike the micrometer caliper, the Vernier other for inside measurements. Many of the newer
caliper can be used for both inside and outside mea- Vernier measuring tools are graduated to make both
surements, Figure 4-21. inch and millimeter measurements.
 Figure 4-22. Many instruments are equfpped with a Vernier
scale. A-Height gage. 8---Depth gage. C-The digital readout
on this type of height gage serves the same function as a stan-
dard Vernier scale. (L. S. Starrett Co.)

4.3. I Reading an Inch-Based Vernier Scale

These measuring tools are available with either
25-division or 50-dhision Vernier plates. Both plates
can be read to 0.001".
On measuring tools using the 25-division Vernier Figure 4-23. Gear tooth Vernier calipers are used to measure
plate, every inch section on the beam is graduated gear teeth, form tools, and threaded tools. (L. S. Starrett Co.)
Chapter 4 Measurement

The "0" line on the Vernier plate is:

Past the 2: 2X1 :::::2.000
Past the 3: 3 x 0.100 = 0.300
Plus 2 graduations: 2 x 0.025 = 0.050
Plus 18 Vernier scale
graduations: 18 X 0.001 = 0.018
Total reading = 2.368"
On the SO-division Vernier plate, every second
graduation between the inch lines is numbered, and
equals 0.100". The unnumbered graduations equal
0.050".
The Vernier plate is graduated into 50 parts,
each representing 0.001". Every fifth line is num-
bered: 5, 10, 15 ... 40, 45, and 50.
To read a SO-division Vernier measuring tool,
Figure 4-24. A universal Vernier bevel protractor is used to
first count how many inches, tenths (0.100), and
accurately measure angles. (L. S. Starrett Co.)
twentieths (0.050) there are between the "0" line on
into 40 equal parts. Each graduation is 1 / 40" the beam, and the "0" line on the Vernier plate. Then
(0.025"). Every fourth division, representing 0.100'', add them. Then count the number of 0.001 gradua-
is numbered. tions on the Vernier plate from its "0" line to the line
There are 25 divisions on the Vernier plate. that coincides with a line on the beam. Add this to
Every fifth line is numbered: 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25. the above total.
The 25 divisions occupy the same space as 24 divi-
sions on the beam. This slight difference, equal to
0.001 (1/1000") per division, is the basis of the
OOllf,t EXTERNAL.
Vernier principle of measuring. 0 10 20 !O 4() 50
To read a 25-division Vernier plate measuring
tool, note how many inches (1, 2, 3, etc.), tenths
(0.100, 0.200, etc.), and fortieths (0.025, 0.050, or
0.075) there are between the "0" on the Vernier scale
and the 110" line on the beam, then add them. Then
count the number of graduations (each graduation 2.000
equals 0.001") that lie between the "0" line on the 0.200
0.050
Vernier plate and the line that coincides (corre- 0.015
sponds exactly) with a line on the beam. Only one 0.200 Reading is 2.265"
line will coincide. Add this to the above total for the
The "0" line on the Vernier plate is:
reading.
Past the 2: 2 X 1.000 = 2.000
0.300
Past the 2: 2 X 0.100 = 0.200
0.050 0.018 Plus one graduation: 1 X 0.050 = 0.050
Plus 15 Vernier scale
2.000
I /
/ I graduations:
Total reading
15 X 0.001 = 0.015
= 2.265"
2
I
3 9 2 3 4.3.2 Reading a Metric-Based Vernier Scale
I
'
l
II l lI I11 0 5 IO 15 20211
III111[1
The principles used in reading metric Vernier
measuring tools are the same as those used for
© .001,0 OtrTBIDE e, US Conventional measure. However, the readings
2.000 on the Vernier scale are obtained in 0.02 mm preci-
0.300 sion. A 25-division Vernier scale is illustrated in
...__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___, 0.050
0.018
Figure 4-25, while a SO-division scale is described in
Reading is 2.368" Figure 4-26.
 9.00
30.00

30 80

111111 .•1i1l!!Jl1
111
1... 111 1l1li :l:I
.1I
lli''lli,
l.fl,tj 11 1 ,.II
111 !:J·1 1n1
11 1!!!
1 1
l.1h, -~ I,_., 1

30.00
9.00
0.28
Reading is 39.28 mm
0.28

Figure 4-25. How to read a 25-division metric-based Vernier

scale. Readings on the scale are obtained in units of two hun-
dredths of a millimeter (0.02 mm).

9.00
0.28
: I
30.00

Figure 4-27. Dial calipers provide direct readings of measure-

ments. (L.S. Starrett Co.)
1---_7_ _ ____,F
1 f 30.00
9.00
0.28
The beam is graduated into 0.10" increments.
The caliper dial is graduated into 100 divisions. The
reading is made by combining the division on the
Reading is 39.28 mm
beam and the dial reading.
Figure 4-26. How to read a 50-division metric-based Vernier The dial hand makes one full revolution for each
scale. Each division equals two hundredths of a millimeter 0.10" movement. Each dial graduation, therefore,
(0.02mm). represents 1/100 of 0.10", or 0.001". On the metric
version, each dial graduation represents 0.02 mm.
4.3.4 Universal Vernier Bevel Protractor
4.3.3 Using the Vernier Cali-per A quick review of the circles, angles, and units of
As with any precision tool, a Vernier caliper measurement associated ,,vith them idll help in
must not be forced on the work. Slide the Vernier understanding how to read a universal Vernier
assembly until the ja,vs nearly contact the section bevel protractor.
being measured. Lock the clamping sere,,·. Make the • Degree (0 )-Regardless of its size, a circle
tool adjustment with the fine adjusting nut. The contains 360~. Angles are also measured by
jaws must contact the work firmly~ but not tightly. degrees.
Lock the slide on the beam. Carefully remove • Minute (')-A minute represents a fractional
the tool from the work and make your reading. For part of a degree. If a degree is divided into
precise layout work, divider and trammel point set- 60 equal parts, each part is one minute. A
tings are located on the outside measuring scale and foot mark (') is used to signify minutes
on the slide assembly. (e.g. 30~13').
Dial calipers. These direct-reading instruments • Second (")-Minutes are divided into smaller
resemble Vernier calipers. They can be used to make units known as seconds. There are 60 seconds
outside, inside, and depth measurements (with the in one minute. An angular measurement writ-
addition of a depth attachment). A lock permits the ten in degrees, minutes, and seconds appears
tool to be employed for repetitive measurements. as 36°18'22". This would read "36 degrees,
See Figure 4-27. 18 minutes, and 22 seconds."
Chapter 4 Measurement
m
A universal bevel protractor has several parts: a • Never force the tool when you are making
dial, a base or stock, and a sliding blade. The dial is measurements.
graduated into degrees, and the blade can be • Use a magnifying glass or a jeweler's loupe to
extended in either direction and set at any angle to make Vernier readings. Hold the tool so the
the stock. The blade can be locked against the dial light is reflected on the scale.
by tightening the blade clamp nut. The blade and • Handle the tool as little as possible. Sweat and
dial can be rotated as a unit to any desired position, body acids cause rusting and staining.
and locked by tightening the dial clamp nut. • Periodically check for accuracy. Use a mea-
The protractor dial is graduated into 360° and suring standard, Jo-block, or ground parallel.
reads from 0° to 90° and then back down to 0°. Return the tool to the manufacturer for
Every ten degree division is numbered, and every adjustments and repairs.
five degrees is indicated by a fine line longer than • Lay Vernier height gages on their side when
those on either side. The Vernier scale is divided not in use. Then there will be no danger that
into twelve equal parts on each side of the "O." they will be knocked over and damaged.
Every third graduation is numbered (0, 15, 30, 45,
60), representing minutes. Each division equals five
minutes. Since each degree is divided into 60 min-
4.4 GAGES
utes, one division is equal to 5 / 60 of a degree. It is impractical to check every dimension on
To read the protractor, note the number of every manufactured part with conventional mea-
degrees that can be read up to the "O" on the Vernier suring tools. Specialized tools, such as plug gages,
plate. To this, add the number of minutes indicated ring gages, and optical gages are used instead.
by the line beyond the "O" on the Vernier plate that These gaging devices can quickly determine
aligns exactly with a line on the dial. whether the dimensions of a manufactured part are
within specified limits or tolerances.
Measuring requires the skillful use of precision
50°00'
measuring tools to determine the exact geometric
size of the piece; Gaging involves checking parts
with various g~ges. Gaging simply shows whether
the piece is ~ e within the specified tolerances.
When great numbers of an item with several
critical dimel'\Sions are manufactured, it might not
be possible tp check each piece. It then becomes nec-
essary to decide how many randomly selected
pieces mu~t be checked to ensure satisfactory qual-
ity and aqherence to specifications. This technique
is called statistical quality control.
Always handle gages carefully. If dropped or
mishandled, the accuracy of the device could be
affected. Gages provide a method of checking your
In this example the "O" is past the 50° mark, work an4 are very important tools.
and the Vernier scale aligns at the 20' mark. I
Therefore, the measurement is 50°20'.
4.4. I Plug Gage
Plug ~ages are used to check whether hole
4.3.5 Care of Vernier Tools diameters\ are within specified tolerances. The
Reasonable care in handling these expensive double-entt, cylindrical plug gage has two gaging
tools will maintain their accuracy. members known as go and no-go plugs, Figure 4-28.
• Wipe the instrument with a soft, lint-free cloth The go plug should enter the hole with little or no
before using. This will prevent dirt and grit interference. The no-go plug should not fit.
from being ground in, which could eventually The go plug is longer than the no-go plug.
affect the accuracy of the tool. A progressive plug gage, or step plug gage, has the
• Wipe the tool with a lightly oiled, soft cloth go and no-go plugs on the same end. This gage is
after use and before storage. able to check the dimensions in one motion. See
• Store the tool in its case. Figure 4-29.
ij Machining Fm1damenmls

I: I
I I 1.0005 tO
Figure 4-28. A double end cylindrical plug gage.

Figure 4-29. A step plug gage can check for oversize and
undersize in a single test.

4.4.2 Ring Gage

External diameters are checked ,Nith ring gages.
The go and no-go ring gages are separate units, and
can be distinguished from each other by a groove
cut on the knurled outer surface of the no-go gage. Figure 4-31. An adjustable snap gage. (Taft-Pierce Co.)
Refer to Figure 4-30.
On ring gages, the gage tolerance is the reverse
of plug gages. The opening of the go gage is larger Gage size
than the opening for the no-go gage.

For For f
checking
O.D. ® r checking
I.D. t

Figure 4-30. Ring gages. T/'1e larger sizes are cut away to
reduce weight. (Standard Tool Co.)

4.4.3 Snap Gage

A snap gage serves the same purpose as a ring
gage. Snap gages are designed to check internal
diameters, external diameters, or both. There are
D I\)
m
0

three general types:

• An adjustable snap gage can be adjusted
through a range of sizes. See Figure 4-31.
Figure 4-32. Diagram of a nonadjustable snap gage. A-A
• A nonadjustable snap gage is made for one combination internal-external nonadjustable snap gage. B-An
specific size. See Figure 4-32. external nonadjustable snap gage.
Chapter 4 Mea!lurement

• A dial indicator snap gage measures the

amount of variation in the part measurement.
The dial face has a double row of graduations
reading in opposite directions from zero.
Minus graduations are red and plus gradua-
tions are black. Both adjustable and nonad-
justable indicating snap gages are available.
See Figure 4-33.
On snap gages, the anvils should be narrower
than the work being measured. This will avoid
uneven wear on the measuring surfaces.

Figure 4-33. A dial indicator snap gage. (L.S. Starrett Co.)

Figure 4-34. Thread gages. A-Thread plug gage. 8-Thread
ring gage. C-Go/no-go thread snap gage. (Standard Tool Co.
4.4.4 Thread Gages and Taft-Pierce Co.)
Several types of gages are used to check screw
thread fits and tolerances. These gages are similar to When working with gage blocks, keep the fol-
the gages already discussed: lowing tips in mind:
• Thread plug gage. • Improper handling can cause temperature
• Thread ring gage. changes in the block, resulting in measure-
• Thread roll snap gage. ment errors. For the most accurate results,
These gages are illustrated in Figure 4-34. blocks should be used in a temperature-
controlled room. Handle the blocks as little as
4.4.5 Gage Blocks possible. When you must handle the blocks,
Gage blocks, commonly known as Jo-blocks or use the tips of your fingers, as shown in
Johansson blocks, are precise steel measuring stan- Figure 4-37A.
dards. Gage blocks can be purchased in various sets • When wringing gage blocks together to build
ranging from a few commonly used block sizes to up to desired size, wipe the blocks and then
more complete sets. See Figure 4-35. carefully slide them together. They should
Gage blocks are used to verify the accuracy of adhere to each other strongly. Separate the
master gages. They are also used as working gages blocks when you are finished. Leaving gage
and for setting up machining work requiring great blocks together for extended periods may
accuracy. The Federal Accuracy Grades for gage cause the contacting surfaces to corrode. See
blocks are shown in Figure 4-36. Figure 4-37B.
-IP.I- - - - - - - - - - - M,ti::hming
-- Fu11d,u'11entulJ
-
• Wipe gage blocks with a soft cloth or chamois
treated with oil. Be sure the oil is one recom-
mended by the gage manufacturer. See Figure
4-37C.

4.5 DIAL INDICATORS

Industry is constantly searclting for ways to
reduce costs vdthout sacrificing quality. Inspection
has ahvays been a costly part of manufacturing. To
speed up this phase of production without sacrific-
ing accuracy, dial indicators and electronic gages are
receiYing increased attention.
Dial indicators are designed with shockproof
moYements and ha,·e jeweled bearings (similar to
fine watches). There are hvo types of indicators: bal-
anced and contin.uous. Balanced indicators car1. take
measurements on either side of a zero line.
Continuous indicators read from "0" in a clockwise
direction. See Figure 4-38.
Dial faces are aYailable in a wide range of
graduations. They usually read in the following
increments:
• 1/1000" (0.001")
Figure 4-35. A typical set of gage blocks. • 1/100 mm (0.01 mm)
(Federal Products Co.) • 1/10,000" (0.0001")
• 2/1000 mm (0.002 mm)
Federal Accuracy Grades
Much use is made of dial indicators for center-
Tolerance
Accuracy Former US Conventional Metric system
ing and aligning work on maclune tools, checking
grade designation system (inch) (millimeter) for eccentricity, and Yisual inspection of ·work. Dial
0.5 AAA +,000001" +,00003 mm indicators must be mounted to rigid holding
1 AA +,000002" +,00005 mm devices, Figure 4-39.
2 A+ +.000004" +.0001 mm A digital electronic indicator, Figure 4-40, fea-
-.000002" -.00005 mm
tures direct digital readouts and a traditional grad-
+.000006" +.00015 mm
3 A&B -,:}00002" -.00005 mm uated dial for fast, accurate reading. These
Reference temperature: 68°F (20°C) indicators are aYailable as both self-contained and
One inch= 25.4 millimeters exactly remote readout units.
Figure 4-36. Federaf Accuracy Grades for gage b~ocks.

The effect of
temperature
J
"'Handle blocks like this

A B C
Figure 4-37. Proper care of gage blocks. A-Handling gage blocks. B-Wipe blocks and slide them together. Do not leave blocks
together for extended periods. C-Wipe blocks with a soft cloth before storing. (Webber Gage Div., L.S. Starrett Co.)
'Chapter 4 Measurement
m

-.DDOOe

Figure 4·3B. The two basic varieties ot dial indicators.

A-Balanced indicators. B-Continuous indicators.
(L. S. Starrett Co.)

Figure 4-40. This digital electronic indicator has numeric read-

outs and a conventional graduated dial.
(Federal Products Company)

the "O" line coincides with the hand. As the work

touching the plunger is slowly moved, the indicator
hand will measure movement.
The dial indicator can show the difference
between the high and low points, or the total run-
out of the piece in a lathe. When machining, adjust-
ments are made until there is little or no indicator
movement.

4.6 OTHER GAGING TOOLS

Industry makes wide use of other types of gag-
ing tools. Most of these tools are used for special
purposes and are not usually found in a school
shop. However, since you might need to use them in
Figure 4-39. Mounting this r11a1 Indicator on a magnetic base industry, it is important to learn about such tools.
permits it to be attached to any ferrous metal surface. A push-
button releases the magnet.
4.6. I Air Gage
An air gage uses air pressure to measure hole
4.5. I How to Use a Dial Indicator sizes and hard-to-reach shaft diameters, Figure 4-41.
The hand on the dial is actuated by a sliding This type of gage is especially helpful when mea-
plunger. Place the plunger lightly against the work suring deep internal bores. The basic operation of an
until the hand moves. The dial face is turned until air gage is illustrated in Figure 4-42.
ffl
Nonadjustable Zero setting valve
~
equalizing jet

"'

Gaging plug

Figure 4-42. This diagram illustrates the operation of an air

gage.

There is no actual contact between the measur-

ing gage and wall of the bore being measured. The
bore measurement depends on the air leakage
between the plug and the hole wall. (The larger the
bore diameter, the greater the leakage.) Pressure
A builds up and the measurement of the back pressure
gives an accurate measurement of the hole size.
Change in pressure (air leakage) is measured by
a dial indicator, a cork floating on the air stream, or
by a manometer (U-shaped tube in which the height
of t1uid in the tube indicates pressrae).

4.6.2 Electronic Gage

An electronic gage, Figure 4-43, is another type
of gaging tool used to make extremely precise
measurements. Electronic gages are comparison
gages: they compare , the size of the work to a
reference size. Some are calibrated by means of
master gage blocks and others use replaceable
gaging probes. These instruments measure in both
US Conventional and SI \1etric units.

·- 4.6.3 Laser Gaging

A laser is a device that produces a very narrmv
beam of extremely intense light. Lasers are used in
communication, medical, and industrial applica-
tions. Laser is an acronym for light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation.
The laser is another area of technology that has
moYed from the laboratory into the shop. When
B • employed for inspection purposes, it can check the
Figure 4-41. Digital air gages are available with either accuracy of critical areas in machined parts quickly
US Conventional or SI Metric readouts. They can check either and accurately. Refer to Figure 4-44.
inside or outside diameters. A-An air gage set up to inspect an
internal dimension. The master ring shown with the gage is 4.6.4 Optical Comparator
used to set zero on the readout. B-This gage has an air fork,
which is used to check hard-to-reach diameters, such as crank- The optical comparator uses magnification as a
shaft journals. (Federal Products Company) means for inspecting parts, Figure 4-45. An
 Figure 4-45. This 50-power optical comparator permits a fast
check of the tooth formation on a tap.

enlarged image of the part is projected upon a

screen for inspection. The part image is superim-
posed upon an enlarged, accurate drawing of the
correct shape and size. The comparison is made
visually. Variations as small as 0.0005" (0.012 mm)
can be noted by a skilled operator.

4.6.5 Optical Flats

Optical flats are precise measuring instruments
Figure 4-43. This electronic oore gaging system can deliver that use light waves as a measuring standard,
9/ectronic resolution as fine as 0.00001n (0.0002 mm). Using Figure 4-46. The flats are made of quartz and have
replaceable gaging probes, the self-contained unit measures
diameters ranging from 0.370H to 2.900". It also measures in
one face ground and polished to optical flatness.
millimeters. It can be linked to a computer for statistical process When this face is placed on a machined surface and
control (SPC) data collection. (Sunnen Products Company) a special light passed through it, light bands appear
on the surface, Figure 4-47. The shape of these
bands indicate to the inspector the accuracy of the
part. See Figure 4-48.

Figure 4-44. This laser is b9ing used to insf)8Ct a pan from a

car's automatic transmission. Manually, one person could
inspect no more than four units an hour. The laser can inspect Figure 4-46. Optical flats are used for precision flatness,
over 120 parts an hour. (Ford Motor Co.) parallelism, size, and surface variations. (L. S. Starrett Co.)
m '111tt11n ni:t Funrfamcnt,11~

Interference bands 4.6.6 Thickness (Feeler) Gage

indicate difference
in size between Thickness gages are pieces or leaves of metal
ball bearing and Jo-block manufactured to precise thickness, Figure 4-49.
Thickness gages are made of tempered steel and are
usually 1/2"(12.7 mm) wide.
/ ./

()

Interference .,,,,, .,,,,,;;._

bands
.,,,,, .,,,,, / // / //
Ballbearing .,,,,,.,,,,, .,,,..,,,- / "//
being inspected .,...,. .,...,. .,,,. / / / / 'j' / Figure 4-49. Thickness or feeler gages.
.,...,. / / ///
/ / / / /
Thickness gages are ideal for measuring narrow
Optical frat
slots, setting small gaps and clearances, determin-
ing fit between mating surfaces, and for checking
Jo-block flatness of parts in straightening operations. See
Figure 4-50.
Too111lclk9r's 11211
4.6.7 Screw Pitch Gage
Figure 4-47. Optical flat set-up. Optical flat is placed on top of Screw pitch gages are used to determine the
the work and light is positioned above the flat. pitch or number of threads per inch on a screw,
Figure 4-51. Each blade is stamped with the pitch or

Opticat flat Optical flat

Work

Flat surface Concave, cylindrical Concave, spherical Convex, spherical

(air wedge) {air wedge) (contact) (arr wedge)
A B C D
Figure 4-48. Interference band patterns indicate surface flatness and variations.
Figure 4-50. A thickness gage is used to check part clearance.

Figure 4-52. A set of radius and fillet gages. (L. S. Starrett Co.)

4.7 HELPER MEASURING TOOLS

Some measuring tools are not direct reading and
require the help of a rule, micrometer, or Vernier
caliper to determine the size of the measurement
Figure 4-51. Screw pitch gages are made for both inch-based
and metric threads. (L. S. Starrett Co.)
taken. These are called helper measuring tools.

4. 1.1 Calipers
number of threads per inch. Screw pitch gages External or internal measurements of 1 / 64"
are available in US Conventional and SI Metric (0.4 mm) can be made with calipers, Figure 4-54. A
thread sizes. caliper does not have a dial or scale that shows a
measurement; the distance between points must be
4.6.B Fillet and Radius Gage measured with a steel rule.
The thin steel blades of a fillet and radius gage, Round stock is measured by setting the caliper
Figure 4-52, are used to check concave and convex square with the work and moving the caliper legs
radii on corners or against shoulders. The gage is down on the stock. Adjust the tool until the caliper
used for layout work and inspection, and as a tem- point bears lightly on the center line of the stock.
plate when grinding form cutting tools. See Figure Caliper weight should cause the caliper to slip over
4-53. The gages increase in radius in 1 / 64" (0.5 mm) the diameter. Hold the caliper next to the rule to
increments. make the reading, Figure 4-55.
An inside caliper is used to make internal mea-
4.6. 9 Drill Rod surements where 1/64" (0.4 mm) accuracy is accept-
Drill rods are steel rods manufactured to close able. Hole diameter can be measured by setting the
tolerances to twist drill diameters. They are used to caliper to approximate size, and inserting the legs
inspect hole alignment, location, and diameter. Drill into the opening. Hold one leg firmly against the
rods are available in both US Conventional and SI hole wall, and adjust the thumbscrew until the other
Metric sizes. leg lightly touches the wall exactly opposite the first
A
Figure 4-54. Inside and outside calipers. (L. S. Starrett Co.)

Figure 4-55. The outside caliper is read with a steel rule.

4. 7.2 Telescoping Gage

B A telescoping gage is intended for use with a
micrometer to determine internal dimensions,
Figure 4-53. Using a radius gage. A-Various ways a radius Figure 4-57. Sets of telescoping gages ,vith varying
gage can be used. B-Using a radius gage holder. ranges are a,·ailable, Figure 4-58.
(L. S. Starrett Co.) To use a telescoping gage, compress the contact
legs. The legs telescope within one another under
spring tension. Insert the gage into the hole and
leg. The legs should drag slightly ·when moYed in allow the legs to expand, Figure 4-59. After the
and out, or from side to side. proper fitting is obtained, lock the contacts into
Considerable skill is required to make accurate position. Remove the gage from the hole and make
measurements ·with a caliper. See Figure 4-56. Much your reading with a micrometer, Figure 4-60.
depends upon the machinist's sense of touch. With
practice, measurements with accuracv of 0.003" 4.7.3 Small Hole Gage
(0.07 mm) can be made. Hm,·ever, a micrometer or A small hole gage is used to measure openings
Vernier caliper is preferred and must be utilized that are too small for a telescoping gage, Figure
when greater accuracy is required. 4-61. The contacts are designed to allow accurate
Chapter 4 Measurement

Figure 4-58. A typical set of telescoping gages.

'I
B
Figure 4-59. Positioning a telescoping gage to measure an
Figure 4-56. Using outside and inside calipers. inside diameter.
(L. S. Starrett Co.)

Figure 4-60. After removing the locked telescoping gage,

Figure 4-57. A telescoping gage is used with a micrometer. measure it with a micrometer.
 TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Please do not write in this text. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Make readings from the rules.

Figure 4-61. small hole gages are used to measure the

diameter of holes that are too small for telescoping gages.

measurement of shallmv grooves, and small diame-

ter holes. They are adjusted to size by the knurled
knob at the end of the handle. Measurement is made 2. Make readings from the Vernier scales shown
over the contacts with a micrometer, Figure 4-62 . below.

• 3 4 5 15 6

1[1111 I: lI i !11 li11

5
8 9

11 1!1111 1 ~~~1,,J..U-1 .ll 11

0 OCl;n

Figure 4-62. The correct way to measure a small hole gage with
a micrometer. B
Chapter 4 Measurement

8 60 110
I 2 3 3 4 5
111,1,1111l1i1l1l1l1l1l1l1 l1l1l1!1l1l1!1l1l1l1lil1I
0 IOI0.040!0
1111111111 111 11 11!111111 0 0021'nn1 0
0 OOhn

H
C

02 mm EXTERNAL
50 110 70 80 90 0
OOIIN EICTERNAL
0 10 20 30 40 !ID

60 70 80 90 100 110 120 l?.O

-=t~_____________,F -=t~---------------F
I j f
oi 7
001 IN EXTERNAL
0 10 20 30 40 !50

4567891123451,789

-1
9

E 11----7----------------
F ~a-----7---___.F
Answer the following questions as they per-
tain to measurement.
001 IN EXT81NAL
0 I() 20 30 40 50
3. The micrometer is nicknamed _ _
4. One-millionth part of a standard inch is
BT89 1234641789 1214~4178!1 known as a _ _
5 6 7
5. One-millionth part of a meter is known as a
7 _____________. . . . . F
.
Fi 7 6. A micrometer is capable of measuring accu-
rately to the _ _ and _ _ part of standard
inch and (in metric versions) to _ _ and
millimeters.
7. The Vernier caliper has several advantages
over the micrometer. List two of them.
40 90 100
8. A Vernier caliper can measure to the _ _ part
1l1l1l1l1l1l1l1l1l1l1l1l1 11l1l!li11l1l1l1l1l1i1l111 of the inch and (in the metric version) to _ _
0 IOZOI040!10
0 ooe- 0 millimeters.
9. List six precautions that must be observed
G when using a micrometer or Vernier caliper.
10. The Vernier-type tool for measuring angles is 15. The dial indicator is available in two basic
called a types. List them.
11. Hov, does a double-end cylindrical plug gage 16. vVhat are some uses for the dial indicator?
differ from a step plug gage?
17. Name the measuring device that employs light
12. A ring gage is used to check whether _ _ are l\·a,·es as a measuring standard.
within the specified _ _ range.
18. The _ _ is used for production inspection.
13. Gage blocks are often referred to as _ _ An enlarged image of the part is projected on a
blocks. screen where it is superimposed upon an accu-
14. An air gage employs air pressure to measure rate drawing.
deep internal openings and hard-to-reach 19. The pitch of a thread can be determined ,vith a
shaft diameters. It operates on the principle of:
a. Air pressure leakage between the plug
20. Of what use are fillet and radius gages?
and hole ·walls.
b. The amount of air pressure needed to 21. What are helper measuring tools?
insert the tool properly in the hole.
22. How is a telescoping gage used?
c. Amount of air pressure needed to eject
the gage from the hole. 23. Make readings from the micrometer illustra-
d. All of the above. tions.
e. None of the above.

A B C

D E F

G H

-NNNH ;, -- 1(1
.!JI i i=?-
111 I tti 'mj E-5
'..'\., . ,5::
.:~·· '0 =--=- 0
~
J K L
 Chapter 5

Lay ut k

5.1 MAKING LINES ON METAL

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The shiny finish of most metals make it difficult
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: to distinguish layout lines. For this reason, a coating
0 Explain why layouts are needed. must be placed on the metal before layout.
0 Identify common layout tools.
0 Use layout tools safely.
Make basic layouts. 5. I. I Layout Dye
0 List safety rules for layout work. There are many coatings used to make layout
lines stand out better. Of these coatings, layout dye
is probably the easiest to use. When applied to the
metal, this blue-colored fluid offers an excellent con-
trast between the metal and the layout lines. All dirt,
IMPORTANT TERMS
grease, and oil must be removed before applying
divider scriber the dye. If these substances are present on the sur-
hardened steel square straightedge face, the dye will not adhere properly.
layout dye surface gage Chalk will also work on hot finished steel as a
plain protractor surface plates layout background. A pencil should not be used
reference line V-blocks because it marks too wide and rubs off.
Laying out is the term that describes the locating
and marking of lines, circles, arcs, and points for 5.1.2 Scriber
drilling holes or making cuts. These lines and refer- An accurate layout requires fine lines that must
ence points on the metal show the machinist where be scribed (scratched) into the metal. A scriber will
to machine. produce these lines, Figure 5-2. The point is made of
The tools for this work are known as layout hardened steel, and is kept needle-sharp by fre-
tools. Many common hand tools fall into this cate- quent honing on a fine oilstone. Many styles of
gory. The accuracy of the job will depend upon the scribers are available.
proper and careful application of these tools. See Never carry a scriber in your pocket. It can
Figure 5-1. puncture the skin easily.

5.1.3 Divider
The scriber is used to draw straight lines. A
divider is used to draw circles and arcs, Figure 5-3.
It is essential that both legs of the tool be equal in
length and kept pointed. Measured distances can be
laid out with a divider, Figure 5-4. To set the tool to
the correct distance, set one point on the inch or cen-
timeter mark of a steel rule, and open the divider
until the other leg is set to the proper measurement,
Figure 5-1. A few of the tools needed to make a simple layout. Figure 5-5.

m
m M:t,;huling Fund:uni m-;ah

Figure 5-2. ScrilJers are used to mark parts during layout.

A-The long bent point on this scriber can reach through holes. ! i I ;p :
I I
8-This pocket scriber has a removable point. The point can be
reversed when the scriber is not being used, protecting the tip
and making the work area safer.

Figure 5-5. To set a divider to a desired dimension, place it on

1
a rule as shown.

Circles and arcs that are too large to be made

with a divider are drawn ,,\ith a trammel, Figure
5-6. This consists of a long thin rod, called a beam,
on which two sliding heads with scriber points are
Figure 5-3. A divider is used to mark lines, arcs, and circles. mounted. One head is equipped with an adjusting
screw. Extension rods can be added to the beam to
increase the capacity of the tool.
The hermaphrodite caliper is a layout tool with
one leg that is shaped like a caliper and the other
pointed like a divider, Figure 5-7. Lines parallel to
the edge of the material, either straight or curved,
can be drawn with the tool, Figure 5-8. It can also be
used to locate the center of irregularly shaped stock

5.1.4 Surface Gage

A surface gage has many uses, but is most fre-
quently employed for layout work, Figure 5-9. It
consists of a base, spindle, and scriber. An adjusting
screw is fitted for making fine adjustments. The
scriber is mounted in a way that allows it to be piv-
oted into any position. A surface gage can be uti-
lized to scribe lines at a given height and parallel to
the surface, Figure 5-10. AV-slot in the base permits
the tool to be also employed on a curved surface.
To check whether a part is parallel to a given
surface, fit the surface gage with a dial indicator. Set
the indicator to the required dimension with the aid
of gage blocks. The tool is then moved back and
forth along the work, Figure 5-11.
Figure 5-4. Equal spaces can be laid out by "walking" the A height gage can be used in the same manner
divider. as a surface gage. See Figure 5-12.
Cl apt , S
m
,,,. Sliding heads

Adjusting screw

Beam

Scriber points

Figure 5-6. Large circles and arcs are drawn with a trammel.

Figure 5-7. A hermaphrodite caliper has a blunt end for the slid-
ing surface and a point for scribing. (L.S. Starrett Co.)

5. 1.5 Surface Plate

Every linear measurement depends upon an Figure 5-8. Scribing lines parallel to an edge with a hermaph-
accurate reference surface. Surface plates provide a rodite caliper.
reference surface (plane) for layout and inspection.
Surface plates can be purchased in sizes up to
72" by 144" (1800 mm by 3600 mm) and in various • Grade AA for laboratories.
grades. Surface plate grade differences are given in • Grade A for inspection.
degrees of flatness: • Grade B for too room and layout applications.
 a.chini,1g Fundamentals

Figure 5-11. A machinist is using gage blocks to set the indica-

tor, which is mounted on the surface gage. (Lufkin Rufe Co.)

Figure 5-9. This small surface gage is designed for light wor'r<.
(L. S. Starrett Co.j

Figure 5-12. A height gage can be used to scribe lines on a

workpiece. Here, a machinist is using a Vernier height gage.
Note that a V-block and angle plate support the work during
layout. (L. S. Starrett Co.)

Surface plates are used primarily for layout and

~/ inspection work. They should never be used for any

,,~
;;,.
; .....,,
job that could mar or nick the surface.
When square reference surfaces are needed, a
right angle plate is used, Figure 5-14. The plates can
be placed in any position with the work clamped to
the face for layout, measurement, or inspection.
An accurate surface parallel to the surface plate
can be obtained using box parallels, Figure 5-15. All
Figure 5-10. Carefully slide the surface gage to scribe fines par- surfaces are precision-ground to close tolerances.
allel to the base. Handle the gauge carefully because sharp
points can cause injury. 5.1.6 V-Bloclcs
V-blocks support round work for layout and
inspection, Figure 5-16. They are furnished in
Most surface plates made today are granite but matched pairs with surfaces that are ground square
some are semisteel, Figure 5-13. Granite is more sta- to close tolerances. Ribs are cast into the body for
ble. Semisteel surface plates are more affected by weight reduction. The ribs also can be used as
temperature changes. clamping surfaces.
 Cl?apter !i 1.ayout\York
m

Figure 5-16. V-blocks can be used to hold round stock for lay-
out and measurement work.

5.1. 7 Straightedge
Long fl.at surfaces are checked for accuracy with
Figure 5-13. Surface plates are available in various grades and a straightedge, Figure 5-17. This tool is also used for
materials. A-A granite surface plate. 8-A semisteel surface laying out long straight lines. Straightedges can be
plate. (L. S. Starrett Co. and Challenge Machinery Co.) made from steel or granite, with steel being more
common.

Figure 5-17. Steel straightedges are very common.

Straightedges are also available in granite.

Figure 5-14. Right angle plates are often used to check per-
pendicular surfaces.
5.2 SQUARES
The square is employed to check 90° (square)
angles. The tool is also used for laying out lines that
must be at right angles to a given edge or parallel to
another edge. Some simple machine setups can be
made quickly and easily with a square.
Many different types of squares are available.
The following are a few of the most common:
• Hardened steel square-This square is recom-
mended when extreme accuracy is required.
See Figure 5-18. The square has true right
angles, both inside and outside. It is accu-
rately ground and lapped for straightness and
parallelism. The tool comes in sizes up to 36"
Figure 5-15. Box parallels are available in a number of sizes. (910 mm).
 , hlrun , Fund Ill l!flt i

• Combination set-This tool consists of a

hardened blade, square head, center head,
and bevel protractor. The blade fits all three
heads, Figure 5-20. Combination sets are
adaptable to a large variety of operations,
making them especially valuable in the shop.
The square head, which has one 45° edge,
makes it possible for the tool to serve as a
miter square. By projecting the blade the
desired distance below the edge, it also serves
as a depth gage, Figure 5-21. The spirit level,
fitted in one edge, allows it to be used as a
simple level.
Figure 5-18. The hardened steel square is handy during layout
With the rule properly inserted, the center head
work. (L. S. Starrett Co.) can be used to quickly find the center of
round stock This is illustrated in Figure 5-22.
The protractor head can be rotated through
• Double square-This is more practical than 180° and is graduated accordingly. The head
the steel square for many jobs because the can be locked with a locking nut, making it
sliding blade is adjustable and interchange- possible to accurately determine and scribe
able with other blades, Figure 5-19. The tool angles, Figure 5-23. The head also has a level
should not be used where great precision is
required. The beYel blade has one angle for
checking octagons (45" angles), and another
for checking hexagons (60" angles).

Figure 5-20. A combination set will perform various layout

tasks.

Figure 5-19. This double square has a graduated blade,

beveled blade, and a drill grinding blade. (L. S. Starrett Co.)

A drill grinding blade is also available for the

double square. One end is beveled to 59" for
drill grinding and the other end is beveled at
41 ~ for checking the cutting angles of machine
screw countersinks. Both ends are graduated
for measuring the length of the cutting lips, to
ensure that the cutting tools are sharpened on Figure 5-21. The combination set can be used to check square-
center. ness and to measure like a depth gage.
Chat,t r S L.o1yl ut ',Vork

Figure 5~22. Using a center head and rule to locate the center
of a piece of round stock.

Figure 5-24. A plain steel protractor will show angles with

moderate precision.

Figure 5-23. Angular settings on layouts can be made with the

protractor head and rule of the combination set.
Figure 5-25. A protractor depth gage. (L. S. Starrett Co.)

built in, making it possible to use it as a level A universal bevel is useful for checking, laying
for positioning angles for inspection, layout, out, and transferring angles, Figure 5-26. Both blade
or machining. and stock are slotted, making it possible to adjust
Handle a square with care. The blade is the blade into any desired position. A thumbscrew
mounted solidly, but if the tool is dropped, the blade locks it tightly in place.
can be "sprung," ruining the square. When a job requires extreme accuracy, the
machinist uses a Vernier protractor, Figure 5-27.
5.3 MEASURING ANGLES With this tool, angles of 1 /12 of a degree (5 minutes)
In addition to the protractor head of the com- can be accurately measured.
bination set, other angle measuring tools are
employed in layout work. The accuracy required by 5.4 SIMPLE LAYOUT STEPS
a job will determine which tool must be used. Each layout job requires planning before the
When angles do not need to be laid out or operation can be started. Figure 5-28 shows a
checked to extreme accuracy, a plain protractor can typical job. Use the following planning procedure:
be used, Figure 5-24. The head is graduated from 0°
to 180° in both directions for easy reading. 1. Carefully study the drawings.
A protractor depth gage is suitable for checking 2. Cut stock to size and remove all burrs and
angles and measuring slot depths, Figure 5-25. sharp edges.
 . fl

rj

Figure 5-26. A universal bevel can be tocked at various angles.

(L. S. Starrett Co.) Figure 5-27. Precise angular measurements are made with a
Vernier protractor. In this view. the protractor is mounted on a
height gage. (L. S. Starrett Co.)

~-----5.00------<~
..
,,,..,u
~

I
.62 R!.00

3.25

1.62

r/Jl.25

R .62 iTYP.)

FLANGE
A-121776

1. Locate and scribe base lines. 2. Locate all circle and arc centerlines. 3. Scribe in all circles and arcs.

4. Locate and scribe in angular lines. 5. Connect remaining points

Figure 5-28. Compare the part drawing with steps involved in laying out the job.
Chapter S LayoutWork m
3. Clean all dirt, grease and oil from the work sur- 5.5 LAYOUT SAFETY
face. Apply layout dye. • Never carry an open scriber, divider, tram-
4. Locate and scribe a reference line (base line). mel, or hermaphrodite caliper in your pocket.
You will make all measurements from this line. • Always cover sharp points with a cork when
If the material has one true edge, it can be used the tool is not being used.
in place of the base line. • Wear goggles when grinding scriber points.
• Get help when you must move heavy items,
5. Locate and center points of all circles and arcs. such as angle plates or V-blocks.
6. Use a prick punch to mark the point where cen- • Remove all burrs and sharp edges from stock
terlines intersect. The sharp point (30° to 60°) of before starting layout work.
this punch makes it easy to locate the position.
After the prick punch mark has been checked, TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
it is enlarged slightly with a center punch, Please do not write in the text. Write your
Figure 5-29. answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. What is used to make layout lines easier to
see?
2. Why are layout lines used?
3. Straight layout lines are drawn with a _ _.
Prick punch 4. Circles and arcs are drawn on work with a

5. Large circles and arcs are drawn with a _ _.

6. What is wrong with using a pencil to make lay-
Center punch
out lines on metal?
7. A _ _ is the flat granite or steel surface used
Figure 5·29. A prick punch has a more sharply angled point for layout and inspection work.
than a center punch. The prick punch is used to mark a location. 8. What layout operations can be performed with
After the prick punch mark is checked, it is enlarged with a
center punch. a combination set?
9. Round stock is usually supported on _ _ for
layout and inspection.
7. Scribe in all circles and arcs with a divider or
10. Long flat surfaces can be checked for trueness
trammel. with a _ _
8. If angular lines are necessary, scribe them
11. The center of round stock can be found quickly
using the proper layout tools. You can also
with the and rule of a combination set.
locate the correct points by measuring and con-
necting them using a rule or straightedge and a 12. Angular lines that must be very accurate
scribe. should be laid out with a
9. Scribe in all other internal openings. 13. The _ _ punch has a sharper point than the
_ _ punch.
10. Lines should be clean and sharp. Any double
or sloppy line work should be removed by 14. List three safety precautions that you should
cleaning it off with a solvent. Then apply observe when doing layout work.
another coat of dye before scribing the line
again.
 M

A large tap and die set like this one is found in many shops. It includes a complete set of taps and dies, in US Conventional and met-
ric sizes, along with tap wrenches and die stocks. Note that tables matching die and tap sizes to drill sizes are embossed on the inside
of the cover for ready reference.
 Chapter 6

H s

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
' l

A
IMPORTANT TERMS

I I

safe edges
torque
classes of fits Unified
foot-pounds
Selecting and using hand tools correctly will
help you do a job safely, with a minimum expendi-
ture of time. When a hand tool is used incorrectly, it
can be damaged; more importantly, you or someone
else may be injured. It is to your advantage to learn
to work properly with hand tools.

6.1 CLAMPING DEVICES B

Clamping devices are employed to hold and/ or
Figun, 6-1. Machinist's (bench) vise. A-Solid base type.
position material while it is being worked on.
(Wilton Tool Mfg., Inc.) 8- Cutaway of swivel base vise. The
Several types of clamping devices are used in base is made in two parts so that the body can be rotated to any
machining. desired position. (Columbian Vise and Mfg. Co.)

6.1. I Vises
The machinist's vise, or bench vise, is used for
many holding tasks. It should be mounted on the Small precision parts may be held in a small
bench edge far enough out to permit clamping long bench vise or toolmaker's vise, Figure 6-2. This type
work in a vertical position. A vise may be a solid vise can be rotated and tilted to any desired posi-
base type or may have a swivel base, which allows tion. Vise size is determined by the width of the
the vise to be rotated. See Figure 6-1. jaws, Figure 6-3.
m _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____:___M~a:._::=-~~~i1~::_:'·1.:_.: :. ~F~.::.:_ir:t0::
'a~m~.e:n:-a:_:
I~

Figure 6-4. Caps made of copper, lead, or aluminum are

slipped over hardened vise jaws to protect work from becoming
marred or damaged by jaw serrations.
Figure 6-2. A small vise used by a toolmaker. It can be rotated
and pivoted to desired working position. (Wilton Tool Mfg., Inc.)

r-----
1

Jaw width 'L._ ____ Work

~ ___-equa_ls vise
~ size Avoid having work '"\
or v:se handle extend Preferred-have work
1 beyond edge of bench extend over bench with
vise handle positioned
,·"'\----- so it wilt not
L _ ____
\.. ., cause injury

Edge of
bench

Figure 6-5. To prevent injury, avoid letting the vise handle or

work project into the aisle.
Figure 6--3. Vise size is determined by width of vise jaws.

6.1.2 Clamps
A vise's clamping action is obtained from a
heavy sere,,· turned by a handle. The handle is long The C-clamp and the parallel clamp hold parts
enough to apply ample pressure for anv work that together while they are worked on. The C-clamp,
,-vill fit the vise. Under no circumstance; should the Figure 6-6, is made in many sizes. Jaw opening
vise handle be hammered tight, nor should addi- determines clamp size.
tional pressure be applied using a length of pipe on A parallel clamp is ideal for holding small '"·ork.
the handle for le,·erage. For maximum clamping action, the jaw faces must
Vise jaws are hardened. To clamp work that be parallel. See Figure 6-7. Placing strips of paper
would be damaged or marred by the jaw serrations, the width of the clamp jaw between the work and
the jaws should be covered with soft copper, brass, the ja1\·s will improve clamping action.
or aluminum caps, Figure 6-4.
When clamping a job in a vise, do not allow 6.2 PLIERS
t~e vise handle or work to project into the aisle, Combination pliers, also called slip-joint pliers,
Figure 6-5. are widely used for holding tasks. See Figure 6-8.
Chzp.1:er 6 H;;.ndToois

Figure 6-8. Combination or slip-joint pliers are used for holding

tasks.

Figure 6-6. C-clamps are available in a range of sizes.

Figure 6-9. Diagonal pliers will cut flush with a surface.

Figure 6-10. Side-cutting pliers have square jaws for holding

and cutting tasks.

have a wire stripping groove and insulated handles.

Figure 6-7. For maximum clamping action with a parallel clamp,
They are made in 6 T, and 8" lengths.
11
,

adjust the jaws until they are parallel. Round-nose pliers, Figure 6-11, are helpful
when forming wire and light metal. Their jaws are
smooth and will not mar the metal being grasped.
The slip-joint permits the pliers to be opened wider Round-nose pliers are available in 4", 4 1/2", 5",
at the hinge pin to grip larger size work. They are and 6'' sizes.
made in 5", 6", 8' and 10" sizes. The pliers size indi-
1
, Needle-nose pliers, are available in both straight
cates the overall length of the tool. and curved-nose types. They are handy for holding
Some combination pliers are made with cutting small work and when work space is limited. They
edges for clipping wire and small metal sections to will reach into cramped places. See Figure 6-12.
needed lengths. The better grade pliers are of forged Tongue and groove pliers have aligned teeth
construction. for flexibility in gripping different size work,
Diagonal pliers are another widely used tool for Figure 6-13. The size of the jaw opening can be
light cutting tasks, Figure 6-9. The cutting edges are adjusted easily. Tongue and groove pliers are made
at an angle to permit the pliers to cut flush (even) in many different sizes. The 6" size usually has five
with the work surface. Diagonal pliers are made in adjustments, while the larger 16" size has eleven
4", S", 6", and 7" lengths. adjustments.
Side-cutting pliers are capable of cutting heavier Adjustable clamping pliers are a relatively new
wire and pins, Figure 6-10. Some of these pliers addition to the pliers family. On these pliers, the jaw
 Figure 6-14. Adjustable clamping pliers can be locked on work
of different sizes.

ton of pressure. Jaw pressure can be relieved by

using the quick release on the handle. These pliers
are made in many sizes with straight, curved, or
Figure 6-11. Round-nose pliers have smooth jaws.
long-nose jaws. They are known by several names,
including locking pliers, Vise Grip~ pliers, and
Tag-L-Lock® pliers. Tne newest type of adjustable
pliers, called Robo-Grip® pliers, permits one-
handed jaw-size adjustment by merely squeezing
the handles. See Figure 6-15. This type of adjustable
pliers does not have a locking feature, however.

Figure 6-12. Needle-nosed pliers. A-Straight pliers can be

used to grasp smaller hard-to-reach objects. 8-Curved pliers Figure 6-15. The newest type of adjustable pliers offers one-
are helpful when working in areas with limited space. handed operation.

6.2. I Care of Pliers

Like many tools, pliers will give long, useful ser-
vice if a few simple precautions are taken:
• Never use pliers as a substitute for a wrench.
• Do not try to cut metal sizes that are too large,
or work that has been heat-treated. Pliers with
cutters will deform or break if used in this
Figure 6-13. Tongue and groove pliers allow the jaws to expand way. Breakage will also occur if additional
to hold large objects. leverage is applied to the handles.
• Occasionally clean and oil pliers to keep them
in good working condition
opening can be adjusted through a range of sizes by • Store pliers in a clean, dry place. Avoid throw-
using a threaded mechanism on one handle. See ing them in a drawer or toolbox with other
Figure 6-14. After adjustment, a squeeze of the hand tools.
can lock the jaws onto the work with more than a • Use pliers that are large enough for the job.
Ch pt , 6 ti II lli 1I

6.3 WRENCHES
Wrenches comprise a family of tools designed
for use in assembling and disassembling many
types of threaded fasteners. They are available in a
vast number of types and sizes. Only the most com-
monly used wrenches will be covered.

6.3. i Torque-Limiting Wrenches

Torque is the amount of turning or twisting force
applied to a threaded fastener or part. It is measured
in force units of foot-pounds (ft.-lbs.) or the SI
Metric equivalent, newton-meters (N·m). Torque is
the product of the force applied times the length of
the lever arm. See Figure 6-16.
Figure 6-17. Torque-limiting wrenches are used when fasteners
must be tightened to within certain limits to prevent undue
stresses and strains from developing in the part.
Force
(in pounds) ,
There are many types of torque-limiting
wrenches, Figure 6-18. It is possible to obtain torque
wrenches that are direct reading, or that feature a
sensory signal (clicking sound or momentary
release) when a preset torque is reached.
The right and wrong methods of gripping the
wrench handle are shown in Figure 6-19. You
should never lengthen the handle for additional
Torque= Force (in pounds} x distance (in feet) leverage. These tools are designed to take a specific
= foot-pounds maximum force load. Any force over this amount
A = ft.-lbs. will destroy the accuracy of the wrench.
Force
(innewto~>
nc::\n Torque-limiting wrenches will provide accurate
measurements whether they are pushed or pulled.
However, to prevent hand injury, the preferred
method is to pull on the wrench handle.

6.3.2 Adjustable Wrenches

The term "adjustable wrench" is a misnomer (a
,______ Distance - - - - - - name not properly applied). Other wrenches, such
(in meters} as the "monkey wrench" and pipe wrench, are also
adjustable. However, the wrench that is somewhat
Torque= Force (in newtons} x distance (in meters)
= newton-meters like an open-end wrench, but with an adjustable
B = N•m jaw, is commonly referred to as an adjustable
wrench, Figure 6-20.
Figure 6-16. Torque measurement. A-In the US Conventional
system, torque is measured in foot-pounds. B-Torque values
As the name implies, the wrench can be adjusted
in SI Metric are given in newton-meters. to fit a range of bolt-head and nut sizes. Although it
is convenient at times, the adjustable wrench is not
intended to take the place of open-end, box, and
socket wrenches.
A torque-limiting wrench allows you to measure Three important points must be remembered
the tightening of a threaded fastener in foot-pounds when using the adjustable wrench:
or newton-meters. This provides maximum holding • The wrench should be placed on the bolt
power, without danger of the fastener or part failing head or nut so that the movable jaw faces the
or causing the work to warp or spring out of shape. direction the fastener is to be rotated,
See Figure 6-17. Figure 6-21.
 Mad11nmg funrfamenr.,I~

Rachet
Head Tapered beam Micrometer or "click"
\ wrench type wrench
\,

Drive square
Pivoted
handle Twin-round
beam wrench

Scale/, /
Pivoted
Handle
handle
Adjusting
dial
(torque)

"T" handle
beam wrench

Round beam
wrench

Figure 6-1 B. Several types of torque-limiting wrenches.

• Adjust the thumbscrew so the jaws fit the bolt

head or nut snugly, Figure 6-22.
• Do not place an extension on the wrench han-
dle for additional leverage. ~ever hammer on
the handle to loosen a stubborn fastener. Use
Right Wrong the smallest wrench that will fit the fastener
on which you are working. This will
minimize the possibility of twisting off the
fastener.

Right Wrong

Figure 6-19. The right and wrong ways to apply pressure to a

torque-limiting wrench handle.

Figure 6-20. An adjustable wrench is handy when a full wrench Figure 6-21. The movable jaw of the wrench should always
set is not available. face the direction of rotation.
Chapter 6 HandTools

Figure 6-24. An open-end wrench is acceptable when the

torque applied is low.

when higher torque must be applied than is possible

Figure 6-22. A wrench must fit the nut or boff snugly. with an open-end wrench. See Figure 6-25. A prop-
erly fitted box wrench will not normally slip. It is
preferred for many jobs. Box wrenches are available
It is dangerous to push on, rather than pull, any in the same sizes as open-end wrenches and with
wrench. If the fastener fails or loosens unexpectedly,
straight and offset handles.
you will almost always strike and injure your
knuckles on the work. This operation is commonly
known as "knuckle dusting."
The pipe wrench is designed to grip round stock,
Figure 6-23. However, the jaws always leave marks
on the work. Do not use a pipe wrench on bolt
heads or nuts unless they cannot be turned with
another type of wrench. For instance, you might
need a pipe wrench to remove a bolt if the corners of
its head have been rounded.
Figure 6-25. A box wrench can handle more torque than an
open-end wrench.

6.3.5 Combination Open-end and Sox

Wrenches
A combination open-end and box wrench has an
open-end wrench at one end of the handle and a box
wrench at the other end. These wrenches are made
Figure 6-23. The pipe wrench has jaws that will grasp round
in standard and metric sizes, Figure 6-26.
objects.

6.3.3 Open-end Wrenches

Open-end wrenches are usually double ended,
with two different size openings, Figure 6-24. They
are made about 0.005" (0.13 mm) oversize to permit
them to easily slip on bolt heads and nuts of the
specified wrench size. Openings are at an angle to
the wrench body, so that the wrench can be applied
in close quarters. Standard and metric open-end Figure 6-26. Combination wrenches are handy because of two
end configurations.
wrenches are available. Because of the open end,
they can be used only when applied torque is low.

6.3.4 Sox Wrenches 6.3.6 Socket Wrenches

The body or jaw of the box wrench completely Socket wrenches are box-like and are made with
surrounds the bolt head or nut, so it can be used a tool head-socket (opening) that fits many types of
"
Hachir.,ing ~~1.m;;la,-r.::!:r,i:als

handles (either solid bar or ratchet type). A typical

socket ,vrench set contains various handles and a
Spanner
wide range of socket sizes, Figure 6-27. Many sets
wrench
include both standard and metric sockets. Various l
types of socket openings are shown in Figure 6-28. 'f

~
Notch
for spanner
wrench
A

Figure 6-27. A typical socket wrench and sockets. The wrench

has a right- and left-hand ratchet mechanism.

4 point
00 6 point 8 point 12 point

Figure 6-28. Types of socket openings available. The 12-point

socket can be used with both square and hex head fasteners.

6.3.7 SpannerWrenches
Spanner wrenches are special wrenches with
drive lugs, and are designed to turn flush- and
recessed-type threaded fittings. The fittings have
slots or holes to receive the ,vrench end. They are
usually furnished ,\-ith machine tools and attach-
ments. See Figure 6-29.
A hook spanner is equipped with a single lug
that is placed in a slot or notch cut in the fitting. An
end spanner has lugs on both faces of the wrench for
better access to the fitting. The lugs fit notches or
D
slots machined into the face of the fitting. On pin
Figure 6-29. Spanner wrenches. A-Hook-type spanner
spanner wrenches, the lugs are replaced with pins wrench. Some can be adjusted to fit different size fasteners.
that fit into holes on the fitting, rather than into B-End spanner wrench. C and D-Two types of pin spanner
notches. wrenches.
Chapter 6 Hand Tools
ffl
6.3.B Allen Wrenches slip and cause injury. It can also round off and
The wrench that is used with socket-headed fas- ruin the bolt or nut on which it is being used.
teners is commonly known as an Allen wrench, • Never hammer on a wrench to loosen a stub-
Figure 6-30. It is manufactured in many sizes to born fastener.
fit fasteners of various standard and metric • Lengthening a wrench handle for additional
dimensions. leverage is a dangerous practice. Use a larger
wrench.
• Before using a wrench, clean any grease or oil
off the handle and the floor in the work area.
This will reduce the possibility of your hands
or feet slipping.
• Never try to use a wrench on moving
machinery.

6.4 SCREWDRIVERS
Screwdrivers are manufactured with many dif-
ferent tip shapes, Figure 6-31. Each shape has been
designed for a particular type of fastener. The stan-
dard and Phillips type screwdrivers are familiar to
all shop workers. The other shapes may not be as
Figure 6-30. Allen wrencnes are used Wltn socket-headed well-known.
fasteners. They are made in both inch and metric sizes. The Phillips screwdriver has an +-shaped tip for
use with Phillips recessed head screws. Four sizes
(#1, #2, #3, and #4) will handle the full range of this
type fastener. They are manufactured in the same
6.3. 9 Wrench Safety general styles as the standard screwdriver.
• Always pull on a wrench; never push. You The Pozidriv® screwdriver tip is similar in
have more control over the tool and there is appearance to the Phillips tip but has a slightly dif-
less chance of injury. ferent shape. This type has been designed for
• Select a wrench that fits properly. A loose- Posidriv screws used extensively in the aircraft,
fitting wrench, or one with worn jaws, may automotive, electronic, and appliance industries.

@
• p

Figure 6-31. Types of screwdriver tips. A-standard. B-Phillips. C-C/utch. D-Square. E-Torx. F-Hex.
JI Machining Fundamentals

The tip of this screwdriver has a black oxide fin- 6.4. I Using a Screwdriver
ish to distinguish it from the Phillips tool. Using a Always select the correct size screwdriver for
Phillips tip will damage the opening in the head of the scre,v being driven, Figure 6-33. A poor fit will
the Pozidriv screw. damage the screw slot and often vrill damage the
Clutch head, Robertson, Torx®, and hex screw- tool's tip. Damaged screw heads are dangerous, and
drivers are used for special industrial and security are often difficult to drive or remove. They should
applications. be replaced.
A standard screwdriver has a flattened wedge-
shaped tip that fits into the slot in a scre,"'T head. This
tool is made in 3" to 12" lengths. The shank diame-
ter and the width and thickness of the tip are pro-
portional ,vith the length. Screwdriver length is
measured from blade tip to the bottom of the han-
dle. The blade is heat-treated to provide the neces-
sary hardness and toughness to withstand the
twisting pressures.
A few of the standard screwdriver types are
shown in Figure 6-32. The double-end offset screw- ,...
I
driver can be used where there is not enough space
for a conventional straight shank tool. The conven-
tional straight shank screwdriver is widely used for
a variety of work. The electrician's screwdriver has A
a long thin blade and an insulated handle .. The long
thin blade will reach into tight areas. A heavy-duty
screwdriver has a thick, square shank that permits a Figure 6-33. Use the correct screwdriver tip for the job. Tip A is
wrench to be applied for driving or remo,Ting large the correct width. Tip B is too narrow and will damage the screw
head. Tip C is too wide and will damage the work.
or stubborn screws. The stubby or close quarters
screwdriver is designed for use where work space is
limited. The ratchet screwdriver moves the screw When driving or removing a screw, hold the
on the po,11,er stroke, but not on the return stroke. It screwdriver square ·with the fastener. Guide the tip
can be set for right-hand or left-hand operation. with your free hand.
A ,vorn screwdriver tip, such as the one shm·vn
at right in Figure 6-34, must be reground. A fine
grinding wheel and light pressure is required. Avoid
overheating the tip during the grinding operation. It will
destroy the tool. Check the tip during the grinding
operation by fitting it to a scre\v slot. A properly
ground tip will fit snugly and hold the head firmly
in the slot.

B C D E Preferred Avoid

Figure ~-32. Styles and types ot standard screwdrivers. Figure 6-34. Tips on the right are to be avoided. They are worn
A-Double end offset. B-Conventional straight shank. or improperly sharpened. The tip at left is ground correctly. Note
C-Electrician's. D-Heavy-duty. E-Stubby or close quarter. that the sides are concave; this holds tip in slot when pressure
F-Ratchet type offset. is applied.
Chapter 6 r-lanc:l To~I:;

6.4.2 Screwdriver Safety useful for setting work tightly on parallels (steel
e A screwdriver is not a substitute for a chisel,
bars) when mounting material in a vise.
nor is it made to be hammered on or used as Soft-face hammers are made of many different
a pry bar. materials: copper, brass, lead, rawhide, and plastic.
• Wear safety goggles when regrinding screw- See Figure 6-36.
driver tips.
• Screws with burred heads are dangerous.
They should be replaced or the burrs
removed with a file or abrasive cloth.
• Always turn electric power off before work-
ing on electrical equipment. The screwdriver
should have an insulated handle specifically
designed for electrical work.
• Avoid carrying a screwdriver in your pocket.
It is a dangerous practice that can cause injury
to you or to someone else. It can also damage
your clothing.

6.5 STRIKING TOOLS

The machinist's ball-peen hammer, Figure 6-35,
is the most commonly used shop hammer. It has a
hardened striking face and is used for all general
purpose work that requires a hammer.

B
C

Figure 6-36. Soft-face hammers and mallets. A-Rawhide

mallet. B-Plastic-face hammer. C-Dead blow hammer. The
head of the dead blow hammer contains tiny steel shot encased
in plastic. This provides a hammer that has striking power but
will not rebound (bounce back) as will other ma/lats and soft-
face hammers.

6.5. I Striking Tool Safety

• Never strike two hammers together. The faces
are very hard; the blow might cause a chip to
break off and fly out at high speed.
• Do not use a hammer unless the head is on
Figure 6-35. The ball-peen hammer is most common type in a tightly and the handle is in good condition.
machine shop. • Do not "choke up" too far on the handle when
striking a blow, or you may injure your
Ball-peen hammer sizes are classified according knuckles.
to the weight of the head, without the handle. They • Strike each blow squarely, or the hammer
are available in weights of 2, 4, 8, and 12 ounces, and may glance off of the work and injure you or
1, 1 1 /2, 2, and 3 pounds. someone working nearby.
A soft-face hammer or mallet permits heavy • Place a hammer on the bench carefully. A
blows to be struck without damaging the part or falling hammer can cause a painful foot
surface. A steel face hammer would damage or mar injury, or damage precision tools on the
the work surface. Soft-face hammers are especially bench.
Ii!
6.6 CHISELS angle is decreased too much, the chisel will ride on
Not all cutting in metalworking is done by the heel of the cutting edge and lift out of the cut.
machine. Chisels are one of several basic hand tools, When shearing metal in a vise, position it so the
such as hacksa,vs and files, that are considered cut- layout line is just below the vise jaws. This will leave
ting implements. These tools, when in good condi- sufficient metal to finish by filing or grinding. When
tion, sharp, and properly handled, are safe to use. cutting, it is usually best to hold the metal in a vise
The chisel is used mostly to cut cold metal, without using jaw caps. This provides a better shear-
hence the term "cold" chisel. The four chisels illus- ing action between the vise jaws and chisel.
trated in Figure 6-37 are the most common types. Advance the chisel after each blow so the cutting is
The general term cold chisel is used when referring done by the center of the cutting edge.
to these chisels. Other chisels in this category are A chisel is an ideal tool for removing rivets. The
variations or combinations of these chisels. head can be sheared off and the rivet punched out.
The work to be cut will determine how the A variation of the conventional cold chisel for
chisel should be sharpened, Figure 6-38. A chisel removing rivet heads is called a ''rivet buster,"
with a slightly curved cutting edge , •.,.ill work better Figure 6-40.
,vhen cutting on a flat plate. The curved edge will
help prevent the chisel from cutting unwanted
grooves in the surrounding metal, as when shearing
rivet heads. If the chisel is to be used to shear metal
held in a vise, the cutting edge should be straight.
The chisel is frequently employed to chip
surplus metal from castings. Chipping is started
by holding the chisel at an angle, as shown in
Figure 6-39. The angle must be great enough to
cause the cutting edge to enter the metal.
After the chisel cut has been started and the
proper depth reached, the chisel angle can be
decreased enough to keep the cutting action at the Figure 6-38. The work to be done determines how a chisel
proper depth. Cut depth can be reduced by should be sharpened. Left-Slightly rounded edge for cutting on
decreasing the chisel angle. However, if the cutting flat plate. Right-Straight edge for shearing.

n
~ oo Round nose
Flat chisel ~ chisel

: JI Diamond
point
Cape chisel chisel

Figure t;-37. C~ta cnise~s- A-Flat chisel Js used for general cutting and chipping work. 8---Cape chisel has a narrower cutting edge
than the flat chisel and 1s used to cut grooves. C---Round nose chisel can cut radii and round grooves. D-Diamond point chisel is
principally used for squaring comers.
Chapter 6 Hand Tools

If the head is so large that it cannot be removed

m
in one piece, make a saw cut almost through the
head, then use the chisel to cut away half the head
at a time. Figure 6-41B shows how this is done.
Rivets also can be removed by drilling and using the
narrow cape chisel, Figure 6-41C.

Round head rivet

B
A

C
Figure 6-39. Proper chisel angles for various cutting opera-
tions. A-Starting the cut. B-Maintaining cut at desired depth.
C-Reducing the cutting angle too much will cause chisel to lift
out of cut.

Edge shape
"Rivet buster" B
chisel

Figure 6-40. This variation of the flat chisel is often referred to

as a ~rivet buster." Upper drawing shows how it is sharpened.

When there is not enough room to swing a ham-

mer with sufficient force to cut a rivet, an alternate
procedure can be used, Figure 6-41A. Drill a hole,
Figure 6-41. Alternate methods for removing rivet heads.
about the size of the rivet body, almost through the A-When there is not enough room to swing hammer with suf-
head. The head can then be removed easily with the ficient force. 8-When rivet head is too large to be removed as
chisel. one piece. C-A cape chisel may also be used to remove rivets.
 Machining Fundamentals

6.6. I Chisel Safety

• Flying chips are dangerous! When cutting
metal with a chisel, wear safety goggles and
erect a shield around the work. These steps
will protect you and people ,-vorking nearby.
• Hold a chisel so that if you miss it with the
hammer, you will not strike and injure your
hand. If one is available, use a chisel holder.
• A mushroomed chisel head is extremely dan-
gerous, since jagged metal can be knocked or
chipped off and cause serious injury. Remove
this hazardous condition by grinding away
the excess metal. See Figure 6-42.
• Edges on metal cut with a chisel are sharp and
can cause bad cuts. Remove them by grinding
or filing.

A B
Figure 6-42. Chisel safety. A-Chisel head ground to a safe
condition. B-A dangerous mushroomed head.

6.7 HACKSAW
The typical hacksaw is composed of a frame
with a handle and a replaceable blade, Figure 6-43.
Almost all hacksaws made today are adjustable to
accommodate several different blade lengths. They
are also made so the blade can be installed in either
a vertical or horizontal position, Figure 6-44. Figure 6-44. Blade positions. A-The blade is set to cut in a
When placing a blade in the saw frame, make conventional vertical position. B-The blade has been pivoted
909 to cut a long narrow strip of stock.
sure the frame is adjusted for the blade length being
inserted. There should be sufficient adjustment
remaining to permit tightening the blade until it
"pings" when snapped with your finger. Frequently, a new blade must be retightened after a fe'w strokes
because it will stretch slightly from the heat pro-
duced while cutting.
The hacksaw blade must be positioned with the
teeth pointing away from the handle, Figure 6-45.
This will make it cut on the forward (push) stroke.

6. 7.1 Holding Work for Sawing

The work must be held securely, with the point
to be cut as close to the vise as practical. This helps
to eliminates "chatter" and vibration that will dull
Figure 6-43. A typical hacksaw. the saw teeth.
Chapter 6 Hand Tools

material, dulling the teeth. Also, lift the saw slightly

on the return stroke.
Cut the full length of the blade and make about
40 to 50 strokes per minute. More strokes per
minute may generate enough heat to draw the blade

Figure 6-45. A hacksaw blade must be inserted with the teeth

pointing away from the handle. This positions it to cut on the for-
ward stroke of the hacksaw.

Figure b-46 shows some methods preferred for

holding work that is irregular shape. The work is
clamped so the cut is started on a flat side rather Figure 6-47. Using a file to notch or nick the edge of a piece to
than on a corner or edge. This lessens the possibility be cut permits easier starting of the hacksaw cut.
of ruining the teeth or breaking the blade.

6. 7.2 Starting a Cut

When starting a cut to a marked line, it is best to
notch the work with a file, Figure 6-47. You can also
use the thumb of your left hand to guide the blade
until it starts the cut, Figure 6-48. Work carefully to
avoid injury. Some hacksaw blades are manufac-
tured with very fine teeth at the front to make start-
ing a cut easier. Use enough pressure so the blade
will begin to cut immediately.

6. 7.3 Making the Cut

Grasp the hacksaw firmly by the handle and
front of the frame. Apply enough pressure on the
forward stroke to make the teeth cut. Insufficient Figure 6-48. Using your thumb to guide the hacksaw blade as
pressure will permit the teeth to slide over the the cut is started.

Preferred Avoid
Preferred Avoid

Preferred Avoid

Figure 6-46. Preferred methods of holding irregular stock for sawing.

 Machining Fundamentals:

temper and dull the teeth. Keep the blade moving in 6. 7.4 Finishing a Cut
a straight line. Avoid any mristing or binding, which When the blade has cut almost through the
can bend or break the blade. material, saw carefully. Support the stock being cut
Dulling or breaking a hacksaw blade. If you off ·with vour free hand to prevent it from dropping
start a cut with an old blade and the blade breaks or when th~ cut is completed.
dulls, do not continue in the same cut ·with a new
blade. As a blade become dull, the kerf (slot made 6.7.5 Saw Blades
by blade) becomes narrower. If you try to continue
All hacksa,v blades are heat-treated to provide
the cut in the same slot, the new blade will usually
the hardness and toughness needed to cut metal.
bind and be ruined in the first few strokes. If possi-
The shape and kind of material to be cut has an
ble, rotate the work and start a new cut on the other
important bearing on blade choice, in terms of the
side.
number of teeth per inch, Figure 6-49.

=
{ l For mild material such as
bronze, brass, soft
steel, cast iron, heavy
angles, etc.

Plenty of chip Fine pitch, no chip

clearance clearance, teeth clogged

PZZZZZZJ t?; LZZZZZ.1

For tool steel, high
carbon, high speed steel,
drill rod, etc.

Plenty of chip Fine pitch, no chip

clearance clearance, teeth clogged

...
For angle iron, brass
tubing, copper, iron
pipe, etc.
,;-.,v~ ~ .A / v"t-~ v't,1;

Two or more teeth Coarse pitch straddles

on section work, stripping teeth

For conduit and other

thin tubing, sheet
metal work, etc.

Two or more teeth Coarse pitch

on section straddles work

Preferred Avoid
Figure 6-49. The proper hacksaw blade should be used for each job to assure long blade life and rapid cutting action. Study
recommendations.
Chapter 6 Hand1bols

The flexible back blade has only the teeth hard- Cutting a long narrow strip from thin metal
ened. The all-hard blade is hardened throughout. can be done by setting the blade at right angles to
The hardness is reduced near the end holes, how- the frame. Make the cut in the usual way, as in
ever, to reduce the possibility of breakage at these Figure 6-52. Strips of any width, up to the capacity
points. of the saw frame, can be made in this manner.
Flexible back blades are best for sawing soft Thin metal can be cut more easily and precisely
materials or materials with thin cross sections. An by putting it between two pieces of wood, and cut-
all-hard blade is best for cutting hard metals. It does ting through both wood and metal, Figure 6-53.
not buckle when heavy pressure is applied. 6. 1. 1 Hacksaw Safety
Two or three teeth should be cutting at all times; • Never test the sharpness of a blade by run-
otherwise, the teeth will straddle the section being ning your fingers across its teeth.
cut and snap off when cutting pressure is applied. • Store saws in a way that will prevent acciden-
The set of the blade provides the necessary clear- tally grasping the teeth when you pick up a
ance, and prevents the blade from binding in the saw.
cut. A blade may have one of three sets: undulating, • Burrs formed on the cut edge of metal are
raker, or alternate. These are shown in Figure 6-50. sharp and can cause a serious cut. Do not
brush away chips with your hand; use a
brush.
• Always wear safety goggles while using a
hacksaw. All-hard blades can shatter and pro-
duce flying chips.
• Be sure the hacksaw blade is properly ten-
sioned. If it should break while you are on the
cutting stroke, your hand may strike the
work, causing a painful injury.
6.8 FILES
A file is used for hand smoothing and shaping
A B C operations. The modem file is made from high-
grade carbon steel and is heat-treated to provide the
Figure 6-50. Types of sets in hacksaw teeth. A-Undulating.
8-Raker. C-Altemate.
necessary hardness and toughness.
In manufacturing a file, the first production step
6. 1.6 Unusual Cutting Situations is to cut the blank to approximate shape and size.
See Figure 6-54. The tang and point are formed next.
Cutting soft metal tubing can be a problem. The
Then, the blank is annealed and straightened. The
blade may bind and tear the tubing or the tubing point and tang are trimmed after the sides and faces
may flatten. This can be eliminated by inserting a have been ground and the teeth cut. After another
wood dowel of the proper size into the tubing. Then straightening, the file is heat-treated, cleaned, and
cut through both tubing and dowel. See Figure 6-51. oiled. Tests are made continually to assure a quality
tool.
Wood blocks
6.8. I File Classifications
Files are classified by their shape. The shape is
the general outline and cross section. The outline is
either tapered or blunt, Figure 6-55A.
Files are also classified according to the cut of
Wood
dowel the teeth: single-cut, double-cut, rasp, and curved
/ tooth, Figure 6-SSB, and to the coarseness of the
teeth: rough, coarse, bastard, second-cut, smooth,
and dead smooth.
6.8.2 File Care
Figure 6-51. A snug-fitting aoW9t slia ,nro thin-wall tubing will
A file should never be used without a handle. It
make cutting the tubing easier. ff tubing is to be held in a vise
for cutting, place soft wood blocks between the vise jaws and is too easy to drive the unprotected tang into your
the work to prevent marring the exterior surface of the tubing. hand.
g '-__________________________________ M_-~_c_:..._ic._in_e_l_=,_
.. "_'c.l_a_m_2_.,_~_cfa

Figure 6-52. The hacksaw blade can be pivoted to a horizontal

position for cutting long narrow strips. Best results can be
obtained if strip is bent up slightly, as shown, during the savting
operation.

Meta! shouid be flush or

slightly below edge of
wood blocks

A B C D E F G
Figure 6-54. Steps in manufacturing a file. A-Steel bar cut to
correct length. B-Bar forged to shape. C-Blank after it has
been annealed. D-Annealed blank straightened and ground
smooth. E-Teeth cut on blank. F-Blank trimmed and coated
for heat treatment. G-Completed file cleaned and inspected.
(Nicholson File Co.)

Figure 6-53. Sandwiching thin metal between two pieces of

wood will make sawing easier and more precise.

6.8.3 Selecting a File

The number of different kinds, shapes, and cuts
Fit a handle to the file by drilling a hole in the of files that are manufactured is almost unlimited,
handle. The hole should equal in diameter the Figure 6-59. For this reason, only the general classi-
width of the tang at its midpoint, Figure 6-56. Mate fication of files will be covered.
the file and handle by inserting the tang in the hole, Files have three distinct characteristics: length,
then sharply striking the handle on a solid surface. kind or type, and cut. The file length is always mea-
Store files so that they are always separated, sured from the heel to the point, Figure 6-60. The
Figure 6-57; never throw files together in a drawer or tang is not included in the measurement.
store them in a damp place. The file type refers to its shape, such as flat, mill,
Clean files frequently v.rith a file card or brush, half-round, or square. The file cut indicates the rela-
Figure 6-58. Some soft metals cause pinning, a con- tive coarseness of the teeth.
dition in which the teeth become loaded or clogged Single-cut files are usually used to produce a
with material the file has removed. Pinning will smooth surface finish. They require only light pres-
cause gouging and scratching of the work surface. sure to cut.
The particles can be removed from the file with a Double-cut files remove metal much faster than
pick or scorer. A file card combines the card, brush, single-cut files. They require heavier pressure and
and pick for file cleaning. they produce a rougher surface finish.
Chapter 6 Kand Tools

Blunt

A Tapered

Figure 6-55. File classifications. A-Blunt and tapered files.

B-Single-cut, double-cut, rasp, and curved-tooth fifes.

Figure 6-58. Using file card to clean a file.

t
Figure 6·56. File handle hole should be equal in diameter to
width of file tang at the point indicated.

- -
Figure 6-57. Storing files properly, in holders like these, will Figure 6-59 A few of the many hundred different kinds of fifes.
greatly extend their useful life. (Nicholson File Co.)
 I I
I I
I
II II I' II II II jII i II II
I
II II
r I
I I I I
I I
2 3 4 ~ 6 8 9 10 II

Figure 6-60. How a file is measured.(Nicholson File Co.)

Rasps are best for working wood or other soft Of the many file shapes available, the most com-
materials where a large amount of stock must be monly used are flat, pillar, square, 3-square, knife,
removed in a hurry. half-round, crossing, and round, Figure 6-62. Each
A curved-tooth file is used to file flat surfaces of shape is available in many sizes and degrees of
aluminum and sheet steel. coarseness: rough, coarse, bastard, second-cut,
Some files have safe edges. This denotes that the smooth, and dead smooth, Figure 6-63. Note that a
file has one or both edges without teeth, Figure 6-61. small (4") rough cut file may be as fine as a large
This permits filing corners without danger to the (16") second-cut file.
portion of the work that is not to be filed.

f27777J
Flat Pillar
~Square
A
3-squem

Knife
aZl>\
Half round
<722>
Crossing
®
Round

Figure 6-62. Cross-sectional views of the most widely used file

shapes.

Figure 6-61. The safe edge of a file does not have teeth. 6.8.4 Types of Files
The wide variety of files can be divided into five
In selecting the file, many factors must be con- general groups:
sidered if maximum cutting efficiency is to be The machinists' file is used whenever metal
attained: must be removed rapidly, and the finish is of sec-
• The nature of the ,-vork (flat, concave, convex, ondary importance. It is made in a large range of
notched, etc.). shapes and sizes, and is double-cut.
• Kind of material. The mill file is a single-cut and tapers for the last
• Amount of material to be removed. third of its length away from the tang. It is suitable
• Surface finish and accuracy demanded. for general filing when a smooth finish is required .

••
Figure 6-63. Range in coarseness of a typical machinist flat bastard file. File sizes range from 4n (100 mm) to 16H (400 mm).
(Nicholson File Co.)
C:hQpter 6 I-lane! ·rools

A mill file works well for draw filing, lathe work,

and working on brass and bronze.
Swiss pattern and jewelers' files are manufac-
rured in more than a hundred different shapes. They
are used primarily by tool-and-die makers, jewelers,
and others who do precision filing.
The rasp has teeth that are individually formed
and disconnected from each other. It is used for rel-
atively soft materials (plastic for example) when
large quantities of the material must be removed.
The special purpose files group includes those
specifically designed to cut one type of metal or for
one kind of operation. An example is the long-angle
lathe file, Figure 6-64, which does an efficient filing
job on the lathe.

Flgurs 6-64. The long-angle lathe file is an example of a

special-purpose file.

6.8.5 Using a File

Efficient filing requires that the work be held me
Figure 6-66. Holding a file. A-The proper way to hold a for
solidly. Where practical, hold the work at about straight or cross filing. B-Holding method used to apply the
additional pressure required when a considerable quantity of
elbow height for general filing, Figure 6-65. If large
metal must be removed.
quantities of metal must be removed by heavy fil-
ing, mount the work slightly lower.
Straight or cross filing consists of pushing the A file can be ruined by using either too much
file lengthwise across the work, either straight pressure or too little pressure on the cutting stroke.
ahead or at a slight angle. Grasp the file as shown in Apply just enough pressure to permit the file to cut
Figure 6-66A. Heavy-duty filing requires heavy on the entire forward stroke. Too little pressure
pressure and can best be done if the file is held as in allows the file to slide over the work. This will dull
Figure 6-66B. the file. Too much pressure "overloads" the file,
causing the teeth to clog and chip.
Lift the file from the work on the reverse stroke1
except when filing soft metal. The pressure on the
return stroke when filing soft metal should be no
more than the weight of the file itself
Draw filing, when properly done1 will produce
a finer finish than straight filing. Hold the file as
shown in Figure 6-67. Do not use a short-angle file
for draw filing The short-angle file can cause scor-
ing or scratching, instead of the desired shaving and
shearing action1 as the file is pushed and pulled
across the work. Use a double-cut file to "rough
down" the surface, then a single-cut file to produce
Figure 6-65. Mount work at elbow height for general filing. the final finish.
 When preparing a piece to be reamed by hand,
0.005" to 0.010" (0.15 mm to 0.25 mm) of stock
should be left in the hole for removal by the ream-
ing tool.
An expansion hand reamer is used when a hole
must be cut a few thousandths inch over nominal
size for fitting purposes, Figure 6-68B. Slots are cut
into the center of the tool. The center opening is
machined on a slight taper. The reamer is expanded
by tightening a taper screw into this opening. The
amount of expansion is limited; the reamer may be
broken if expanded too much.
Because of the danger of producing oversize
Figure 6-67. Draw filing, when done properly, improves the
surface finish.
holes, do not use an expansion reamer instead of a
solid reamer unless absolutely necessary.
The adjustable hand reamer is threaded its
6.8.6 File Safety entire length and is fitted with tapered slots to
receive the adjustable blades, Figure 6-68C. The
• Never use a file without a handle. Painful blades are tapered along one edge to correspond
injuries may result! with the taper slots in the reamer body, so that the
• Clean files with a file card, not your hand. The cutting edges of the blades remain parallel.
chips can penetrate your skin and result in a Reamer diameter is set by loosening one adjust-
painful infection. ing nut and tightening the other. The blades can be
• Do not clean a file by slapping it on the bench, moved in either direction. This type of reamer is
since it may shatter. manufactured in sizes ranging from 3/8" to 3 1/2"
• Files are very brittle. Never use one for prying (9 .5 mm to 85 mm). Each reamer has sufficient
tasks. adjustment to increase its diameter to the next larger
• Use a piece of cloth, not your bare hand, to reamer size.
clean the surface being filed. Sharp burrs are The taper reamer will finish a tapered hole accu-
formed in filing and can cause serious cuts. rately and with a smooth finish for taper pins,
• Never hammer on or with a file. It can shatter, Figure 6-68D. Because of their long cutting edges,
causing chips to fly in all directions. taper reamers are somewhat difficult to operate.
To provide for easier removal of surplus metal, a
6.9 REAMERS roughing reamer is first rotated into the hole. This
A drill does not produce a smooth or accurate reamer is slightly smaller (0.010" or 0.25 mm) than
enough hole for a precision fit. Reaming is the oper- the finish reamer. left-hand spiral grooves are
ation that \\ill produce smoothness and accuracy. ground along the cutting edges to break up chips.
Ordinarily, hand reaming is used only for final siz-
ing of a hole. 6. 9.2 Using a Hand Reamer
A two-handle tap ·wrench is commonly used
6. 9.1 Hand Reamer with a reamer, because it permits an even applica-
A hand reamer has a square shank end so that it tion of pressure. It is virtually impossible to secure a
can be held in a tap wrench. See Figure 6-68A. satisfactory hole using an adjustable wrench to turn
Reamers may be made of high-speed steel or carbon the reamer.
steel, and are available in sizes from 1 /8" to 1 1 /2" To start reaming, rotate the tool slowly to allow
(3.175 mm to 38.1 mm). The cutting end is ground it to align ,-vith the hole. It is desirable to check, at
with a slight taper to provide easy starting in the several points around the reamer's circumference,
hole. whether it has started square, Figure 6-69.
Straight-fluted reamers are suitable for most Feed should be steady and rapid. Keep the
work. However, when reaming a hole with a key- reamer cutting, or it will start to "chatter," produc-
way or other interruption, it is better to have a ing a series of tool marks in the surface of the hole.
spiral-fluted reamer. This could also cause the hole to be out-of-round.
 Chapter 6 Har.d"'.ools
11
;r-
'-•- - ~ ~-1--,:,::::::::::=:::=~=~';;:J
Straight flutes_,.,......,._~~-:;:;,,-.::::;;;;;;o-:::a.

A Spiral flutes ~,J,.->,~-c::;:,;,.==::::.::::::::~~

Slots that permit

reamer to expand (8) Pilot

B + Larger Smaller+
screw

+ Larger Smaller+
Taper

.... .....

Figure 6-69. Always make sure that the reamer is square with
the work.

D
Figure 6--68. I-land reamers. A-Straight flute and spiral ttute
solid reamers are used for different applications. B-The
expansion hand reamer and how its size is adjusted. C-The
adjustable hand reamer can be set for odd sizes. 0-A taper
hand reamer. Enlarged section shows how the cutting edges
are notched on a roughing taper reamer.

Turning pressure is applied evenly with both

hands, always in a clockwise direction, Figure 6-70.
Never turn a reamer in a counterclockwise direction,
since this will dull the cutting edges.
Feed the reamer deeply enough into the hole to
take care of the starting taper. The choice of cutting
fluid to be applied will depend upon the metal
being reamed.

6. 9.3 Reaming Safety

• To prevent injury, remove all burrs from
holes.
• Never use your hands to remove chips and
cutting fluid from the reamer. Use a piece of Figure 6-70. Always tum a hand reamer in a clockwise
cotton waste. direction.
 M tel11 ing Fu11d,111u nr 11

• Store reamers carefully so they do not touch The American National Thread System ·was
one another. Never store reamers loose or adopted in 1911. It is the common thread form used
throw them into a drawer with other tools. in the United States and is characterized by the 60"
• Clamp work solidly before starting to ream. angle formed by the sides of the thread.
• Do not use compressed air to remove chips The National Coarse (NC) Thread is for general
and cutting fluid or to clean a reamed hole. purpose work; the National Fine (NF) Thread is for
precision assemblies. These are the most widely
6.1.0 HAND THREADING used thread groups in the American National series.
The NF group has more threads per inch for a ghTen
Threaded sections have many applications in
diameter than the NC group.
our everyday life. A thread is a spiral or helical ridge
A considerable amount of confusion resulted
found on nuts and bolts. When required on a job,
during World War II from the many different forms
threads are indicated on the plans and drawings in
and kinds of threads used by the Allied nations. As
a special way, Figure 6-71. They are specified by
a result, the powers that make up NATO (the North
diameter and number of threads per inch. Metric
Atlantic Treaty Organization) adopted a standard
threads are specified by diameter and thread pitch is
thread form. It is referred to as the Unified System,
given in miilimeters.
Figure 6-72. It is very similar to the American
National Thread System. It differs only in the thread
shape. The thread root is rounded and the crest may
be flat or rounded. The threads are identified by
CN F and UNC (Unified National Fine and Unified
National Coarse), Figure 6-73. Fasteners using this
thread series are interchangeable with fasteners
using the American National thread.
In addition to those just described, there are sev-
eral other thread groups. Included are the Unified
National Extra Fine (UNEF), Unified National
8 Series, and Unified National 12 Series. The
8 Series has 8 threads per inch and is used on diam-
eters ranging from 1" to 6" in 1/8" and 1/4" incre-
ments. The 12 Series has 12 threads per inch and is
used on diameters that range from 1" to 6".

Detailed representation

LrLf~==-
~-=--=-~--
Simplified representation
Figure 6-72. Drawings illustrate similarities and differences of
Figure 6-71. Methods used to visually depict threads on the American National Thread form and the Unified Thread
drawings. Only one type will be used on a given drawing.
Chapter 6 Hand Tools

ISO Metric
Thread series

1/2-13 One 1/2-20

UNC inch UNF M10 X 1.5-6g

Thread symbol J I
j for ISO (metric)

Major diameter
of thread in
millimeters
Figure 6-73. Comparison of Unified Coarse (UNG), and Unified
Pitch of thread - - - - - '
Fine (UNF) threads. Both have same geometric shape.
in millimeters

Thread tolerance----~
class symbol
(class of fit)

Metric unit threads have the same shape as the Unified National
Unified Thread, but are specified in a different man- Coarse Thread series
ner, Figure 6-74. Metric threads and Unified
National Series threads are not interchangeable. See
Figure 6-75.

6. I 0.1 Thread Size 3/8-16UNC-2A

Threads of the Unified National system smaller
than 1 / 4" diameter are not measured as fracti.onal
Major dlameler
of thread in
I I

sizes. They are given by number sizes that range inches

from #0 (approximately 1/16"or 0.060" diameter) Threads per
to #12 (just under 1/4"or 0.216" diameter). Both inch (pitch=
UNC and UNF series are available. 1/threads per inch)
Care must be taken so the number denoting the
Thread series - - - ~
thread diameter and the number of threads are not
mistaken for a fraction. For example: a #8-32 UNC Class of fit - - - - - - ~
thread would be a thread that is a #8 (0.164") diam- (thread
eter and 32 threads per inch, not an 8 / 32 (1 / 4") tolerance)
diameter fastener with a UNC series thread. Figure 6-74. How thread size is noted and what each term
means.
6. I 0.2 Cutting Threads
Because thread dimensions have been standard-
ized, the use of taps to cut internal threads, and dies To meet demands for varying degrees of thread
to cut external threads have become universal prac- accuracy, it became necessary for industry to adopt
tice whenever threads are to be cut by hand. See standard working tolerances for threads. Working
Figure 6-76. tolerances for threads have been divided into
classes of fits, which are indicated by the last num-
6.10.3 Internal Threads ber on the thread description (1/2-1 3 UNC-2).
Internal threads are made with a tap, Figure Fits for inch-based threads are:
6-77. Taps are made of carbon steel or high-speed Class 1 - Loose fit.
steel (HSS) and are carefully heat-treated for long Class 2 - Free fit.
life. Taps are quite brittle and are easily broken if Class 3 - Medium fit.
not handled properly. Class 4 - Close fit.
 Machining Fundamentals

ISO Metric Unified National

Thread series Coarse Thread series
1-8UNC
M24 X 3
7/8-9UNC
M20 X 2.5 3/4-10UNC
M16 X 2 5/8-11 UNG
M14 X 2 9/ 16-12UNC
1/2-13UNC
M12X1.75
7/ 16-14UNC
M10 X 1.5
3/8-16UNC
MB X 1.25 5/ 16-18UNC
M6.3 X 1 1/4-20UNC
12-24UNC
M5 X 0.8 10-24UNC

M4 X 0.7 8-32UNC

M3.5 X 0.6 6-32UNC

5-40UNC
M3 X 0.5
4-40UNC
M2.5 X 0.45 3-48UNC

2-56UNC
M2 X 0.4

Figure 6-75. While ISO Metric threads may appear to be simi-

lar in diameter to the Unified National Thread series, the two are
not interchangeable.

Figure 6-77. A machinist is cutting internal threads with a tap.

Under reYised ISO standards, there are two

ciasses of thread tolerances for external threads: 6g
for general-purpose threads and 5g6g for close tol-
erance threads. There is only one tolerance class for
internal threads, 6H. A lower case letter indicates the
tolerance on a bolt and a capital letter is used for the
nut.

6.10.4 Taps
Standard hand taps are made in sets of three.
They are known as taper, plug, and bottoming taps.
See Figure 6-78.
Threads are started with a taper tap. It is
tapered back from the end 6 to 10 threads before full
thread diameter is reached.
The plug tap is used after the taper tap has cut
threads as far into the hole as possible. It tapers
Figure 6-76. Thread cutting. A-Tap is for cutting internal back 3 or 4 threads before full thread diameter is
threads. B-Die is for cutting external threads. reached.
Chapter 6 Hand Tools

"wedging" action set up to make a leak-tight joint.

The fraction that indicates pipe tap size may be con-
fusing at first because it indicates pipe size and not
the thread diameter. See Figure 6-80.

:Iw Figure 6-80. There is considerable difference between a 118"

3. standard thread tap and a 1/8· pipe thread tap.
Q
C

~ A pipe thread is indicated by the abbreviation

NPT (National Pipe Thread). To obtain the wedging
action needed for leakproof joints, the threads taper
3 I4" per foot of length.
C
6.10.5 Tap Drill
Rgure 6-78. Standard hand taps. A-Taper for starting thread.
B-Plug tap for continuing thread after taper tap has cut as far The drill used to make the hole prior to tapping
into hole as it can. C-Bottoming for continuing threads to bot- is called a tap drill. Theoretically, it should be equal
tom of a blind hole. (Threadwe/1 Manufacturing Co.) in diameter to the minor diameter of the screw that
will be fitted into the tapped hole. See Figure 6-81.
Threads are cut to the bottom of a blind hole
(one that does not go through the part) with a bot-
toming tap. This tap tapers back 1 or 20 threads
before full thread diameter is reached.It is necessary
to use the full set of taps only when a blind hole is Length of
to be tapped, Figure 6-79. Nut engagement
Another tap used in the shop is a pipe tap.
A pipe tap cuts a tapered thread, so there is a l
Crest

60°

Root

Rgure B-79. Cutaway ot metal block illustrates three types of - screw

threaded holes. Left-Open or through hole. Center-Blind hole
that has been drilled deeper than desired threads. Right-Blind
hole with threads tapped to bottom. Figure 6-81. Nomenclature of a fastener thread.
This situation would cause the tap to cut a full tap size. A T-handle tap wrench should be used
thread, however. The pressure required to rotate the with all small taps. It allows a more sensitive "feel"
tap would be so great that tap breakage could occur. when tapping. The hand tap wrench is best suited
Full-depth threads are not necessary because three- for large taps where more leverage is required.
quarter-depth threads are strong enough that the When tapping by hand, the chief requirement is
fastener usually breaks before the threads strip. to make sure that the tap is started straight, and
Drill sizes can be secured from a tap drill chart, remains square during the entire tapping operation,
Figures 6-82 and 6-83. Figure 6-85. The tap must be backed off (reversed in
rotation) for one-half of a tum every one or two cut-
ting turns. This ·will break the chips free and allow
6.10.6 Tap Wrenches them to drop through the tap flutes. Backing off
Two types of tap wrenches are available, Figure prevents chips from jamming the tap and damaging
6-84. The type to be employed will depend upon the threads.

National Coarse and National Fine threads and tap drills

Threads Major Minor Pitch Tap drill Decimal Clearance Decimal
Size per dia. dia. dia. 75% equiv- drill equiv-
inch thread alent alent

2 56 .0860 .0628 .0744 50 .0700 42 .0935

64 .0860 .0657 .0759 50 .0700 42 .0935
3 48 .099 .0719 .0855 47 .0785 36 .1065
56 .099 .0758 .0874 45 .0820 36 .1065
4 40 .112 .0795 .0958 43 .0890 31 .1200
48 .112 .0849 .0985 42 .0935 131 .1200
6 32 .138 .0974 .1177 36 .1065 26 .1470
40 .138 .1055 .1218 33 .1130 126 .1470
8 32 .164 .1234 .1437 29 .1360 117 .1730
36 .164 .1279 .1460 29 .1360 117 .1730
10 24 .190 .1359 .1629 25 .1495 8 .1990
32 .190 .1494 .1697 21 .1590 8 .1990
12 24 .216 .1619 .1889 rn .1770 1 .2280
28 .216 .1696 .1928 14 .1820 2 .2210
1/4 20 .250 .1850 .2175 7 .2010 G .2610
28 .250 .2036 .2268 3 .2130 G .2610
5/16 18 .3125 .2403 .2764 F .2570 21/64 .3281
24 .3125 .2584 .2854 I .2720 21/64 .3281
3/8 16 .3750 .2938 .3344 5/16 .3125 25i64 .3906
24 .3750 .3209 .3479 Q .3320 25/64 .3906
ms 14 .4375 .3447 .3911 u .3680 15/32 .4687
20 .4375 .3725 .4050 25/64 .3906 29/64 .4531
1/2 13 .5000 .4001 .4500 27/64 .4219 17/32 .5312
20 .5000 .4350 .4675 29/64 .4531 33/64 .5156
9/16 12 .5625 .4542 .5084 31/64 .4844 19/32 .5937
18 .5625 .4903 .5264 33/64 .5156 37/64 .5781
5/8 11 .6250 .5069 .5660 17/32 .5312 21/32 .6562
18 .6250 .5528 .5889 37/64 .5781 41/64 .6406
3/4 10 .7500 .6201 .6850 21/32 .6562 25/32 .7812
16 .7500 .6688 .7094 11/16 .6875 49/64 .7656
7/8 9 .8750 .7307 .8028 49/64 .7656 29/32 .9062
14 .8750 .7822 .8286 13/16 .8125 57/64 .8906
1 8 1.0000 .8376 .9188 7/8 .8750 1- 1/32 1.0312
14 1.0000 .9072 .9536 15/16 .9375 1- 1/64 1.0156
1-1/8 7 1.1250 .9394 1.0322 63/64 .9844 1- 5/32 1.1562
12 1.1250 1.0167 1.0709 1- 3/64 1.0469 1- 5/32 1 .1562
1-1/4 7 1.2500 1.0644 1.1572 1- 7/64 1.1094 1- 9/32 1.2812
12 1.2500 1.1417 1.1959 1-11/64 1.1719 1- 9/32 1.2812
1-1/2 6 1.5000 1.2835 1.3917 1-11/32 1.3437 1-17/32 1.5312
12 1.5000 1.3917 1.4459 1-27i64 1.4219 1-17/32 1.5312

Figure 6-82. Thread and tap drill chart for Unified Nationaf threads.
Ch 1fH r 6 H;andTool)

Internal thread Internal thread

minor diameter Tap drill minor diameter Tap drill
Nomlnal size Nominal size
diameter diameter
Max. Min. Max. Min.
M1.6X0.35 1.321 1.221 1.25 M16X2 14.210 13.885 14.0
M2X0.4 1.679 1.567 1.6 M20X2.5 17.744 17.294 17.5
M2.5X0.45 2.138 2.013 2.05 M24X3 21.252 20.752 21.0
M3X0.5 2.599 2.459 2.5 M30X3.5 26.771 26.211 26.5
M3.5X0.6 3.010 2.850 2.9 M36X4 32.370 31.670 32.0
M4X0.7 3.422 3.242 3.3 M42X4.5 37.799 37.129 37.5
M5X0.8 4.334 4.134 4.2 M48X5 43.297 42.587 43.0
M6.3X1 5.553 5.217 5.3 M56X5.5 50.796 50.046 50.5
M8X1.25 6.912 6.647 6.8 M64X6 58.305 57.505 58.0
M10X1.5 8.676 8.376 8.5 M72X6 66.305 65.505 66.0
M12X1.75 10.441 10.106 10.2 M80X6 74.305 73.505 74.0
M14X2 12.210 11.835 12.0 M90X6 84.305 83.505 84.0
M100X6 94.305 93.505 94.0

Figure 6-83. Thread and tap drill chart for metric threads.

6.10.7 PowerTap,per
Tapping can also be done using an articulating
arm power tapper, Figure 6-86, which can be fitted
with an auto reverse, automatic tap lubrication, and
a digital depth readout. Holes can be tapped
quickly with little chance of tap breakage.

Figure 6-84. Tap wrenches Top-Hand tap wrench. Bottom-

T-handle tap wrench.

Figure 8-85. A tap must oe sranea squarely wirh the hole.

A quick way to check this is to use a machinist's square.

When tapping a blind hole, some machinists

place a dab of grease, or a piece of grease pencil or
wax crayon in the hole. As the tap cuts the threads,
Figure 6-86. Articulated arm power tapper. The machine can be
the grease is forced up and out of the hole, carrying
fitted with an auto reverse system (the tap is run out of the hole
the chips along. automatically when the threads are at the proper depth), auto-
Use a cutting fluid designed for the particular matic lubrication of the tap, and a digital depth readout.
metal you are tapping. (Procyon Machine Tools)
~ ,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _M
_ac_f·_Jn_i_!1g_F_w_1d_a_n_1e_n_.t_zls

6.10.8 Care in Taf>Ping fitted into the flutes of the broken tap. The collar on
Considerable care must be exercised when the extractor is slipped down flush with the work
tapping: surface. A tap ,vrench is fitted on the extractor. The
• Use the correct size tap drill Secure this tap extractor is then carefully twisted back and
information from a tap drill chart. forth to loosen the tap segments. After the broken
• Use a sharp tap and apply sufficient quanti- parts have been loosened, it is a simple matter to
ties of cutting fluid. With some cutting fluids, remoYe them.
the area is flooded with fluid; with others, a In some shops, a tap disintegrator is used to
few drops are sufficient. Read the container remove broken taps. This device makes use of an
label. electric arc to cause the tap to disintegrate. If used
• Start the taper tap square with the work. properly, it will break up the tap without affecting
• Do not force the tap to cut. Remove the chips the metal surrounding the broken tool.
using a piece of cloth or cotton waste, not 6. I 0. IO External Threads
your fingers.
• AYoid running a tap to the bottom of a blind
External threads are cut with a die, Figure 6-88.
Solid dies are not adjustable and for that reason are
hole and continuing to apply pressure. Do
not allow the hole to fill with chips and jam
the tap. Either condition can cause the tap to
break (especially if the tap is small).
• Remove burrs on the tapped hole with a
smooth file.
6.10. 9 Dealing with Broken Taps
Taps sometime break off in a hole. Several tools A
and techniques have been developed for removing
them without damaging the threads already cut.
Remember that these methods do not always ,rnrk
and the part may have to be discarded.
Frequently, a tap will shatter in the hole. It may
then be possible to remove the fragments with a
pointed tool such as a scribe. B
Broken carbon steel taps can sometimes be
removed from steel if the ,vork can be heated to
annealing temperature. The tap can then be drilled Adjustable
out. This cannot be done with high-speed steel taps. dies
If the HSS tap is large enough, it can be ground out
,•,ith a hand grinder.
A tap extracto1· can sometimes be used to
remove a broken tap. See Figure 6-87. Penetrating
oil should be applied and allmved to "soak in" for a
short time before the fingers of the tap extractor are Cap

Guide

C
Figure 6-88. Types of dies. A-Solid dies used to cut external
Figure 6-87. Tap extractor wm help remove a broken tap. threads by hand. They cannot be adjusted. B-A small screw on
Close-up shows fingers of extractor and how they fit into flutes one side of the split permits small changes in size of an
of broken tap. It does not always work. adjustable die. C-Construction of a multi-part adjustable die.
Ch.a.ptel" 6 Hand Tools

not often used. The adjustable die, and the two- • Start the cut with the tapered end of the die.
part adjustable die, are preferred. The two-part die • Back off the die every one or two turns to
has a wide range of adjushnent and is fitted with break the chips.
guides to keep it true and square on the work. Dies • Use cutting oil. Place a paper towel down
are available for cutting most standard threads. over the work to absorb excess cutting oil.
The towel will also prevent the oil from get-
6.10.11 Die Stocks ting on the floor.
A die stock holds the die and provides leverage • Remove any burrs from the finished thread
for turning the die on the work. See Figure 6-89. with a fine cut file.

6.10.12 Threading to a Shoulder

When a thread must be cut by hand to a shoul-
der, start and run the threads as far as possible in
the usual manner, Figure 6-91. Remove the die.
Turn it over with the taper up. Run the threads
down again to the shoulder. Never try this operation
without first starting the threads in the usual manner.

6. I 0.13 Problems in Cutting E.xtemal Threads

Figure 6-89. The die is held in a die stock. The most common problem encountered when
cutting external threads with a die is ragged
When cutting external threads, it is necessary to threads. They are caused by:
remember: • Applying little or no cutting oil.
• Material diameter is the same size as the • Dull die cutters.
desired thread diameter. That is, 1/2-13 UNC • Stoc.k too large for the threads being cut.
threads are cut on a 1 / 2" diameter shaft. • Die not started square.
What diameter shaft would be needed to cut • One set of cutters upside down when using a
1 /2-20 UNF threads? two part die.
• Mount work solidly in a vise.
• Set the die to the proper size. Make trial cuts 6. l 0.14 Hand Threading Safety
on a piece of scrap until the proper adjust- • If a tap or threaded piece must be cleaned of
ment is found. chips with compressed air, protect your eyes
• Grind a small chamfer on the shaft end, as from flying chips by wearing goggles. Take
shown in Figure 6-90. This permits a die to care not to endanger persons working in the
start easily. area near you!
• Chips produced by hand threading are sharp.
Use a brush or piece of cloth, not your hand,
to remove them!
• Newly-cut external threads are very sharp.
Again, use a brush or cloth to clean them.
• Wash your hands after using cutting fluids or
oils! Some cause skin rash. This can develop
into a serious skin disorder if the oils are left
on the hands for an extended period.
• Have cuts treated by a qualified person.
Infections can occur when cuts and other
injuries are not properly treated.
• Be sure the die is clamped firmly in the die
stock. If not, it can fall from the holder and
cause injury.
Figure 6-90. A die will start more easily if a small chamfer is cut
• Broken taps have very sharp edges and are
or ground on the end of the shaft to be threaded. Section very dangerous. Handle them as you would
through die and die stock shows proper way to start threads. broken glass!
 Taper

Taper

Not full
threads

No threads
next to Threads
A shoulljer B cut flush

Figure 6-91. How to cut threads to a shoulder. After die has been run down as far as possible, the die is reversed. When rotated down
the shaft, it will cut threads almost flush with shoulder. A-Running die down normally. 8-Reversing die to cut flush.

are used almost exclusively by industry for polish-

6.1 1 HAND POLISHING ing and grinding. Diamond dust polishing com-
An abrasive is commonly thought of as any pound is made by crushing synthetic diamonds. It is
hard substance that will wear awav another mater- the only abrasive hard enough to polish the newer
ial. The substance, grain size, backing material, and heat-treated, exotic alloy steels used by industry.
the manner in which the substance is bonded to the The table in Figure 6-92 shows a comparison of
backing material determines the performance and abrasive grain size and indicates how the various
efficiency of an abrasive. abrasives are graded.

6.11. I Abrasive Materials

Technical grades Simplifled Other grades
Emery is a natural abrasive. It is black in color grades
and cuts slmdy, v;ith a tendency to polish. Aluminum oxide Emery
Aluminum oxide has replaced emery as an abra- Mesh Silicon carbide Emery pollshlng
sive when large quantities of metal must be 600 4/0
removed. It is a synthetic (manufactured) material 3/0
500 2/0
that works best on high-carbon and alloy steels. 400 10/0 0
Aluminum oxide that is designed for use on metal 360
is manufactured with a grain shape that is not as 320 9/0 1/2
280 8/0
sharp as that made for woodworking. 240 7/0 1G
Silicon carbide is the hardest and sharpest of 220 6/0 2
180 5/0 3
the synthetic abrasives. Silicon carbide is greenish- 150 4/0 Fine
black in color. It is superior to aluminum oxide in its 120 3/0
ability to cut fast under light pressure. It is ideal for 100 2/0 Medium
80 0 coarse
"sanding" metals like cast iron, bronze, and alu- 60 1/2
minum. 50 1 Extra coarse
40 11/2
Crocus may be synthetic or natural iron oxide. It 36 2
is bright red in color, very soft, and is used for 30 2 1/2
cleaning and polishing when a minimum of stock is 24 3
20 31/2
to be removed. 16 4
Diamonds are the hardest natural substance 12 41/2
known. However, they can also be manufactured. Figure 6-92. A comparative grading chart for abrasives.
Synthetic diamonds have no value as gems; they (Coated Abrasive Manufacturers Institute)
 H uJT. I

6. I I .2 Coated Abrasives 6.11.4 Abrasives Safety

A coated abrasive is cloth or paper with abra- • Avoid rubbing your fingers or hand over pol-
sive grains bonded to one surface. Because of its ished surfaces or surfaces to be polished.
flexibility, cloth is used as a backing material for Burrs on the edges of the metal can cause
abrasives found in metalworking or machining. It is painful cuts.
available in 9" X 11" (210 mm X 280 mm) sheets. It • Wash your hands thoroughly after polishing
is also available in rolls starting at 1/2" (12.5 mm) operations.
in widt..,_, and is called abrasive cloth. • Treat all cuts immediately, no matter how
small!
6.11.3 Using Abrasive Cloth • Place all oily rags in a closed metal container.
Abrasive cloth is quite expensive. Use only Never put them in your apron/shop coat or
what you need. Tear the correct amount from the in a locker!
sheet or roll. Do not discard abrasive cloth unless it • Wipe up any oil dropped on the floor during
is completely worthless. Used cloth is excellent for polishing operations.
polishing. • If a lathe is used for polishing operations,
Ha job has been filed properly, only a fine-grain make sure the machine is protected from the
cloth will be needed to polish the surface. abrasive grains that fall from the polishing
However, if scratches are deep, start the polishing cloth. Stop the machine when inspecting
operation by using a coarse-grain cloth first. your work.
Change to a medium-grain cloth next, and finally a
fine-grain abrasive. A few drops of oil will speed
the operation. For a high polish, leave the oil on the TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
surface after the scratches have been removed.
Please do not write in the text. Write your
Reverse the cloth and rub the smooth backing over
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
the work.
Abrasive cloth must be properly supported to 1. List two variations of the machinist's vise.
work efficiently. To get such support, wrap the cloth 2. How is vise size determined?
around a block of wood or file, Figure 6-93. Apply
pressure and rub the abrasive back and forth in a 3. Work held in a vise can be protected from
straight line, parallel to the long side of the work. damage by the jaw serrations if _ _ are
Avoid using abrasives on machined surfaces. placed over the jaws.
4. To prevent injuries, what should be avoided
when mounting work in a vise?
Abrasive 5. Work is often held together with a
cloth
and/or _ _ while being machined or
worked on.
6. How do combination pliers ha,-e an advantage
over many other types of pliers?
7. Why are the cutting edges on diagonal pliers
set at an angle?
8. List three ways of extending the working life
of pliers.
9. What are adjustable clamping pliers?
10. Of what use are torque-limiting wrenches?
11. Do torque-limiting wrenches give a more accu-
rate reading when they are pushed or when
Workpiece they are pulled?
Figure 6-93. Abrasive cloth should be supported with a block of 12. Several different wrenches can be classified as
wood or a file. Do not support it with your fingers alone. adjustable wrenches. Name three.
,m Machining Fundamentals

13. List three points that should be observed when 30. There are few things more dangerous than a
using an adjustable wrench. chisel with a head that has become from
14. Round work can be gripped with a _ _ use. This danger can be removed by _ _ .
wrench. Its main disadvantage is that the javvs 31. The chisel is an ideal tool for
will probably _ _ the work.
32. List the four general types of cold chisels.
15. Describe socket wrenches.
33. The standard hacksaw is designed to accom-
16. What ,,-renches are employed to turn flush modate
and recessed types of threaded fasteners? The
34. A hacksaw cuts best at about to
fasteners have slots or holes to receive the
strokes per minute.
wrench lugs.
35. Why should the work be mounted solidly and
17. Rather than lengthen the wrench handle for
close to the vise before cutting with a hack-
additional leverage, it is better to use a _ _
saw?
wrench.
36. If a blade breaks or dulls before completing a
18. List five safety precautions that should be
cut, you should not continue in the same cut
observed when using a wrench.
with a new blade. Why?
19. What is the difference behveen a standard
37. The number of teeth per inch on a hacksaw
screwdriver tip and a Phillips screwdriver tip?
blade has an important bearing on the shape
Match each phrase with the correct scre·wdriYer and kind of metal being cut. At least _ _ or
name listed belm,·. _ _ should be cutting at all times, otherwise
20. Pozidriv®.
21. Standard. 38. What is the best way to hold thin metal for
hacksawing?
22. Electrician.
39. What is the best ,vay to hold thin wall tubing
23. _ _ Heavy-duty. for hacksawing?
24. _ _ Stubby. 40. Files are cleaned with a _ , never with
25. Ratchet.
a. Has a flattened wedge-shaped tip. 41. Files are classified according to the cut of their
b. Moves the fastener on the power stroke, teeth. List the four cuts.
but not on the return stroke. 42. What are the most commonly used file shapes?
c. Has a square shank to permit additional
force to be applied with a wrench. 43. List three safety precautions that should be
d. Useful when handling small screws. obsen·ed when files are used.
e. Tip is similar to that of a Phillips head 44. When is reaming done?
screwdriver.
45. How much stock should be left in a hole for
f. Has an insulated handle.
hand reaming?
g. Is short and is used when space is limited.
46. A is used to cut internal threads.
26. List three safety precautions that should be External threads are cut with a
observed when using a screwdriver.
47. The hole to be tapped must be:
27. How is the size of a ball-peen hammer deter- a. The same diameter as the desired thread.
mined? b. A few thousandths larger than the
28. Why are soft-face hammers and mallets used desired thread.
in place of a ball-peen hammer? c. A few thousandths (0.003"-0.004")
smaller than the threads.
29. List three safety precautions that should be d. All of the above.
observed lvhen using striking tools. e. None of the above.
_C_hap
_ t_
e r_ 6_ _H_an
_ d_11_oo
_ l_s _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ll
48. The drill used to make the hole prior to thread- 52. Taps are turned in with a _ _ . A _ _ is
ing is called a _ _. used with dies.
49. How does the UNC thread series differ from 53. What is an abrasive?
the UNF thread series? 54. surfaces are never polished with an
50. List the correct sequence taps should be used abrasive.
to form threads the full depth of a blind hole.
51. Should a shaft be larger or smaller than the fin-
ished size if external threads are to be cut on it?
 ' •
...,

Since many products make use of threaded fasteners for assembly, fast and very accurate drill/Ing and tapping of holes in compo-
nents is necessary. For larger volumes of parts, automated equipment like this CNC drill and tap center are often used. Note that
fools are mounted on an 8-spindle turret for quick tool changes. The workpiece is held stationary on a fixed position worktable, with
all movement in the X, Y, and Z axes made by the traveling column holding the tool turret. (Sugino Corp.)
 Chapter 7

ast er

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
0 Identify several types of fasteners.
0 Explain why inch-based fasteners
not interchangeable with metric-based
fasteners.
0 Describe how some fasteners are used.
0 Select the proper fastening technique for a
specific job.
0 Describe chemical fastening techniques. Figure 7-1. Complex products, such as this large earthmover
and the flatbed truck being used to transport it, require the use
of many types and sizes of fasteners. Reliability of the product,
and the safety of persons using it, can be greatly affected if
IMPORTANT TERMS improper fasteners are selected in the design or assembly
phases.
adhesives machine bolts
assembly permanent assemblies
cyanoacrylate quick setscrews To achieve maximum strength, a threaded fastener
setting adhesives threaded fasteners should screw into its mating part at least a distance
fastener washers equal to one and one-half times the thread diameter.
keyway See Figure 7-2.
A fastener is any device used to hold two objects Threaded fasteners vary in cost from thousands
or parts together. This definition would include of dollars for special bolts that attach the wings to
bolts, nuts, screws, pins, keys, rivets, and even the fuselage of large aircraft, to a fraction of a penny
chemical bonding agents or adhesives. The most for small machine screws. See Figure 7-3.
common types of fasteners will be explained and Most threaded fasteners are available in metric
illustrated in this chapter. sizes. Many American manufacturers now use met-
It is critical to choose the proper fasteners for ric-sized fasteners in their products, which has led
each job, Figure 7-1. A poorly selected fastener can
greatly reduce the safety and dependability origi-
nally designed into a product. Choosing improper
fasteners could increase assembly costs and result in
an inferior or faulty product. To improve quality,
several different fastening techniques are often
employed in the same or related assemblies. For
example, one auto manufacturer uses more than
11,000 kinds and sizes of fasteners.

7.1 THREADED FASTENERS Figure 7-2. For maximum strength, a threaded fastener must
Threaded fasteners make use of the wedging screw into the mating part a distance equal to 1 1/2 times the
action of the screw thread to clamp parts together. diameter of the thread.
 ISO Metric
Thread series

§)_-t_=~~~---=-3-
M10 X 1.5-Bg
_J i '
Thread symbol
for ISO (metric) _j j

Major diameter
of thread in
mi!limeters

Pitch of thread-----
in millimeters

Thread tolerance - - - - ~
class symbol
If' (class of fit)

Unified National
Coarse Thread series

Figure 7-3. There is a wide range of threaded fasteners avail- 3/8-16UNC-2A

able, from tiny machine screws used in precision instruments to
large bolts used in buifd;ng construction. This 1" anchor bolt is Major diameter [ 11
being used to mount a steel column on a concrete foundation of thread in 1

pier. inches I

Threads per
to some problems. :Metric threads and the common inch (pitch=
unified (inch-based) threads have the same basic 1/threads per inch)
profile (shape), but are not interchangeable. See
Thread series - - - - -
Figure 7-4.
Until a complete changem·er to metric sizes is Class of fit - - - - - - -~
made, and products already made with unified (thread
threads wear out or are discarded, some easy-to-use tolerance)
method must be devised to distinguish between
metric threaded fasteners and inch-based fasteners. Figure 7-4. Metric threads have the same basic profile (shape)
as the Unified Thread series; however, the Unified and Metric
While no foolproof method has yet been contrived, threads are not interchangeable.
Figures 7-5 and 7-6 illustrate two possible solutions.

7.1. I Machine Screws

Machine screws are ·widely used in general 7. I.2 Machine Bolts
assembly ,vork. They have slotted or recessed Machine bolts are employed to assemble parts
heads, and are made in a number of head styles, that do not require close tolerances. They are manu-
Figure 7-7. factured with square and hexagonal heads, in diam-
Machine screws are available in body diameters eters ranging from 1 /2" to 3". The nuts are similar
ranging from #0000 (0.021") to 3/4" (0.750") and in shape to the bolt head. They are usually fur-
in lengths from 1/8" (0.125") to 3". Metric sizes nished with the machine bolts. Tightening the nut
are also manufactured. Nuts, in either square or produces a clamping action to hold parts together,
hexagonal shapes, are purchased separately. Figure 7-8.
_c_h_ap_t_e_r_7_ _F_ast_e_n_er_s_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ll
On larger metric bolts thread diameter
is often stamped on the bolt head

WiTi•li
Flat Oval Pan Round Flllister Truss Socket

Slotted Cross Cross Clutch Socket

recess recess
Type 1 Type 2

Figure 7-7. A sampling of the many types of machine screws

available.

Figurs 7-5. Metric fasteners are manufactured in the same vari-

0
ety of head shapes as inch-based fasteners. However, there is
a problem in finding an easy way to distinguish between the two
fastener types. To~Some larger size hex-head metric fasten-
ers have the size stamped on the head. Bottom-A twelve-
spline flange head is under consideration for use on eight sizes
of metric fasteners: 5, 6.3, 8, 10, 13, 14, 16, and 20 mm.

Slotted

Phillips

Figure 7-8. Machine bolts use a nut to produce clamping force.

Pozidriv® part. Clamping action is accomplished by tighten-

Figure 7-B. The Pozidriv® cross-recess head has been sug-
ing the bolt into the threaded part.
gested as a means of identifying metric screws. It would replace Cap screws are held to much closer tolerances in
the Phillips cross-recess head, which would be used only wffh their manufacture than machine screws. They are
inch-based screws. provided with a machined or semifinished bearing
surface under the head. Some type of cap screws are
heat-treated.
7.1.3 Ca-p Screws The application determines the strength of the
Cap screws are found in assemblies requiring a cap screw to be used. Required strength is indicated
higher quality and a more finished appearance, on the print. Since all steel hex head cap screws are
Figure 7-9. Instead of tightening a nut to develop similar in appearance, a series of markings on
clamping action, as with the machine bolt, the cap the bolt head indicate strength capabilities. See
screw passes through a clearance hole in one of the Figure 7-10. The stronger the cap screw, the more
pieces and screws into a threaded hole in the other expensive it is.
g ["lachining ~:.rndamenta!s

A B C D E
Figure 7-9. Cap screws are manufactured in various types. A-Flat head. B-Hexagonal head. C-Socket head. D-Filfister head.
E-Button or round head.

Customary (inch) bolts

Metric bolts

Figure 7-10. Identification marks (inch size) and class numbers (metric size) are used to indicate the relative strength of hex head cap
screws. As identification marks increase in number, or class numbers become larger, increasing strength is indicated.

Cap scre,Ys are stocked in coarse and fine thread

series and in diameters from 1 / 4" to 2". Lengths
from 3/8" to 10" are available. Metric sizes can also
be supplied.

7. 1.4 Setscrews
Setscrews are semipermanent fasteners that are
used for such applications as preventing pulleys
from slipping on shafts, holding collars in place on
assemblies, and positioning shafts on assemblies. Figure 7-11. A typical setscrew application, to hold a gear onto
See Figure 7-11. Setscrews are usuallv made of a shaft.
Chapter 7 fasterie:rs

heat-treated steel. They are classified in two ways,

by head style, and by point style, Figure 7-12.
The thumbscrew is a variation of the setscrew
that can be turned by hand. It is typically used in
place of a setscrew for assemblies that require rapid
or frequent disassembly, Figure 7-13. Thumbscrews
are available with points similar to those on
setscrews.

A B C D E F
Figure 7-14. One end of stud bolt usually threads into the part,
while other end accepts a nut.

G H J K L
Figure 7-12. Setscrew head and point designs. A-Socket
head. B-Slotted head. C, D, and E-Fluted head. F-5quare
head. G-Flat point. H-Oval point. I-Cone point. J-Haff dog
point. K-Ful/ dog point. L-Cut point.

Figure 7-15. The Drill-Out Power Extractor™ combines a drill

with an adjustable extractor collar. The drill makes the required-
size hole, then the power drill is reversed. This causes the
extractor to grip the broken bolt and torque it out. (Alden Corp.)

Types Type P

Rgure 7-13. Thumb screws can be removed or installed by in several sizes. It is used with a 3/8 in. capacity
hand. (Parker-Ka/on)
variable speed/reversing power drill. The built-in
drill cuts the proper size hole for the extractor unit
to fit. After the hole is drilled and the extractor is
7.1.5 Stud Bolts
placed into position, drill speed is reduced and
Stud bolts are headless bolts that are threaded reversed. This will remove the broken bolt.
for their entire length, or (more commonly) on both The type of extractor shown in Figure 7-16 is
ends, Figure 7-14. One end is designed for semiper- also available in several sizes. A chart furnished
manent installation in a tapped hole; the other end with the extractor indicates drill size to be used.
is threaded for standard nut assembly to clamp the After the hole has been drilled, the extractor is
pieces together. inserted and turned counterclockwise with an
appropriate size tap wrench.
7. I .6 Removing Broken or Sheared Bolts Extractors of the type shown in Figure 7-17 are
Bolts that have broken or sheared off can be designed to remove sheared machine screws. The
hard to remove without proper tools. The blade is made of heat-treated tool steel. A hole is
drill-out power extractor, Figure 7-15, is available drilled in the screw, then the tapering blade is
lffl
A regular semifinished nut is machined on the
Tap wl'BOQtl bearing face to provide a truer surface for the
washer, Figure 7-19.
A heavy semifinished nut is identical in finish to
the regular semifinished nut. However, the body is
thicker for additional strength, Figure 7-20.

Square Hexagon Jam

Figure 7-18. Only the threads of regular nuts are machined.

Figure 7-16. Spiral-flute broken bolt extractor. A hole of proper

size is drilled, a tap wrench applied, and the broken bolt is
turned out.

a:tD $ d:fD
Figure 7-17. An extractor designed to remove machine screws.
rrmHexagon
atn Jam
cm Castle

Figure 7-19. Regular semifinished nuts have a machined bear-

ing surface.
A hole is drilled in the broken-off screw. The extractor blade is
tapped into place and carefully turned to remove broken screw.

lightly driven into the hole. The extractor is turned

counterclockwise to remove the sere, v.
Treatment with penetrating oil will often make it
rrtn
o:ro m
easier to remoYe stubborn sheared bolts and
machine screws.

7.1.7 Nuts
lWJj
For most threaded fasteners, nuts ·with hexago-
nal or square shapes are used with bolts having the
same-shape head. They are available in various
degrees of finish. Nuts are usually manufactured of
the same materials as their mating bolts.
[[]
I atD ITre
Hexagon Jam Slotted
A regular nut is unfinished (not machined), Figure 7-20. Heavy semifinished nuts are thicker than regular
except on the threads, Figure 7-18. nuts.
Chapter 7 ;=asteners

The jam nut is thlnner than the standard nut. It The wing nut is found where frequent adjust-
is frequently used to lock a full-size nut in place. ment or frequent removal is necessary. It can be
Castellated and slotted nuts have slots across loosened and tightened rapidly without the need of
the flats so they can be locked in place with a cotter a wrench. Refer to Figure 7-23.
pin or safety wire. A hole is drilled in the bolt or
stud, and a cotter pin or wire is inserted through the
slot and hole to prevent the nut from turning loose.
These types of locking nuts are being replaced
on many applications by self-locking nuts,
Figure 7•21. Self-locking nuts are slightly deformed Figure 7-23. Wing nut looks as if it has "wings." Uke the thumb-
to produce a friction fit, or have a nylon insert, so screw, it is turned by hand. (Parker-Ka/on)
they cannot vibrate loose. No hole through the bolt
is required when self-locking nuts are employed in 7. I .8 Inserts
an assembly. An insert is a special form of nut or internal
In critical assemblies, use a new self-locking nut thread. Inserts are designed to provide higher
to replace one that has been removed for any reason. strength threads in soft metals and plastics. The
The used nut may not have adequate locking action types shown in Figure 7-24 are frequently used to
remaining and may loosen in service. replace damaged or stripped threads. The threaded
hole is drilled and tapped. The insert is then
screwed into the hole. Its internal thread is standard
size and form. For optimum results, inserts must

{$). {$) be installed according to the manufacturer's

instructions.

oiD (fill [l:D

Figure 7-21. Seff-locking nuts.

Acorn nuts are used when appearance is of pri-

mary importance, or where projecting threads must
be protected. They are available in high or low
crown styles. See Figure 7-22. A

Figure 7-24. Thread repair inserts. A-An insert is frequently

used to replace damaged or stripped threads in a part. (Heli-
Coil Corp.) B-These keylocking inserts can be easily installed
Figure 7-22. Acorn or cap nuts look good and will protect or removed without special tools. They are available in both car-
threads. bon steel and stainless steel. (Jergens, Inc.)
11!1
7. I. 9 Washers
Washe1·s provide an increased bearing surface
for bolt heads and nuts, distributing the load over a
larger area. They also prevent surface marring. The
standard washer is produced in light, medium,
heavv-dutv, and extra heavv-dutv series. See
,I "' J -

Figure 7-25.

Figure 7-27. Lock washer and screw units and lock washer and
nut units are frequently used to simplify assembly. (Shakeproof
Div., Illinois Tool Works, Inc.)

Figure 7-25 . The standard flat washer provides a bearing sur-

face for a fastener.

7.1. IO lock Washers

A lock washer vdll prevent a bolt or nut from
loosening under vibration. The split-ring lock
washer is rapidly being replaced by the tooth-type
lock washer, which has greater holding power on
most applications. See Figure 7-26.
Preassembled lock washer and screw nuts and
lock washer and nut units have a washer mounted
on the nut. They are employed to lower assembly Figure 7-28. There are many liquid thread locks available. They
prevent a bolt, nut, or screw from vibrating loose, but allow easy
time and reduce ·waste in the mass-assembly mar- removal should disassembly be required.
ket, Figure 7-27.

7. I. I I Liquid Thread Lock

Nuts, bolts, and machine screws can be pre- ,,ibrating loose, it allows easy removal of the fas-
vented from loosening due to vibration though use tener should disassembly be necessary. ·when using
of a liquid thread lock, Figure 7-28. Although the a liquid thread lock, follow the manufacturer's
thread lock material will prevent fasteners from recommendations for maximum effectiveness.

Figure 7-26. Lock washer variations. A-Split-ring type. B-External type. This type should be used whenever possible, because it
provides greatest resistance to turning. C-lnternal type. It is used with small head screws and to hide teeth, either for appearance or
to prevent snagging. D-lnternal-external type. It is employed when mounting holes are oversize. E-Countersunk type. It is used with
flat or oval head screws.
Chapter 7 Fasteners
PD
7. I. I 2 Thread-Forming Screws
Thread-forming screws produce a thread in the
part as they are driven, Figure 7-29. This feature
eliminates a costly tapping operation. A variation of
the thread-forming screw eliminates expensive
hole-making (drilling or punching) and aligning
operations because the screw drills its own hole as il
is driven into place. See Figure 7-30. Figure 7-31. Variations among thread cutting screws.

Type U Type 21
drive screw drive screw

Figure 7-32. Drive screws are hammered or forced into place in

a pf9sized hole. (Parker-Ka/on)
Figure 7-29. One type of thread-forming screw.

7.2. I Dowel Pins

Dowel pins are made of heat-treated alloy steel
and are found in assemblies where parts must be
accurately positioned and held in absolute relation
to one another. See Figures 7-33 and 7-34. They
assure perfect alignment and facilitate quicker dis-
assembly and reassembly of parts in exact relation-
Figure 7-30. A self-drilling screw. This type is also known as ship to each other. They are fitted into reamed holes
TEKs®. (USM Corp., Fastener Group) and are available in diameters from 1/16" to l",
They are also available in metric sizes.
7. I .13 Thread Cutting Screws
Thread cutting screws differ from thread form-
ing screws because they actually cut threads into the
material when driven. Refer to Figure 7-31. Thread Spring
Special
cutting screws are hardened. They are employed to pins
pins
join heavy-gage sheet metal, and to thread into non- tiifl
~,'

ferrous metal assemblies. t i

i ~
7. I .14 Drive Screws I Ii
Drive screws are simply hammered into a Lt
~
drilled or punched hole of the proper size. A per-
manent assembly results, Figure 7-32. Machi~e
keys .__
Ij
7.2 NONTHREADED FASTENING Lok
Studs · • '· · dowels
DEVICES
Shear-ProoF - - - -~ -.
Nonthreaded fasteners comprise a large group pins ,..- -~
of mechanical holding devices. These include dowel C ···· ·K~u;led pins
pins, cotter pins, retaining rings, rivets, and keys. Figure 7-33. Types of dowel pins. They are made in a wide
Each has its advantages. range of sizes and types. (Driv-lok Inc.)
'" Machining Fundamentals

E F G
Figure 7-36. Retaining rings. A-Basic internal ring. 8-Basic
external ring. C-lnverted internal ring. D-lnverted external
ring. E-External self-locking ring. F-lnternal self-locking ring.
G-Triangufar self-locking ring.
Figure 7-34. A taper pin is often used to lock a handle to its
shaft.

Dowel pins are normally 0.0002" (0.005 mm)

oversize (identified by a plain steel finish) but are
available in 0.001" (0.023 mm) oversize (identified
by a black finish) for repairs.
Taper pins are made with a uniform taper of
1 I 4" per foot in lengths up to 6", with diameters as
small as 5/32" at the large end.
External Internal
7.2.2 Cotter Pins Figure 7-37. Grooves are machined into parts to receive
A cotter pin is fitted into a hole drilled crosswise retaining rings. They eliminate many other expensive machining
through a shaft, Figure 7-35. The pin prevents parts operations.
from slipping or rotating off. Other types of retain-
ing devices are replacing the cotter pin.
7.2.4 Rivets
7.2.3 Retaining Rings Permanent assemblies (those that do not have
The retaining ring, Figure 7-36, has been devel- to be taken apart) can be made ·with rivets, Figure
oped for both internal and external applications. 7-39. Solid rivets can be set, or deformed to become
Retaining rings reduce both cost and weight of the larger on one end, by hand or machine methods.
product on ·which they are employed. v\Thile most Blind rivets are mechanical fasteners that have
retaining rings must be seated in grooves, Figure been developed for applications where the joint is
7-37, a self-locking type does not require this special accessible from only one side. They require special
recess. Special pliers are needed for rapid installa- tools for installation, Figure 7-40. Blind rivet types
tion and removal of the retaining rings, Figure 7-38. are shown in Figure 7-41.

Figure 7-35. Types of cotter pins. A-Standard. 8-Humped. C-Cfinch. D-Hitch.

Chapter 7 Fasteners IP
7.2.5 Keys
A key is a small piece of metal that prevents a
gear or pulley from rotating on its shaft. One-half of
the key fits into a keyseat on the shaft while the
other half of the key fits into a keyway in the hub of
the gear or pulley, Figure 7-42. Commonly used
keys are shown in Figure 7-43.
A square key is usually one-fourth the shaft
diameter. It may be slightly tapered on the top to
External position
make it easier to install.
Internal position
The Pratt & Whitney key is similar to the square
Figure 7-38. Special pliers are used to install some types of key, but is rounded at both ends. It fits into a keyseat
retaining rings. (Waldes Kohinoor Inc.) of the same shape.

B B
Cone
head
Round top
countersunk head
LJ
Truss
head
rr
Button
head
Keyway

TI TI LJ LJ
Pan
head
Flat top
countersunk head
Flat
head
Tinners'
rivet

Figure 7-39. Rivet head styles.

Keyseat

- Figure 7-42. A square key is used to prevent a pulley or gear

( h) \ from rotating on its shaft.

Figure 7-40. A pliers-type rivet gun is used to insert one type of

blind rivet.

Pull mandrel
~
Open end

~ ~71F ~
••
~~~
Drive pin ~
-..
"' ~-'
Wooi1rt1tt k.tl't'

Break mandrel Closed end Chemically expanded

(explosive)
Figure 7-41. Types of blind rivets. Figure 7-43. Three types of keys.
"
Machining Fundamentals

The gib head key is interchangeable with the

square key. The head design permits easier removal
from the assembly. Adhesive-bonded
A Woodruff key is semicircular and fits into a
keyseat of the same shape. The top of the key fits
into the keyway of the mating part.

7.3 ADHESIVES Riveted

Adhesives provide one of the newer ways to join
Figure 7-45. On parts joined with an adhesive, the mating sur-
metals and to keep threaded fasteners from vibrat- faces are in continuous contact.
ing loose. In some applications, the resulting joints
are stronger than the metal itself. Adhesive bonded
joints do not require costly and time-consuming • Full strength of the mating parts is main-
operations such as drilling, countersinking, rivet- tained, since holes do not have to be made to
ing, etc. insert fasteners. The extreme heat required for
The major drawback to the use of adhesives is joining methods like ,velding is not necessary
heat. While some adhesives retain their strength at with adhesive bonding. This means there is
temperatures as high as 700°F (371 °C), most should no danger of the work becoming distorted or
not be used for assemblies that will be exposed to having its heat treatment affected.
temperatures above 150-200:::F (66-93:::C). • Smooth surfaces result from adhesive bond-
Adhesives for locking threaded fasteners in ing-there are no external projections (as with
place are made in a number of chemical formula- rivets or bolts), and the surface is not marred
tions. The desired permanence of the threaded joint by the heat and pressure necessary to join
will determine the type of adhesive to be employed. pieces with spot welds.
Adhesive-bonded assemblies offer manv advan- Many commercial adhesives are sold in small
tages over other fastening techniques: - quantities. They are suitable for use in training areas
• The load is distributed evenly over the entire and the home, Figure 7-46.
joined area, Figure 7-44.
• There is continuous contact between the mat-
ing surfaces, Figure 7-45.

Figure 7-46. Adhesives for joining metal to metal and metal to

other materials are available in good hardware stores. They are
similar to those found in industry.

Adhesives are available in liquid, paste, or solid

form. Many can be applied directly from the con-
tainer. Others must be mixed ,vith a catalyst or
hardener. A few pressure-sensitive adhesives are
manufactured in sheet form.
One type of adhesive has found grm-dng use in
Figure 7-44. wnen an adnesive is used to join metal, the load machining technology to make temporary bonds.
is distributed evenly over the entire joint. A rivet or conventional Cyanoacrylate quick setting adhesives (kno,vn
threaded fastener localizes the load in a small area. by such trade names as Eastman 910Tll1,
c:izr;ter 7

Super Glue™, and Crazy Glue1M) are used to hold

matching metal sections together while they are
being machined. Round stock too small for existing
For successful use of cyanoacrylate adhesives,
the part and mounting surface must be prepared
according to the adhesive manufacturer's
"
collets can be glued into larger stock for turnin~ directions.
milling, or grinding. Some fragile parts have been When using cyanoacrylate adhesives, always
glued to backup blocks for machining, and parts wear approved eye protection and keep fingers
like the gun sight casting shown in Figure 7-47 have away from your eyes and mouth. Since this adhe-
been glued to a fixture for such operations as sive can instantly bond fingers to each other or to
machining the sighting and bottom grooves. other surfaces, always have a debonder available for
After machining, the parts can be removed from immediate use. Should you get adhesive in your
the holding device by an application of heat (175°F eyes, see a physician immediately.
or 79°C maximum).Very small parts can be removed
by applying a cyanoacrylate debonder. 7.3. I Using Adhesives
Most adhesives require following a five-step
process to produce solidly bonded joints:
1. Surface preparation is critical! All adhesives
require clean surfaces to produce full-strength
bonds. Preparation may range from simply
wiping surfaces with a solvent to performing
multistage cleaning and chemical treatment.
2. Adhesive preparation must be done properly.
Mixing, delivery to the work area, setting up
equipment, etc. must all be done according to
the manufacturer's directions.
0 3. Adhesive application may be done by brush-
ing, rolling, sprayin~ dipping, or methods
designed for a specific assembly. See Figure
7-48.
Figure 7-47. This gunsight was held on a fixture with cyano-
acryfate adhesive to allow machining. The thin base section of 4. Assembly involves positioning of materials to
the part made it difficult and expensive to mount to a fixture by be joined. This often requires the use of jigs or
other means. fixtures for alignment.

Figure 7-48. Seff-aligning nuts used in aircraft are assembled with a cyanoacrylate adhesive. The two part fasteners are assembled
automatically and drop onto an indexing table. Setup produces 3600 assemblies an hour. Left-A needle-tip applicator applies a
precise amount of adhesive before parts are brought together. Right-Parts after and before assembly. (Loctite Corp.)
"5. Bond development is the process of evapora-
tion of solvents and curing of the adhesive. It
may involve application of pressure and/ or
heat. See Figure 7-49.
• Carefullv follow all instructions on the adhe-
sive container when mixing and using adhe-
sives. Only mix the amount you will need.
Promptly remove any adhesive from your
skin by washing in water.
• Cyanoacrylate adhesives cure in 5 to 15 sec-
onds. Do not allow any of this adhesive to get
onto your fingers, since it will bond skin
together. Unless a suitable soh-ent is avail-
able, surge1:" might be needed to separate the
joined fingers.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Please do not write in the text. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. For maximum strength, a threaded fastener
should screw into its mating part a distance
equal to _ _ times the diameter of the thread.
Figure 7-49. Tnis autoclave is used to bond large assemblies, 2. There are many '.vays of joining material. list
with steam applying heat and pressure simultaneously. The four types of threaded fasteners. Describe how
assembly to be bonded is wrapped in a rubber blanket to pro- each is used.
tect the bond from moisture. (3M Co.)
3. _ _ screws are used for general assembly
work.
7.4 FASTENER SAFETY 4. How is the strength of hex-head cap screws
• Wear approved eye protection when drilling, indicated?
punching, or countersinking openings for fas- 5. When removing stubborn sheared bolts, what
teners. can be done to make their remoYal easier?
• Never use your hands to remove metal chips
6. To preYent a pulley from slipping on a shaft, a
from holes drilled for fasteners! Do not use
_ _ is often employed.
your fingers to check \vhether burrs have
been removed. Burrs around the opening can 7. The bolt is threaded at both ends.
cause nasty cuts. Use a brush.
8. _ _ or _ _ are employed when the parts
• If you use compressed air to clean drilled or
are to be joined permanently.
tapped holes, wear approved eye protection.
Make sure that there is no danger of flying 9. Why are lock washers used?
chips injuring nearby workers. 10. While most _ _ must be seated in grooves, a
• Do not apply adhesives near areas where self-locking type does not require the special
there are open flames. Solvents used in some recess.
adhesives are highly flammable and/ or toxic.
Apply them only in well-ventilated areas, and 11. When is a jam nut employed?
wear a suitable respirator. 12. The shape of the _ _ nut permits it to be loos-
• The chemicals in adhesives for joining metals ened and tightened without a wrench.
and other materials can cause severe skin irri-
tation. To be safe, wear disposable plastic
gloves when preparing or applying all types
of adhesives.
_c_h_apte
__ r _7 _ _Fast
_ e_n_e_r_s _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___,II
Match each word in the left column with the
most correct sentence in the right column. Place the
appropriate letter in the blank.
13. Rivet. a. Developed for use in confined area, where
a joint is only accessible from one side.
14. _ _ Jam.nut.
b. Used where parts must be aligned accu-
15. Drive screw. rately and held in absolute relation with
16. _ _ Tirread-cutting screw. one another.
c. Prevents a pulley or gear from slipping on
17. Acom nut. a shaft.
18 _ _ Dowel pin. d. Protects projecting threads.
e. Is hammered into a drilled or punched
19. Blind rivet. hole.
20 _ _ Keyway. f. Used to make permanent assemblies.
g. Slot cut in gear or pulley to receive "c."
21. _ _ Keyseat. h. Locks a regular nut in place.
22. _ _ Key. i. Eliminate costly tapping operations.
j. Slot cut in shaft to receive "c."
23. List the steps, in their proper sequence, that
must be used to join metals with adhesives.
24. List at least five safety precautions that must be
observed when using fasteners.

The Bell 609 is the latest design for transporting people in and out of inner city locations. Aner a helicopter-like take-off, the blades
transition into a horizontal position and the 609 flies like a conventional aircraft. The blades are returned to an upright position for a
vertical landing. In addition to the use of conventional-type fasteners, high-strength adhesives are used extensively in its manufac-
ture. (Bel{ Helicopter/ A Subsidiary of TEXTRON, Inc.)
,,

Positioning tables are used with fixtures and jigs to rapidfy and accurately move the work-
piece into the proper relationship with a cutting tool. A-This linear table moves in both the
horizontal and vertical axes, using precision-ground ballscrews and guide rails to achieve
positioning as accurate as± 10 microns per 300 mm. (Schneeberger, Inc.) B-Rotary
tables can be mounted vertically or horizontally, depending upon the application. They ofter
precise and repeatable indexing of the workpiece through a full 360° rotation. (Yukiwa Seiko
USA, Inc.)
 Chapter 8

Jigs and Fixtures

position the work and guide the cutting tool or tools

LEARNING OBJECTIVES so that all of the parts produced are uniform and
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: within specifications. When large numbers of iden-
0 Explain why jigs and fixtures are used. tical and interchangeable parts must be produced,
0 Describe a jig. the use of jigs and fixtures helps to reduce manufac-
0 Describe a fixture. turing costs. The use of jigs and fixtures is often jus-
0 Elaborate on the classifications of jigs and tified when limited production is required, because
fixtures. they allow relatively unskilled warkers to operate
the machines.
Jigs and fixtures are also employed in assembly
work for operations, such as welding or riveting.
IMPORTANT TERMS They position and hold work while standardized
parts are being fabricated.
box jig fixture holding devices
bushings jig
closed jig open jig 8.1 JIGS
drill template plate jig A jig is a device that holds a workpiece in place
fixture slip bushings and guides the cutting tool during a machining
Jigs and fixtures are devices that are used exten- operation such as drilling, reaming, or tapping.
sively in production machine shops to hold work Hardened steel bushings are used to guide the drill
while machining operations are performed. They or cutting tool, Figure 8-1.

Figure 8-1. A lift-type drill jig. Left-Jig is open to receive the part shown in foreground. Right-Jig is closed, with the part in place,
ready for drilling. (Ex-Cell-O Corp.)

II
ffl1 i"\achining Fundamenta.ls

The jig is seldom mounted solidly to the drill

press table. For safety, however, it is usually nested
between guide bars that are mounted solidly to the
table, Figure 8-2.

Drill press
worktable

Work

Alignment pin
Figure 8-2. A drill jig is nested between guide bars to prevent
dangerous and undesirable "merry-go-round" rotation. Figure 8-4. This open-type jig has a clamp to hold the work in
position for drilling. A V-notch at one end and an alignment pin
8. I. I Jig types at the other end position the work properly in the jig.

Drill jigs fall into two general types: open jigs

and box (closed) jigs.
Holes drilled
The drill template or plate jig is the simplest using jig
form of the open jig. It consists of a plate with holes
to guide the drill. The jig fits over the lrnrk,
Figure 8-3.
In a more elaborate form of open-type drill jig,
Figure 8-4, clamps are used to hold the work in
place. Drill jigs may be fitted with a base plate to
provide clearance for the drill as it breaks through
the work. Such a base plate is used on the circular jig
shown in Figure 8-5. This jig is a variation of the
plate jig.

Jig identification

Casting
being drilled
Figure 8-5. With this circular type drill jig, a pin is placed in first
Figure 8-3. A simple drill template. Identification numbers on hole after it is drilled. This holds the workpiece in position when
jigs and fixtures allow these devices to be located easily when drilling the second hole. Note the base plate that provides clear-
stored away between uses. ance for the drill as it breaks through the workpiece.
 Chapter 8 Jigs and Fixtures ,m
The box jig or closed jig encloses the work, Fixtures fall into many classifications. The class
Figure 8-6. This type is more costly to make than an is determined by the type of machine tool on which
open jig, but is often used when holes must be the fixture is used, such as a machining center,
drilled in several directions. Figure 8-7 illustrates a
box jig in its simplest form. The work is fitted into
the jig through a hinged or swinging cover. The
_/Drill bushings (3)
clamps that hold the work in place are permanently
mounted to the jig. A more complex type of box jig
is shown in Figure 8-8. Clamp pivots
When several different operations must be per- to insert and
formed on a job, a combination of open and box jigs remove work
is often used. Slip bushings are utilized to guide the
drills. They are then removed for subsequent opera-
tions such as reaming, tapping, countersinking,
counterboring, or spot facing.
(!
- {otatejig
to drill holes

8.2 FIXTURES
A fixture is employed to position and hold a
Figure B-7. A light closed (box) jig used to drill three equally
workpiece while machining operations are per- spaced holes in a base end cap. Since only a limited production
formed on it, Figure 8-9. Unlike a jig, a fixture does run was required, ft was not necessary to construct a more elab-
not guide the cutting tool. orate jig.

LAligning pins (4)

Lift handle
to unlock
\

\ _ Bottom drill
bushings (2)
Figure 8-6. A box type drill jig. Lowering the handle locks work in the jig.
 Machining r-undamentals

//
Modified jaws

Figure 8-10. This simple fixture consists of vise jaws that have
been modified to position a workpiece so that an angular cut
can be made on it.
Figure 8-8. To hold a drill head casting in place for machining,
a fairly complex jig is used. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.)

Figure 8-9. Machining centers often require special fixture hold-

ing devices. The pockets to hold the work are machined directly
into the body of the jaws. Three examples are shown in the fore-
ground. The jaws, which snap on and off the workholding sys- Figure 8-11. Many fixtures are used in the assembly of an air-
tem, are shown in the background. New setups can be made in craft fuselage. In fixture construction, extreme accuracy is criti-
a very short period of time. (Chick Machine Tool, Inc.) cal, requiring use of lasers to assure precise alignment. (The
Boeing Co.)

milling machine (vertical or horizontal), lathe, band

saw, or grinder. Fixture designs range from simple
vise jaw modifications, Figure 8-10, to very large the number of pieces to be produced, the degree of
and complex devices used by the aerospace indus- accuracy required, and the kind of machining oper-
try, Figure 8-11. ations that must be performed.
The body of a jig or fixture may be built-up,
welded, or cast. Commercial components are avail-
8.3 JIG AND FIXTURE able in a wide range of sizes, types, and shapes. See
Figure 8-12. Special fixture holding devices have
CONSTRUCTION been developed for machining centers and other
Jigs and fixtures are devices that are designed CNC machine tools that permit multiple setups. See
for specific jobs. Their complexity is determined by Figures 8-13 and 8-14.
 Chapter 8 Jigs and Fixtures

Figure 8-12. Standard cast iron shapes are machined parallel

and square to save time and money in both designing and build-
ing jigs and fixtures. Sections of different shapes can be bolted
together to form complex holding devices. Two completed units
are shown at bottom of illustration. (Ex-Cell-O Corp.)

Figure 8-14. "Tombstones" are a common fixture-holding

device used with machining centers and other CNC machine
tools. They are made from heavy castings and are precisely
machined. A-A typical tombstone intended for mounting on a
machine's worktable. Fixtures are mounted directly onto the
tombstones. The tombstone may be blank, as shown, have
drilled and tapped mounting holes, or use T-s/ots for mounting
fixtures. B-A modular tombstone system consisting of a
receiver module and mating tombstone modules. An expansion
mechanism on the receiver's centerpost allows the tombstone
Rgure 8-13. Special fixture holding deVices tor machining module to be rotated, then locked in position. The assembly at
centers and other CNC machine tools. Workholding pockets are the bottom of the receiver module is a dovetail adapter that
cut directly into the jaw blocks. Pivoting the vertical setup w;11 allows the assembly to be locked in a standard machine vise.
bring the next set of workpieces into position. (Chick Machine The receiver module can also be bolted directly to the work-
Tool, Inc.) table. (Inter/en Products Corporation)
 M cllir Ing f~Hni Unt•nt:tl'i

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 3. What is a jig?

Please do not write in the text. Write your 4. Jigs fall into two general types. List and briefly
answers on a separate sheet of paper. describe each type.
1. Jigs and fixtures are devices used in _ _ to 5. A combination of the h\·o jig types listed in
_ _ while machining operations are per- question 4 is often used when _ _.
formed.
6. What is a fixture?
2. Why are jigs and fixtures used?

..
,
,.
\ 0 C)

~
'
-•_i,
4 ~ 0 0

-
o • .:. • o •
<,C, <::, <!,(,o e••i,,-

0 <!• r _~ O'r ..• ii:• ;,~

c.·.:, .. ~ i!"-:"::<i•
...~o ~ f ,t? O ('!,
• o is -:-.· 'i.> , . e
c:, • o<aic.•<::'!
• o •o'i' ·:.t~
(', • o e ;:, ·• e
. O f!i, ~@IOG

Special quick-change pallets have been developed to lock into a receiver that mounts on a standard machine vise. Shown are some
of the interchangeable pallets, which come in a variety of T-sfot and grid-hole patterns for mounting different workpieces and fixtures.
(Inter/en Products corporation)
 Chapter 9

ti Fl , ids

• Lubricating to reduce friction and cutting

LEARNING OBJECTIVES forces, thereby extending tool life.
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: • Minimizing material buildup on tool cutting
0 Understand why cutting fluids , edges.
necessary. • Protecting machined surface against
0 List the types of cutting fluids. corrosion.
0 Describe each type of cutting fluid. • Flushing away chips, Figure 9-2.
0 Discuss how cutting fluids should be In addition, cutting fluids must comply with all
applied. federal, state, and local regulations for human
safety, air and water pollution, waste disposal, and
shipping restrictions.

IMPORTANT TERMS 9.1 TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS

chemical cutting fluids mineral oil& Cutting fluids fall into four basic types:
contaminants misting • Mineral oils.
cutting fluids noncorrosive • Ernulsifiable oils.
emulsifiable oils semichemical cutting • Chemical and semichemical fluids.
gaseous fluid fluids • Gaseous fluids.
lubricating
Cutting fluids are required to do many things
simultaneously. These functions include:
• Cooling the work and cutting tool, Figure 9-1.
• Improving surface finish quality.

Figure 9-1. For maximum results, coolant should flood the area Figure 9-2. An additional function of cutting fluids is to flush
being machined and cutting tool to provide the most efficient away chips from the area where cutting is taking place.
removal of the heat generated. (KeseVJRM International, Inc.) (EROWA Technology, Inc.)
 Machining Fu:-idamentals

9.1. I Mineral Cutting Oils 9. I .3 Chemical and Semichemical Cutting

Cutting oils made from mineral oil may be used Fluids
straight or combined with additives. Straight min- Chemical cutting fluids generally contain no oil.
eral oils are best suited for light-duty (low speed, They have various rates of dilution depending upon
light feed) operations where high levels of cooling use. A wetting agent is often added to provide mod-
and lubrication are not required. erate lubricating qualities.
They are noncorrosive and are usually used Semichemical cutting fluids may have a small
with high machinability metals, such as aluminum, amount of mineral oil added to improve the fluid's
magnesium, brass, and free-cutting steel. lubricating qualities. Semichemical cutting fluids
Mineral oils are often combined with animal incorporate the best qualities of both chemical and
and vegetable oils and contain sulfur, chlorine, emulsifiable cutting fluids.
and/ or phosphorus. Their use is limited by high Chemical and semichemical cutting fluids offer
cost, operator health problems, and danger from the following advantages:
smoke and fire. Mineral oils also stain some metals. •· Fluids dissipate heat rapidly.
They have a tendency to become rancid, so the tank • They are clean to use.
containing them must be cleaned periodically and • After machining, residue is easy to remove.
the fluid replaced. • The fluids are easy to mix and do not become
When working in situations where cutting fluid rancid.
mists or vapors are present, always wear an Their disadvantages are:
approved respirator. A simple dust mask is not suf- •· Some formulas have minimal lubricating
ficient protection. qualities.
9. I .2 Emulsifiable Oils • Fluids may cause skin irritation in some
workers.
Emulsifiable oils are also known as soluble oils. • When they become contaminated with other
They are composed of oil droplets that are sus- oils, disposal can be a problem.
pended in water by blending the oil with emulsify-
ing agents and other materials. Emulsifiable oils
range in appearance from milky to translucent. 9. I .4 Gaseous Fluids
They are available in many variations for metal Compressed air is the most commonly used
removal applications that generate considerable gaseous fluid coolant. It cools by forced convection.
heat. In addition to cooling the workpiece and tool,
Emulsifiable oils offer a number of advantages compressed air also blows chips away at high veloc-
over straight cutting oils. They provide increased ity. Workers in surrounding areas must be shielded
cooling capacity in some applications. They are from the flying chips.
cleaner to work with than other cutting fluids, and
provide cooler and cleaner parts for the machinist to
handle. These oils reduce the misting and fogging
that are health hazards for machine operators.
9.2 APPLICATION OF CUTTING
Because they are diluted with water, they offer FLUIDS
increased economy and present no fire hazard. Machining and grinding applications require a
Emulsifiable cutting oils can be used in most continuous flooding of fluid around the cutting tool
light- and moderate-duty machining operations. and work to provide efficient removal of the heat
For economy and best machining results, these oils generated, Figure 9-3. Coolant nozzles must be
must be mixed according to the manufacturer's rec- positioned carefully so that, in addition to cooling
ommendations. These take into account the material the work area, the cutting fluid will also carry the
being machined and the machining operation per- chips away. In some machining operations, a con-
formed. Fluid maintenance must be performed on a veyor system, Figure 9-4, is used to remove chips
routine basis to control rancidity. and cutting fluid from the cutting area. The cutting
Water-based cutting fluids must never be used fluid is filtered to remove contaminants and
when machining magnesium. returned to the machine's coolant tank for reuse.
Chapter 9 Cutting Fluids

cutting speeds and generates higher cutting temper-

atures, cutting fluids that have high cooling rates
should be used in such applications.
Machining with ceramic tooling is usually
accomplished without the use of cutting fluids,
Figure 9-6.

Flgul'fl 9-3. Coolant fluid must sunound the cutting area for
maximum effect. Shown is a modular hose system for applying
air and liquids. The units snap together and can be shaped to fit
any job. (Lockwood Products, Inc.)

Figure 9-5. Carbide cutting inserts are widely used on machine

tools, but require coolants that can remove heat at higher rates.
This tungsten carbide insert is coated with a thin film of diamond
material for longer life when cutting highly abrasive materials.
(Kennametal, Inc.)

Figure 9-4. This powered conveyor system moves chips

away from a machine's cutting area. A rotating drum filter is
used to separate chips and 1116lal particles as fine as 50
microns from the cutting fluid. The filtered fluid is recycled to the
machine at rates of up to 30 gallons per minute. (Jorgensen
Conveyors, Inc.)

9.2. I Evaluation of Cutting Fluids

It is not possible in this text's limited space to
cover all cutting fluids, nor does space permit rec-
ommending specific cutting fluids for every
machining operation. This information can be
obtained from data published by cutting fluid man-
ufacturers. Recommendations for cutting fluid use
are included in the chapters of this text dealing with
each type of machine tool. In general, however, cut-
ting fluids (gaseous fluids excepted) are compatible Figure 9-6. This ceramic cutting insert is being used to tum a
with HSS (high-speed steel) and carbide tooling. See titanium workpiece. Cutting fluids are not necessary with
Figure 9-5. Since carbide tooling operates at higher ceramic tooling. (Kennametal, Inc.)
Pl] Ma:::hiring Fur.damen::cls

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 6. What advantages do the emulsifiable oil cut-

Please do not write in the text. Write your ting fluids have over the cutting fluids indi-
answer on a separate sheet of paper. cated in Question 3?

1. Cutting fluids must do many things simultane- 7. _ _ cutting fluids contain no oils.
ously. What does this include? 8. When small amounts of mineral oil are added
2. List the four basic types of cutting fluids. to the cutting fluid described in Question 7, it
is known as _ _ cutting fluid.
3. What type cutting oil is recommended for
machining aluminum, magnesium, brass, and 9. What are the advantages of the cutting fluids
free-machining steels? indicated in Questions 7 and 8?

4. Why does the above type of cutting fluid have 10. What is dangerous about using compressed air
limited use? to cool the area being machined?

5. _ _ cutting fluids are also known as soluble

oils.

..

r.-
X 0 !Ji

Some machine tools are designed with built-in f/wa delivery systems that surround the cutting area, r1ooding ,r with coolant to remove
heat and flush away chips. In other machines. the delivery system consists of separate nozzles and tubing. (Sharnoa Corp.)
 Chapter I0

Drills and Drilling

Machines

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
0 Select and safely use the correct drills and
drilling machine for a given job.
0 Make safe setups on a drill press.
0 Explain the safety rules that pertain to
drilling operations.
0 List various drill series.
0 Sharpen a twist drill.

IMPORTANT TERMS
blind hole machine reamer
center finder multiple spindle drilling
counters inking machines
drill point gage spotfacing
flutes twist drills
lip clearance
10.1 DRILLING MACHINES
A drilling machine is a power-driven machine
that holds the material and cutting tool and brings
them together so a round hole is made in the mate-
rial. Many different types of drilling machines are
used in industry. The type of machine used depends
on the operation being performed, size of the work- Figure 10-1. A light 15" variable speed drill press.
piece, and the variety of operations required of the (Wilton Corp.)
machine.
The most common drilling machine is the drill
press, Figure 10-1. A drill press operates by rotating Bench drill presses can be used to drill holes in
a cutting tool, or drill, against the material with suf- small workpieces, Figure lo-4. These presses do not
ficient pressure to cause the drill to penetrate the have as many capabilities as the floor models.
material. See Figure 10-2. Electric hand drills are used to drill small holes
The size of a drill press is determined by the in relatively thin material. They are reasonably
largest diameter circular piece that can be drilled on priced and convenient to use. See Figure 10-5.
center, Figure 10-3. A 17" drill press can drill to the A radial drill press is designed to handle very
center of a 17" diameter piece. The centerline of the large drilling work. The drill head is mounted in a
drill is 8 1 / 2" from the column. way that allows it to be moved back and forth on an
Ill Machining Fundamentals

~
II
Largest diameter that _____J
-
I can be drilled on center I

Figure 1D-3. How drill press size is determined .

B
Figure 10-2. Drilling is the operation most often performed on a
drill press. A-Completed hole. B-Both rotating force and a
downward pushing force are needed for drilling. {Clausing
Industrial, Inc.)

Figure 10-4. A small bench drill press can be ve,y useful.

arm that extends from the massive machine column.

The arm can be moved up and down and pivoted
on the column, Figure 10-6. odd-shaped work. The pit is covered when not in
Often, a large pit is located along one side of the use. Holes up to 31/2" (90 mm) in diameter can be
machine to permit the positioning of large, drilled with this machine.
Chapter ID Drills and Drilling Machines

Figure to-5. Portable electric drills are manufactured in a wide

range of sizes. This model is battery powered.

Figure 10-7. Bench radial drill press. (DoALL Co.)

Figure to-6. This radial drill press can drill large diameter holes
in large workpieces. (Sharp Industries, Inc.)

Smaller bench radial drill presses are used to

drill smaller holes. See Figure 10-7. These units are
not as expensive as a full-size radial drill press.
Portable magnetic drills can be used in the shop Figure 10-S. Portable magnetic drill. The magnettc base locks
and on the job site. These machines can be posi- the machine to ferrous metals and enables it to be used in situ-
tioned in an upright, horizontal, or vertical position ations where a conventional drill press cannot be employed.
when drilling. See Figure 10-8. (Hougen Manufacturing, Inc.)
li.__________________________________ H_·z_c_h_!n_i,_,g_;~_,.m_c,,_·a_m_.e_;;:_,t_a.is

Gang drilling machines consist of several drill Machining centers operate very efficiently and
assemblies, Figure 10-9. The workpiece is moved accurately. The center operates under computer
from one assembly to another. A different operation numerical control (CNC). These systems are only
is performed at each stage. used in industrial applications. See Figure 10-11.
1\tfultiple spindle drilling machines have several Robotic drilling machines are basically pro-
drilling heads. Several operations can be performed grammable, mobile drilling machines, Figure 10-12.
without changing drills. See Figure 10-10. The machine is programmed to move along one
workpiece or between several ,vorkpieces, drilling
at specified locations. With a standard drill press,
the drill is stationary and the workpiece is moved.
With robotic drilling machines, the workpiece is sta-
tionary and the machine moves.

Figure 10-11. Vertical machining center can be programmed to

Figure JC>-9. This gang drilling machine has tour drills working drill holes as part of a machining sequence. No dr!!I jigs are
together. Each machine is fitted with a different cutting tool. The required. Computer numerical control (CNC) is used to set drill
work is held in a drill jig that moves from position to position as position and speed. (Sharnoa Corp.)
each operation is performed. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.)

Figure 10-10. This heavy-duty multiple spindle drill press has

drilling heads that can be positioned to meet various drilling Figure 10-12. This robotic drilling machine moves between
requirements. (Deka-Dril!, South Bend Lathe) workstations on rails. (Northrop-Grumman Corp.)
Chapter 10 Drills and Drilllng Machines

I 0. I. I Uses of Drilling Machines • Spotfacing-Putting a smooth finish on

Drilling mac."'1ines are primarily used for cutting a raised area surrounding a hole. See
round holes. They are also used for many different Figure 10-16.
machining operations, including the following: • Tapping-This operation cuts screw threads
• Reaming-An operation performed on an into an existing hole.
existing hole. The hole is enlarged and fin-
ished as the tool removes material from the I 0.2 DRILL PRESS SAFETY
internal surface of the hole. See Figure 10-13. • Wear goggles when working on a drill press.
• Countersinking-Enlarging a hole at the • Remove any jewelry and tuck in loose cloth-
workpiece surface along an angle to allow a ing so they do not become entangled in the
screw head to be flush with the surface. See rotating drill.
Figure 10-14.
• Counterboring-Similar to countersinking,
this operation cuts a cylindrical enlargement
at the surface of a hole to allow bolt heads to
be flush with the surface of the workpiece.
See Figure 10-15.

Figure 10-15. Counterboring is done to prepare a hole

to receive a fillister- or socket-head screw.
(Clausing Industrial, Inc.)

Figure 10-,13. Reaming is being done on this drill press.

(Clausing Industrial, Inc.)

Figure 10-14. Cross section of a drilfed hole that has been Figure 10-16. Spotfacing is machining a surface to permit a nut
countersunk. or bolt head to bear uniformly. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.)
 Machining Fundamentals

• Check the operation of the machine. Most drills are available with straight or taper
• Be sure all guards are in place. shanks and with tungsten carbide tips. Coating
• Clamp the work solidly. Do not hold work drills with titanium nitride greatly increases tool
with your hand. life.
• When removing a drill, place a piece of wood
below it. Small drills can be damaged if I 0.3. I Types of Drills
dropped and larger drills can cause injuries. Industry uses special drills to improve the accu-
• Never attempt to operate a drilling machine racy of the drilled hole, to speed production, and to
while your senses are impaired by medication improve drilling efficiency.
or other substances. The straight-flute gun drill is designed for fer-
• Use sharp tools. rous and nonferrous metals, Figure 10-18. It is usu-
• Always remove the key from the chuck before ally fitted with a carbide cutting tip.
turning on the power.
• Let the drill spindle come to a stop after com-
pleting the operation. Do not stop it with your .r,
..... { ...
= }·
~
hand.
• Clean chips from the work with a brush, not
your hands.
• Keep the work area clear of chips. Place them
in an appropriate container. Do not brush Carbide-tipped gun drill
them onto the floor.
Figure 10-18. Gun drill. The tip is shown in larger scale. The
• Wipe up all cutting fluid that spills on the
light-colored portion is tungsten carbide. The larger area does
floor right away. the cutting; the smaller sections act as wear surfaces.
• Place all oily and dirty waste in a closed con-
tainer when the job is finished.
An oil-hole drill has coolant holes through the
10.3 DRILLS body, which permit fluid or air to remove heat from
Common drills are known as twist drills the point, Figure 10-19. The pressure of the fluid or
because most are made by forging or milling rough air also ejects the chips from the hole while drilling.
flutes and then misting them to a spiral shape. After Three- and four-flute core drills are used to
twisting, the drills are milled and ground to approx- enlarge core holes in a casting. See Figure 10-20.
imate size, Figure 10-17. Then, they are heat-treated
and ground to exact size.
Most drills are made of high-speed steel (HSS) or
carbon steel. High-speed steel drills can be operated
at much higher cutting speeds than carbon steel !
drills without danger of burning and drill damage.
B -@ -
Coolant hole drills

Figure 10-19. A taper shank twist drill with holes to direct

coolant to the cutting edges.

s.. ~.~ -:rr~~* Three-.-11ule oore dr'iU

E·
Figure 10-17. Close-up of flute_milling operation in the manu- Four-flute core drill
facture of a large drill. (Chicago-Latrobe) Figure 10-20. Three- and four-flute core drills.
Chapter 10 Drills and Drilling Machines

Special step drills eliminate drilling operations Indexable-insert drills, Figure 10-25, are capable
in production work. Figure 10-21 illustrates this of drilling at much higher speeds than high-speed
type drill. A combination drill and reamer also steel drills. The low-cost carbide inserts with multi-
speeds up production by eliminating one operation, ple cutting edges eliminate costly sharpening. The
Figure 10-22. entire drill does not need to be replaced when the
Microdrills, Figure 10-23, have diameters cutting edges are worn-only the insert is changed.
smaller than 0.0135". They require special drilling Indexable-insert drills do have limitations. Hole
equipment. depth is limited to approximately four times the
Half-round straight-fl.ute drills, Figure 10-24, hole diameter. The smallest size available is 5/Bn
are designed for producing holes in brass, copper diameter.
alloys, and other soft nonferrous materials. Heavy Spade drills have replaceable cutting tips that
duty carbide-tipped versions are available for are normally made of tungsten carbide, Figure
drilling hardened steels. These drills are manufac- 10-26. These drills are available in sizes from 1" to 5"
tured in fractional and number sizes. (25 mm to 125 mm). They are less expensive than
twist drills of the same size.

~ - - - ---
Ji ·~

Figure 10-21. Step drill.

Figure 10-22. Combination drill and reamer.

As small as
.004" (0.1 o mm~

~_ _ __._..1: -
1-~ - ~
Figure 10-23. Microdrills are smaller than the #BO drill (0.0135"
diameter).

Slight back taper J 0.001" to 0.002"

abovet

- ~ +- B
f
F- _ _
_ 1__ _ _........,.
Figure 10-25. Indexable-insert drill. A-When the carbide insert
becomes worn, it can be replaced with a new insert.
:VI B-Different insert shapes are used with different matertals
and operations.
Rgure 10-24. A half-round drill. (lscar Metals, Inc. and Hartel Cutting Technologies, Inc.)
 • I M achining f!undamentals

I 0.3.3 Drill Measurements

Most drills, with the exception of small drills
in the number series, have the diameter stamped
on the shank. These figures frequently become
obscured, making it necessary to determine the
Figure 10-26. This spade drill has an interchangeable diameter by measuring.
cutting tip. When a micrometer is used for measuring, the
measurement is made across the drill margins.
However, if the drili is worn, the measurement is
I 0.3.2 Drill Size made on the shank at the end of the flutes. See
Drill sizes are expressed by the following series: Figure 10-28 for both techniques.
• Numbers-#80 to #1 (0.0135" to 0.2280" diam- Diameter can also be checked with a drill gage,
eters). Figure 10-29. Drill gages are made for various drill
• Letters-A to Z (0.234" to 0.413" diameters). series; however, 1/2" drills are the largest that can
• Inches and fractions-1/64" to 3 1/2" diame- be checked. ~ew drills are checked at the points,
ters. worked drilis are checked at the end of the flutes.
• Metric-0.15 mm to 76.0 mm diameters. Always check the drill diameter before using it.
The drill size chart will give an idea of this yast Using the ,~,rong size drill can be a very expensive
array of drill sizes, Figure 10-27. and ti.me-consuming mistake.

I Inch I mT< Wire Decimals

gage of an inch Inch mm Wire Decimals
gage of an inch ! inch rrTii Wire Decimals
gage of an inch Inch \ Wire Decimals
~ m gage of an inch

I I 80
79
.0135
.0145
3/54
1.2
.0469
.0472
3/a2 '
i 2.4
.0938
.0945
5/32
22
.1563
.1570
I 1.25 .0492 ' 41 .0960 4 .1575
1.3 .0512 2.45 .0966 21 .1590
55 .0520. 40 .0980 20 .1610
! 1.35 .0531 2.5 · .0984 4.1 .1614
\ •54 .0156 54 .0550 I I 39 .0995 : 4.2 .1654
.4 .0157 1.4 i .0551 j . 38 .1015 i 19 .1660
78 .0160 1.45 : .0571 I 2.6 I .1024 14.25 .1673
I
.5
77 .0180
.0197
1.5 I .0591

53 .0595 2.7
I
37 .1040
.1063
4.3 .1693
18 .1695
i 76 .0200 1.55 .0610 36 .1065 11/54 .1719
; 75 .0210 2.75 .1083 I 17 .1730
I I
' .55 .0217 I 4.4 .1732
74 .0225 16 .1770
.6 .0236 'I 7/s• .1094 I 4.5 .1772
73 .0240 1 35 .1100 15 .1800
I
72 .0250 1f1s I .0625: 2.8 .1102 4.6 .1811
.65 .0256 1.6 J .0630 i , 34 .1110 14 .1820
71 .0260 52 : .0635 133 .1130 13 .1850
.7 .0276 1.65 .. 0650 2.9 .1142 4.7 .1850
70 .0280 1.7 .0669 32 .1160 4.75 .1870 I
I 69 .0293 51 .0670 I 3 I .1181 3.-'is .1875
.75 .0295 1.75 .0689 I 31 i .1200, 4.8 .1890
68 .0310 50 .0700 'I 3.1 .1220 I 12 .1890
I ! 1.8 .0709 i 11 .1910
I 1.85 .0728 4.9 .1929
; I
I i 1.9 ! 49 .0730
'
10 .1935
I l./J2
.8
, .0313 I
I I
I
1.95
48
.0748
.0760
.0768
1/e
3.2
3.25
.1250
.1260
.1280
5
9 .1960
.1969
I .03151
I 81.19901
67 ! .0320 30 .1285 5.1 .2008 ·
.85
66 I .0330
.0335
t
'
l
3.3
3.4
.1299
.1339 13/54
7 1.2010
.2031
I
65 .0350 I 29 .1360 1, 6 .2040
.9 .0354 5/64 .0781 l 3.5 .1378 ' ! 5.2 .2047
64 .0360 47 .0785 28 .1405 5 .2055
63 .0370 2 .0787 5.25 .2067
.95 .03741 2.05 ! .0807 5.3 .2087
62 .0380 ; 46 .0810 9/64 : .1406 4 .2090
61 .0390 45 .0820 I 3.6 .1417 5.4 .2126
1 .0394 2.1 .0827 ; 27 .1440 3 .2130
I
60 .0400 I 2.15 .0846 3.7 .1457 ! 5.5 .2165
59 .0410 45 .0860 ! 26 .1470 7/32 .2188
1.05 .0413 2.2 .0866 i 3.75 .1476 5.6 .2205
58 .0420 2.25 .0886 25 .1495 2 .2210
57 .0430 43 .0890 3.8 .1496 5.7 .2244 i
1.1
1.15
.0433
.0453
2.3
2.35
.0906
.0925 3.9
24 .1520
.1535
5.75 .2264
1 .2280
i
56 .0465 42 .0935 23 .1540 5 .8 .2883

Figure 10-27. Decimal equivalents of drill sizes.

 !O.ills ancl C-nlling, . .i.ctim~.i

Letter Decimals Letter Decimals Decimals Decimals

Inch mm
sizes of an inch
Inch mm
sizes of an inch
Inch mm of an inch
Inch mm
of an inch
5.9 .2323 21/04 .3281 35/04 .5469 1 1.0000
A .2340 8.4 .3307 14 .5512 25.5 1.0039
15/54 .2344 a .3320 9/1e .5625 11/e4 1.0156
6 .2362 8.5 .3346 14.5 .5709 26 1.0236
B .2380 8.6 .3386 37/54 .5781 11/s2 1.0313
6.1 .2402 R .3390 15 .5906 26.5 1.0433
C .2420 8.7 .3425 19/32 .5938 13/84 1.0469
6.2 .2441 11/32 .3438 38/54 .6094 1 1/1e 1.0625
D .2460 8.75 .3345 15.5 .6102 27 1.0630
6.25 .2461 8.8 .3465 5/e .6250 15/e.4 1.0781
6.3 .2480 s .3480 16 .6299 27.5 1.0827
¼ E .2500 8.9 .3504 41/64 .6406 p/32 1.0938
6.4 .2520 9 .3543 16.5 .6496 28 1.1024
6.5 .2559 T .3580 21/32 .6563 F/64 1.1094
F .2570 9.1 .3583 17 .6693 28.5 1.1220
6.6 .2598 23/54 .3594 43/64 .6719 11/e 1.1250
G .2610 9.2 .3622 11/,6 .6875 18/84 1.1406
6.7 .2638 9.25 .3642 17.5 .6890 29 1.1417
17/s,. .2656 9.3 .3661 45/54 .7031 15/32 1.1562
6.75 .2657 u .3680 18 .7087 29.5 1.1614
H .2660 9.4 .3701 23/32 .7188 1 11/04 1.1719
6.8 .2677 9.5 .3740 18.5 .7283 30 1.1811
6.9 .2717 3/a .3750 47/rJJt .7344 Phs 1.1 B75
I .2720 V .3no 19 .7480 30.5 1.2008
7 .2756 9.6 .3780 ¼ .7500 113/54 1.2031
J .2770 9.7 .3819 49/64 .7656 F/32 1.2188
7.1 .2795 9.75 .3839 19.5 .7677 31 1.2205
K .2810 9.8 .3858 25/32- .7812 115/54 1.2344
9/a2 .2812 w .3860 20 .7874 31.5 1.2402
7.2 .2835 9.9 .3898 51/54 .7969 1¼ 1.2500
7.25 .2854 25/54 .3906 20.5 .8071 32 1.2598
7.3 .2874 10 .3937 13/15 .8125 117/54 1.2656
l .2900 X .3970 21 .8268 32.5 1.2795
7.4 .2913 y .4040 53/54 .8281 1 9/32 1.2813
M .2950 13/32 .4063 27/32 .8438 1 19/a4 1.2969
7.5 .2953 z .4130 21.5 .8465 33 1.2992
19/54 .2969 10.5 .4134 55/64 .8594 1 6he 1.3125
7.6 .2992 27/e,. .4219 22 .8661 33.5 1.3189
N .3020 11 .4331 7/s .8750 121/54 1.3281
7.7 .3031 7/,e .4375 22.5 .8858 34 1.3386
7.75 .3051 11.5 .4528 57/64 .8906 1 11/a2 1.3438
7.8 .3071 29/54 .4531 23 .9055 34.5 1.3583
7.9 .3110 15/32 .4688 29/32 .9063 1Z1/54 1.3594
5/1e .3125 12 .4724 69/&4 .9219 13/e 1.3750
8 .3150 31/&1, .4844 23.5 .9252 35 1.3780
0 .3160 12.5 .4921 1s11 6 .9375 125/64 1.3906
8.1 .3189 ½ .5000 24 .9449 35.5 1.3976
8.2 .3228 13 .5118 61/e4 .9531 113/32 1.4063
p .3230 33/54 .5156 24.5 .9646 36 1.4173
8.25 .3248 17/32 .5313 31/32 .9688 127/54 1.4219
8.3 .3268 13.5 .5315 25 .9843 36.5 1.4370
63/e4 .9844

Figure 10-27. (continued)

-------------···-·-·-------

Figure 10-29. This drill gage is used to measure fractional size

drifls. Similar gages are available for measuring letter, number,
Figure 10-28. Measuring drill size with a micrometer. and millimeter size drills.
lffl
I 0.3.4 Parts of a Drill shanks that are either straight or tapered, Figure
The twist drill is an efficient cutting tool. It is 10-31. Straight shank drills are used with a chuck.
composed of three principal parts: point, shank, and Taper shank drills have self-holding tapers (No. 1 to
body, Figure 10-30. No. 3 Morse taper) that fit directly into the drill
The point is the cone-shaped end that does the press spindle.
cutting. The point consists oi the following A tang is on the taper shank; it fits into a slot in
components: the spindle, sleeve, or socket, and assists in driving
• Dead center refers to the sharp edge at the the tool. The tang also provides a means of separat-
extreme tip of the drill. This should always be ing the taper from the holding device.
in the exact center of the drill axis.
• The lips are the cutting edges of the drill.
• The heel is the portion of the point back from +--Tang
the lips.
• Lip clearance is the amount bv which the sur-
face of the point is relieved b;ck from the lips.

I 0.3.5 Shank
The shank is the portion of the drill that mounts
into the chuck or spindle. T,;\"ist drills are made with

~
Dead center ; '-
Lip or I I ~ Body

Flute
ti
cutting edge / I
I
1
1 clearance

Dead

"'
l
T Straight

Figure 10-31. Types of twist drill shanks.

10.3.6 Body
Taper

The body is the portion of the drill between the

point and the shank. It consists of the follovdng:
• The flutes are two or more spiral grooves that
run along the length of the drill body. The
flutes serve four purposes:
• Help form the cutting edges of the drill
point.
• Curl the chip tightly for easier removal.
• Form channels through which the chips
can escape as the hole is drilled.
• Allow coolant and lubricant to flow down
to the cutting edges.
• The margin is the narrow strip extending back
Figure 10-30. Parts of a twist drill. along the entire length of the drill body.
Chaptel" I 0 Drills <'.nd Drilling Machines

• Body clearance refers to the part of the drill A drill chuck with a taper shank makes it possi-
body that has been reduced in order to lower ble to use straight-shank drills when the drill press
friction between the drill and the wall of the is fitted with a tapered spindle.
hole. When using a chuck, first insert the drill and
• The web is the metal column that separates tighten the chuck jaws by hand. If the chuck is cen-
the flutes. It gradually increases in thickness tered and running true, tighten the chuck with a
toward the shank for added strength. chuck key. Always remove the key from the chuck
before turning on the drill press.
I 0.4 DRILL-HOLDING DEVICES Taper shank drills must be wiped clean before
inserting the shank into the spindle. Nicks in the
A drill is held in the drill press by either of these
shank must be removed with an oilstone; otherwise,
methods:
the shank will not seat properly.
• Chuck: A movable jaw mechanism for drills
Never attempt to use a taper shank drill
with straight shanks. See Figure 10-32.
mounted in a drill chuck.
• Tapered spindle: A tapered opening for drills
Most drill press spindles are made with a No. 2
with taper shanks, Figure 10-33.
or No. 3 Morse taper (often indicated as "MT"). A
drill with a shank smaller than the spindle taper
must be enlarged to fit by using a sleeve, Figure
10-34. Drills with shanks larger than the spindle
opening can be fit by using a socket, Figure 10-35.
The taper opening in the socket is larger than the
taper on its shank.

Figure 10-32. A drill chuck can be tightened with a key to hold Figure 10-34. A drill sleeve is needed when the drill is too small
the drill. Keyless chucks are also available. (Yukiwa Seiko tor the spindle.
USA, Inc.)

Figure 10-35. A drill socket is used when the spindle is too

small for the drill.

A socket should only be used when a larger drill

press is not available. It is dangerous to overstress a
drill press by using a drill larger than the machine's
rated capacity.
Sleeves, sockets, and taper shank drills are sepa-
rated with a drift, Figure 10-36. To use a drift, insert
it in the slot with the round edge up, Figure 10-37.
A sharp rap with a lead hammer will cause the parts
Figure 1o-33. Tapered spindles. A-Taper shank drill. B-Drill
chuck with a taper shank. C-This is a solid spindle with a short to separate.
external taper that fits into a drill chuck. The chuck is perma- Never use a file tang in place of a drift. It will
nently attached to spindle. damage the drill shank and machine spindle. Then
 I 0.5. I Vises
Vises are widely used to hold work, Figure
10-38. For best results, the vise must be bolted to the
drill table.

Figure 1CJ-36. A drift is used to remove taper shank tools from

the drill spindle. Never use a file tang.

Drift

Figure 10-38. Typical vises used on drill press. A-The swivel

base permits the vise body to pivot 180;. B-This quick-acting
vise jaw slides to lock parts quickly (L-W Chuck Co.)

Parallels are often used to level the work and

raise it above the vise base, Figure 10-39. This V>'ill
permit the drill to come through the work and not
damage the vise. Parallels can be made from stock
Figure 10-37. Using a drift. A-The drilf is locked in the spindle.
8-Using a drift to remove the drill from the spindle. steel bars or from special heat-treated steel. Heat-
treated parallels are ground to size.
Seat the work on the parallels by tightening the
vise and tapping the "vork with a mallet until the
parallels do not move. Loose parallels indicate that
other drills will not fit properly. The file could also the ,vork is not seated properly.
shatter. An angular vise permits angular drilling with-
When removing a drill from the spindle, hold out tilting the drill press table. See Figure 10-40.
the drill to prevent it from falling to the floor. A cross-slide permits rapid alignment of the
Dropping the drill may damage the drill point. work. Some cross-slides are fitted "\vith a vise,
Wrap a piece of clean cloth around the drill to pro- Figure 10-41. Others have a series of tapped holes
tect your hand from metal chips. for mounting a Yise or another work-holding
device.
I 0.5 WORK-HOLDING DEVICES
''\'ork must be mounted solidly on the drilling I 0.5.2 VMBlocks
machine. If work is mounted improperl)~ it may V-blocks support round work for drilling,
spring or move, causing drill damage or breakage. Figure 10-42. These blocks are made in many sizes.
Serious injury can result from work that Some are fitted with clamps to hold the work.
becomes loose and spins on a drill press. This dan- Larger sizes must be clamped with the work,
gerous situation is nicknamed a "merry-go-round." Figure 10-43.
Chapter 10 Orills and l') rillirig Machines

Work

B
Figure 10-39. Parallels. A- Steel parallels are availa/Jle m a
large variety of sizes. B-Parallels a.re often used to raise work P i v o t /1.:i~~
point
above the vise base. This will prevent the drill from cutting into
the vise as it goes through the work. Table Drill press
B lock worktable
I 0.5.3 T-Bolts
Figure 1D-40. Angular vise. A-An angular vise can be adjusted
T-bolts fit into the drill press table slots and fas- through 90° to permit drilling on an angle without tilting the
ten the work or clamping devices to the machine, entire vise or drill table. B-Angular drilling can also be done by
Figure 10-44. A washer should always be used tilting the drill table. Be sure the table is locked tightly before
between the nut and the holding device. For conve- starting to drill.
nience, it is desirable to have an assortment of dif-
ferent length T-bolts. To reduce the chance of a setup
working loose, place the bolts as close to the work as
possible. See Figure 10-45.

I 0.5.4 Strap Clamps

Strap clamps, Figure 10-46, make the clamping
operation easier. The elongated slot permits some
adjustment without removing the washer and nut.
Use a strip of copper or aluminum to protect a
machined surface that must be clamped.
AU-strap clamp is used when the clamp must
bridge the work. It can straddle the drill and not
interfere with the drilling operation. The small,
round section that projects from a finger clamp per-
mits the use of small holes or openings in the work Figure 1D-41. A cross-slide vise permits rapid alignment of work
for clamping. for drilling.
 Correct method

Incorrect method

B
Figure 10-45. Examples of clamping techniques. A-Correct
clamping technique. Note that clamp is parallel to work. Clamp
Figure 10-42. V-blocks supporting round work for drilling. slippage can be reduced by placing a piece of paper between
the work and the clamp. B-lncorrect clamping technique. T-
bolt is too far from work. This aflows the clamp to spring under
T-slot bolt Step pressure.
block

, I
/ Clamp

Figure 10-43. One method of clamping large diameter stock for

drilling. Always check to be sure that drilf will clear the V-bfock
when it comes through work.

Figure 10-46. Types of strap clamps.

I 0.5.5 Step Blocks

A step block supports the strap clamp opposite
the work, Figure 10-47. The steps allow the adjust-
Figure 10-44. A few of the many types and sizes of T-bolts ments necessary to keep the strap parallel with the
available. ·work.
Chapter 10 Drills and Drilling Machines
ID
into the work with each revolution. Both are impor-
tant considerations because they determine the time
required to produce the hole.

Work

Angle plate

Figure 10-47. Step blocks are used to support strap clamps. '{jc-demp
#
I 0.5.6 Angle Plate
An angle plate, Figure 10-48, is often used when
work must be clamped to a support. The angle plate
is then bolted to the machine table, Figure 10-49.
--- - .
I 0.5. 7 Drill Jig
I 'I'.:': • :, I ,~·,,;• -~
A drill jig permits holes to be drilled in a num- : ": f

-- - - - - - - ---
ber of identical pieces, Figure 10-50. This clamping
device supports and locks the work in the proper Figure t 0-49. Worlc must sometimes be mounted against an
position. With the use of drill bushings, it guides the angle plate tor adequate support for drilling.
drill to the correct location. This makes it unneces-
sary to lay out each individual piece for drilling.

I0.6 CUTTING SPEEDS AND

FEEDS
The cutting speed is the speed at which the drill
rotates. The feed is the distance the drill is moved

Figure 10-50. A typical drill jig for holding round stock for drilling
Figure 10-48. Angle plate is used to support work. through center.
~ ,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ti'l_,_nc_t·_.i._1i_n g_ Fu_1_1d_a_m_,e_n_ta_!s

Drill cutting speed, also knmYn as peripheral 3. Substitute values into the formula
speed, does not refer to the revolutions per minute
(rpm) of the drill, but rather to the distance that the ..J:X CS
rpm= D
drill cutting edge circumference travels per minute.
250 X 4
= 0.5
10.6. I Feed
= 2000 rpm.
Contrary to popular belief, the spiral shape of a
drill flute does not cause the drill to pull itself into Metric problems are solved in a similar manner
the work. Constant pressure must be applied and using the following formula:
maintained to advance the drill point at a given rate.
This advance is called feed and is measured in either CSX 1000
decimal fractions of an inch or millimeters. rpm= DX Ti
Because so many variables affect results, there Where:
can be no hard and fast rule to determine the exact CS = Cutting speed (mpm)
cutting speed and feed for a given material. For this D = Drill diameter (mm)
reason, the drill speed and feed table indicates only 'ii = 3 (rounded)
recommended speeds and feeds, Figure 10-52. They
are a starting point and can be increased or
decreased for optimum cutting. I 0.6.3 Drill Press Speed Control Mechanisms
Feed cannot be controlled accurately on a hand-
With some drill presses, it is possible to set a dial
fed driU press. A machinist must be aware of the
to the desired rpm., Figure 10-52. However, on most
cutting characteristics (such as uniform chips) that
conventional drilling machines, it is not possible to
indicate ,,·hether the drill is being fed at the correct
set the machine at the exact speed desired. The
rate.
machinist must settle for the available speed nearest
A feed that is too light ,\"ill cause the drill to
the desired speed.
scrape, 11chatter," and dull rapidly. Chipped cutting
The number of speed settings is limited by the
edges, drill breakage, and drill heating (despite the
number of pulleys in the drin mechanism, Figure
application of coolant) usually indicate that the rate
10-53. A decal or an engraved metal chart showing
is too great.
spindle speeds at various settings is attached to
many machines. Information on spindle speeds can
I 0.6.2 Speed Conversion be found in the operator's manual, or it can be cal-
A problem arises in setting a drill press to the culated if motor speed and pulley diameters are
correct speed because its speed is given in revolu- known.
tions per minute (rpm), while recommended drill
cutting speed (CS) is given in feet or meters per
minute (£pm or mpm). 10.7 CUTTING COMPOUNDS
The simple formula Drilling at the recommended cutting speeds and
feeds generates considerable heat at the cutting
4XCS point. This heat must be dissipated (carried away)
rpm= D
as fast as it is generated, or it will destroy the drill's
determines the rpm to operate any diameter drill temper and cause it to dull rapidly.
(D) at any specified speed. Cutting compounds are applied to absorb the
Drill speed problem: At what speed (rpm) must heat. They cool the cutting tool, serve as a lubricant
a 1/2" diameter high-speed steel drill rotate when to reduce friction at the cutting edges, and minimize
drilling aluminum? the tendency for the chips to weld to the lips.
To solve this problem: Cutting compounds also improve hole finish and
aid in the rapid removal of chips from the hole.
1. Refer to the speed and feed table, Figure 10-51.
There are many kinds of cutting fluids and com-
It giYes the recommended cutting speed for
pounds. Many cutting compounds must be applied
aluminum (250 fpm).
liberally. However, some newer compounds should
2. Convert drill diameter (1/2") to decimal frac- be applied sparingly. Read the instructions on the
tion (0.3). container for the compound being employed.
C.ha~ter l n Dril!:. .::-:d Drilling ?fachines

Speed Feeds per revolution

feet Over .040 diameter"'*
per Under 1/8 1/4 1/2 Over
Ma18rlal Cutting Fluld minute 1/8 to 1/4 to 1/2 to 1 1

Aluminum & aluminum alloy& SOI OIi, ker & lard CHI, 11 oil 200-300 0015 oru 006 Oto 012
Aluminum & b1onze $ol Oil. ker & lard OIi. It. oil 50-100 0015 003 006 010 012
Srass. lraa mach1n111g Dry sol 01!, ker & laid oll. It mm 01I 150-300 0025 005 010 <r.!() 025
Bronze common Dry sol 011, lard o,I, 111111 01I 200-250 0025 . 0()5 010 020 ,025
Bronze. soft and medium hard Min 011 with 5~15"4 lard 01I 70-300 0025 005 010. 020 025
Bronze, phosphor, 1/2 hard Dry, sol. oil, lard oil, min. oil 110-180 .0015 .003 .006 .010 .012
Bronze, phosphor, soft Dry, sol. oil, lard oll, min. oll 200-250 .0025 .005 .010 .020 .025
Cast iron, soft Dry or airjet 100-150 .0025 .005 .010 .020 .025
Casi iron, medium Dry or airjet 70-120 .0015 .003 .006 .010 .012
Casi iron, hard Dry or airjet 30-100 .001 .002 .003 .005 .006
•cast iron. crnHed Dry or lltrJet 10-25 001 002 003 005 . ')C"j
·Cast steel Soluble 011. sulphunzed 011 min oil 3G-60 001 002 003 005 006
Copper Dr),, aoluble 011 lard 011, min otl 70-300 001 OOt,I 003 005 005
Magn0S1um & magn'3Slum alloys Mineral sea! 011 200-400 0025 006 010 020 025
Manganese copper, 30% mn SoJuole 011. sulphunzed 011 10-25 001 002 003 006 006
Malleable iron Dry, soluble oil, soda water, min. oil 60-100 .0025 .005 .010 .020 .025
Monel metal Sol. oil, sulphurized oil, lard oil 30-50 .0015 .003 .006 .010 .012
Nickel, pure Sulphurized oil 60-100 .001 .002 .003 .005 .006
Nickel, steel 3-1/2% Sulphurlzed oil 40-80 .001 .002 .003 .005 .006
Plastics, thennoaetting Orv or airjet 100-300 .0015 .003 .006 .010 .012
PlastlCS. thermoplastic Soluble otl , soapy 'Miter 1~300 0015 003 006 010 012
Rubb-er hard Dryor~ 101)-300 ll01 002 003 005 006
SpnngMeel Soluble oil , sulphunzed 0tl 10-25 001 002 003 005 .006
Sla1!11E>SS steal. 1rea rnach·g SOiubie 011, sulphunzad Oil 60-100 0025 005 010 020 025
Stamless steel, tough mach'g ~ oit lltllpnunzad Oil 20-27 0025 .005 010 020 .025
Steel, free machln'g SAE 11 oo Soluble oil, sulphurlzed oil 70-120 .0015 .003 .006 .010 .012
Steel, SAE-AISI, 1000-1025 Soluble oil, sulphurized oil 60-100 .0015 .003 .006 .010 .012
Steel, .30-.60% carb.,
SAE 1000-9000
Steel, annealed 150-225 Brinn. Soluble oil, sulphurized oil 50-70 .0015 .003 .006 .010 .012
Steel heat trea1ed ~25-283 Bnnr1 Sulph;mzed 01! 30-80 0025 005 010 020 025
Stoel, tool hi car & hi speed Sulphumed OIi 25-50 0025 005 010 020 1}25
TltMt11m Highly activate<! ~ Oil 1;';-~!) 002& 005 (J10 020 02$
Zmc, alloy Solubk> oil kerosene & lam o~ 200-250 0015 003 00$ 010 012

•use specially constructed heavy duty drills.

.. For drill under .040, feeds should be adjusted to produce chips
A and not powder with ablllty to dispose of same without packing.

Drill Speeds in R.P.M.

~, Soft metals Plastics and
hard rubber
Annealed Mlk:lsteel Malleable iron
Herd cast
iron
Tool or
hard steel
Alloy steel
cast steel
ofd~II aootpm 20010m 'f':Jt~ 100fpm gofpm eorom 601cm 4D fom
1
/,s (No. 53 to 80 18320 12217 8554 6111 5500 4889 3667 2445
3
/32 (No. 42 to 52) 12212 8142 5702 4071 3666 3258 2442 1649
1
/s (No. 31 to 41) 9160 6112 4278 3056 2750 2445 1833 1222
5
/32 <No. 23 to 30\ 7328 4888 3420 2444 2198 1954 1465 977
3
/rn (No. 13 to 22) 6106 4075 2852 2037 1833 1630 1222 815
7/32 <No. 1 to 12l
5234 3490 2444 1745 1575 1396 1n47 698
¼ /Ato El 457,; 3055 2139 1527 1'.'175 1222 917 ~11
9
/32 (G to K) 4071 2712 1900 1356 1222 1084 814 542
5'1 s (L, M, N)
3660 2445 1711 1222 1100 978 733 489
11
/32 (0 to R) 3330 2220 1554 1110 1000 888 666 444
3/e IS T. U) 3050 2037 1426 1018 917 815 611 407
13
'32 (V to Z) 2818 1878 1316 939 846 752 563 376
71,s 2614 1746 1222 873 786 698 524 349
151J2 2442 1628 1140 814 732 652 488 326
½ 2287 1528 1070 764 688 611 458 306
9!,s 2035 1357 950 678 611 543 407 271
5/s 1830 1222 856 611 550 489 367 244
1111 6 1665 1110 777 555 500 444 333 222
¾ 1525 1018 713 509 458 407 306 204
Figures are for high-speed drills. The speed of carbon drills should be reduced one-half. Use drill speed nearest to fi~re given.
B
Figure 10-S1. A-Drill speed and feed table. B-Dri/1 speeds in rpm. These tables are starting points for drilling different marenals.
Feeds and speeds should be increased or decreased depending upon the specific metal being drilled and the condition of the drill
press. (Chicago-Latrobe)
 M:ir.h• 1lng Fund:um::nttls

I 0.8 SHARPENING DRILLS

A drill becomes dull with use and must be
resharpened. Continued use of a dull drill may
result in drill breakage or burning. Improper sharp-
ening will cause the same problems.
Remove the entire point if it is badly worn or if
the margins are burned, chipped, or worn off near
the point. If the drill becomes overheated during
grinding, do not plunge it into water. Allo-w it to
cool in still air. The shock of sudden cooling may
cause it to crack.
Three factors must be considered when repoint-
ing a drill: lip clearance, length and angle of the lips,
and proper location of dead center.
Lip clearance. The two cutting edges, or lips, are
Figure 10-52. This split-pulley speed control mechanism allows comparable to chisels, Figure 10-54. To cut effec-
speed adjustment by turning the dial in front.
th-ely, the heel (part of the point back of the cutting
{Clausing lndustriaf. Inc.)
edge) must be relieved. Without this lip clearance, it
is impossible for the lips to cut. If there is too much
---·----- - - - clearance, the cutting edges will be weakened. Too
little clearance results in the drill point merely rub-
bing without penetration into the material.
Gradually increase lip clearance toward the
center until the line across dead center stands at an
angle of 120° to 133c with the cutting edge. See
Figure 10-55.
Length and angle of lips. The material being
drilled determines the proper point angle,
Figure 10-56. The angles, in relation to the axis,
must be the same (a 39~ angle is satisfactory for
most metals). If the angles are unequal, only one lip
·will cut and the hole will be oversized.

I
8°-12°
Figure 10-53. With step-pulley speed control, the belt is
transferred to different pulley ratios to change drill speed.
(Clausing Industrial, Inc.)

Avoid using cutting fluids and compounds

when drilling cast iron or other brittle materials.
The fluids tend to cause the chips to pack and glaze
the opening. Compressed air, used ,dth care, "ill
work when drilling these materials.
Always wash your hands thoroughly with soap
and warm water after using cutting compounds and
I
fluids. Before using the cutting compound, check
the container to determine what should be done if Figure 10~54. Lip clearance of 8" to 12" is satisfactory for most
you get any in your eye. drilling.
Figure 10-55. Proper angle of drill dead center.

Figure 10-SB. This is the type of hole produced when the drill
point has unequal point angles and is sharpened off center.

The web of a drill increases in thickness toward

the shank, Figure 10-59. When a drill has been
shortened by repeated grindings, the web must be
thinned to minimize the pressure required to make
the drill penetrate the material. The thinning must
be done equally on both sides of the web and care
must be taken to ensure that the web is centered.
Figure 10-56. Unequal drill point angles will produce a drilled A drill point gage is used to check a drill point
hole that is oversize. while sharpening. Its use is shown in Figure 10-60.

I 0.8. I Drill Sharj>ening Procedures

Proper location of dead center. The drill dead
center must be accurate. Lips of different lengths Use a coarse grinding wheel for roughing out
will result in oversized holes, causing "wobble." the drill point if a large quantity of metal must be
This places tremendous pressures on the drill press removed. Complete the operation on a fine wheel.
spindle and bearings. See Figure 10-57.
A combination of lip and dead center faults can
result in a broken drill. If the drill is very large, per-
manent damage to the drilling machine can result.
The hole produced will be oversized and often out-
of-round. Refer to Figure 10-58.

Figure 1o-59. The drill web tapers down toward the tip. The
Figure 1o-57. Hole produced when drill is sharpened off center. point is sometimes relieved to improve cutting action.
lffl

Left Clockwise Downward

Figure 10-62. One drili sharpening technique. Hold the point

lightly against the rotating wheel and use three motions of the
0 shank: to the left, clockwise rotation, and downward.

Figure 10-60. Using a drill point gage wiff help ensure proper
drill sharpening. For general drilling, an Included angle of 11a= ,:,. Repeat the operation on each lip until the drill
is used. is sharpened. Do not quench high-speed steel
drills in water to cool them. Allow them to cool
in air.
Many hand sharpening techniques have been
developed. The following technique is suggested: 6. Check the drill tip frequently with a drill point
gage to ensure a correctly sharpened drill.
1. Grasp the drill shank with your right hand and
Sharpeni..'l.g a drill is not as difficult as it may
the rest of the drill ,dth .,vour left hand.
first appear. Hm,·ever, before attempting to sharpen
See Figure 10-61.
a drill, secure a properly sharpened drill and run
through the motions explained above. When you
have acquired sufficient skiil, sharpen a dull drill.
To test, drill a hole in soft metal and observe the
chip formation. When properly sharpened, chips
,vill come out of the flutes in curied spirals of equal
size and length. Tightness of the chip spiral is goy-
erned by the rake angle, Figure 10-63.
A standard drill point has a tendency to stick
when used to drill brass. When brass is drilled,
sharpen the drill as shown in Figure 10-64.
Figure 1o-61. One recommended way to hold a drill when it is
being sharpened.

2. Place your left-hand fingers that are support-

ing the drill on the grinder tool rest. The tool
rest should be slightly below center (about 1"
down on a 7" diameter wheel, for example).
3. Stand so the centerline of the drill will be at a
59c angle to the centerline of the wheel,
Figure 10-62. Lightly touch the drill lip to the
wheel in a horizontal position.
4. Use your left hand as a pivot point and slowly
lower the shank with your right hand. Increase
pressure as the heel is reached to ensure proper
clearance. Figure 10·63. Rake angle of the drill.
Ch~ter ICJ !>rills ancl 0:-illing H::.d,ines

Figure 1(J..64. Modified rake angle for drilling brass.

I 0.8.2 Drill Grinding Attachments

A drill sharpening device is shown in Figure
10-65. An attachment for conventional grinders is
shown in Figure 10-66. In the machine shop where a
high degree of hole accuracy is required and a large
amount of sharpening must be done, these devices
are a must.

I 0.9 DRILLING
Obeying a few simple rules will help you drill
accurately. Use the following procedure:
1. Carefully study the drawing to determine hole
locations. Lay out the positions and mark the
intersecting lines with a prick punch.
2. Secure a drill and check its size.
Figure 1(J..66. A drill and tool grinder with built-in point splitting
and web thinning capabilities. The user can choose from a wids
variety of drifl points. Machines of this type are available in
semiautomatic and automatic versions. {Rush Machinery, Inc.)

3. Mount work solidly on the drilling machine.

Never hold the work by hand. The workpiece
could whip out of your hand and cause serious
injuries.
4. Insert a wiggler or center finder in the drill
chuck to position the point to be drilled
directly under the chuck or spindle. Turn on
the power and center the wiggler point with
your fingers. Position the work until the
revolving wiggler point does not wiggle when
it is lightly dropped into the punched hole
location and removed. If there is any point
movement, additional alignment is necessary
Figure 1(J.-65. A drill sharpening grinder attachment ensures because the work is not positioned properly,
that cutting edges of the drill will be uniform. {Darex Corp.) Figure 10-67.
 M n<::hining Fundamental!

8. Turn on the power and apply cutting fluid.

Start the cut. Even pressure on the feed handle
will keep the drill cutting freely.
9. Watch for the following signs that indicate a
poorly cutting drill:
• A dull drill ·will squeak and oYerheat. Chips
will be rough and blue, and cause the
machine to slmv down. Small drills v,ill
break.
• Infrequently, a chip will get under the dead
center and act as a bearing, preventing the
drill from cutting. Remove it by raising and
lowering the drill several times.
• Chips packed in the flutes will cause the drill
to bind and slow the machine or cause the
Figure 10-67. It is difficult to align a workpiece with centerlines drill to break. Remove the drill from the hole
by eye. To assist in this job, a center finder, or wiggler, is used.
and clean it with a brush that has been
dipped in cutting fluid. Do not use cutting
5. RemoYe the ,dggler and insert a center drill. fluid when drilling cast iron.
Hand tighten the chuck, Figure 10-68. Check to
be sure the drill runs true. If it does, tighten the 10. Clear chips and apply cutting fluid as needed.
chuck with a chuck key. Remember to remove 11. The most critical time of the drilling operation
the key before starting the machine. occurs when the drill starts to break through
the work. Ease up on feed pressure at this point
to prevent the drill from "digging in."
12. Remove the drill from the hole and turn off the
power. Never try to stop the chuck with your
hand. Clear the chips with a brush. Cnclamp
the work and use a file to remove all burrs.
13. Clean chips and cutting fluid from the
machine. lVipe it down with a soft cloth.
Return equipment to storage after cleaning.
Observe extreme care in positioning the piece
for drilling. A poorly planned setup may permit the
drill to cut into the vise or drill table when it breaks
through the work.
If a hole must be located precisely, certain addi-
tional precautions can be taken to ensure that the
Figure 10-68. After alignment with the wiggler, center drilling
hole will be drilled where it is supposed to be
will ensure that the driff will make the hole in the proper location. drilled. After the center point has been determined,
a series of proof circles are scribed, Figure 10-69A.
They ,dll serve as reference points to help check
6. After center drilling, replace the tool with the whether the drill remains on center as it starts to
required drill. Hand tighten it in the chuck. penetrate the material.
Turn on the machine. If it does not run true, the £yen when work is properly centered, the drill
drill may be bent or may have been placed in may "drift'' when starting a hole. Various factors
the chuck off center. Also check that it will drill can cause this, such as hard spots in the metal or an
to the required depth. improperly sharpened drill. The drill cannot be
7. Calculate the correct cutting speed and feed if brought back on center by moving the work,
you plan to use a power feed. Adjust the because it ·will still try to follow the original hole.
machine to operate as closely as possible to this This condition, Figure 10-69B, must be corrected
speed. before the full diameter of the drill is reached.
Ch,1p trr 10 01'1 11 an<J Or II n M c.h,nc1

B C D

Figure 10-69. How to bring a drill back on center. A-Proof circles. B-Dri/1 has been started off center (exaggerated). C-Groove cut
to bring drill back on center. D-Dri/1 back on center. This operation will only work if the drill has not begun to cut to its full diameter.

The drill is brought back on center by using a 10.9.2 Drilling Round Stock
round-nose cape chisel to cut a groove on the side of Holes are more difficult to drill in the curved
the hole where the drill must be drawn, Figure surface of round stock. Many difficulties can be
10-69C. This groove will "pull" the drill point to the eliminated by holding the round material in a
center. Repeat the operation until the hole is cen- V-block, Figure 10-71. A V-block can be held in a
tered in the proof circles, Figure 10-69D. vise or clamped directly to the table.
Use the following procedure to center round
I 0. 9. I Drilling Larger Holes stock in a V-block:
Drills larger than 1/2" (12.5 mm) diameter
require considerable power and pressure to get
started. Even then, they may run off center. The
pressure can be greatly reduced and accuracy
improved by first drilling a pilot hole (lead hole)
that is smaller in diameter than the final hole. See
Figure 10-70.
The small pilot hole permits pressure to be
exerted directly on the cutting edges of the large
drill, causing it to drill faster. The diameter of the
pilot hole should be as large as, or slightly larger
than, the width of the dead center.

Figure 10-71. The V-bfock eliminates many ddficulties when

Figure 10-70. A pilot hole makes drilling a large hole much drilling round stock. Be sure the drill will clear the V-block when
easier. it comes through material.
 M.if:hming Fi .-,d,un.-,u-:i.h

1. Locate the hole position on the stock. Prick

punch the intersection of the layout lines. Place
the stock in a V-block. If the hole is to go ~
through the piece, make certain that the drill
will clear the V-block. Also be sure there is \+)
ample clearance between the clamp and drill
chuck.
2. To align the hole for drilling through exact cen-
ter, place the ·work and V-block on the drill
press table or on a surface plate. Rotate the
punch mark until it is upright. Place a steel
square on the flat surface with the blade
against the round stock as shown in Figure
10-72. Measure from the square blade to the
punch mark, and rotate the stock until the mea-
surement is the same ·when taken from both
sides of the stock.
3. From this point, the drilling sequence is identi-
cal to that previously described.

Figure 10-73. This typical drill Jig has an arm that lifts to allow
easy insertion and removal of the part being drilled.

Figure 10-74. Measuring the depth of a blind hole.

Figure 10-72. Using a square to center round stock in a V-b/ock. depth stop or depth gage is the quickest means of
achieving proper depth when drilling blind holes,
If a large number of identical parts must be Figure 10-75.
drilled, it may be desirable to make a drill jig, Figure
10-73. The drill jig automatically positions and cen- I 0.10 COUNTERSINKING
ters each piece for drilling. Countersinking is the operation that cuts a
chamfer in a hole to permit a flat-headed fastener to
I 0. 9.3 Blind Holes be inserted with the head flush to the surface,
A blind hole is a hole that is not drilled all the Figures 10-76.
way through the work. Hole depth is measured by The tool used to machine countersinks is called
the distance the full hole diameter goes into the work, a countersink, Figure 10-77. Countersinks are avail-
Figure 10-74. Using a drill press fitted with a able with cutting edge angles of 60°, 82c, 90°, 100c,
Chapter 10 Drills and Drilling Macnines
lffl
A single cutting edge countersink, Figure 10-79,
is free cutting and produces minimum chatter.
Chips produced by the cutting edge pass through
the hole and are ejected.

Figure 10-78. Countersinks with indexing carbide inserts have

a life five to ten times longer than similar HSS countersinks.

Figure 10-75. The depth gage attachment provides easy

adjustment of how tar the drill moves into the work. Figure 10-79. Countersink with a single cutting edge and pilot.

I 0.10.1 Using a Countersink

1. The cutting speed should be about one-half
that recommended for a similar size drill. This
will minimize the probability of chatter.
Too
shallow 2. Feed the tool into the work until the chamfer is
large enough for the fastener head to be flush.
Figure 10-76. Correctly and incorrectly countersunk holes. The
countersink angle must match the fastener head angle. 3. Use the depth stop on the drill press if a num-
ber of similar holes must be countersunk.

I 0.1 I COUNTERBORING
The heads of fillister-head and socket-head
screws are usually set below the work surface. A
counterbore is used to enlarge the drilled hole to the
proper depth and machine a square shoulder on the
Figure 10-77. Countersinks come in various sizes. (Greenfield bottom to secure maximum clamping action from
Tap & Die)
the fastener, Figure 10-80.
The counterbore tool has a guide, called a pilot,
which keeps it positioned correctly in the hole. Solid
counterbores are available. However, counterbores
110°, and 120° included angles. Countersinks are with interchangeable pilots and cutters are
also used for deburring holes. commonly used, Figure 10-81. They can be changed
Countersinks with indexable carbide inserts, easily from one size cutter or pilot to another size.
Figure 10-78, are available in a number of sizes and A drop of oil on the pilot will prevent it from bind-
point angles. They have two cutting edges per ing in the drilled hole.
insert and do not require resharpening. Cutting Counterbores with indexable carbide inserts,
speeds are five to ten times higher than with HSS Figure 10-82, are also available. When the cutting
countersinks. edges become dull, new edges can be indexed into
-~--------------------------------M_ac_h_in_i_ng_Fu_n_d_a_m_e_n_ta_ls
place without affecting opening diameter. Costly
sharpening is eliminated.
10.12 SPOTFACING
Spotfacing is the operation during which a cir-
cular spot is machined on a rough surface (such as
a casting or forging) to provide a bearing surface for
the head of bolt, washer, or nut. A counterbore may
be used for spotfacing, although a special tool man-
ufactured for inverted spotfacing is available,
Figure 10-83.

Not
spotfaced

Figure 10-SO. A sectional view of a hole that has been drilled

and counterbored to receive a socket-head screw.

Shank Head Pilot

I \ --=;J
\ Spottaced

Figure 10-83. Sectional view of a casting with a mounting hole

that has been spotfaced. Profile drawings show the casting
before and after spotfacing. The bolt head cannot be drawn
down tightly until the mounting hole is spotfaced.
Figure 1o-81. A straight shank interchangeable counterbore.
Head and pilot can be quickly changed. Special backspotface and backcounterbore tools
are required to perform operations in areas where
com·entional tools cannot be used. See Figure
10-84. The cutting point is lifted up into the work-
piece, rather than being pushed down into it. See
Figure 10-85.
Large diameter openings can be counterbored,
spotfaced, or drilled with the APT Multi-Tool™,
Figure 10-86. A pilot hole is drilled ·with a conven-
tional twist drill. The required size pilot and blade is
inserted and the opening is made. For very large
openings, it may be necessary to use a smaller-size
blade before machining the specified size. Multi-
Tool blades are available in sizes from 1 1 /8 11 diam-
eter to 4" diameter.
I 0.13 TAPPING
Tapping may be done by hand on a drill press
iW~
.//>~~/
using the following steps:
1. Drill the correct size hole for the tap, Figure
//////// 10-87.
Single insert Twin inserts 2. With the work clamped in the machine, insert a
Figure 10-82. Counterbores with carbide indexable inserts. The small 60c center in the chuck. The center holds
inserts are rotated when a cutting edge becomes dull. the tap vertically.
Chapter 10 Drills and Drilling Machines

Pilot

Figure 1D-86. Interchangeable drilling, spotfacing, and counter-

boring tool. Blades tor producing holes up to 4"' diameter are
available.

Figure 10-84. Special backspotface and backcounterbore tools

are used in situations where conventional tools cannot be
inserted. Blade setting can be manual or automatic. Standard
tools are available for bores and spotfaces of 0.250 and larger.
(Parlee, Inc.)

Figure 10-S7. Setup for hand tapping on a drill press. Worfc

must be mounted solidly.

3. Place the center point in the tap's center hole.

4. Feed the tap into the work by holding down
on the feed handle and turning the tap with a
tap wrench.
Never insert a tap into the drill chuck and
Cou nterbori ng Spotfacing
attempt to use the drill press power to run the tap
Figure 1o-B5. These section drawings show how backcounter- into the work. The tap will shatter when power is
boring and backspotfacing tools work. applied. Turn the tap by hand.
,m Machining fundamentals

Tapping can only be done with power through reduce drill flexing and breakage. Many of the
the use of a tapping attachment, Figure 10-88. This microdrilling machines are controlled by computer
device fits the standard drill press. It has reducing numerical control (CNC) systems.
gears that slows the tap to about one-third of the Microdrilling uses a "pecking" technique to cut
drill press speed. A table provided v,ith the these small diameter holes. In this technique, the
attachment gives recommended spindle speeds for drill is repeatedly inserted and removed from the
tapping. hole. The drills have flutes to pull chips out of the
A clutch arrangement drives the tap until it hole, but because they are so small, pecking is nec-
reaches the predetermined depth, at which time the essary for chip removal. The depth of each peck is
tap stops rotating. Raising the feed handle causes determined by the drill diameter and the material
the tap to reverse direction and back out of the hole. being drilled.
Specially designed microdrilling machines, Small-size holes with other geometric shapes
Figure 10-89, are required for drilling holes as small (such as square, rectangular, or hexagonal) are made
as 0.0016" (0.04 mm) ·with close tolerances. These by Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM). This
drills have very accurate spindles and collets to topic is discussed in Chapter 27, Electromachining
Processes.
I 0.14 REAMING
Reaming produces holes that are extremely
accurate in diameter and have an exceptionally fine
surface finish. Machine reamers are made in a vari-
ety of sizes and styles. They are usually manufac-
tured from high-speed steel. Some are fitted with
carbide cutting edges. Descriptions of a few of the
more common machine reamers follow. Refer to
Figure 10-90.
• A jobber's reamer, also called a machine
reamer, is identical to a hand reamer except
that a taper shank is available and the tool is
designed for machine operation.
• A chucking reamer is manufactured with both
straight and taper shanks. It is similar to a job-
ber's reamer but its flutes are shorter and
Figure 1D-88. Tapping attachment on a drill press.
deeper. It is available with straight or spiral
flutes.
• A rose chucking reame1' is designed to cut on
its end. The flutes provide chip clearance and
are ground to act only as guides. This type of
reamer is best used when considerable metal
must be removed and the finish is not critical.
• A shell reamer is mounted on a special arbor
that can be used with several reamer sizes.
The arbor can haw straight or spiral flutes
and is also made in the rose stvle. The arbor
shank may be straight or tape;ed. A hole in
the reamer is tapered to fit the arbor, which is
fitted with drive lugs.
• An expansion chucking reamer is available
,vith straight flutes and either a straight or
taper shank. Slots are cut into the body to per-
Figure 10-89. CNC microdrilling macnine wirn a point-to-point
programmable control system. The table has 2" x 2,, (50 mm x
mit the reamer to expand when an adjusting
50 mm) travel with an accuracy of 0.0001" (0.0025 mm). screw in the end is tightened.
Variable speed control tor the drill head motor is controlled A regular expansion reamer has several draw-
directly from the computer. (Minitool Inc.) backs. The slots, which are necessary for the reamer
Chapter 10 Drills and Drilling Machines

lJ,;VAlLU &tD( fNC

--
Jobber's reamer

tt
- - -,.,-•..-.(£-.-,.-, -..-,c_----c.....-,=~·· % .
~
I t, • _. _ . . 1..- . ' ~ • '• .t;_

] - .:__~
' Rose chucking reamer Lett-hand spiral,/
right-hand. cut

-,.
Arbors for shell reamers
---
---~

/
Taper shank
Chucking reamers

~
,- Taper shank

__i . --1

\ Expansion chucking reamer

Shell reamer Straight shank

Figure 10-90. Each type of reamer is suited for a different application.

to expand, reduce tool rigidity. This diminishes depend on how the tool is used. Obey the following
accuracy and surface finish. Also, cutting-edge reaming rules:
clearance is reduced as the reamer expands, creat- • Carefully check the reamer diameter before
ing a "drag." This often causes the tool to chatter use. If the hole diameter is critical, drill and
with a resulting decrease in finish quality. ream a hole in a piece of similar material to
A solid expansion reamer provides rigidity and check tool accuracy.
accuracy not possible with conventional expansion • Use a sharp reamer.
reamers. See Figure 10-91. To expand this type, a • Mount the reamer solidly.
tapered plug is forced into the reamer end. The tool • Cutting speed for a high-speed steel reamer
body expands well beyond the tip, and ensures uni- should be about two-thirds that of a similar
form parallel expansion across the full length of the size drill.
carbide cutting lips. Clearance is automatically pro- • Feed should be as high as possible while still
vided. The plug can be removed for shimming to a providing a good finish and accurate hole
larger size. Once expanded, the reamer diameter size.
cannot be reduced without grinding. • Allow enough material in the drilled hole to
permit the reamer to cut rather than burnish
(smooth and polish). The following allow-
ances are recommended:
• Up to 1/4" (6.3 mm) diameter, allow 0.010''
(0.25 mm).
Figure 10-91. This solid expansion reamer has tungsten car- • 1 I 4" to 1/2" (6.3 mm to 12.5 mm) diameter
bide cutting edges for extended cutting life. (Standard Tool Co.) allow 0.015" (0.4 mm).
• 1 /2" to 1.0" (12.5 mm to 25.0 mm) diameter
allow 0.020" (0.5 mm).
I 0.14. I Using Machine Reamers • 1.0" to 1.5" (25.0 mm to 38.0 mm) diameter
Reamers are expensive precision tools. The qual- allow 0.025" (0.6 mm).
ity of the finish and accuracy of the reamed hole will • Use an ample supply of cutting fluid.
Pi! Machining Fundamentals

• Remove the reamer from the hole before 14. Cutting compounds or fluids are used to:
stopping the machine. a. Cool the drill.
• When not being used, reamers should be b. Improve the finish of a drilled hole.
stored in separate containers or storage com- c. Aid in the removal of chips.
partments. This will minimize chipping and d. All of the above.
dulling of the cutting edges. e. None of the above.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 15. List the three factors that must be considered
when repainting a drill.
Please do not write in the text. Write vour
answers on a separate piece of paper. 16. What occurs when the cutting lips of a drill are
not sharpened to the same lengths?
1. A twist drill works by:
a. Being forced into material. 17. The _ _ should be used frequently v,;hen
b. Rotating against material and being sharpening to ensure a correctly sharpened
pulled through by the spiral flutes. drill.
c. Rotating against material with sufficient
18. The included angle of a drill point sharpened
pressure to cause penetration. for general drilling is _ _ degrees.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above. 19. What coolant should be used when drilling
cast iron?
2. Hmv is drill press size determined?
20. Large drills require a considerable amount of
3. Drills are made from:
power and pressure to get started. They also
a. High-speed steel.
have a tendency to drift off center. These con-
b. Carbon steel.
ditions can be minimized by first drilling a
c. Both of the above.
_ _ hole. This hole should be as large as, or
d. Neither of the above. slightly larger than, the width of the _ _ of
4. Drill sizes are expressed by what four series? the drill point.
5. What are two techniques used to determine a 21. What is a blind hole?
drill's size? 22. How is the depth of a drilled hole measured?
6. List the two types of drill shanks.
23. The is almost identical to the hand
7. shank drills are used with a chuck. reamer except that the shank has been
designed for machine use.
8. _ _ shank drills fit directly into the drill
press spindle. 24. A(n) _ _ expansion reamer provides rigidity
and accuracy not possible with conventional
9. The spiral grooves that run the length of the
expansion reamers.
drill body are called _ _.
25. How should a reamer be removed from a fin-
10. The spiral grooves in a drill body are used to:
ished hole?
a. Help form the cutting edge of the drill
point. 26. The cutting speed for a high-speed reamer is
b. Curl chips for easier removal. approximately _ _ that for a similar-sized
c. Form channels through ·which the chips driil.
can escape from the hole. 27. What is the name of the operation employed to
d. All of the above. cut a chamfer in a hole to receive a flat-head
e. None of the above.
screw?
11. Name the device employed to enlarge a taper
shank drill so it will fit the spindle opening.
28. The operation used to prepare a hole for a fil-
lister or socket head screw is called _ _
12. The device used to permit a drill with a taper
shank too large to fit the spindle opening is 29. _ _ is the operation that machines a circular
called a(n) _ _ . spot on a rough surface for the head of a bolt
or nut.
13. What is the name of the tool used to separate a
taper shank drill from the above devices?
 Chapter 11

Offhand Grinding

LEARNING OBJECTIVES l
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
0 Identify the various types of offhand
grinders.
0 Dress and true a grinding wheel.
0 Prepare a grinder for safe operation.
Ii
0 Use an offhand grinder safely.
0 List safety rules for offhand grinding.

Work
Grinding wheel
IMPORTANT TERMS
Abrasive belt
abrasive belt grinding precision microgrinder
machines reciprocating hand grinder
bench grinder temper
concentricity tool rest
flexible shaft grinders wheel dresser
pedestal grinder
Grinding is an operation that removes material
by rotating an abrasive wheel or belt against the
work, Figure 11-1. It is used for the following tasks:
• Sharpeningtools.
• Removing material too hard to be machined
by other techniques.
• Cleaning the parting lines from castings and
forgings.
• Finishing and polishing molds used in die
casting of metals and injection molding of
plastics.

11 . I ABRASIVE BELT GRINDERS

1

Figure 11-1. Principles of how typical grinding machines work.

Abrasive belt grinding machines are heavy-duty
versions of the belt and disc sanders found in wood-
working, Figure 11-2. A wide variety of abrasive
belts permits these machine tools to be used
11.2 BENCH AND PEDESTAL
for grinding to a line, finishing cast and forged GRINDERS
parts, deburring, contouring, and sharpening. The bench grinder and pedestal grinder are the
See Figure 11-3. simplest and most widely used grinding machines.

11
II

Figure 11-3. Abrasive belt being used to clean up an aluminum

casting of a base for an office chair. (American Foundrymen's
Society)

Grinding done on a bench, pedestal, or belt grinder

is called offhand grinding. This type of work does
not require great accuracy. The part is held in your
hands and manipulated until it is ground to the
desired shape.
The bench grinder is one that has been fitted to a
bench or table, Figure 11-4. The grinding wheels
mount directly onto the motor shaft. Kormally, one
wheel is coarse, for roughing, and the other is fine,
for finish grinding.

Figure 11-2. Abrasive belt grinding machines. A-Wet-type Figure 11-4. A bench grinder can be used for many tasks.
abrasive belt platen grinder sprays water on the belt to cool the Never operate a bench or pedestal grinder unless all safety
work. It can be quickly changed from vertical to horizontal. devices are in place and in sound condition. The tool rest must
B-Flexible-belt grinder adapts to three-dimensional contours. be properly spaced and eye protection must be worn, even
(Hammond Machinery, Inc. and Baldor) though the grinder has eye shields. (Baldor)
_c_hap_t_er_11_ _0fll,
__ a_nd_G_ri_nd_i_ng
_____________________________ ,II
A pedestal grinder is usually larger than the
bench grinder and is equipped with a pedestal
(base) fastened to the floor. See Figure 11-5. The dry-
type pedestal grinder has no provisions for cooling
the work during grinding other than a water con-
tainer. The part is dipped into the water. A wet-type
pedestal grinder, Figure 11-6, has a coolant system
built into the grinder. This system keeps the wheels
constantly flooded with fluid. The coolant washes
away particles of loose abrasive material and metal
and cools the work. Cooling prevents localized heat
buildup, which can ruin tools and ''burn" areas of
other types of work.
Wear safety glasses and be sure the grinder eye
shield is in place before doing any grinding.
The tool rest is provided to support the work
being ground. It is recommended that the rest be
adjusted to within 1/16" (1.5 mm) of the wheel,
Figure 11-7. This will prevent the work from being Figure 11-6. This grinder has a coolant attachment that keeps
coolant dripping on the tool being sharpened. (Baldor)
wedged between the rest and the wheel. After
adjusting the rest, turn the wheel by hand to be sure
there is sufficient clearance.
Do not make tool rest adjustments while the
grinding wheels are revolving.

Figure 11-7. The tool rest must be spaced properly for safety.
Maximum safe clearance is 1116,, (1.5 mm).

11.3 GRINDING WHEELS

Grinding wheels can be a source of danger and
should be examined frequently for concentricity
(running true), roundness, and cracks. A new wheel
can be tested by suspending it on a string or wire, or
holding it lightly with one finger, and tapping the
side lightly with a metal rod or screwdriver handle.
A solid wheel will give off a clear ringing sound. A
Figure 11-5. This pedestal grinder has a roughing wheel on the wheel that does not give off a clear sound should be
left and a finishing wheel on the right. (Baldor) assumed to have a fault.
"
I I .3. I Wheel Dresser
The grinding wheels must run true and be bal-
anced on the shaft. A wheel dresser, Figure 11-8, is
Machining Fundamentals

used to true the wheel and remo,·e any glaze that

may have formed during grinding operations.
The wheel dresser is supported on the tool rest
and is held firmly against the wheel with both
hands. It is moved back and forth across the wheel
face to remove a thin layer of stone. See Figure 11-9.

Figure 11-8. A mechanical wheel dresser will true stone face.

(Hammond Machinery Inc.)

The appearance of the grinding wheel surface

indicates the amount of glaze. A wheel dresser A
should be used to remove the glaze. Figure 11-10
shows grinding wheel conditions.

I I .3.2 Grinding Rules

To obtain maximum efficiency from a grinder,
the following recommendations should be
observed:
• Grind using the face of a wheel, not the sides.
• Move the work back and forth across the
wheel face. This will wear the wheel evenly
and prevent grooves from forming.
• Keep the wheel dressed and the tool rests
properly adjusted.
• Soft metals (aluminum, brass, and copper)
tend to load (clog) grinding wheels. When
possible, these metals should be ground on an
abrasive belt grinder.
B
11.4 ABRASIVE BELT AND
GRINDER SAFETY Figure 11-9. The proper way to use a mechanical wheel
dresser. A-Move the tool back and forth over the face of the
• Make sure the tool rest is properly adjusted. stone. Wear a dust mask, eye protection, and an apron when
• Wear goggles or a face shield when perform- dressing wheels on grinders. B-lndustrial diamonds are also
ing grinding operations, even though the used to dress and true grinding wheels. The guide block is used
machines are fitted with eye shields. for grinders with slotted tool rests.
• Never attempt to operate an offhand grinding
machine while your senses are impaired by • Check a grinding wheel for soundness before
medication or other substances. putting it on the grinder. Destroy wheels that
• Check the machine thoroughly before using are not sound or that have a worn center hole.
it. Lubricate the machine only as recom- • Do not use a wheel that is glazed or loaded
mended by the manufacturer. vdth metal.
Chapter 11 Offhand Grinding lffl

Figure 11-10. Grinding wheels in various conditions. A-Properly dressed. 8-Loaded. C-Glazed. (Norton Co.)

• Be sure all wheel guards and safety devices into the water container from time to time. Care
are in place before attempting to use a grinder must be taken when grinding edge tools because
or abrasive belt machine. excessive heat will "draw" (remove) the temper
• If the grinding operation is to be performed (hardness) and ruin the tool.
dry, be sure to hook up all exhaust attach- Keep the work moving across the wheel face to
ments before starting. prevent the formation of grooves or ridges. Dress
• Stand to one side of the machine during oper- and retrue the wheel as neccessary for maximum
ation. Do not stand directly in front of the efficiency.
wheel. Pieces of cloth should never be used to hold
• Hold small work in a clamp or hand vise. work while it is being ground. Serious injuries
Under no condition should work be held with can result if the cloth is pulled into the wheel.
a cloth. Hold the work, especially small lathe cutter bits, in
• Avoid work pressure on the side of the grind- hand vises specially designed for that purpose,
ing wheel. Figure 11-11.
• Keep your hands clear of the rotating wheel.
• Never operate a grinding wheel at speeds
higher than those recommended by the man-
ufacturer.
• Have injuries caused by rotating grinding
wheels treated immediately.
• Allow the wheels or belt to stop completely
before attempting to make any machine
adjustments.

11 .5 USING A DRY-TYPE GRINDER

After examining the grinder and making the
necessary adjustments, tum on the machine. Be sure
that you wear safety glasses whenever you are in
the shop. Stand to one side until the grinder has
reached operating speed.
Place the work on the tool rest and slowly push
it against the grinding wheel. If too much pressure
is applied, the work will begin to "burn" or discolor. Figure 11-11. A hand vise is used ~ hold cutter bits while they
Overheating can be minimized by dipping the work are sharpened.
"'
11.6 USING A WET-TYPE GRINDER
The wet-type grinder is primarily used to grind
carbide-tipped tools. Since a carbide tool is often
brazed onto a steel shank, both steel and carbide
must be ground away ,vhen these tools are sharp-
cutter bit\
Carbide-tipped

ened. Aluminum oxide wheels should be used to

grind the steel shank and silicon carbide or dia-
mond-impregnated ,vheels to grind the carbide tip.
Wet-type grinders should normally have a flat
face, but a slightly crowned face should be used
,vhen grinding carbide-tipped tools, Figure 11-12.
The crown minimizes the contact beh-veen the wheel
and the work. This reduces the possibility of the tip
being damaged by excessive heat.
The coolant attachment must be adjusted to

~ r - 1/16''{1.Smm)
/J crown Figure 11-13. The tool rest can be adjusted to any desired
angle using a table protractor and protractor guide.

keep a full flow of liquid directed on the tool at all

times. Adjust the tool table rest to obtain the correct
clearance angle, Figure 11-13. A protractor guide is
helpful when compound clearance angles are
required.
Use the entire face of the wheel. Keep the tool in
continuous motion to minimize wheel wear. Dress
and retrue the wheel as needed.

11.7 PORTABLE HAND GRINDERS

Many grinding jobs, from light deburring to die-
polishing operations, are done with small portable
hand grinders. Flexible shaft grinders and precision
microgrinders, Figure 11-14, are used to perform a
variety of toolroom and production jobs. They can
Figure 11-12. A slight crown on the wheel face minimizes the be powered by electricity or air.
amount of contact between the work and the wheel. A crown A reciprocating hand grinder, Figure 11-15, is
reduces the possibility of heat destroying the carbide tip of used to finish dies. Using ,;rarious attachments, this
a tool. tool can polish dies to a mirror fbish, Figure 11-16.
Chapter 11 Offhand Grir.ding

Figure 11-16. A rsciprocating finishing grinder being used to

polish a die casting mold. The abrasive stone can be replaced
with files and hones of various shapes. (NSK America)

Figure 11-14. Portable hand grinders. A-A f/ex,ble shaft nand

grinding unit is helpful for working in recessed areas on parts.
B----A precision electric microgrinder. (Dumore Co. and NSK
America)
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Please do not write in this text. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Describe the grinding operation.
2. How do abrasive belt grinders differ from
abrasive wheel grinders?
3. Bench and pedestal grinders are used to do
- - grinding.
4. The grinding technique referred to in the pre-
ceding statement is so nained because:
a. It can only do external work.
b. Work is too hard to be machined by other
methods.
c. Work is manipulated with fingers until
desired shape is obtained.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.

Figure 11-15. A pneumatic reciprocating finishing grinder.

5. Name the two types of pedestal grinders. How
(NSK America) do they differ?
"
Machining Fundamentals

6. The tool rest should be about inches or 9. Work will _ _ if it is forced against the wheel
_ _ mm away from the grinding wheel or with too much pressure.
belt for safety. This prevents the possibility of
work being _ _ between the tool _ _ and 10. Carbide-tipped tools are usually sharpened on
a _ _ grinder.
11. The face of the wheel on a wet-type grinder is
7. HmY can grinding wheel soundness be
_ _ slightly. Why is this done?
checked?
12. Never mount a grinding ·wheel on a grinder
8. Since a grinding wheel cannot be checked each
without _ _
time the grinder is used, it is recommended
that the opera tor: 13. List four safety precautions to be observed
a. Not use the grinder. when operating a grinder.
b. Check with the instructor ,;vhether the
·wheel is sound.
c. Stand to one side of the grinder when
using the machine.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
 Chapter 12

Sawing and Cutoff

Machines
There are three principal types of metal-cutting
LEARNING OBJECTIVES saws, Figure 12-2. Reciprocating power saws use a
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: back-and-forth (reciprocating) cutting action. The
0 Identify the various types of sawing and cutting is done on the backstroke. The blade is sim-
cutoff machines. ilar to that found on a hand hacksaw, only larger
0 Select the correct machine for the job to be and heavier. Band-type power saws have a continu-
done. ous blade that moves in one direction. Circular-type
0 Mount a blade and prepare the machine power saws have a round, flat blade that rotates into
for use. the work. A toothed blade, friction blade, or abra-
0 Position the work for the most efficient sive blade may be used, depending on the material
cutting. and the operation.
0 Safely operate sawing and cutoff machines.

12.2 RECIPROCATING POWER

HACKSAW
IMPORTANT TERMS
A reciprocating power hacksaw, Figure 12-3,
all-hard blade gravity feed uses a blade that moves back and forth across the
cold circular saw horizontal band saw work. The blade cuts on the backstroke. There are
dry abrasive cutting raker set several types of feeds available.
flexible-back blades three-tooth rule Positive feed produces an exact depth of cut on
friction saw wet abrasive cutting each stroke. The pressure on the blade varies with
12.1 METAL-CUTTING SAWS the number of teeth in contact with the work.
The first step in most machining jobs is to cut the Definite pressure feed yields a pressure on the
stock to required length. This can be done using blade that is uniform regardless of the number of
power saws, Figure 12-1. teeth in contact with the work. The depth of the cut
varies with the number of teeth contacting the work.
This condition prevails with gravity feed.
Feed can be adjusted to meet varying condi-
tions. For best performance, the blade and feed
must be selected to permit high-speed cutting and
heavy feed pressure with minimum blade bending
and breakage.
Standard reciprocating metal cutting saws are
available in sizes from 6" X 6" (150 mm x 150 mm)
to 24" X 24" (900 mm X 900 mm). The saws can be
fitted with many accessories, including quick-acting
vises, power stock feed, power clamping of work,
and automatic cycling of the cutting operation. The
latter moves the work out the required distance,
Figure 12-1. The first step in most machining jobs is to cur rhe
stock to the desired length. Measure the cutoff length carefully clamps it, and makes the cut automatically. The
and observe all safety precautions. (DoALL Co.) cycle is repeated upon completion of the cut.

Ill
 Lifts slightly on forward
noncutting stroke
<=====::;====:;;:=~~=:-~

Cuts only on this stroke Abrasive cutoff

wheel, circular
toothed blade, or
circular no tooth
• blade (friction
cutting)

Reciprocating type power saw

Continuous cutting

Circular type saw

Band type power saw

Figure 12-2. The three principal types of cutoff saws.

Variable feed setting

Quick action
vise handle

Length gage

Figure 12-3. An industrial reciprocating power hacksaw. (Armstrong-Blum Mfg. Co.)

Chapter 12 Sawing ar,c:I Cutoff Machines

High-speed cutting requires use of a coolant. Blades are made in two principal types: flexible--
Coolant reduces friction, increases blade life, and back and all-hard. The choice depends upon use,
prevents chip-clogged teeth. Cast iron and some Flexible-back blades should be used where
brass alloys, unlike most materials, do not require safety requirements demand a shatterproof blade.
coolant. These blades should also be used for cutting odd-
A swivel vise permits angular cuts to be made shaped work if there is a possibility of the work
quickly. See Figure 12-4. coming loose in the vise.
For a majority of cutting jobs, the all-hard blade
is best for straight, accurate cutting under a variety
of conditions.
When starting a cut with an all-hard blade, be
sure the blade does not drop on the work when cut-
ting starts. If it falls, the blade could shatter and fly-
ing pieces cause injuries.
Blades are also made from tungsten and molyb-
denum steels, and with tungsten carbide teeth on
steel alloy backs. The following "rule-of-thumb" can
be followed for selecting the correct blade:
• Use a 4-tooth blade for cutting large sections
Figure 12-4. A swivel vise permits angular cuts.
or readily machined metals.
• Use a 6-tooth blade for cutting harder alloys
and miscellaneous cutting.
I 2.2. I Selecting a Power Hacksaw Blade • Use 10- and 14-tooth blades primarily on light
Proper blade selection is important. Use the duty machines where work is limited to small
three-tooth rule-at least three teeth must be in con- sections requiring moderate or light feed
tact with the work. Large sections and soft materials pressure.
require a coarse-tooth blade. Small or thin work and
hard materials require a fine-tooth blade. I 2.2.2 Mounting a Power Hacksaw Blade
For best cutting action, apply heavy feed pres- The blade must be mounted to cut on the power
sure on hard materials and large work. Use light (back) stroke. The blade must also lie perfectly flat
feed pressure on soft materials and work with small against the mounting plates, Figure 12-6. If long life
cross sections, Figure 12-5. and accurate cuts are to be achieved, the blade must
be properly tensioned.

Heavy feed pressure

Blade must be
seated solidly
against mounting
( plate

'

Light feed pressure

--N"'-1'~......~~
Small work or '
•
/ / ~..... Figure 12-6. The blade must be adjusted to cut on the back
soft metals stroke. Make sure It is perfectly flat against the mounting plates
before tensioning. Tighten the blade until a low musical ring is
Figure 12-5. Apply heavy teed pressure on nard metals and heard when the blade is tapped with a small hammer. Since
large work. Use light pressure on soft metals and work with blades have a tendency to stretch slightly after making a few
small cross sections. cuts, tension should be checked and, if necessary, adjusted.
 M achining Fundamentals

Many techniques have been developed for prop- Avoid-

erly mounting and tensioning blades. Use a torque make sure movable
jaw of vise fits
wrench and consult the manufacturer's literature. If solidly against work Solid
the information (proper torque for a given blade on vise jaw
a giYen machine) is not available, the following
methods can be used:
• Tighten the blade until a low musical ring is
heard when the blade is tapped lightly. A
high-pitched tone indicates that the blade is
too tight. A dull thud means the blade is too
loose.
• The shape of the blade pin hole can serve as
an indicator of whether the blade is tensioned vise jaw
properly. \Vhen proper tension is achieved,
the pin holes will become slightly elongated, Figure 12-8. If the work is not clamped solidly, it will twist and
Figure 12-7. the blade will bind and be ruined in the first few seconds of use.

Set stop gage

high enough to
allow cut piece
Mounting to fall away
pin from blade

Elongated ]
mounting pin
hole
Figure 12-7. Pin hofes on a properly tensioned blade will be
slightly elongated, rather than round.
Figure 12-9. A stop gage is used when several pieces of the
same length must be cut. Set it high to permit the work to fall
The blade will become more firmly seated after free when completely cut.
the first few cuts and will stretch slightly. The blade
will require retensioning (retightening) before fur-
ther cutting can be done. 12.3 POWER BAND SAW
The horizontal band saw, Figure 12-10, is fre-
12.2.3 Cutting with a Power Hacksaw quently referred to as the cutoff machine. It offers
Measure off the distance to be cut. Allow ample three advantages over the reciprocating hacksaw:
material for facing if the work order does not spec- • Greater precision-The blade on a band saw
ify the length of cut. Mark the stock and mount the can be guided more accurately than the blade
work firmly on the machine, Figure 12-8. on the reciprocating power saw. It is common
If several sections are to be cut, use a stop gage, practice to cut directly "on the line" when
Figure 12-9. Apply an ample supply of coolant if the band sawing, because finer blades can be
machine has a built-in coolant system. used.
Chapter !2 Sawing and Cutoff Machines
11
• Faster speed-The long, continuous blade
moves in only one direction, so cutting is also
continuous. The blade can run at much higher
speeds because it rapidly dissipates the cut-
ting heat.
• Less waste---The small cross section of the
band saw blade makes smaller and fewer
chips than the thicker reciprocating blade,

sd• swer
Figure 12-11.

by cutoff whool
hacksaw
By band saw

#ff;-~====,; F=====!irr====

• Figure 12-11. Differences in the amount of metal converted to

chips (waste) by each cutoff machine.

12.3. I Selecting a Band Saw Blade

Band saw blades are made with raker teeth or
wavy teeth, Figure 12-12. Most manufacturers also
make variations of these sets. The raker set is pre-
ferred for general use.

Figure 12-10. Band sawing machines. A-Typical band cutoff Raker Wavy
saw with built-in coolant system, manually controlled blade ten-
sion, and automatic end-of-cut shutoff. B-Band cutoff Figure 12-12. Saw blades commonly have raker or wavy teeth.
machines are also available with tilting frame. The frame is Raker teeth are preferred for general use, cutting large solid
capable of tilting up to 45°. (W. F. Wells) sections, and cutting thick plate.
 Tooth pattern determines the efficiency of a
blade in various materials. The standard tooth
blade pattern is best suited for cutting most ferrous
metals. A skip tooth blade pattern is preferred
for cutting aluminum, magnesium, copper, and soft
brasses. The hook tooth blade pattern also is recom-
mended for most nonferrous metallic materials.
See Figure 12-13.
For best results, consult the blade manufac-
turer's chart or manual for the proper blade charac-
teristics (set, pattern, and number of teeth per inch)
for the particular material being cut.

Figure 12-14. Adjust blade guides to provide adequate blade

Standard tooth support; otherwise, blade wiil not cut true. (W.F. Wells)

This typically includes checking wheel alignment,

guide alignment, feed pressure, and hydraulic
systems.
Skip tooth
12.4 USING RECIPROCATING AND
BAND SAWS
Most sa,ving problems can be prevented by
Hook tooth careful planning and observing a fow rules. These
apply to both reciprocating and band smvs.
Figure 12-13. Standard tooth blades, with rounded gullets, are
usually best for most ferrous metals, hard bronzes, and hard
brasses. Skip tooth blades provide for more chip clearance 12.4. I Blades Breaking
without weakening the blade body. They are recommended for Blades are normally broken when they are
cutting aluminum, magnesium, copper; and soft brasses. Hook dropped on the ·work. A loose blade or excessive
tooth blades offer two advantages over skip tooth blades-
easier feeding and Fess ''gumming up."
feed can cause the blade to fracture. Loose work can
also cause blade damage, as will making a cut on a
corner or sharp edge where the th.ree-tooth rule is
12.3.2 Installing a Band Saw Blade not observed. Broken blades can normally be
avoided ,-vith proper machine setup.
If the saw is to work at top efficiency, the blade
must be installed carefully. Wear heavy leather
12.4.2 Crooked Cutting
gloves to protect your hands when installing a band
saw blade. This problem is usually the result of a worn
Blade guides should be adjusted to provide ade- blade. Remember to reverse the work after replac-
quate support, Figure 12-14. Proper blade st..pport is ing a blade, and start a new cut on the opposite side.
required to cut true and square with the holding See Figure 12-15. A loose blade or a blade rubbing
de,ice. on a clamping fixture ,\ill cause the same problem.
Follow the manufacturer's instructions for It can also be caused by excessive blade pressure on
adjusting blade tension. improper blade tension the work or by worn saw guides.
ruins blades and can cause premature failure of
bearings in the drive and idler wheels. 12.4.3 Blade Pin Holes Breaking Out
Cutting problems encountered with the band This reciprocating blade problem can be caused
saw are similar to those of the reciprocating hack by dirty mounting plates or too much tension on the
saw. Most problems are caused by poor machine blade. Worn mounting plates can cause a blade to
condition. They can be kept to a minimum if a twist and strain in such a way that the pin hole will
maintenance program is followed on a regular basis. break out.
_c_h2P_t_er_12_ _s_aw_in_g_an_d_C_u_to_ff_u_fla_~_h_in_2_i:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _Jim
Partial cut Rotate work to
madebywom start new cut with
blade new blade

_. __n__,_
Cut with
worn blade

Figure 12-15. Never attempt ta start a new blade in a cut made

by a worn blade. Reverse the work and start another cut on the
opposite side. Cut through to the old cut.

12.4.4 Premature Blade Tooth Wear

When this problem occurs, the teeth become
rounded and dull quickly. Insufficient feed pressure
Correct Incorrect
(indicated by light, powdery chips) is one of the major
causes of this condition. Excessive pressure (indicated Figure 12-16. Recommended ways to hold sharp-cornered
work for cutting. A carefully planned setup will ensure that at
by burned chips) causes the same problem.
least three teeth will be cutting, greatly extending blade life.
Insufficient pressure can be corrected by increas-
ing cutting pressure until a full curled chip is pro-
duced. If too much pressure is the culprit, reduce An abrasive cutoff saw, Figure 12-17, cuts mate-
feed pressure until a full curled chip is formed. rial using a rapidly revolving, thin abrasive wheel.
Lack of coolant or a poorly adjusted machine Most materials-glass, ceramics, and metals-can
can also cause rapid wear. Correct by following the be cut to close tolerances. Hardened steel does not
manufacturer's recommendations. require annealing to be cut. Special heat-resistant
abrasive wheels are available for high-speed cutoff
I 2.4.5 Teeth Strip Off of hot stock.
This failure results when the teeth snap off the Abrasive cutting falls into two classifications,
blade. Starting a cut on a sharp corner is a major dry and wet. Wet abrasive cutting, while not quite
as rapid as dry cutting in some applications, pro-
cause of this problem. A machine setup with a flat
duces a finer surface finish and permits cutting to
starting surface will greatly reduce tooth stripping.
close tolerances. The cuts are burn-free and have
Be sure the work is clamped securely; loose work
few or no burrs. Dry abrasive cutting does not use a
can also cause the teeth to strip, Figure 12-16. coolant and is used for rapid, less-critical cutting.
Check the manufacturer's chart to determine the A cold circular saw, Figure 12-18, makes use of
proper blade for the job to be done. A blade with a circular, toothed blade capable of producing very
teeth too fine will clog Goad) and jam, causing the accurate cuts. Large cold circular saws can sever
teeth to shear off. A blade that is too coarse (less round metal stock up to 27" (675 mm) in diameter.
than three teeth cutting) will cause the same prob- A friction saw blade may or may not have teeth.
lem. Make sure the blade is properly mounted and The saw operates at very high speeds (20,000 sur-
cutting on the power stroke. face feet per minute or 6000 m per minute) and actu-
ally melts its way through the metal.
12.5 CIRCULAR METAL-CUTTING Teeth are used primarily to carry oxygen to the
SAWS cutting area. These machines find many applica-
Metal-cutting circular saws are found in many tions in steel mills to cut red-hot billets (sections of
areas of metalworking. Primarily production semifinished steel).
machines, these saws are divided into three classifi-
cations: 12.6 POWER SAW SAFETY
• Abrasive cutoff saw. • Never attempt to operate a sawing machine
• Cold circular saw. while your senses are impaired by medication
• Friction saw. or other substances.
II__________________________________ M_.1<
_ h_ln_1n_g_f_u_1_11_,•_m_,.,_1_
1t.:i
_1~

Figure 12-17. An industrial abrasive cutoff saw. (Everett

Industries, Inc.)

• Get help when you are lifting and cutting

heavy material.
• Clean oil, grease, and coolant from the floor
around the work area.
• Burrs on cut pieces are sharp. Use special care
when handling pieces with burrs.
• Follmv the manufacturer's instructions for
tensioning a blade. Too much tension can
shatter the blade.
• Handle band saw blades with extreme care.
They are long and springy and can uncoil
suddenly.
• Be sure the work is mounted solidly before
starting a cut. Figure 12-18. Cold circular saws. A-This automated cold
circular saw can accept a piece up to 2500 pounds. A laser
• Be sure all guards are in place before using
guide light marks the position of the cut. B-This machine
the saw. can be fitted with carbide-tipped blades or abrasive disks.
• Always wear a dust mask and full face shield (W.J. Savage Co.)
when cutting stock with a dry-type abrasive
cutoff saw.
• Avoid standing directly in line with the blade • Keep your hands out of the way of moving
when operating a circular cutoff saw. parts.
• Use a brush to clean chips from the machine. • Stop the machine before making adjustments.
Do not use your hands. Wait for the machine • Have all cuts, bruises, and scratches, even
to come to a complete stop before cleaning. minor ones, treated immediately.
Chapter 12 Sawing and Cutoff Machines '!

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 7. List three methods used to put proper tension
Please do not write in the text. Write your on a power hacksaw blade.
answers on a separate sheet of paper. 8. When is a stop gage used?
1. List the three basic types of metal-cutting saws. 9. What three advantages does the continuous
2. The _ _ type saw has a back-and-forth cut- band sawing machine offer over other types of
ting action. However, it only cuts on the _ _ power saws?
stroke. 10. Band saw blades are made with two types of
3. What is the "three-tooth rule" for sawing? teeth. Name them.

4. When using a power sawing machine, with 11. The tooth pattern of a blade determines the
which materials should you not use coolant? efficiency of a blade in various materials.
a. The _ _ tooth is best suited for cutting
5. Hacksaw blades are manufactured in two prin- most ferrous metals.
cipal types. Name them. b. The _ _ tooth pattern is preferred for
6. The following "rule-of-thumb" should be fol- cutting aluminum, magnesium, copper,
lowed for selecting the correct blade: and soft brass.
a. _ _ teeth per inch for cutting large sec- c. The tooth is also recommended for
tions or readily machined materials. most nonferrous metallic materials.
b. _ _ teeth per inch for cutting harder 12. List the three types of circular metal-cutting
alloys and miscellaneous cutting. saws.
c. _ _ teeth per inch for cutting on the
majority of light-duty machines, where 13. List five safety precautions to be observed
work is limited to small sections and mod- when operating a power saw.
erate to light feed pressures.
11

Grooving and parting are operations frequently performed on tne latne. This grooving tool uses a replace-
able insert that clamps into a special thin holder for performing deep face grooving. The insert can be
reversed, alfowing a quick change to a new cutting edge when one becomes dull or damaged. Inserts for
grooves ranging from 2 mm to 6 mm in width are available. {/scar Metals, Inc.)
 Chapter 13

he h

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
0 Describe how a lathe operates.
0 Identify the various parts of a lathe.
0 Safely set up and operate a lathe using
various work-holding devices.
J Sharpen lathe cutting tools.

IMPORTANT TERMS
compound rest plain turning
cross-slide single-point cutting tool
depth of cut tailstock
facing tool post
headstock
indexable insert cutting
tools
The lathe operates on the principle of the work
being rotated against the edge of a cutting tool,
Figure 13-1. It is one of the oldest and most impor-
tant machine tools. The cutting tool is controllable
and can be moved lengthwise on the lathe bed and
across the revolving work at any desired angle.
See Figure 13-2.

13.1 LATHE SIZE

Lathe size is determined by the swing and the
length of the bed, Figure 13--3. The swing indicates the
largest diameter that can be turned over the ways
(the flat or V-shaped bearing surface that aligns and ·~- __ --·------
......
....
guides the movable part of the machine). Bed length B
is the entire length of the ways.
Bed length must not be mistaken for the maxi- Figure 13-1. Metal-cutting lathes. A-The basic lathe. All
mum length of the work that can be turned between controls are operated manually. Most machinists begin their
centers. The longest piece that can be turned is equal training on this type of lathe. (Jet Equipment & Tools) B-Metal-
cutting lathes are some of the most versatile machine
to the length of the bed minus the distance taken up tools made. There are many variations of the basic lathe
by the headstock and tailstock. Refer to measure- for differing applications. This one is CNC controlled.
ment B in Figure 13-3. (Harrison/REM Sales Inc.)

, I
£1,__________________________________ M_:-~_,:::_
!:_:n_:_;g_f_t_
'. c,_.._'.:_,·il_.~_"1_•~:.._!s

1 4 - - - - - - - - - - A - - - - - - - - -----i

- - - -B- - - -

Cutter
bit
---.._
Figure 13-3. Lathe measurements. A-Length of bed.
8-Distance between centers. C-Diameter of work that can be
turned over the ways. D-Diameter of work that can be turned
over the cross·slide.

Figure 13-2. Operating principle of the lathe. The cutting tool is l'J.2 MAJOR PARTS OF A LATHE
fed into the revolving work.
The chief function of anv lathe, no matter how
complex it may appear to b~, is to rotate the work
As an example, consider the capacity and clear- against a controllable cutting tool. Each of the lathe
ance of a modem 13" x 6' (323 mm X 1800 mm) parts in Figure 13-4 can be assigned to one of these
lathe: three categories:
Swing over bed: 13" (325 mm) • Driving the lathe.
Swing over cross-slide: 8 3/4" (218 mm) • Holding and rotating the work.
Bed length: 72" (1800 mm) • Holding, moving, and guiding the cutting
Distance between centers: 50" (1240 mm) tool.

Tailstock
ram
'
Tailstock

Back gear
handwheel

Back gear _ _,311o1

pin
I ,
Slide gear ___JO
handle -~

Selector knob

Quick-change Bed
gearbox

Thread and feed

selector handle

Carriage
handwheel
\
Motor and
gear train cover_
I
Power feed
lever • Storage
compartment
I door

Headstock
pedeSt al Tailstock
pedestal

Figure 13-4. The engine lathe and its major parts. (Clausing Industrial, fnc.)
Chap1:er 13

13.2. I Driving the lathe

Power is transmitted to the drive mechanisms
by a belt drive and/or gear train. Spindle speed can
be varied by:
• Shifting to a different gear ratio, Figure 13-5.
• Adjusting a split pulley to another position,
Figure 13-6.
• Moving the drive belt to another pulley ratio
Start-stop
(seldom used today). spindle control
• Controlling the speed hydraulically.
Slower speeds with greater power are obtained
on some machines by engaging a back gear. See
Figure 13-7. To avoid damaging the lathe's drive
system, do not engage the back gear while the spindle is
rotating.

Variable--
speed drive

Figure 13-6. This split pulley is hydraulically actuated from

the top of the machine by a speed control. A split pulley is
used to control spindle speeds on many lathes. (Clausing
Industrial, Inc.)

--- Speed control

dial Back gears (not engaged)
Bull gear
Back gear not
engaged when
out as shown
/. I

Back gear pin in

handwheel must
be released to
engage back gear
I
Figure 13-5. Spindle speed control. A-Speed is increased or Spindle
decreased by shifting to different gear ratios. 8-0n this
machine, spindle speed is controlled by an automatic Figure 13-7. The back gear mechanism is clearly visible in this
transmission. Desired speed is dialed in. (LeB/ond Makino view of a lathe headstock. Direct drive is disengaged before
Machine Tool Co.) back gear slides into position. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.)
 ,.
13.2.2 Holding and rotating the work Bull gear
The headstock contains the spindle to which \
the various work-holding attachments are fitted,
Figure 13-8. The spindle revolves in heavy-duty
bearings and is rotated by belts, gears, or a combi-
nation of the two. The front of the hollow spindle is
tapered internally to receive tools and attachments
ivith taper shanks, Figure 13-9. The hole through the
spindle permits long stock to be turned without
dangerous overhang. It also allows use of a knock-
out bar to remove taper-shank tools.
A

For safety, place

bright cloth on Headstock
projecting stock / Chuck
I ,
r·· .~
J ~____,,i_ ~_···u
I Work

~· ~!____
B
l
Live center 7
I
1
Spindle sleeve 1
Knockout 1
b
/ ar
Lathe
spindle Aluminum or \
\,
I I brass head \
___ / _______\...___J
·,

Figure 13-8. The headstock is the driving end of lathe.

(Clausing Industrial, Inc.)
C

On the front end, a spindle may be threaded Figure 13-9. Lathe spindle. A-Hollow construction of the spin-
externally or fitted ·with one of two types of tapered dle allows long stock to be turned without dangerous overhang.
spindle noses to receive work-holding attachments. 8--To prevent accidents that could cause injury, some sort of
flag should be tied to the portion of stock that projects from the
. See Figure 13-10. A threaded spindle nose is sel- rear of the spindle. C-A knockout bar is used to tap tapered
dom used on modern lathes. It permits mounting an shank lathe accessories out of the spindle.
attachment by screwing it directly on the threads
until it seats on the spindle flange.
The cam-lock spindle nose has a short taper that
fits into a tapered recess on the back of the work-
holding attachment. A series of cam locking studs,
located on the back of the attachment, are inserted To mount a work-holding device (a chuck or face-
into holes in the spindle nose. The studs are locked plate), the spindle is rotated until the key is on top.
by tightening the cams located around the spindle See Figure 13-lOC. The keyway in the back of the
nose. work-holding device is slid over the key to
A long taper key spindle has a protruding long support the device until the threaded spindle collar
taper and key that fits into a corresponding taper can be engaged with the threaded section of the
and keyway in the back of the work-holding device. device, then tightened.
Chapter 13 The i..athe

Note: Attachment points on the spindle nose and

work-holding attachment must be cleaned carefully
before mounting the device.
"
Work is held in the lathe by a chuck, faceplate, or
collet, or by mounting it between centers. These
attachments will be described in detail later in this
chapter.
The outer end of the work is often supported by
the lathe's tailstock, Figure 13-11. The tailstock can
be adjusted along the ways to accommodate
different lengths of work.
The tailstock is used to mount the "dead" center,
or can be fitted with tools for drilling, reaming, and
threading. It can also be offset for taper turning.
The tailstock is locked onto the ways by tighten-
ing a clamp bolt nut or binding lever. The tailstock
spindle is positioned by rotating the handwheel and
can be locked in position by tightening a binding
lever.

Ram lock
\
Rami
~

'~ ' Handwheel

Taifstock
B

Figure 13-11 Parts of the tailstock. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.)

Key

13.2.3 Holding~ moving, and guiding the cutting

long-
taper tool
The bed, Figure 13-12, is the foundation of a
lathe. All other parts are fitted to it. Ways are inte-
gral with the bed. The V-shaped rails maintain pre-
cise alignment of the headstock and tailstock, and
C guide the travel of the carriage, Figure 13-13.
The carriage controls and supports the cutting
Figure 13-10. Spindle noses. A-Threaded spindle nose is sel-
dom used today. (South Bend Lathe Corps.) 8-A cam-Jock
tool, and is composed of a number of parts.
spindle nose. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.) C-A Jong taper key • The saddle is fitted to the ways and slides
spindle nose. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.) along them.
~ .___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _M_,a_c_h_in_i_n g_ F_u n
_d_a_1TI
_e_1_
1t_a_
ls

• The apron contains a drive mechanism to

move the carriage along the ways, using hand
or power feed.
• The cross-slide permits trans·verse tool move-
ment (movement toward or away from the
operator, at a right angle to the axis of the
lathe).
• The compound rest permits angular tool
movement.
• The tool post is used to mount the cutting
tool.
Pm,·er is transmitted to the carriage through the
feed mechanism, which is located at the left (head-
stock) end of the lathe, Figure 13-14. Power is trans-
mitted through a train of gears to the quick-change
gearbox. This device, Figure 13-15, regulates the
amount of tool travel per revolution of the spindle.
The gear train also contains gears for reversing tool
travel.
Figure 13-12. The bed is the foundation of the lathe. The quick change ·gearbox is located between
the spindle and the lead screw. It contains gears of
various ratios that make it possible to machine dif-
ferent pitches of screw threads without physically
removing and replacing gears. Longitudinal (back-
and-forth) travel and cross (in-and-out) travel is
controlled in the same manner.

Figure 13-13. V-shaped ways guide carriage. The cutting tool is Figure 13-14. A feed mechanism is used to move the carriage
mounted on the carriage. along the ways.
_
Chapter _
13 _
The Lathe_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ . _!P,!11
f'il
The lead screw transmits power to the carriage
through a gearing and clutch arrangement in the
carriage apron, Figure 13-17. Feed change levers on
the apron control the operation of power longitudi-
nal feed and power cross-feed, Figure 13-18.
When the feed change lever is placed in neutral,
the half-nuts may be engaged for thread cutting.
The gear arrangement makes it possible to engage
power feed and half-nuts simultaneously. The half-
nuts are engaged only for thread cutting and are not
used as an "automatic feed" for regular turning.

Figure 13-15. A quick-change gearbox for cutting both inch and

metric size threads. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.)

Brm..o ar.rt
An index plate provides instructions on how to c{utoh rod
I
set the lathe shift levers for various threadcutting i
I
and feed combinations, Figure 13-16. It is located on f
the face of the gearbox. The large numbers on the
index plate at left indicate the number of threads
that can be cut per inch or pitch of metric threads.
The smaller figures indicate the carriage longitudi-
nal movement, in thousandths of an inch or in mm
for each spindle revolution. Figure 13-17. The lead screw.

Figure 13-16. Index plates. A-An index plate showing lever positions for inch and metric feeds and threads. (Clausing Industrial,
Inc.) B---An index plate for inch feeds and threads. (South Bend Lathe Corp.)
 o-:

Carriage
Cross-slide------"'"" lock
hand feed
Thread
dial

Feed change !ever

Power/ Down - longitudinal travel
feed Center - half-nut !ever
lever Up - cross-slide travel
Figure 13-19. The carriage should be checked tor binding by
Figure 13-18. Power feed functions are controlled by the feed moving it along the ways. Correct any binding before attempting
change levers on the apron. The half-nut lever is engaged only to use lathe. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.)
for thread cutting, sometimes called "thread chasing.~

13.3 PREPARING LATHE FOR

OPERATION
Before an aircraft is permitted to take off, the
pilot and crew must go through a checkout proce-
dure to determine whether the engines, controls,
and safety features are in first-class operating con-
dition. The same applies to the operation of a
machine tool such as a lathe. The operator should
inspect the machine for safe and proper operation.
The "checkout procedure" for the lathe should
include the follm,ving actions:
• Clean and lubricate the machine. l.Ise lubri-
cant types and grades specified by the manu-
facturer. Many :recommend a specific lub-
ricating sequence to reduce any possibility of Figure 13-20. If there is too much play in the cross-slide, adjust
missing a vital lubrication point. gibs according to instructions in manufacturer's handbook.
(Clausing lndustriai, Inc.)
• Be sure all guards are in position and locked
in place.
• Turn the spindle over by hand to be sure it is
not locked nor engaged in back gear (unless
you intend to use back gear).
• Move the carriage along the ways, Figure
13-19. There should be no binding.
• Check cross-slide movement. If there is too
much play, adjust the gibs. See Figure 13-20.
• \fount the desired work-holding attachment.
Clean the spindle nose with a soft brush. A
threaded nose spindle should have a drop of
lubricating oil applied before the chuck or
faceplate is attached.
•· Adjust the drive mechanism for the desired
speed and feed.
• If the tailstock is used, check it for proper Figure 13-21. Witness lines on tailstock indicate whether the
alignment, Figure 13-21. tailstock is aligned properly with the headstock.
Chapter- !3 The Lathe
ti
• Clamp the cutter bit into an appropriate tool- 13.4 CLEANING THE LATHE
holder and mount it in the tool post. Do not To maintain the accuracy built into a lathe, it
permit excessive compound rest overhan~ must be thoroughly cleaned after each work period.
since this often causes tool "chatter" and Use a 2" paint brush (not a dust brush) to remove the
results in a poorly machined surface, accumulated chips.
Figure 13-22.
Lathe chips are sharp; do not remove them with
• Mount the work. Check for adequate clear- your hands. Never use an air hose to remove chips.
ance between the work and th e various The flying particles could injure you or others.
machine parts. Wipe all painted surfaces with a soft cloth. To
complete the job, move the tailstock to the extreme
right end of the ways. Use a soft cloth to remove any
remaining chips, oil, and dirt from the machined
surfaces.
To prevent rust until the next time the machine
is used, apply a light coating of machine oil to all
machined surfaces. The lead screw occasionally
needs cleaning. To do so, adjust the screw to rotate
at a slow speed, then place a heavy cord around it
and start the machine, Figure 13-24. With the lead
screw revolvin~ permit the cord to feed along the
Excessive ~ - - - -
thread. Hold the cord just tightly enough to remove
overhang the accumulated dirt. Never wrap the cord around
your hand. The cord could catch and cause serious
Figure 13-22. Excessive overhang of the compound rest usu- injury.
ally causes tool "chatter, n resulting in a surface that is poorly
machined.
13.5 LATHE SAFETY
In addition to the above procedures, the opera- • Do not attempt to operate a lathe until you
tor must take some safety precautions. Sleeves know the proper procedures and have been
should be rolled up and all jewelry removed before checked out on its safe operation by your
beginning to use the lathe. instructor.
A lathe board will aid in organizing and holding
the tools and measuring instruments needed for the
job. See Figure 13-23. Loose tools must never be
placed on the lathe ways or carriage.

Figure 13-23. A lathe board is easily made in the school. Figure 13-24. This machinist is cleaning lead screw with a
It keeps tools within easy reach and away from chips and piece of cord. The lead screw should rotate at low speed. Do not
turnings. wrap the cord around your fingers or hands.
 • Never attempt to operate a lathe while your
senses are impaired by medication or other
substances.
• Dress appropriately! Remove any necklaces ------
or other dangling jewelry, wristwatch, or
rings. Secure any loose-fitting clothing and
0
roll up long sleeves. Wear an apron or a prop-
erly fitted shop coat. Safety glasses are a
must!
7:
• Clamp all work solidlv. Use the correct size Figure 13-26. If a small-diameter workpiece is not properly sup-
ported by a tailstock center, it will spring away from cutting tool
tool and work-holding-device for t..h.e job. Get
and be machined on a slight taper.
help when handling large sections of metal
and heavy chucks and attachments.
• Check work frequently ·when it is being mach- • Do not run the cutting tool into the chuck or
ined between centers. A ·workpiece expands dog. Check any readjustment of the work or
as it heats up from friction and could damage tool to make sure there is ample clearance
when the cutter has been moved leftward to
the tailstock center.
the farthest point that will be machined.
• Be sure all guards are in place before attempt-
ing to operate the machine. Never attempt to • Stop the machine before attempting to wipe
defeat or bypass a safety switch. down its surface, so the cloth doesn't become
• Turn the faceplate or chuck bv hand to be sure caught on rotating parts. When knurling,
there is no binding or danger of the work keep the coolant brush clear of the work.
striking any part of the lathe. • Before repositioning or removing ,rnrk from
• Keep the machine clear of tools, and alwavs the lathe, move the cutting tool clear of the
stop the machine before making measu;e- w ork area. This will prevent accidental cuts
ments and adjustments. on your hands and arms from the cutter bit.
• Avoid talking to anyone while running a
• Metal chips are sharp and can cause severe
lathe! Do not permit anyone to fool around
cuts. Do not try to remove them with your
hands when they become "stringy'' and build with the machine while you are operating it.
up on the tool post. Stop the machine and You are the only one who should turn the
remove them with pliers, Figure 13-25. machine on or off, or make any adjustments.
• Do not permit small-diameter ,vork to project • If the lathe has a threaded spindle nose, never
too far from the chuck ·without support from attempt to run the chuck on or off the spindle
the tailstock. Without support, the work will using power. It is also dangerous practice to
be tapered, or ,rnrse, spring up over the cut- stop such a lathe by reversing the direction of
ting tool and/ or break. See Figure 13-26. rotation. The chuck could spin off and cause
serious injury to you.
• Before engaging the half-nuts or automatic
feed, you should alwavs be aware of the
directi~n of travel and speed of the carriage.
•· Always remove the key from the chuck. Make
it a habit to never let go of the key until it is
out of the chuck and clear of the work area.
• Tools must not be placed on the lathe ways.
G se a tool board or place them on the lathe
tray, Figure 13-27.
• When doing filing on a lathe, make sure the
file has a securely fitting handle.
• If any odd sounding noise or vibration devel-
ops during lathe operation, stop the machine
immediately. If you cannot locate the trouble,
get help from your instructor. Do not operate
Figure 13-25. To avoid injury, always remove stringy chips with the machine until the trouble has been
pliers; never with your hands. corrected.
 Chapter 13 The !.athe np

Figure 13-27. Keep tools on a lathe tray; never on the machine

ways or in the chip pan.

• Remove sharp edges and burrs from the

workpiece before dismounting it from the A
machine. Burrs and sharp edges can cause
painful cuts.
• Use care when deaning the lathe. Chips
sometimes stick in recesses. Remove them
with a paintbrush or wooden stick, not a dust
brush. Never clean a machine tool with com-
pressed air.

13.6 CUTTING TOOLS AND TOOL

HOLDERS
To operate a lathe efficiently, the machinist must
have a thorough knowledge of cutting tools and
know how they must be shaped to machine various
materials. The cutting tool is held in contact with
the revolving work to remove material from the
work. In most applications, you will be using a
single-point cutting tool of high-speed steel (HSS).
The square cutter bit body is inserted in a lathe Figure 13-28. Too/holders. A-Straight, left-hand, and right-
toolholder, Figure 13-28. Toolholders are made in hand too/holders. (J.H. Williams and Co.) B-A turret-type too/-
straight, right-hand, and left-hand models. To tell holder with four cutter bits. (ENCO Mfg. Co.)
the difference between right-hand and left-hand
toolholders, hold the head of the tool in your hand
and note the direction the shank points. The shank depends on the type of work, roughing or finishing,
of the right-hand holder points to the right, the left- and on the metal to be machined. Most cutter
hand toolholders points to the left. A turret holder bits are ground to cut in one only direction (left
may also be utilized. Turret holders typically have or right). The exception is the round-nose tool,
four cutter bits. A bit can be changed by loosening which can cut in either direction. Some cutting tools
the lock (handle) and pivoting the holder so the new used for general purpose turning are shown in
bit is in cutting position, then locking it in place. Figure 13-30.

13.6. I High-speed steel cutting tool shapes 13.6.2 Roughing tools

Figure 13-29 shows the parts of the cutter bit, The deep cuts made to remove considerable
and the correct terminology for those parts. material from a workpiece are called roughing cuts.
To get best performance, the bit must have a Roughing tools have a tool shape (shape of cutting
keen, properly shaped cutting edge. The shape tip) that consists of a straight cutting edge with a
"
Side cutting edge angle

\c Back rake angie

End
clearance
angle

Figure 13-29. Cutter bit nomenclature.

•
Facing Roughing Fin:shing Round nose Finishing Roughing Facing

Left-cut tools L.-.-..---- Right-cut tools - - - - -

Figure 13-30. Standard HSS cutting tool shapes.

small rounded nose. This shape permits deep cuts at 13.6.4 Facing tool
heavy feeds. The slight side relief provides ample The facing tool is ground to prevent interference
support to the cutting edge. with the tailstock center. The tool point is set at a
The left-cut roughing tool cuts most efficiently slight angle to the work face with the point leading
,vhen it travels from left to right. The right-cut slightly. See Figure 13-32A.
roughing tool operates just the opposite, right to
left. See Figure 13-31A. 13.6.5 Round nose tool
A round nose tool is designed for lighter turning
13.6.3 Finishing tools and is ground flat on the face {\-vithout back or side
The nose of a finishing tool is more rounded rake) to permit cutting in either direction. See
than the nose of the roughing tool. See Figure Figure 13-32B. A slight variation of the round-nose
13-31B. If the cutting edge is honed with a fine oil tool, ·with a negative rake ground on the face, is
stone after grinding, a finishing tool will produce a excellent for machining brass, Figure 13-33.
smooth finish on the workpiece. A light cut and a Machining aluminum requires a tool vvith a con-
fine feed must be used. Like roughing tools, finish- siderably different shape from those previously
ing tools are made in left-hand and right-hand described. As shown in Figure 13-34, the tool is set
models. slightly above center to reduce anv tendency to
 Chitpter 13 The Lathe pp
R 1/64"/0.4 mm

, ~2'"-'-~I
I

F
~-----

A
Left-cut Right-cut
B Left-cut
.,Right-cut

Figure 13-31. Lathe tools. A-The roughing tool is used for rapid material removal. 8-The finishing tool will produce a smooth
surface.

..
Cut either way
B
Figure 13-32. Lathe tools. A-A facing tool is used to machine surfaces perpendicular to the spindle centerline. B-A round-nose tool
will produce fillets. Its shape permits it to cut either left or right.
 M achining Fundamentals

chatter ('.'ibrate rapidly). The tool designs illus-

trated are typical of cutting tools used to machine
aluminum alloys.

I 3.6.6 Grinding high-speed cutter bits

When first attempting to grind a cutter bit, it
may be best if you first practice on square sections
of cold finished steel rod. You mav also want to use
~

chalk or bluing and dra·w the desired tool shape on

the front portion of the blank, as shown in
Figure 13-35. The lines ·will serve as guides for
grinding.
Figure 13-36 depicts the recommended grinding
sequence for a cutter bit. Side clearance, top clear-
ance, and end relief may be checked with a clear-
ance and cutting angle gage, Figure 13-37.

Figure 13-33. Cutter nose shape for machining brass. Note the
negative rake.

Figure 13-35. This cutter blank has been laid out and marked
in preparation for grinding.

I 3.6. 7 Brazed-tip single--point cutting tools

Brazed-tip single-point cutting tools are made
by brazing a carbide cutting tip onto a shank made
from less costly material, Figure 13-38. Many tip
shapes (tool blanks) are aYailable.
Cutting speeds can be increased by 300% to
400% when using carbide cutting tools. Powders of
tungsten, carbon, and cobalt are molded into tool
blanks and heated to extremely high temperatures.
The hardness and strength of the blank can be con-
trolled by Yarying the amount of cobalt that is used
to cement (bind together) the tungsten and carbon
particles.
For best results, these tools should be sharpened
Figure 13-34. For machining aluminum, cutter bit shapes dif-
on a special silicon carbide or diamond-charged
ferent from those used for other metals are necessary. The tool grinding wheel in ·which diamond dust particles or
is set slightly above center for a smoother cut. chips are embedded. A special type of grinder must
Chapter 13
nu

Section showing
hollow-ground
clearance angle

Center gage
C

Figure 13-36. Grinding sequence for a cutter bit. A-Two views showing how to position a cutter bit blank on the grinding wheel to
shape side clearance angle and side cutting edge angle. 8-Shaping end clearance angle and front cutting edge angle. C-Center
gage being used to check nose angle. D-Grinding other side clearance angle, when required. E-Grinding back/side rake angles.
Accuracy of clearance angles can be checked with cutter bit gage.

Rake and Clearance Angle for Lathe Tools

(High-speed steel)

Cast Low-carbon High-carbon

iron steel steel

Back rake 6--80 8-12° 4-50

Side rake 10-12° 14-18° 8--10°
Clearance* 6-9° a-10° 6-80

Section A-A Alloy Soft

checking side steels brass Aluminum
rake angle
Back rake s-ao 0-20 25-50°
Side rake 10-15° 0-20 10-20°
Clearance* e-ao 10-15° 7-10°
Checking
side relief Copper

Back rake 10-12°

Side rake 20-25°
Clearance* 6-80
) *The end and side clearance angles are usually the same.

Checking end
A relief B
Figure 13-37. Cutter bit gage. A-Bit gage being used to check accuracy after grinding cutter tip. B-This table provides rake and
clearance angles for lathe tools to machine different metals.
ml·-·· Tool blank

r
L Prepared shank

Figure 13-38. Brazing a carbide tool blank into place on a pre-

pared shank. The brazing must be done properly or the tool
blank will not be soiidly attached, causing it to wear rapidly.
Tungsten carbide tool blanks are available in a wide selection of
shapes, sizes, and degrees of hardness.

be used, Figure 13-39. (Also see Chapter 11, Off-

hand Grinding.)
Cutting tools designed for machining steel are Figure 13-39. A grinder designed for sharpening carbide, cer-
chamfered 0.003" to 0.002" (0.050 to 0.073 mm) by met. cubic boron nitride, and polycrystalline diamond (PCD) cut-
honing them lightly ·with a silicon carbide or dia- ting tools. It uses special diamond charged wheels and is fitted
mond hone. If the tools are not honed, the irregular with a microscope inspection system.
edge produced by grinding will crumble when
used. Honing, if done properly, does not interfere
are widely used for turning and milling operations.
with the cutting action.
The inserts are manufactured in a number of shapes
and sizes, Figure 13-42, for different turning geome-
13.6.8 Carbide tipped straight turning tools tries. Six of the most commonly used standard
The cutting tools shoffn in Figure 13-40 are gen- shapes are shown in order of increasing and
eral purpose tools for facing, turning, and boring. decreasing strengths. See Figure 13-43.
The square nose shape permits machining to a Indexable inserts clamp to special tool holders,
square shoulder. Note that the clearance angles of Figure 13-44. As an edge dulls, the next edge is
the carbide tools described are not as great as those rotated into position until all edges are dulled.
required for high speed steel cutting tools. Since it is less costly to replace inserts made from
Also shown is a carbide tipped threading tool some materials than to resharpen them, they are
(Style E). This tool has a 60~ included angle that con- usually discarded after use.
forms ,-vith the C"nified National 60~ included-angle Inserts are manufactured from a number of
thread. It is used for V-grom:ing and chamfering. materials, ·with each designed for a different metal
requirement. See Figure 13-45. Carbide inserts are
13.6. 9 Indexable insert cutting tools giYen increased versatility (higher abrasion resis-
Brazed-tip cutting tools are being replaced by tance, chemical stability, and lubricity) when coated
mechanically clamped indexable insert cutting "'ith Yarious combinations of titanium carbide
tools, Figure 13-41. Indexable insert cutting tools (TiC), titanium nitride (TiN), and alumina.
Chapter 13 The Lathe
fl
Style AL Style AR

50 ± 20

Style BR

Style C

3°~
Both sides

Figure 13-40. Typical standard cemented-carbide single-point tools. Style Eis a carbide tipped threading tool. (Carboloy, Inc.)
PR
Chipbreakers
When some metals are machined, long continu-
ous chips ,vill be created, unless some method is
employed to break the chips into smaller pieces.
This is accomplished by a small step or groove,
called a chipbreaker, that is located on the top of the

Figure 13-44. A selection of typical holders and replaceable

Figure 13-41. Indexable insert cutting tools of carbide or sin- carbide insert cutting tools for the lathe. Each insert has three
tered oxides (often referred to as cermets) are mechanically or four cutting tips. The inserts are clamped in place on the
clamped into tool holders to perform cutting tasks. This insert is holder, and can be indexed (rotated into position) to present a
being used to machine stainless steel. (Sandvik Coromant Co.) new tip when the one in use becomes dull. (Carboloy, Inc.)

Turnir.g Facing Turning Turning, facing, Turning, profiling, Turning, contour

R.H. shown R.H. shown chamfering contouring radius

Figure 13-42. Indexable inserts are manufactured in a number of different shapes and sizes for different turning operations.

<- - ~ --·__
Increasing strength
. . . : _ ______;,_,,
,..,,_
,=-,;~

Decreasing strength

Figure 13-43. Most commonly used indexable insert shapes are shown in order of increasing and decreasing strengths.
Chapter 13 The Lathe pp
Material Strengths Weaknesses Typical Applications

HSS Superior resistance Poor speed capabilities Screw machine and other low-speed
operations, interrupted cuts,
Versatility Poor wear resistance low-horsepower machining.
I
carbide Most versatile cutting material Limited speed capabilities Finishing to heavy roughing of most
materials, including irons, steels,
High shock resistance exotics, and plastics.

Coated High versatility Limited to moderate speeds Same as carbide, except with higher
Carbide speed capabilities.
High shock resistance

Good performance at
moderate speeds
I
i
Cermet High versatility Low shock resistance Finishing operations on irons, steels,
stainless steels, and aluminum alloys.
Good performance at Limited to moderate speeds
moderate speeds

Ceramic- High abrasion resistance Low mechanical shock resistance Steel mill-roll resurfacing, finishing
Hot/Cold operations on cast irons and steels.
Pressed High-speed capabilities Low thermal shock resistance
Versatility

Ceramic- High shock resistance Very limited applications Roughing and finishing operations
Silicon on cast irons.
Nitride Good abrasion resistance

Ceramic- High shock resistance Limited versatility High-speed roughing and finishing of
Whisker hardened steels, chilled cast iron,
High thermal shock high-nickel superalloys.
resistance

Cubic High hot hardness Limited performance on materials Hardened work materials in 45-70
Boron below38Rc Rockwell C range.
Nitride
High strength Limited applications

High thermal shock High cost

resistance

Poly- High abrasion resistance Limited applications Roughing and finishing operations
Crystalline on abrasive nonferrous or
Diamond High-speed capabilities Low mechanical shock resistance nonmetallic materials.

Figure 13-45. The nine basic categories of cutting toot materials. (Vatenite, Inc.)

cutter at the cutting edge. Most inserts manufac-

tured today have molded-in chipbreakers. Other
single-point cutting tools must have a chipbreaker
ground into the top face of the tool, Figure 13-46.
13.6. IO Other types of cutting tools
Diamonds, both natural and manufactured, are Flgut8 13-46. Typical chipbreakar on a single-point toot.
employed as single-point cutting tools on materials
whose hardness or abrasive qualities make them tools. These diamonds are known as industrial
difficult to machine with other types of cutting diamonds.
 M2.chh1ng Fundamentals

13.7 CUTTING SPEEDS AND Roughing cut Finishing cut

FEEDS Material 0.01 " to 0.020" 0.001 " to 0.01 0"
to be cut 0.25 mmto 0.025 mm to
The matter of cutting speed and feed is most 0.50 mm feed 0.25 mm feed
important, since these factors govern the length of fpm mpm fpm mpm
time required to machine the work and the quality Cast iron 70 20 120 36
of the surface finish. Steel
Cutting speed indicates the distance the work Low carbon 130 40 mo
I 100 56
Med carbon 90 27 30
moves past the cutting tool, expressed in feet I
High carbon 50 15 I 65 20
per minute (fpm) or meters per minute (mpm).
Measuring is done on the circumference of the
Tool steel
(annea~ed) 50 15
II 65 20
work. Brass-yellow 160 56 i 220 67 I
To explain this differently: if a lathe were to cut Bronze 90 27 I 100 30 I
one long chip, the length of the chip cut in one l Aluminum* 600 183 I 1000 300
minute (measured in either feet or meters) ·would be The speeds for rough turning are offered as a starting point. It
the cutting speed of the lathe. Cutting speed is not should be a!: the machine arid work will withstand. The finishing
the revolutions per minute (rpm) of the lathe. feed depends upo:, the finish quality desired.
Feed is the distance that the cutter moves length- • The speeds for turning aluminum will vary greatly according
to the alloy being machined. The softer a!lcys can be turned at
wise along the lathe bed during a single reYolution speeds upward of 1600 fpm (488 mpm) roughing to 3500 fpm
of the ,..,·ork. (106 mpm) finishing. High silicon alloys requi~e a lower cutting
There are a number of factors that must be con- speed.
sidered when determining the correct cutting speed Figure 13-47. Cutting speeds and feeds suggested for turnfng
and amount of feed: various metals with high-speed steel tools.
• Material used for the cutting tool.
• Kind of material being machined.
• Desired finish. the circumference or outside edge of the work) must
• Condition of the lathe. be converted to rpm to determine the required spin-
• Rigidity of the workpiece. dle speed. The following formulas are used:
• Kind of coolant being used (if any). Inch-based:
• Shape of the material being machined.
CS X4
• Depth of cut. rpm= D
If the machining is done "·ith a cutting speed Where rpm = Revolutions per minute.
that is too slow, extra time will be needed to com- CS = Cutting speed recommended for the
plete the job. If speed is too high, the cutting tool ·will particular material being machined
dull rapidly and the finish ·will be substandard. (steel, aluminum, etc.) in feet per
A speed and feed cha11 takes into consideration minute.
the many factors listed earlier. Figure 13-47 is a D = Diameter of ,,v ork in inches.
chart for use with high-speed steel cutter bits. Convert all fractions to decimals.
Cutting speeds and feeds on the chart can be Cutting speed problem: What spindle speed is
increased by 50% if a coolant is used, and by 300% required to finish-turn 4" diameter aluminum alloy?
to 400% if a cemented carbide cutting tool is
employed. CSX 4
rpm = D
13. 7. l Calculating cutting speeds 1000 X 4
=
4
The cutting speeds shown in Figure 13-47
= 1000 rpm
should be considered as only a starting point.
CS = Table recommends a cutting speed
Depending upon machine condition, they may have
of 1000 fpm for finish-turning
to be increased or decreased until optimum cutting aluminum alloy.
conditions are obtained. D = 4"
Cutting speed (CS), as noted, is giYen in feet per
minute (fpm) or meters per minute (mpm). Speed of Adjust the spindle speed to as close to this speed
the work (spindle speed) is given in revolutions per (1000 rpm) as possible. Increase or decrease speed as
minute (rpm). Thus, the peripheral speed (speed at needed to obtain desired surface finish.
 "
Chapter 13 The Lathe

Metric-based: Depth of the cut can be set accurately with the

CSX 1000 micrometer dials on the cross-slide and compound
rpm= DX '1T rest, Figure 13-48.
The micrometer dial is usually graduated in
Where rpm = Revolutions per minute.
CS = Cutting speed recommended for 0.001" or 0.02 mm increments. This means that a
particular material being machined movement of one graduation feeds the cutting tool
(steel, aluminum, etc.) in meters per into the piece 0.001" or 0.02 mm. However, material
minute (mpm). is removed around the periphery (outside edge) of
D = Diameter of work in millimeters the rotating work at double the depth adjustment.
(mm). For each 0.001" (0.02 mm) of infeed, for example,
'1T = 3 (Since cutting speeds are the workpiece diameter is reduced by 0.002" or
approximate, '1T has been rounded 0.04 mm. See Figure 13-49. This must not be forgot-
off to 3 from 3.1416 to simplify ten or twice as much material as specified will be
calculation.) removed.
Cutting speed problem: What spindle speed is Some lathes, however, have a micrometer dial
required to finish-turn 100 mm diameter aluminum set up so that the number of graduations the cutter
alloy?
CSX 1000
rpm= D x 3
_ 300 X 1000
- 100X3
= 1000 rpm
CS = Table recommends a cutting speed
of 300 m/ pm for finish-turning
aluminum alloy.
D = 100mm
'TT =3
Adjust the spindle to as close to this speed
(1000 rpm) as possible. Increase or decrease speed as
needed to obtain desired surface finish.

13. 7.2 Roughing cuts

Roughing cuts are taken to reduce work diame-
ter to approximate size. The work is left 1/3211
Figure 13-48. Combination inch/metric-graduated micrometer
(0.08 mm) oversize for finish turning. Since the fin-
dials on the cross-slide and compound rest handwheels of a
ish obtained on the roughing cut is of little impor- lathe. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.)
tance, use the highest speed and coarsest feed
consistent with safety and accuracy.

13. 7.3 Finishing cuts 0.050" (1.25 mm) Diameter

The finishing cut brings the work to the required infeed
diameter and surface finish. A high-spindle speed, _1/
{/
_.·r·-• "'· ,',, 0.100"
reduced
(2.50 mm)
sharp cutting tool, and fine feed are employed.
V
r
\
\
13. 7.4 Depth of cut J-

The depth of cut refers to the distance the cutter /

is fed into the work surface. The depth of cut, like l
feed, varies greatly with lathe condition, material ...,,._____ I .--:'/4
"--.,--
hardness, speed, feed, amount of material to be
removed, and whether it is to be a roughing or Figure 13-49. Remember that material is removed from the
finishing cut. work on each cut at two times the infeed distance.
 Machining Fundamentals

is fed into the work ·will equal the amount that the may be mounted in or on it. The most common way
·work diameter will be reduced. That is, if the cutter is to mount the work so that it re,·olves, permitting
is fed in 0.005" (0.10 mm) or 3 graduations, the ·work the cutting tool to move across the work's surface.
diameter ·will be reduced 0.005" (0.10 mm). Check Large and/ or odd-shaped pieces are sometimes
the lathe you will be using to be sure which system mounted on the carriage and machined ·with a cut-
it employs. ting tool that is mounted in the rotating spindle.
A coITu-non mistake when using a lathe is to Most work is machined ·while supported by one
remoye too little material at too slow a speed. Cuts as of the methods shuwn in Figure 13-50:
deep as 0.125" (3 mm) can be handled by light • Between centers using a faceplate and dog.
lathes; cuts of 0.250" (6 mm) and deeper can be
• Held in one of the three types of chucks.
made by heavier machines ·without o,·ertaxing the
lathe. • 3-ja,v universal chuck.
• 4-jaw independent chuck.
13.8 WORK-HOLDING • Jacobs type chuck.
ATTACHMENTS • Held in a collet.
One of the reasons the lathe is such a versatiie • Bolted to the facepiate.
machine tool is the great variety of ways that work

Figure 13-50. Work-holding methods. A-Work being machined between centers. B-Work nefd in a chuck for machining. (Clausing
Industrial, Inc.) C-Work being machined while held in a co/let. D-Work bolted to a faceplate for machining.
 T~~ !.athe
DD
13.9 TURNING WORK BETWEEN
CENTERS
Considerable lathe work is done with the work-
piece supported between centers. For this operation,
a faceplate, Figure 13-51, is attached to the spindle
nose. A sleeve and live center are inserted into the
spindle openin~ Figure 13-52.
Either a nonrevolving dead center or a heavy
duty ball bearing center is fitted into the tailstock
spindle to support one end of the work. See
Figure 13-53. The ends of the stock are drilled to fit
over the center points.
A lathe do~ Figure 13-54, is clamped to one end
of the material. Three types of lathe dogs are shown
in Figure 13-55:
• The bent-tail standard dog has the setscrew
exposed.
• The bent-tail safety dog has the setscrew
recessed. This type dog is usually preferred A
over the standard lathe dog.
• The clamp-type dog is used for turning
square or rectangular work.

Figure 13-53. Tai/stock centers. A-A dead center does not

rotate. It is fitted into the tailstock spindle. a-Cutaway shows
construction of a heavy-duty ball bearing center.
Figure 13-51. Lathe faceplates come in various sizes.

Headstock
center
Figure 13-52. Sleeve and headstock center. Figure 13-54. Machining work mounted between centers.
 Machining F,mdamentals

I 3. 9. I Drilling center holes

Before work can be mounted between centers, it
is necessary to locate and drill center holes in each
I~
end of the stock, Figure 13-56. Se,·eral methods for
locating the center of round stock are shov,·n in
Figure 13-57.
A Center holes are usually drilled with a com-
bination drill and countersink, Figure 13-58. The
d1'ill angle is identical to that of the center point.

A B

,
C
C Figure 13-57. Several ways to locate the center of round stock.
Figure 13-55. Lathe dogs. A-Bent-tail standard dog. B-Bent- A-With a hermaphrodite caliper. 8-With center head and rule
tail safety dog. C-Clamp-type dog. (Armstrong Bros. Tool Co.) of combination set (recommended method). C-With dividers.

Combination drill I
and countersink no. A B IC I D
1/16 ~ 3/64
I
1 j 118 I 3116 to 5/ 16
Lube reservoir 2 I 3_132 3/1 6 3/16 I 3/8 to 1 I
Center bears here___,,
3 I 110 1/4 1/4 : 1 1/4 to 2 !
4 I 5132 7/16 5/16 I 2 V4 to 4
Figure 13-56. Tail center rides in the drilled and countersunk
center hole. A supply of fubricant is placed in reservoir. Figure 13-58. This size chart contains information needed to
The lubricant wif/ expand and fubricate the center as metafs select correct-size center drill. Combination drill and countersink
heats up. makes the hofe and countersinks it in one operation.
Chapter 13 The Lathe
PD
The straight drill provides clearance for the center
point and serves as a reservoir for a lubricant. The
chart provides information needed to select the cor-
rect size center drill.
The center holes can be drilled on a drill press,
on the lathe with the work centered in the chuck, or
on the lathe with the center drill held in the head-
stock. See Figure 13-59.
The center holes should be drilled deep enough
to provide adequate support, Figure 13-60.

I 3. 9.2 Checking center alignment

Accurate turning between centers requires cen-
ters that run true and are in precise alignment. Since
the work must be reversed to machine its entire
length, care must be taken to make the live center

A.

Avoid

Figure 13-59. Drilling center holes. A-Holes can be drilled on a

drill press. Mount work in a V-block for support. 8-Some work C
can be held in a lathe chuck for center drilling. C-Center holes
can be drilled in large stock by mounting a Jacobs chuck in the Figure 13-60. Correctly and incorrectly drilled center holes.
headstock. Locate center point of each end and center punch. A-Properly drilled center hole. B-Hole drilled too deep.
Support one end on tail center and teed other into center drill C-Hole not drilled deep enough. Does not provide enough
mounted in the Jacobs chuck. Repeat operation on second end. support; if used with a dead center, the center point will bum off.
run true. If it does not, the diameters ·will be
eccentric (not aligned on the same center line),
Figure 13-61. This can be prevented by truing the
live center. If the center is not hardened, a light tru-
ing cut can be made. A tool post grinder will be
needed to true a hardened center.

Headstock Tailstock

Center that does A

not run true

Machined diameters
not on same centerline
Witness marks

/ must be
aiigned

Adjusting
screw

-.Adjusting
screw
Figure 13-61. The workpiece must be reversed in the lathe dog
B
so it can be machined tor its entire length. If the live center does
not run true, eccentric diameters will result. Figure 13-62. Checking center alignment. A-Checking align-
ment by bringing center points together. View is looking down
on top of centers. B-Alignment can be determined by checking
witness lines on base of tailstock.

Approximate alignment can be determined by

checking centers visually by bringing their points
together, or by checking the witness lines on the
base of the tailstock for alignment. See Figure 13-62.
A more precise method for checking alignment
is needed if close tolerance work is to be done.
Several such methods are described below:
• Make a light trial cut across a few inches of
the material. Check the diameter at each end
vdth a micrometer, Figure 13-63. The centers
are aligned if tb.e readings are identical.
• Use a steel test bar and dial indicator,
Figure 13-64. Mount the test bar between cen-
ters and position the dial indicator in the tool
post and at right angles to the work. Move the
indicator contact point against the test bar
until a reading is shown. Moye the indicator
along the test bar. If the readings remain con- Figure 13-63. Make a light cut on stock and measure diameter
stant, the centers are aligned. at two points to check alignment. Measurements must be equal.
Chapter 13 The Lathe pp
13. 9.3 Mounting work between centers
Clamp a dog to one end of the work. Place a

m .&IF ~~
lubricant (white lead, graphite and oil, or a com-
,,,r:_ • I • 'S•
,,- 1
r, -~. mercial center lubricant) in the center hole on the
• Ir
~ l
1 --,',
other end. Mount the piece on the centers and adjust
~...'. I ,,,,]'
···••.:-:±.-... the tailstock spindle until the work is snug. If the
Rgure 13-64. Using a test bar and dial indicator to check work is too loose, it will "clatter." If adjusted too
center alignment. tightly, it will score or bum the center point.
Check the adjustment from time to time, since
• Machine a section of scrap, as shown in
heat generated by the machining process will cause
Figure 13-65. Set the cross-feed screw to make
the work to expand. Using a ball bearing center,
a light cut at the right end of the piece. With
instead of a dead center, will reduce or eliminate
the same tool setting, move it to the left and
many of the problems involved in working between
continue the cut. Identical micrometer read-
centers.
ings indicate center alignment.
Check to see if the dog tail binds on the faceplate
Adjusting screws (one on each side at the base of
slot, Figure 13-67. This can cause the work to be
the tailstock) are used to align the centers if checks
pulled off center. When machined, this will produce
indicate this is needed. Make adjustments gradu-
a surface that is not concentric with the center hole.
ally. See Figure 13-66.
If binding is occurring, use a different faceplate.

I Tail binds on faceplate

If l
-3 ~r
~ 1• L Mlke here
Figure 13-65. Checking for center alignment. A-Machine two
shoulders on a test piece. 8--Keep same tool setting and make
a cut on both shoulders. C-Measure resulting diameters.

Figure 13-67. Diameter of the tumed surface will not be con-

centric with the center holes if center hole is not seated properly
on the live center. A binding lathe dog is a common cause of this
problem.

13. 9.4 Facing work held between centers

~Tailstock Facing is an operation that machines the end of
base the work square and reduces it to a specific length.
~ "'.,.____ Witness plate At times, considerable material must be removed. In
Tailstock offset adjusting this situation, it is best to leave the work longer than
screw (another one is on finished size and drill deeper center holes for better
opposite side of base) support during the roughing operation.
Figure 13-66. Adjusting screws are located on both sides oftail-
Face the work to length before starting the finish
stock base. Their primary use is to set over or shift the tailstock cut. A right-cut facing tool will be needed. The 58°
for taper turning. point on this tool provides a slight clearance
between the center point and the work face,
Figure 13-68. Be careful not to damage the cutting
tool point by running it into the center. A half
center makes the operation easier, but is used only
for facing- it does not provide an adequate bearing
surface for general work and will not hold lubricant.

Figure 13-69. Recommended compound rest setting when

facing stock to length.

Figure 13-68. Facing stock. A-Relationship of cutter bit to

work face when making a facing cut. B-Using a half center wiff
give more clearance when facing end of stock.

13. 9.5 Facing to length

It is standard machining practice to cut stock
slightly longer than needed to permit its ends to be
machined square. A steel rule may be employed if
the dimension is not critical. For more accuracy, a
Vernier caliper or large micrometer may be used. Figure 13-70. Compound rest setting used for rough turning.
The difference between the rough length and the
required length is the amount of material that must
be removed.
Set the compound rest at 30", Figure 13-69. to cut as close as possible to the left end of the work
Bring the cutting tool up until it just touches the sur- without the dog striking the compound rest.
face to be machined, then lock the carriage. Remove CAUTION: Always check the maximum dis-
material from each end of the stock until the speci- tance that compound rest can be fed toward the dog
fied length is attained. or chuck ,-dthout striking them before you start the
lathe.
13. 9.6 Rough turning between centers lJse a left-hand toolholder. Position the tool post
Rough turning is an operation in which excess as far to left as possible in the compound rest T-slot.
material is cut mNay rapidly ·with little regard for the Avoid excessive tool overhang, Figure 13-71.
quality of surface finish. The diameter is reduced to Locate the cutting edge of the tool about 1/16"
within 1 /32" (0.8 mm) of required size by employ- (1.5 mm) above work center for each inch of diame-
ing deep cuts and coarse feeds. ter, Figure 13-72. It can be set by comparing it ·with
Set the compound rest at 30" from a right angle the tail center point or with an index line scribed on
to the ,vork, Figure 13-70. This will permit the tool the tailstock ram of some lathes.
 _c_h_ap_t_e_r_l_J_ _T_h_e_L_a_th_e_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ !II
- --- - - --

Figure 13-71. Correct and inco"ect mounting of tool holder.

A-Tool holder and cutter bit in proper position. B-Too much
overhang will cause the tool to "chatter" and produce a rough B
machined surface.
Figure 13-73. Too/holder positioning. A-An incorrectly posi-
tioned tool will cut deeper into work if too/holder slips in the tool
About 1/16" (1.5 mm)
for each 1" (25 mm) of diameter post. B-A correctly positioned tool will swing clear of work if
tool holder slips.

Make a trial cut to true up the stock. Measure

the resulting diameter. The difference between the
diameter and the required rough diameter is twice
the distance the tool must be fed into the work. If
the piece is greatly oversize, it will be necessary to
l make two or more cuts to bring it to size.
When depth of cut has been determined, engage
the power feed. Observe the condition of the chips.
They should be in small sections and slightly blue in
color. Long, stringy chips indicate a cutting tool that
is not properly sharpened. Stop the machine and
Figure 13-72. Correct location of cutter bit point when rough remove stringy chips with pliers. Replace tool with
turning. Lower the point as work diameter decreases in size.
one that is properly sharpened.
After each cut, measure work diameter to pre-
vent excess metal removal. Always stop the
The toolholder must be positioned correctly. If it machine before making measurements or cleaning
is not, the heavy side pressure developed during out chips.
machining will cause it to turn in the tool post, forc- If a dead center is used in the tailstock, lubricate
ing the cutting tool deeper into the work. When the the center frequently. Stop the machine immediately
toolholder is correctly positioned, the cutting tool if the center heats up and starts to smoke or
will pivot away from the work. See Figure 13-73. "squeal."
fl
13. 9. 7 Finish turning soft aluminum or copper sheet between the set-
After rough turning, the work is still oversize. screw and the workpiece.
It must be machined to the specified diameter and
to a smooth surface finish by finish turning, 13. 9.8 Turning to a shoulder
Figure 13-74. Up to this point, only plain turning has been
described. This is turning in which the entire length
of the piece is machined to a specified diameter.
Rough-turned Finish-turned However, it is frequently necessary to machine a
section _.....,_ section
piece to se,·eral different diameters.
Locate the points to which the different diame-
ters are to be cut. Scribe lines with a hermaphrodite
caliper which has been set to the required length,
Figure 13-75.

Figure 13-74. After roughing work to approximate size, turn it to

required size with a finishing too!. Cut should be made from right
to left.

Fit a right-cut finishing tool into the toolholder.

Figure 13-75. Scribing reference lines on a workpiece with a
All rough and finish machining should be done hermaphrodite caliper.
toward the headstock (right to left) because the head-
stock offers a more solid base than the tailstock.
Position the tool on center and check for adequate
clearance between the compound rest and the Machining is done as previously described, with
revolving lathe dog. the exception of cutting the shoulder, (the point
Adjust the lathe for a faster spindle speed and a where the diameters change). Figure 13-76 shows
fine feed. Run the cutting tool into the work until a the four types of shoulders:
light cut is being made; then engage the power feed. • Square.
After a sufficient distance has been machined, dis- • Angular.
engage the pmver feed and stop the lathe. Never • Filleted.
reverse a lathe; brake it to a stop! • Undercut.
Do not interfere with the cross-slide setting. A right-cut tool is used to make the square and
"Mike" the diameter of the machined area. The dif- angular type shoulders. See Figures 13-77 and
ference between the measurement and the specified 13-78. For machining a filleted shoulder, a round
diameter is the amount of material that must be nose tool is ground to the required radius using a
removed. Move the cutting tool clear of the work fillet or radius gage to check radius accuracy.
and feed it in one-half the amount that must be See Figure 13-79.
removed. For example, if the diameter is 0.008"
(0.20 mm) oversize, tool infeed should be 0.004" 13. 9. 9 Grooving or necking operations
(0.10 mm). Make another cut about 1/2" (13 mm) in It is sometimes necessary to cut a groove or neck
width at the new depth setting. Measure again to on a shaft to terminate a thread, or to provide ade-
make sure the correct diameter ,dll be machined. quate clearance for mating pieces, Figure 13-80. As
When reversing the work to permit machining any recess cut into a surface has a tendency to
its entire length, avoid marring of the finished sur- weaken a shaft, it is better to make the groove round,
face by the lathe dog setscrew. Insert a small piece of rather than square.
 _C_h_ap_t_e_r_lJ_ _·_rh_e_L_a_t_he
________________________________ ll

Figure 13-77. To machine an angular shoulder, cut is made

from smaller diameter to larger diameter.

Figure 13-76. Four types of shoulders. A-Square. 8-Angular.

C-Filleted. D-Undercut.

The tool is set on center and fed in until it just

touches the work surface. Set the cross-feed
micrometer dial to zero and feed the tool in the
required number of thousandths/millimeters for
the specified depth. Square grooves can be
machined with a parting tool.

I 3.10 USING LATHE CHUCKS

The chuck is another device for holding work in Clearance
a lathe. Chucking is the most rapid method of C
mounting work; for that reason, it is widely p~ Figure 13-78. Machining sequence used for cutting a square
£erred. Other operations, such as drilling, boring, shoulder. A-First cut. B-Second cut. C-Facing cut.
 i"lachining l=undamentals

Figure 13-79. The radius ground on a cutter bit can be checked

with a fillet gage.
Figure 13-81. The 3-jaw universal chuck automatically centers
round or hexagonal stock. (L-W Chuck Co.)

Two sets of jaws are supplied with each univer-

sal chuck. One set is used to hold large-diameter
work; the other set is for small-diameter ,vork,
Figure 13-82.
The javvs in each set are numbered 1, 2, and 3, as
are the slots in which they are fitted. The jaw num-
ber must correspond vvith the slot number if the
work is to be centered. Sets of jaws are made for a
specific chuck and are not interchangeable with
other chucks. Make sure the chuck and javvs have
the same serial number!

13. I 0.2 Installing chuck jaws

Before installing jai·vs, clean the jaws, jaw slots,
and scroll (spiral thread seen in the jaw slots). Turn
Figure 13-80. A groove or neck can be cut into a shaft with a the scroll until the first thread does not quite show
grooving or parting tool. Shape of the groove may be square, in jaw slot 1. Slide the matching ja,-\· into the slot as
angular (square with sloping sides), or round. far as it ·will go. Nmv, turn the scroll until the spiral
(Kaiser Tool Co., Inc.)
engages with the first tooth on the bottom of the ja,,·.
Repeat the operation at slots 2 and 3, making sure
the proper jai;,·s are inserted.
reaming, and internal threading, can be done while Remove the chuck key when you finish using it;
the work is held in a chuck. Additional support can if left in the chuck, it could become a dangerous
be obtained for the piece by supporting the free end missile when the lathe is turned on. Make it a habit
with the tailstock center. to neYer let go of a lathe chuck key unless you are
The common types of chucks are: placing it on the tool tray or lathe board.
• 3-jaw universal. Ja,vs of a universal chuck lose their centering
• 4-jaw independent. accuracy as the scroll wears. Accuracv is also
• J

• Jacobs. affected when too much pressure is used to mount

• Draw-in collet. the ,-vork, or when work is gripped too near the
front of the jaws. Avoid gripping work near the
13. I 0.1 3-jaw universal chuck front of the jaws. It can fly out and cause injuries.
The 3-jaw universal chuck is designed so that all
jav,·s operate at the same time, Figure 13-81. It \\·ill 13. I 0.3 4~jaw independent chuck
automatically center round or hexagonal shaped Each of the jaws of 4-jaw independent chuck,
stock. Figure 13-83, operates individually, instead of being
Chapter 13 The Lathe pp
3-jaw chuck

Large-diameter
work
Figure 13-83. A 4-jaw independent chuck. The jaws on this
type chuck are reversible. (L-W Chuck Co.)

This reversing feature permits the jaws to be used

to hold large-diameter work in one position
and smaller-diameter work when reversed,
Figure 13-84.
Unlike the 3-jaw chuck, the 4-jaw type is not
self-centering. The most accurate way to center
round work in this type chuck is to use a dial indi-
B cator. The piece is first centered approximately,
using the concentric rings on the chuck face as a
guide. A dial indicator is then mounted in the tool
post, Figure 13-85. The jaws are adjusted until the
.indicator needle does not fluctuate (move back and
forth) when the work is rotated by hand. After the
piece has been centered, all jaws must be tightened
securely.

Figure 13·82. Chuck jaws. A-One of the sets of jaws supplied

with a 3-jaw universal chuck is used to mount large-diameter
work. B-Holding work using the set of jaws supplied for
smaller-size workpieces. C-Another method of mounting work
in the chuck.

coupled with the other jaws (as in the 3-jaw univer-

sal chuck). This permits square, rectangular, and
odd-shaped work to be centered. Unlike those Figure 13-84. Reversing feature of jaws in a 4-jaw independent
of the 3-jaw chuck, the jaws of a 4-jaw chuck chuck makes it possible to tum work having extreme differences
can be removed from their slots and reversed. in diameter without difficulty.
ffll
Another centering method uses chalk, Figure Avoid trying to center stock in one or two
13-86. Rotate the ,vork while bringing the chalk into adjustments, but rather, work in increments (very
contact with it. Slightly loosen the jaws opposite the small steps). When making the final small adjust-
chalk mark. Then tighten the jaws on the side where ment, it may be necessary to loosen the jaw on the
the chalk mark appears. Continue this operation low side and retighten it, after which the high side
until the work is centered. If the work is oversize is given a final tightening. This last method for mak-
enough, a cutting tool may be used instead of chalk. ing final adjustment applies, in particular, when
centering work with a dial indicator.

13. I 0.4 Jacobs chuck

When turning small-diameter work, such as
screws or pins, the / acobs chuck can be utilized.
This chuck, Figure 13-87, is better suited for
such work than the larger universal or independent
chuck.
A standard facobs chuck is normally fitted in
the tailstock for drilling. However, it also can be
mounted by fitting it in a slee,·e and then placing
the unit in the headstock spindle. Wipe the chuck
shank, sleeve, and spindle hole ,vith a clean soft
cloth before they are fitted together.
A headstock spindle f acobs chuck is similar to
the standard Jacobs chuck, but is designed to fit
directly onto a threaded spindle nose, Figure 13-88.
The chuck has the advantage of not interfering with
the compound rest, making it possible to work very
close to the chuck.

13. I 0.5 Draw-in collet chuck

The draw-in collet chuck is a ·work-holding
Figure 13-85. Centering work in a 4-jaw chuck using a dial device for securing work small enough to pass
indicator. The machine shown is a small mode/maker's lathe.
through the lathe spindle, Figure 13-89.

Figure 13-tJ6. Using chalk to center work in a 4-jaw chuck. The

6
chalk mark indicates the high point." Gradual adjustments,
rather than large movements, are most effective in centering
work. Figure 13-87. Turning small-diameter work in a Jacobs chuck.
Chapter i.3 Tile Lath~

The standard collet has a circular hole for round

I stock, but collets for holding square, hexagonal, and
octagonal material are available.
I
C,
;.:.. t
. ~, The chief advantages of collets are their ability
f '
~ 1 ••

.,;
j

to center work automatically and to maintain accu-

t racy over long periods of hard usage. They have the
disadvantage of being expensive, since a separate
collet is needed for each different size or stock
shape.
A collet chuck using steel segments bonded to
rubber is also available. An advantage of this chuck
Figure 13-88. Jacobs chuck that can be mounted on a lathe is that each collet has a range of 0.100" (2.5 mm),
with a threaded spindle nose. (Jacobs Mfg. Co.) rather than being a single size, like steel collets.
However, these collets are available only for round
work.

13. I 0.6 Mounting and removing chucks

If a chuck is not installed on the spindle nose
correctly, its accuracy will be affected. To install a
chuck, remove the center and sleeve, if they are in
place. Hold the center and sleeve with one hand and
tap them loose with a knockout bar. Carefully wipe
the spindle end clean of chips and dirt. Apply a few
drops of spindle oil. Clean the portion of the chuck
that fits on the spindle.
On a chuck that is fitted to a threaded spindle
nose, clean the threads with a spring cleaner. See
Figure 13-91.
With the tapered key spindle nose, rotate the
Figure 13-89. A draw-in type co/let chuck. spindle until the key is in the up position. Slide the
chuck into place and tighten the threaded ring. Pins
Collets are accurately made sleeves with one on the cam-lock spindle are fitted into place and
end threaded and the other split into three even locked.
sections. The slots are cut slightly more than half the Fitting a chuck onto a threaded spindle nose
length of the collet and permit the jaws to spring in requires a different technique. Hold the chuck
and clamp the work, Figure 13-90. against the spindle nose with the right hand
and tum the spindle with the left hand. Screw the
chuck on until it fits firmly against the shoulder.

Figure 13-90. A variety of co/lets is necessary to clamp Figure 13-91. A spring cleaner is used to clean the threads in a
different stock sizes. (Maswerks, Inc.) chuck before mounting it on a threaded spindle nose.
,,
To avoid possible injury, do not spin the chuck on
Mad,inh1g f-•.m<fament als

rapidly or use power. Release belt tension if possi-

ble, to eliminate any chance of power being trans-
ferred to the spindle.
During installation, place a board on the ways
under the chuck to protect your hands and prevent
damage to the machine ways if the chuck is
dropped.

13. I 0. 7 Removing a chuck from threaded

spindle
There are se,·eral accepted methods of removing
chucks from a threaded headstock spindle. The first
step in any method, regardless of the type of spindle
nose, is to place a wooden cradle across the ways
beneath the chuck for support. Then use one of the
techniques shown in Figure 13-92.
• Lock the spindle in back gear and use a chuck
key to apply leverage.
• Place a suitable size adjustable wrench on one
jaw and apply pressure to the wrench.
• If neither of the preceding methods ,rnrks,
place a block of ·wood between the rear lathe
ways and one of the chuck jaws. Engage the
back gear and give the drive pulley a quick
rearward turn.

13. I 0.8 Removing a chuck from other spindle

noses
little difficulty should be encountered when
removing a chuck from tapered and cam lock spin-
dle noses. For tapered spindle noses, first lock the
spindle in back gear, then place the appropriate
spanner wrench in the locking ring. GiYe it a tap or
two with a leather or plastic mallet. Turn the ring
until the chuck is released.
Place a wooden cradle under the chuck before
attempting to remove it from the spindle. Removal
will be easier and hand injuries will be avoided. ---- Block of
hardwood

13.1 1 FACING STOCK HELD IN

A CHUCK
A round nose cutting tool, held in a straight tool- C
holder, is used to face stock held in a chuck. The
compound rest is pivoted 30~ to the right. The tool- Figure 13-92. Removing a chuck. A- Using a chuck wrench to
holder is set to less than 90° to face the work, and foosen the chuck. Note the wooden cradfe placed under the
chuck for support. 8-Fitting an adjustable wrench to one of the
the cutter bit is exactly on center. The carriage is
jaws may help you loosen a stubborn chuck. C-ln truly stub-
then moved into position and locked to the way. born cases, reversing the chuck against a block of wood is often
See Figure 13-93A. used.
Chapter 13 The Lathe
RP
A facing cut can be made in either direction. The 13.12 PLAIN TURNING AND
tool may be started i...11. the center and fed out, or the TURNING TO A SHOULDER
reverse may be done. The usual practice is to start
Work mounted in a chuck is machined in the
from the center and feed outward. If the material is
same manner as if it were between centers. To pre-
over 1 1/2" (38 mm) in diameter, automatic feed
vent "springing" (flexing) while it is being mach-
may be employed.
ined, long work should be center drilled and
With the cutting tool on center a smooth face
supported with a tailstock center, Figure 13-94.
will result from the cut. A rounded "nubbin"
(remaining piece of unmachined face material)
will result if the tool is slightly above center, 13.13 PARTING OPERATIONS
Figure 13-93B. A square-shoulder ''nubbin" indi- Parting is the operation of cutting off material
cates that the cutter is below center, Figure 13-93C. after it has been machined, Figure 13-95. This is one
Reposition the tool and repeat the operation if either of the more difficult operations performed on a
condition is seen. lathe.
Cutting tools for parting or grooving are held in
a straight or offset toolholder, Figure 13-96. They
Direction must be ground with the correct clearance (front,
of feed
side, and end). A concave rake is ground on top of

I the cutter to reduce chip width, and prevent it from

seizing (binding) in the groove.
Keep the tool sharp. This will permit easy pene-
tration into the work. If the tool is not kept sharp, it
may slip and as pressure builds up, dig in suddenly
and break.
The cutoff blade is set at exactly 90° to the work
surface, Figure 13-97. The cutting edge should be
set on center when parting stock 1" (25.0 mm) in
diameter. For larger pieces, the cutting edge should
be positioned 1/16" (1.5 mm) above center for each 1"
A (25.0 mm) of diameter. The tool must be lowered as

Cutter bit
above center

_ Cutter bit
below center

C------
Figure 13-93. Facing in a chuck. A-Correct tool and tool holder
positions for facing. 8-Rounded nubbin left by above-center Figure 13-94. For accurate turning, long work must be sup-
cutter. C-Square-shoulder nubbin left by below-center cutter. ported with tailstock center.
 Mach:ning Fundamentals

Q
Lock carriage
to ways

Figure 13-97. Work is held close in chuck for the parting oper-
ation. Parting tool blade is set at a 90g angle to cut, and car-
riage is locked to the ways.

provide a continuous chip. If feed is too slow·, "hog-

Figure 13-95. Parting is one of the more difficult jobs performed
on the lathe. This illustration shows parting of thick-wall tubing. ging" (the cutter digging in and taking a very heavy
The replaceable tool has a helical twisted geometry to prevent cut) can result. The tool ,dll not cut continuously,
binding during parting operations. (lscar Metals, Inc.) but will ride on surface of the metal for a revolution
or two, then bite suddenly. If the machine is in good
condition, automatic cross-feed may be employed.
When parting, apply ample quantities of cutting
fluid. Whenever possible, hold the work "close" in
the chuck and, if necessary, use an offset toolholder.
Never attempt to part work that is held between
centers. Serious trouble will be encountered.
See Figure 13-98.

Figure 13-96. Typical straight and offset tool holders for paning
and grooving. They use replaceable carbide inserts, which are
more wear resistant than conventional high speed toots.
(Kaiser Tool Co., Inc.)

work diameter is reduced, unless the center of the

piece has been drilled out.
Spindle speed is about one-third that employed
for conYentional turning. The compound rest and
cross-slide must be tightened to prevent play.
Do not forget to lock the carriage to the ways during Figure 13-98. Work cannot be parted safely while being held
a parting operation. Feed should be ample to between centers.
Chapter 13 The Lathe pp
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 9. Which of the following actions are considered
dangerous when operating a lathe?
Please do not write in the text. Write your
a. Wearing eye protection.
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
b. Wearing loose clothing and jewelry.
1. The lathe operates on the principle of: c. Measuring with work rotating.
a. The cutter revolving against the work. d. Operating lathe with most guards m
b. The cutting tool, being controllable, can be place.
moved vertically across the work. e. Using compressed air to clean machine.
C. The work rotating against the cutting tool,
10. In most lathe operations, you will be using a
which is controllable.
single-point cutting tool made of _ _.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above. 11. Cutting speeds can be increased 300% to 400%
by using _ _ tools.
2. The size of a lathe is determined by the _ _
and the _ _of the 12. What does cutting speed indicate?
3. The largest piece that can be turned between 13. is used to indicate the distance that the
centers is equal to: cutter moves in one revolution of the work.
a. The length of the bed minus the space
14. Calculate the cutting speeds for the following
taken up by the headstock.
metals. The information furnished is sufficient
b. The length of the bed minus the space
to do so.
taken up by the tailstock.
c. The length of the bed minus the space CSX 4
a. Formula: rpm = D
taken up by the headstock and the tail-
stock. b. CS = Cutting speed recommended for
d. All of the above. material being machined.
e. None of the above. c. D = Diameter of work in inches.
Problem A: What is the spindle speed (rpm)
4. Into which of the following categories do the
required to finish-tum 2 1/2" diameter alu-
various parts of the lathe fall?
minum alloy? A rate of 1000 fpm is the recom-
a. Driving the lathe.
mended speed for finish-turning the material.
b. Holding and rotating the work.
Problem B: What is the spindle speed (rpm)
c. Holding, moving, and guiding the cutting
required to rough-turn 1" diameter tool steel?
tool
The recommended rate for rough turning the
d. All of the above.
material is 50 £pm.
e. None of the above.
15. Calculating the cutting speed for metric-size
5. Explain the purpose of ways on the lathe bed.
material requires a slightly different formula.
6. Power is transmitted to the carriage through
CSX 1000
the feed mechanism to the quick-change gear- a. Formula: rpm = D X3
box which regulates the amount of _ _ per
b. CS = Cutting speed recommended for
particular material being machined (steel,
7. The carriage supports and controls the cutting aluminum, etc.) in meters per minute
tool. Describe each of the following parts: (mpm).
a. Saddle. c. D = Diameter of work in millimeters
b. Cross-slide. (mm).
c. Compound rest. Problem: What spindle speed is required to
d. Tool post. finish-tum 200 mm diameter aluminum alloy?
8. Accumulated metal chips and dirt are cleaned Recommended cutting speed for the material is
from the lathe with a _ _, never with _ _. 300 mpm.
ti' M;;,d,1ning t=undamentals

16. Most work is machined while supported by 21. \tVhat are the four types of lathe chucks most
one of four methods. List them. commonly used? Describe the characteristics of
each.
17. Sketch a correctly drilled center hole.
22. When using the parting tool, the spindle speed
18. A tapered piece will result, ·when the work is
of the machine is about _ _ the speed used
turned between centers, if the centers are not
for com·entional turning.
aligned. Approximate alignment can be deter-
mined by two methods. What are they? 23. Why is a concave rake ground on top of the
cutter when used for parting operations?
19. Describe one method for checking center align-
ment if close tolerance work is to be done 24. There are many safety precautions that must be
between centers. observed ·when operating a lathe. List ,,rhat you
consider the five most important.
20. It is often necessarv to turn to a shoulder or to
a point where the diameters of the ·work
change. One of four types of shoulders will be
specified. Make a sketch of each.
a. Square shoulder.
b. Angular shoulder.
c. Filleted shoulder.
d. Undercut shoulder.
 Chapter 14

Cutting Ta.p ers and Screw

Threads on the Lathe
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
0 Describe how a taper is turned on a lathe.
0 Calculate tailstock setover for turning a
taper.
0 Safely set up and operate a lathe for taper
turning.
0 Describe the various forms of screw
threads.
0 Cut screw threads on a lathe.

IMPORTANT TERMS
external f-hreads setover
internal threads taper attachment
major diameter thread cutting stop
minor diameter three-wire method of
offset tailstock method measuring threads
pitch diameter
14.1 TAPER TURNING
A section of material is considered to be tapered
when it increases or decreases in diameter at a uni-
form rate, Figure 14-1. A cone is an example of a
taper. The "wedging" action of a taper makes it Figure 14-1. Taper. A-The diameter of a taper increases or
ideal as a means for driving drills, milling arbors, decreases at a uniform rate. B and C-These pieces are "bell
shaped," rather than tapered.
end mills, and centers. In addition, it can be assem-
bled and disassembled easily, and will automati-
cally align itself in a similarly tapered hole each
time. Taper can be stated in taper per inch, taper per 14. I. I Taper turning with compound rest
foot, degrees, millimeters per 25 mm of length, or as The compound rest method of turning a taper is
a ratio, Figure 14-2. the easiest. Either internal or external tapers can be
There are five principal methods of machining machined, as shown in Figure 14-4.
tapers on a lathe. Each has its advantages and Taper length is limited, however, by the move-
disadvantages. The five methods are listed in ment of the compound rest. Because the compound
Figure 14-3. rest base is graduated in degrees, Figure 14-5, the
 Machining F-undamenta!s

taper must be converted to degrees. A conversion

table may be used. See Figure 14-6.
A careful study of the print will show ,vhether
the angle given is from center, or is the included
angle. Figure 14-7 shows the difference in methods
of measuring angles. If an included angle is given, it
must be divided by two to obtain the angle from the
centerline.
'\Nith the lathe's centerline representing o~, piYot
the compound rest to the desired angle and lock it in
position. It is the usual practice to turn a taper from
the smaller diameter to the larger diameter. Refer to
Figure 14-4A.
As ·will be the case when turning all tapers, the
cutting tool must be set on exact center. A toolholder
that will proYide ample clearance should be
selected.
To machine a taper, bring the cutting tool into
position with the work and lock the carriage to pre-
vent it from shifting during the turning operation. A
Since there is no pmver feed for the compound
rest, the cutting tool must be fed eYenly with both

. ~1
tl --r--~_,_r
40.2
39.8
I

032.0>--- - ,_ 024.1

I I
l ~
-- _J_

Taper on diameter0.2:1
B
Figure 14-4. Cutting tapers using the compound rest.
A-External taper. Note that the cut is being made from small
Figure 14-2. Taper may be stated as a ratio (0.2: 1, in the diameter to large diameter. B-lnternaf taper being turned with
example above), taper per inch, taper per foot, degrees, or in the compound rest.
millimeters per 25 mm.

Ways of Machining Tapers

Method Advantages and disadvantages Information needed

1. Compound Length of taper limited. Will cut Must know the

external and internal taper. taper angle.

2. Offset tailstock External taper only. Must work Taper per inch
between ce!lters. or taper per foot.

3. Taper attachment Best method to use. Angle or taper

per inch or foot.

4. Tool bit Very short taper. Taper angle.

j 5. Reamer Internal only. Taper nurnber.

Figure 14-3. Methods by which tapers can be turned on a lathe.

Chapter 14 Cutting Tapen and Screw Threads on the Lathe

Figure 14-7. The two methods used to measure angles.

A-Angle measured from the centerline of the workpiece.
8-Measurement of the included angle.

Figure 14-5. Base of the compound rest is marked in degrees

to aid in precise positioning.
14. 1.2 Taper turning by offset tailstock method
The offset tailstock method, also known as the
Taper per Foot with
Corresponding Angles tailstock setover method, is also employed for taper
turning, Figure 14-8. Jobs that can be turned
Taper per Included Angle with between centers may be taper turned by this tech-
foot angle centerline
nique. Only external tapers can be machined in this
1/16 0° 17' 53" oo 8' 57" way, however.
1/8 0° 35' 47" 0° 17' 54"
3/16 0° 53' 44" 0° 26' 52" Most lathe tailstocks consist of two parts, which
1/4 1° 11' 38" 0° 35' 49" permits the upper portion to be shifted off center,
5/16 1° 29' 31" 0°44' 46"
3/8 1° 47' 25" 0° 53' 42" Figure 14-9. This movement, referred to as setover,
7/16 2° 5' 18" 10 2' 39" is accomplished by loosening the anchor bolt that
1/2 2° 23' 12" 1°11'36" locks the tailstock to the ways, then making the
9/16 2° 41' 7" 1° 20' 34"
5/8 2° 58' 3" 1° 29' 31" proper adjustments with screws on the tailstock.
11/16 3° 16' 56" 1° 38' 28" After the setover has been made, the screws are
3/4 3° 34' 48" 1° 47' 24"
13/16 3° 52' 42" 1° 56' 21" drawn up snug, but not tight.
7/8 4° 10' 32" 20 5' 16"
15/16 4° 28' 26" 2° 14' 13"
1 4° 46' 19" 2° 23' 10"

Figure 14-6. You can use this table to convert taper per foot into
co"esponding angles for adjustment of the compound rest.

Centerline
of work
Tailstock
hands to achieve a smooth finish. The entire cut I
must be made without stopping the cutting tool.
The· compound rest is moved back to the starting
point and positioned with the cross-slide for the
next cut.
When tapers are cut with a compound rest, the
work can be mounted between centers or held in a
chuck. A suitable boring bar is needed when
machining internal tapers. Some internal tapers are Figure 14-8. Machining a taper using the offset tailstock
finished to size with a taper reamer. method.
 --~----- L --------.-1
I...~ f - - - - - i - - - - 1

11--·I- lI
Figure 14-11. Basic taper information. D = diameter at large
end of taper; d = diameter at small end of taper; t = length of
taper; L = total length of piece.

14.2. I Calculating setover when taper per inch

is known
Information needed:
Figure 14-9. The tailstock is usually constructed in two parts.
TPI = Taper per inch
This aflows the section mounting the center to be shifted refa-
tive to the lathe's centerline. The distance off center, or setover, L = Total length of piece
can be checked by observing the witness lines. (Rockwell L X TPI
International) Formula used: Offset=
2
Example: \Vhat v,ill be the tailstock setover for
14.2 CALCULATING TAILSTOCK the following job?
SETOVER Taper per inch = 0.0125
Taper turning by this technique is not a precise Total length of piece = 8.000
method and requires some "trial and error" adjust- L XTPI
ments to produce an accurate tapered section. The Offset =
2
approximate setover can be calculated when certain 8.000 X 0.125
basic information is knmvn. = 2
Offset must be calculated for each job, because = 0.500"
the length of the piece plays an important part in the
calculations. When lengths of the pieces vary, differ- Note: The same procedure would be followed
ent tapers ·will be produced with the same tailstock ·when using metric units. However, all dimensions
offset, Figure 14-10. ·would be in millimeters.
The following terms are used with calculating
tailstock setover. See Figure 14-11. 14.2.2 Calculating setover when taper per foot
D = Diameter at large end is known
d = Diameter at small end
vVhen taper per foot (TPF) is kno½'ll, it must be
t = Length of taper converted to taper per inch (TPI). The following for-
L = Total length of piece
mula takes this into account:
TPI = Taper per inch
TPF = Taper per foot TPFX L
Offset = 24

Tailstock
14.2.3 Calculating setover when dimensions of
tapered sections are known but TPI or
TPF is not given
Plans often do not specify TPI or TPF, but do
give other pertinent information. Calculations will
be easier if all fractions are converted to decimals.
Figure 14-10. Length of work causes taper to vary even though All dimensions must either be in inches or in
tailstock offset remains the same. millimeters.
Chapter 14 Cutting Tapers and Screw Threads on the Lathe

Information needed:
D --- Diameter at large end
d = Diameter at small end
t = Length of taper
L = Total length of piece
L X (D-d)
Formula used: Offset = 2t
Example: Calculate the tailstock setover for the
following job.
D = 1.250"
d = 0.875"
t = 3.000"
L = 9.000''
L X (D-d)
Offset = 2t
9.000 X (1.25CHJ.875)
= 2 X 3.000
9.000 X 0.375
= 6
= 0.562°

14.2.4 Calculating setover when taper is given

in degrees Adjustiny
screw
The space available in this text does not permit /

the introduction of basic trigonometry, which is nec- B Witness line

essary to make these calculations. However, any FlgunJ 14-12. Measuring setovar. A-Approximate tai/stock
good machinist's handbook will provide this infor- setover can be determined by measuring distance between
mation. At least one such book should be part of center points. B-Approximate setover can also be determined
every machinist's toolbox. by measuring distance between witness lines on the tailstock.

14.3 MEASURING TAILSTOCK the micrometer collar on the lathe cross-slide.

See Figure 14-13.
SETOVER
When an ample tolerance is allowed, (±0.015" or 1. Clamp the toolholder in a reverse position in
0.05 mm), the setover can be measured with a steel the tool post.
rule. There are two ways to measure: 2. Turn the cross-slide screw back to remove all
• Place a rule that has graduations on both play.
edges between the center points, Figure
14-12A. Measure the distance between the 3. Turn in the compound rest until the toolholder
center points. can be felt with a piece of paper between the
• Measure the distance between the two wit- toolholder and tailstock spindle.
ness lines on the tailstock base, Figure 14-12B. 4. Use the micrometer collar and turn out the
Accurate work requires care in making the tail- cross-slide screw the distance the tailstock is to
stock setover. An additional factor enters into the be set over.
calculations-:-the distance that the center point
enters the piece. Typically, 1 / 4" (6.5 mm) is an 5. Move the tailstock over until the spindle
ample allowance; it must be subtracted from the touches the paper in same manner described in
total length of the piece. Step 3.
Use the appropriate method to calculate the 6. Check the setting again after "snugging up"
offset. A precise setover may be made using the adjusting screws.

\
m Machining Fundamentals

In place of the toolholder and paper strip, a dial

indicator can be employed to establish the offset. See
Figure 14-14.
1. Mount the dial indicator in the tool post.
2. Position it with the cross-slide until the indica-
tor reads zero ·when in contact with the tail-
stock spindle. There should be no "play" in the
cross-slide.
3. Set the tailstock over the required dis-
tance using the dial indicator to make the
measurement.
4. Recheck the reading after "snugging up" the
adjusting screws. Make additional adjustments
if any deviation in the indicator reading occurs.

•
14.4 CUTTING A TAPER
When cutting a taper, additional strain is
imposed on the centers because they are out-of-line
and do not bear true in the center holes. Because the
Required J pressures imposed are uneven, the work is more apt
setover to heat up than when doing conventional turning
between centers. It must be checked frequently for

l binding. A bell-type center drill offers some advan-

tage in reducing strain. Some machinists prefer a
center with a ball tip to produce an improved bear-
ing surface. See Figure 14-15.
Make the cuts as in conventional turning.
However, cutting should start at the small end of the
taper.

14.4. I Turning a ta,per with a taper attachment

A taper attachment is a guide that can be
attached to most lathes. It is an accurate way to cut
tapers and offers advantages over other methods of
machining tapers.
Both internal and external tapers can be cut.
This helps assure an accurate fit for mating parts.
Once the attachment has been set, the taper can be
machined on material of various lengths. \\Tork can
be held by any conventional means. One end of the
taper attachment swivel bar is graduated in total
taper in inches per foot. The other end is graduated
to indicate the included angle of the taper in
degrees.
The lathe does not have to be altered. The
machine can be used for straight turning by locking
Figure 14-13. Using the micrometer collar of the compound rest out the taper attachment. ~o realignment of the
to make the setover measurement. lathe is necessary.
Chapter 14 Cutting'rapers and ScrewThreaC:s on the Lathe

Figure 14-14. A dial indicator can also be used to measure amount of setover.

14.4.2 Types of taper attachments

There are two types of taper attachments, plain
and telescopic. See Figure 14-16. The plain taper
attachment requires disengaging the cross-slide
screw from the cross-slide feed nut. The cutting tool
is advanced by using the compound rest feed screw.

Bearing surface
A Plain-type center drill hole very limited

Work is supported
by a much larger
B Bell-type center drill hole portion of center

C Ball-tipped center

Figure 14-15. Taper turning done by the offset tailstock method

is hard on the tailstock center. A-Center point does not bear
evenly in conventional center hole. B-A center hole drilled wfth
a bell-type center drill reduces the problem by providing more Figure 14-16. Taper attachments. A-Plain taper attachment.
bearing surface. C-A ba/1-tippsd center lessens pressure on (South Bend Lathe Corp.) B-Te/escopic taper attachment.
tail center when fuming tapers. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.)
p .ac!iir:i.ig ,:undamer.tals

The telescopic taper attachment is made in The tool is positioned on center and fed into the
such a way that it is not necessary to disconnect the revolving ,,vork. "Chatter'' can be minimized by
cross-slide feed nut. The tool can be advanced into running the ,rnrk at a slow spindle speed. The car-
the ,rnrk ·with the cross-slide screw in the u~ual riage must be locked to the ways.
manner. Before using any of the taper-turni..'lg techniques
on work mounted between centers, it is very impor-
14.4.3 Setting a taper attachment tant that centers be "zeroed in" ( put in perfect align-
ment). Then the necessary adjustments (tailstock
1. Study the plans and, if necessary, calculate the setover, taper attachment adjustment) can be made.
taper. Set the swivel bar as specified from the
calculations.
14.S MEASURING TAPERS
2. Mount the work in the machine. There are two basic methods of testing the
3. Slide the taper attachment unit to a position accuracy of machined tapers. One is a compar-
that "·ill permit the cutting tool to travel the ison method; the other involves direct taper
full length of the taper. Lock it to the ways. measurement.
4. Move the carriage to the right until the cutting 14.5. I Measuring tapers by comparison
tool is about l" (23 mm) away from the end of
the work. This will permit any play to be taken
Taper plug gages and taper ring gages serve two
purposes, Figure 14-18. They measure the basic
up before the tool starts to cut.
diameter of the taper as well as the angle of slope.
5. If the machine is fitted "ith a plain taper The angle is checked by applying bluing (usually a
attachment, tighten the binding screi;,· that liquid known as "Prussian blue") to the machined
engages the cross-slide feed to the attachment. surface or plug gage. The blued section is inserted
6. Oil the bearing surfaces of the taper attachment into the mating part and slowly rotated. If the blu-
and make a trial cut. If necessary, readjust until ing rubs off evenly, it indicates that the taper is cor-
the taper is being cut to specifications. rect. If the bluing rubs off unez,1enly, Figure 14-19, the
Complete the cutting operation. remaining material will show where the taper is
incorrect and indicate what machine adjustments
14.4.4 Turning a taper with a square~nose tool are needed.
Gages are also provided with notches to indicate
Using a square-nose tool is a taper tech- the specified tolerance in taper diameter. The inden-
nique limited to the production of short tapers, tations show the go and no-go limits, Figure 14-20.
Figure 14-17. The cutter bit is ground with a
square nose and set to the correct angle with the
protractor head and blade of a combination set.

Figure 14-18. Left-Plug gage. Right-Ring gage.

ZChalk or bluing

Figure 14-19. When chalk or bluing does not rub off evenly, it
Figure 14-17. A short taper can be turned with a square-nose indicates that taper does not fit properly and additional machine
tool. adjustments will have to be made.
Chapter 14 CuttingTapen and ScrewThreads on the Lathe

Adjustable
straight edges

0
Tapered section Base
Figure 14-20. Typical go and no-go ring gage for measuring being measured
tapers.
Figure 14-21. A taper test gage can be set for different tapers.

14.5.2 Direct measurement of tapers

A taper test gage is sometimes employed to
check taper accuracy, Figure 14-21. It consists of a Blocks 1", 3", or 6" (25, 75, or 150 mm) taller
base with two adjustable straight edges. Slots in the than those used for the first reading are substituted.
straight edges permit adapting the gage to check The rods are the same diameter as those used to
different tapers. The taper test gage is set by using make the first reading. A second reading is made,
two discs of known size which are located the cor- Figure 14-22B. The taper per foot then can be deter-
rect distance apart. mined. First, subtract to find the difference between
Another technique for checking and/ or measur- the two measurements. Then multiply it by twelve
ing tapers is to set the tapered section on a surface (if the readings were made 1" apart), by four (if they
plate. Two gage blocks or ground parallels of the were made 3" apart), or by two (if they were made
same height are placed on opposite sides of the 6" apart).
taper. Two cylindrical rods (sections of drill rod are A sine bar is a very accurately machined bar
satisfactory) of the same diameter are placed on the with edges that are parallel, Figure 14-23. The bar is
blocks. See Figure 14-22. The distance across the used in conjunction with gage blocks and sine tables
rods is then measured with a micrometer. to precisely measure angles.

I Drill

~F~
er - - ~
teatllhg
/ rodl
Steel
1" Steel
parallel
pa~,~ ~ • ~ _l
A Surface plate B
Figure 14-22. Measuring a taper using parallels, drill rod, micrometer, and a surface plate. A-Setup for first measurement. B-Setup
tor second measurement.
,m1..__________________________________M_a_c:_:ti_ni_r._g_F_11_,~!.!_1a_r.?_•• e_r._.t_ai_s
14.6 CUTTING SCREW THREADS
ON THE LATHE
Sere\\· threads are utilized for many applica-
tions. The more important are:
• Making adjustments (cross-feed on a lathe).
• Assembling parts (nuts, bolts, and screws).
• Transmitting motion (lead screw on a lathe).
• Applying pressure (clamps).
• Making measurements (micrometer).
14.6. I Screw thread forms
The first screw threads cut by machine were
square in cross-section. Since that time, many differ-
ent thread forms have been developed, including
Figure 14-23. A sine bar and precision gage blocks can also be American National, Unified, Sharp V, Acme, \\Torm
used to measure a taper. (C.E. Johannson Co.) threads, and others. Each thread form has a specific
use and a formula for calculating its shape and size.
See Figure 14-24. More than 75% of all threads cut in
the United States are of the Unified (UN) 60° type.

r - - = - Pitch 7

1 ~--1-;--1
----- ------·------.-t p
2

A
d= height of sharp "V" thread
American National Unified 0.167d
__J
D Square
r Pitch l
...- - - - - ~

1 0.866
Unified Thread Pitch= N d=~

1 d - 0.866
Sharp V Thread Pitch= N - N

Sharp "V" 1 p
B Acme Thread Pitch= N d = 2 -i- 0.010
Flat = 0.371P
Root = 0.71P-0.0052

. 1
Square Thread Pitch= N
p
Flat or space = 2

C Acme
Figure 14-24. Common thread forms. A-Unified thread form, interchangeable with American National Thread. B-Sharp~v" thread
form. C-Acme thread form. D-Square thread form. Note: In formulas above, N = Number of threads per inch:
P = Pitch; d = depth of thread.
Chapter 14 Cutting Tapers and Screw Threads on the Lathe

The following terms relate to screw threads, as

shown in Figur~ 14-.25:
• External threads are cut on the outside sur-
face of piece.
• Internal threads are cut on the inside surface
of piece.
• Major diameter is the largest diameter of the
thread.
A
• Minor diameter is the smallest diameter of the
thread.
• Pitch diameter is the diameter of an imagi-
nary cylinder that would pass through
threads at such points to make width of
thread and width of the spaces at these points
equal.
• Pitch is the distance from one thread point to
B
the next thread point, measured parallel to
the thread axis. Pitch of inch-based threads is
equal to 1 divided by the number of threads
per inch.
• Lead is the distance that a nut will travel in
one complete revolution of the screw. On a
single thread, the lead and pitch are the same.
Multiple thread screws have been developed
to secure an increase in lead without weaken-
ing the thread. See Figure 14-26. Figure 14-26. The difference between lead and pitch. A-
Single thread screw, the pitch and lead are equal. B-Double
thread screw, the lead is twice the pitch. C-Triple thread screw,
the lead is three times the pitch.

14.6.2 Preparing to cut 60° threads on a lathe

Nut Length of Sharpen the cutting tool to the correct shape,
engagement
including the proper clearance. The top is ground
flat with no side or back rake, Figure 14-27. An oil-
stone is used to touch up the cutting edges and form
the radius on the tip.
A center gage is used for grinding and setting
the tool bit in position, Figure 14-28. The gage is
often referred to as a fishtail.

~~~~
w
60°

Root
,......._--+-----.

Figure 14-27. Cutting tool positioned tor cutting 60° threads.

Figure 14-25. Nomenclature of a thread. The tool is set on center as shown.
Jffl Machining Fundamentals

method. They require perfect coordination and very

rapid operation of the cross-slide to get the tool out
of position at the end of the cut.
The gearbox is adjusted to cut the correct num-
ber of threads. Make apron adjustments to permit
the half-nuts to be engaged. After the proper apron
and gear adjustments have been made, pfrot the
Figure 14-28. A center gage or "fishtail." (Lufkin Rule Co.) compound rest to 29° to the right, Figure 14-30.
Then set the threading tool in place.
The vwrk is set up in the same manner as for It is essential that the tool be set on center with
straight turning. If mounted between centers, the the tool axis at 90° to the centerline of the work.
centers must be precisely aligned; otherwise, a
tapered thread will be produced. If this occurs, the
thread will not be usable unless it is cut excessively
deep at one end. The work must also run true with - - . - --1--- -
no "wobble." The tail of the lathe dog must have no
play in the face plate slot.
A groove is frequently cut at the point where the
thread is to terminate, Figure 14-29. The thread end
groove is cut equal to the minor diameter of the
thread and serves two purposes:
• It provides a place to stop the threading tool
at the end of its cut.
• It permits a nut to be run up to the end of the
thread.
Several methods may be employed to terminate
a thread, as shown in Figure 14-29. Ordinarily~ the
beginner should use a groove until sufficient experi-
ence has been gained. However, the design of some
parts does not permit a groove to be used. In such a Figure 14-30. The compound rest is set up for machining right-

-r
case, the threads must be terminated by another hand external threads.

Clearance groove
(~wide)

A
C

B D
Figure 14-29. Techniques for terminating a screw thread. A-Square groove. B- Round groove. C-Sma/1 shallow hole. D-Tool
withdrawn from thread at end of cut.
Chapter 14 CuttlngTapel'S and ScrewTh.-eads on the Lathe

This is done with the aid of a center gage. Place the the work, lock the stop to the saddle dovetail
gage against the work while the tool is set into a V, with the adjusting screw just bearing on the stop,
Figure 14-31. Tool height can be set by using the Figure 14-33.
centerline scribed on the tailstock spindle or with After a cutting pass has been made, move the
the center point. tool back from the work with the cross-slide screw.
The compound rest is set at 29° to permit the Move the carriage back to start another cut. Feed the
tool to shear the chip better than if it were fed tool into the work until the adjusting screw again
straight into the work, Figure 14-32. Since the angle bears against the thread cutting stop. By turning
of the tool is 30° and it is fed in at an angle of 29°, the the compound rest in a distance of 0.002" to 0.005"
slight shaving action that results will produce a (0.05 mm to 0.12 mm), the tool will be positioned for
smooth finish on the right side of the thread. At the the next cut.
same time, not enough metal is removed to interfere A thread dial that meshes with the lead screw is
with the main chip that is removed by the left edge fitted to the carriage of most lathes, Figure 14-34.
of the tool. The thread dial is used to indicate when to engage
Since the tool must be removed from the work the half-nuts, which permit the tool to follow
after each cut and repositioned before the next exactly in the original cut. The thread dial elimi-
cut can be started, a thread cutting stop may be nates the need to reverse spindle rotation after each
used. After the point of the tool is set to just touch cut to bring the tool back to the starting point.

Thread-cutting
stop

\
Carriage
Cross-feed screw
micrometer dial

Figure 14-31. Positioning a cutting tool for machining threads, Figure 14-33. After being properly adjusted, the thread cutting
using a center gage. stop will let you start next cut in same location.

A
~ f ect~n
feed

B
Tip of threading
tool will break off
and threads
will not be
accurate
t DirecUon
of feed

Figure 14-32. Cutting action ot tool. A-When the tool is fed in at 29° angle, note that only one edge is cutting, and that the cutting
load is distributed evenly across the edge. B--When fed straight in, note that both edges are cutting and weakest part of tool, the
point, is doing hardest work.
p Machining Fundamentals

Figure 14-35. Typical thread dial faces.

• For all threads involving one-fourth of a thread

in each inch (such as 4 3/4), return to the orig-
inal starting line before closing the half-nuts.
On lathes that have been converted to metric
threading capability, the thread dial cannot be used.
When thread cutting ·with such a lathe, the half-nuts
(once closed) must not be opened until the thread is
completely cut. The spindle rotation must be
Figure 14-34. Thread dials. A-Thread dial for cutting inch- reversed after each cut to return the tool to its start-
based threads. B-Dial used for cutting either inch-based or ing position.
metric-based threads. The housing contains a series of gears, The thread dial can be used, however, on lathes
with gear selection depending upon threads being cut.
(Clausing Industrial, Inc.)
with full metric capabilities. The thread dial will
vary with the lathe manufacturer and must be con-
sidered individually. To be sure of correct thread
dial procedure, consult the manufacturer's hand-
The face of the thread dial, Figure 14-35, rotates book for the machine.
when the half-nuts are not engaged. When the
desired graduation moves into alignment with the 14.6.3 Making the cut
index line, the half-nuts can be engaged. Set the spindle speed to about one-fourth the
The thread dial is used as follows for all inch- speed that is used for conventional turning. Feed in
based threads: the tool until it just touches t..lte work. Then, move
• For all even-numbered threads, close the half- the tool beyond the right end of the work and adjust
nuts at anv line on the dial. it to take a 0.002" (0.05 mm) cut.
• For all odd-numbered threads, close the half- Turn on the power and engage the half-nuts
nuts at any numbered line on the dial. when indicated by the thread dial. This cut is made
• For all threads involving one-half of a thread in to check whether the lathe is producing the correct
each inch (such as 11 1/2), close the half-nuts threads. Thread pitch can be checked with a rule
at any odd numbered line. or with a screw pitch gage, Figure 14-36. When
Chapt~r 14 Cu~.:ir.g-ape:-:. rnd ScrenThrez.ds or. the uithe

A
-B

Figure 14-36. Always check thread pitch after first light cut has
been made. A-Checking with a rule. 8----Checking with a screw Figure 14-37. Cutting threads with a partial-profile insert. The
pitch gage. major (outside} diameter of the thread must be cut to size before
using this type insert.

everything checks, make additional cuts, working in

0.005" (0.12 mm) increments, until the thread is Debarring may be required when cutting threads on
almost to size. The last few cuts should be no more most metals.
than 0.002" (0.05 mm) deep. Note that all advances Full-profile inserts, Figure 14-38, produce the
of the cutting tool are made with the compound rest best thread form and finish. The tool cuts the lead-
feed screw. ing flank, the root, and the trailing flank simultane-
A liberal application of cutting oil, before each ously. The machinist needs only to check the pitch
cut, will help to obtain a smooth finish. diameter to determine if the major and minor diam-
eters of the thread are to size. No deburring is nec-
14.6.4 Resetting tool in thread essary since the insert trims the thread crest. The
It is sometimes necessary to replace a broken disadvantage of the full-profile insert is that a sepa-
cutting tool, or to resharpen it for the finish cuts. rate insert is required for each thread pitch.
After replacing the tool, you must realign it with the
portion of the thread already cut. This can be done I 4.6.6 Measuring threads
as follows: Measure threads at frequent intervals during the
machining operation to assure accuracy. The easiest
1. Set the tool on center and position it with a
way to check thread size is to try fitting the threaded
center gage.
piece into a threaded hole or nut of the proper size.
2. Engage the half-nuts at the proper thread dial If the piece does not fit, it is too large and further
graduation. machining is necessary. This technique is not very
3. Move the tool back from the work and rotate accurate, but is usually satisfactory when close tol-
erances are not specified.
the spindle until the tool reaches a position
about halfway down the threaded section. A thread micrometer can be used to make quick,
accurate thread measurements. It has a pointed
4. Using the compound rest screw and the cross-
slide screw, align the tool in the existing thread.
Reset the thread cutting stop after the tool has
been aligned.

14.6.5 Cutting threads with insert-ty.pe cutting

tools
There are two basic types of 60° threading
inserts, the partial profile insert and the full-profile
insert.
Partial-profile inserts, Figure 14-37, are most
commonly used because they can cut a range of
thread pitches. However, the major diameter (OD) Figure 14-38. Using a full-profile insert to cut a thread. A sepa-
of the thread must be cut to size prior to threading. rate insert is required tor each thread pitch.
 Machining Fundamentals

spindle and a double-V anvil to engage the thread.

See Figure 14-39.
The micrometer reading given is the true pitch
diameter. It equals the outside diameter of the screw
minus the depth of one thread. Each micrometer
is designed to read a limited number of thread
pitches and is available in both inch and millimeter
graduations.
==n l M

M = D + 3G - 1.5~55

Where: M = Measurement over the wires

D= Major diameter of thread
d = Minor diameter of thread
G= Diameter of wires
. 1
P =Pitch= N

Figure 14-39. A thread micrometer can be used to check cut N = Number of threads per inch
threads precisely. (L. S. Starrett Co.)
The smallest wire size that may be used for a given
thread:
_ 0.560
G- N
The three-wire method of measuring threads has
proven to be quite satisfactory. As shown in Figure The largest wire size that can be used for a given
14-40A, three wires of a specific diameter are fitted thread:
into the threads and a micrometer measurement is - 0.900
G- N
made over the wires. The formula in Figure 14-40B
·will provide the information necessary to calculate The three-wire formula will work only if "G" is no larger
the correct measurement over the ·wires. or smaller than the sizes determined above. Any wire
A three-wire thread measuring system has been diameter between the two extremes may be used.
developed to simplify and speed up the measuring B L.,_All__________________
wires must be the same diameter. __,
process. It consists of a digital micrometer mounted Figure 14-40. Three-wire method of measuring screw threads.
in a special fixture that holds the threaded work- A-Arrangement of the workpiece, wires, and micrometer.
piece and the three ,vires. See Figure 14-41. B-The three-wire thread measuring formula.

14.6. 7 Cutting le~-hand threads

Left-hand threads are cut in basically the same
manner as right-hand threads. The major differ-
ences involve pivoting the compound to the left
and changing the lead screw rotation so the car-
riage travels toward the tailstock (left to right),
Figure 14-42.

14.6.8 Cutting square threads

Square threads are employed to transmit
motion. They are more difficult to cut than 60~
Figure 14-41. Thread measurements can be made in a fraction
threads. of the time normally needed with this new three-wire measuring
To cut a square thread, first calculate the width system. Wires are mounted in individual holders that fit into the
of the required tool bit (0.3 X thread pitch). If the clamping fixture. (Mitutoyo/MTI Corp.)
 Chaj>ter- 14 -t:uttbgTapers arid !;crewTllr-eads on the Lath-a

square thread is fairly coarse, a roughing tool is approximate depth, then finished with an Acme-
ground 0.010" to 0.015" (0.2 mm to 0,4 mm) smaller shaped tool. The compound rest is set to 14° a..-..d
than the thread groove width. The cutting point of the tool is positioned using the thread gage, Figure
the finishing tool is ground 0.002" to 0.003" (0.05 14-45. Other than this, Acme threads are cut in the
mm to 0.08 mm) wider than the calculated groove same manner as the Sharp V thread.
width. Be sure adequate clearance is ground on the
cutting tool, Figure 14-43.

14.6.9 Cutting Acme threads

On the Acme thread, the top and bottom are flat,
but the sides have a 29° included angle. It was orig-
inally developed to replace the square thread. Its
advantages are the strength and ease with which it
can be cut, compared to the square thread. The
thread form is employed in machine tools for pre-
cise control of component movement.
The Acme screw thread gage is the standard for
grinding and setting Acme thread cutting tools. The
tool angle is ground to fit a V in the thread gage. The Figure 14-44. The Acme screw thread gage and tool setup
width of the flat section varies with the pitch of the gage will allow you to check lathe settings.
thread. This width is obtained by grinding back the
tool point until it fits into the notch appropriate for
the thread being cut. See Figure 14-44.
In cutting the threads, the groove is usually
roughed out with a square nosed tool to

- .....
\ ..

...
'
Tool travel
F57777777$,
A
Figure 14-42. D;rect;on of tool travel for cutting left-hand
threads.

90

Acme thread gage

1° clearance
leading edge
l B
Figure 14-45. Cutting Acme threads. A-Compound setting tor
Figure 14-43. Allow adequate side clearance when sharpening cutting Acme threads. B-Cutting tool is posWoned with an
a tool to cut square threads. Acme thread gage.
~,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _H_ ,_,t_'1_1r_,1_n8
_ F_
c.1_m_1.i_,_
11l!
_''_11_,,_h,

14.6. IO Cutting internal threads

Internal threads, Figure 14-46, are made on the
lathe with a com:entional boring bar and a cutting
tool sharpened to the proper shape.
Before internal threads can be machined, the
work must be prepared. A hole is drilled and bored
to correct size for the thread's minor diameter. A
recess is then machined with a square-nosed tool at
the point where the thread terminates, Figure 14-47.
The diameter of the recess is equal to the major
diameter of the thread.
~ ' - - -_;:.
To cut right-hand internal threads, pivot the Tool
compound rest 29° to the left, as shown in t ravei
Figure 14-48. Mount the tool on center and align it,
using a center gage, Figure 14-49.
Bring the tool up until it just touches the work
surface. Adjust the micrometer collar on the

Figure 14-48. Compound setting tor cutting internal right-hand

screw threads.

Figure 14-46. Internal threads.

Figure 14-49. How to position cutting tool tor machining internal

screw threads.

Major cross-slide to zero with the tool in position. Using

diameter
the compound rest screw, adjust the cutter to make
Drilled a cut of 0.002" (0.05 mm).
hole Remember that, when cutting internal threads,
tool infeed and removal from the cut are the reverse
of those used when cutting external threads.
A problem may arise in trying to determine
when the tool has traveled far enough into the hole
so the half-nuts can be disengaged. One method
makes use of a line that has been lightly scribed in a
blued area on the flat way of the lathe bed. The tool
Figure 14-47. Opening tor internal screw threads has been will have advanced far enough when the carriage
drilled and grooves machined to the major diameter. reaches this point.
 Chapte1· 14 Cutting Tapers and Screw Threads on the Lathe

Another technique allows you to start at the Continue making additional cuts until the
back of the hole when cutting internal threads. Pivot threads are finished. Because the toolho!der is not as
the compound rest 29° to the right. Place the thread- rigid, lighter cuts must be taken when cutting inter-
ing tool to the rear of the boring bar with the cutting nal threads than when machining external threads,.
edge up. See Figure 14-50. Keep the work flooded with cutting fluid.
The lathe spindle is run in reverse. To prevent
the tool from being placed too far into the hole to 14.6. I I Cutting threads on a taper surface
start the cut, mount a micrometer ca..""I'iage stop on Tapered threads must be cut, at times, to obtain
the ways. See Figure 14-51. The carriage is returned a fluid- or gas-tight joint. When this situation arises,
until it touches the stop. For cutting the threads, the threading tool must be positioned in relation to
follow the same general procedure previously the centerline of the taper rather than to the taper
described. itself, Figure 14-52.

Reverse 29 01
,::~ I \ --~--

Figure 14-52. Tool setup method for machining screw threads

on a taper. Note that the tool is not positioned on the taper.

Tool
travel
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Please do not write in the text. Write your
Figure 14-50. An alternative setup for cutting internal right-hand
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
threads. The work rotates in a direction opposite that of normal 1. There are five ways of machining tapers on a
turning operations.
lathe. List them, with their advantages and dis-
advantages.
2. When is a section of material considered
tapered?
3. Machine adjustments must be calculated for
each tapering job. The information given below
will enable you to calculate the necessary tail-
stock setover for the problems given.
Formula: When taper per inch is known,
LX TPI
Offset= 2
When taper per foot is known,
LXTPF
Offset= 24

When dimensions of tapered section are

Figure 14-51. When using alternate technique ror cuumg
internal right-hand threads, mount a micrometer carriage stop
known but TPI or TPF is not given,
on the ways. Adjust it to prevent the tool from being placed too L X (D-d)
far into hole when starting each cut. Offset = 2 Xt
 Where: 12. A groove is cut at the point where a thread is to
TPI = Taper per inch terminate. It is cut to the depth of the thread
TPF = Taper per foot and serves to:
D = Diameter at large end of taper a. Provide a place to stop the threading tool
d = Diameter at small end of taper after it makes a cut.
t = Length of taper b. Permits a nut to be run up to the end of
L = Total length of piece the thread.
c. Terminate the thread.
Note: These formulas, except for the TPF d. All of the above.
formula, can be used when dimensions are e. None of the above.
inmm.
13. The tip of a cutting tool to cut a Sharp V thread
Problem A: VVhat will the tailstock setover be
is sharpened using a _ _ to check that it is
for the follo'-wing job?
the correct shape. This tool is frequently called
Taper per inch = 0.125" a _ _.
Total length of piece = 4.000"
Problem B: What will the tailstock seto\·er be 1-l. The _ _ is fitted to many lathe carriages. It
for the following job? meshes ·with the lead screw and is used to indi-
D = 2.50" cate when to engage the half-nuts to permit the
d = 1.75" thread cutting tool to follow exactly-in the orig-
t = 6.00" inal cut.
L = 9.00" 13. The compound rest is set at _ _ when cutting
Problem C: What w ill the tailstock setover be threads to permit the cutting tool to shear the
for the following job? material better than if it were fed straight into
D = 43.0mm the work.
d = 23.0mm 16. The three-,;dre thread measuring formula for
t = 175.0mm. inch-based threads is:
L = 275.0mm
4. Screw threads are used for manv reasons. list M = D+ 3G - l.~S:5
five or more important uses.
The following questions are of the matching
type. Place the letter of the correct explanation on Where: G = Wire diameter
your paper. D = Major diameter of thread
(Convert to decimal size)
5. External thread.
M = Measurement m~er the wires
6. _ _ Internal thread. K = ='J'umber of threads per inch
7. _ _ Major diameter.
8. Minor diameter.
Problem: Calculate the correct measurement
9. _ _ Pitch diameter. oYer the wires for the following threads. Use
10. Pitch. the wire size giYen in the problem.
11. Lead. a. 1/2-20 l JNF
a. Smallest diameter of thread. (wire size 0.032")
b. Largest diameter of thread. b. 1/4-20 l JNC
c. Distance from one point on a thread to a (wire size 0.032")
corresponding point on next thread. c. 3/8-16 UNC
d. Cut on outside surface of piece. (wire size 0.045")
e. Diameter of imaginary cylinder that d. 7 /16-14 lJKC
°\'vould pass through threads at such (wire size 0.060")
points as to make width of thread and
"·idth of space at these points equal.
f. Cut on inside surface of piece.
g. Distance a nut will travel in one complete
revolution of screw.
 Chapter 15

Other Lathe Opera.t ions

enlarge a hole to a specified size where a drill or

LEARNING OBJECTIVES reamer will not do the job. When properly set up, it
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: produces a hole that is concentric with the outside
0 Safely set up and operate a lathe using diameter of the work.
various work-holding devices. While the machining technique remains essen-
0 Properly set up steady and follower rests. tially the same as for external turning, several con-
0 Perform drilling, boring, knurling, grind- ditions will be encountered that could cause you
ing, and milling operations on a lathe. difficulty. When boring on a lathe, you must make
0 Demonstrate familiarity with industrial allowances for the following:
applications of the lathe. • Movement of the cross-slide screw is rev-
ersed.
• The machinist must work by "feel," since the
cutting action cannot always be observed.
IMPORTANT TERMS • Additional front clearance must be ground on
the cutting tool to avoid rubbing, Figure 15-2.
automatic screw machine mandrel
Otherwise, the shape of the cutting tool is
boring reaming
identical to that used for external turning.
boring mills steady rest
• Boring a deep or small-diameter hole requires
follower rest turret
a long, slender boring bar. The overhang
knurling turret lathe
makes the tool more likely to spring away
I 5.1 BORING ON A LATHE from the surface being machined. It is also
Boring is an internal machining operation in necessary to take several light cuts, instead of
which a single-point cutting tool is used to enlarge a one heavy cut, to remove the same amount of
hole, Figure 15-1. Boring may be employed to material.
• Some people find that internal measuring
tools are more difficult to use than those for
making external measurements.

I
Clearance Clearance
Figure 15· 1. Boring or machining internal surfaces is some- Figure 15-2. Tool used to bore small diameter holes requires
times done on lathe. greater front clearance to prevent rubbing.
~ Machining Fundamentals
F"l,.___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
15. I. I Boring the hole The boring bar is set on center or slightly
below center, ·with the bar parallel to tool travel,
The hole size to be bored determines the type
Figure 15-5. Check for adequate clearance when the
and size boring bar required, Figure 15-3. Always
use the la:·gest bar possible to gh:e maximum tool tool is at maximum depth in the hole.
Begin by making a light cut in the same manner
support. The bar should extend from the holder
only far enough to permit the tool to cut to the as you would for external machining. When the cut
is completed, stop the machine. Set the cross-slide
required hole depth, Figure 15-4.

A r-·

,.....--.-------::-·-. -

~!t---=:-----:==~~"".:IC>~ri!'"!,-:==--...,......,.,, ~ -- -~ F
l~ l

C
Figure 15-3. Boring bars and too/holders. A-Interchangeable type permits the machinist to use the most rigid bar for job. Body of
this model replaces the iool post. B-Toolhoider and boring bar for light internal machining operations. C-Boring bar with inter-
changeable tool ends. D-Heavy duty boring too/holder. The boring bar is held in the holder by pressure of the tool post screw. E-
The clamp-type boring bar too/holder allows use of boring bars of different diameters. (Armstrong Bros. Toof Co.) F-Boring bars with
indexable cutting tool inserts.

A B
Figure 15-4. Keep the cutting tool as close to tool post as possible for maximum tool support. A-Properly positioned boring bar.
B-Boring bar projecting too far from tool post. The resulting vibration and ~chatter'' could produce a rough machined surface.
Ch:..pter I 5 O~l,er Lathe Operation~

, 5.2. I Drilling on a lathe

When a hole is to be cut in solid stock, the usual
Cutter bit practice is to hold it in a suitable chuck and mount
the drill in the tailstock. Drilling is accomplished on
a lathe by feeding the stationary drill into the rotat-
ing workpiece. For holes that are 1 /2" (12.5 mm) or
less in diameter, a straight shank drill is placed in a
Jacobs c..huck, which is then fitted into the tailstock
spindle, Figure 15-6. Holes larger than 1 /2"
(12.5 mm) in diameter are made with taper shank
drills, Figure 15-7.
Drills that have taper shanks too large to be fit-
ted in the tailstock can be used, if mounted as
Figure 15-5. The tool is set on, or slightly below, center when
shown in Figure 15-8. A dog is fitted to the neck of
boring. Be sure to check for adequate clearance between
boring bar and hole. the drill. The tool is set up to permit the tailstock
center to press into the center hole in the drill tang.
The drill's cutting point bears against the rotat-
micrometer dial to zero and back the tool away from ing work. The drill is prevented from revolving by
the work. Remove the boring bar from the hole. the dog bearing against the compound rest. The tail-
Check the hole diameter with an inside micro- stock center keeps the drill aligned and enables it to
meter or with a telescoping gage and micrometer. be fed into the material by the tailstock handwheel.
After checking hole accuracy, bring the cross-slide
back to zero, and advance the tool to make another
cut. The amount of infeed will be determined by the
----------~----------
boring bar in use and the material being bored.
Make additional cuts, checking the hole size fre-
quently, until the desired diameter is attained.
When making the final cut, it may be necessary
to reverse tool travel after reaching the desired
depth. Reverse the carriage feed, not the spindle rota-
tion. Let the tool feed out of the hole without chang-
ing the tool setting. This will compensate for any
tool spring.
When boring holes with long, slender boring
bars, it may be necessary to run the tool into the hole
without changing its setting after every second or
third cut to compensate for tool spring.
With such long, slender boring bars, "chatter" is Figure 15-6. Drilling is being done with straight shank drill held
more likely to occur than when doing external in Jacobs chuck. This arrangement is usually used for holes
work. This can usually be eliminated by: less than 1I2n (12.5 mm) in diameter.
• Using a slower spindle speed.
• Reducing tool overhang.
• Grinding a smaller radius on the cutting tool
nose.
• Placing a weight on the back overhang of the
boring bar.
• Placing the tool slightly below center.

I S.2 DRILLING AND REAMING ON

A LATHE
The lathe can perform many operations other
Figure 15-7. Drills larger than 112" (12.5 mm) in diameter are
than turning. It is sometimes used to drill or ream usually fitted with a self-holding taper that ms into the tailstock
holes. spindle of the lathe.
fl Mad1ining Funda.rnen~a:s

Extreme care must be used to prevent the drill from Accuracy in drilling requires a centered starting
slipping off the tailstock center after it breaks point for the drill. A starting point made ·with a
through the work. combination drill and countersink is adequate for
The makeshift lathe dog setup can be aYoided most jobs. Holes oYer 1 /2" (12.5 mm) in diameter
by use of a commercial drill holder, Figure 15-9. require a pilot hole. This hole should have a
diameter equal to ,ddth of larger drill's dead center.
Tailstock
center
See Figure 15-10.
Ample clearance must be provided in back of
the work so that the drill will not strike the chuck
or headstock spindle when it breaks through,
I - Figure 15-11.
I 1
· } - - Lathe 15.2.2 Reaming on a lathe
-' dog
Reaming is an operation used to make a hole
accurate in diameter and finish, Figure 15-12.

Figure 15-8. When a drilf shank is too large to be fitted into the Start hole with
tailstock, a lathe dog can be used to keep it from revolving. The center drill
tail of the lathe dog is supported by the compound rest. This
type of drilling requires care to prevent the drifl from slipping off
the tailstock center when the full drill diameter breaks through
the work.

Pilot hole

B
Figure 15-10. Centering drill. A-The drifl will cut exactly on
A center if the hole is started with a center drill. 8-Holes larger
Drill than 112n (12.5 mm) in diameter require drilfing of a pilot hole.
Taper shank Tailstock
holder
drill center

~ \

Tool holder ,..,.,--

Compound rest_,.,,..,,

B
- \ l -c1earance
Figure 15-9. Commercial drill holder. A-Large taper shank
drills can be used on the lathe by fitting them in this holder. Figure 15-11. There must be enough clearance between the
(Armstrong Bros. Tool Co.) B-How the commercial drill holder back of the work and the chuck face to permit the drill to break
is used. through the work without damaging the chuck.
C~~ter lS Other lathe O pe,·aticns
Em
surface, change the appearance of the work, or
increase the work's diameter. It is done with a
knurling tool mounted in the tool post, Figure
15-15. The knurled pattern is raised by rolling the
Chucking reamer
knurls against the metal. This displaces the metal
into the required pattern.
Angular knurls raise a diamond pattern, while a
straight knurl produces a straight pattern along the
length of the work. The patterns can be produced in
Reamer at 1i2 to 2/3 coarse, medium, and fine pitch. See Figure 15-16.
drilling speed

Figure 15-12. A chucking reamer can be mounted in a Jacobs

chuck to finish a hole.

The hole is drilled slightly undersized to allow stock

for reaming. The allowance for reaming depends
upon hole size:
• With hole sizes ranging up to 1/4" (6.5 mm)
in diameter, allow 0.010" (0.25 mm) of
material for reaming.
• With a hole size from 1 / 4" (6.5 mm) to 1 /2"
Figure 15-13. Using a hand reamer on the lathe. Never tum on
(12.5 mm) in diameter, allow 0.015" (0.4 mm).
the power when performing hand reaming operations.
• With a hole size from 1/2" (12.5 mm) to 1.0"
(25.0 mm) in diameter, allow 0.020" (0.5 mm).
• With a hole size from 1.0" (25.0 mm) to 1.5"
(37.5 mm) in diameter, allow 0.025" (0.6 mm).
• With a hole size above 1.5" (37.5 mm) in
diameter, allow 0.030" (0.8 mm) for reaming.
When reaming, use a cutting speed about two-
thirds the speed you would use for a similar size
drill with the material being machined. Also, use a
slow, steady feed with an adequate supply of cut-
ting fluid. Remove the reamer from the hole before
stopping the machine.
If a hand reamer is to be used, do not apply
power to the workpiece mounted in the chuck.
Fit the reamer into the hole, supporting the shank
end with the tailstock center. Use an adjustable
wrench to tum the reamer in a clockwise direction, Figure 15-14. Knurling rollers are being used to form serrations
Figure 15-13. on apart.
When removing a reamer from the hole, con-
tinue to rotate the tool clockwise. Avoid turning it
counterclockwise, since that would ruin the tool's cut-
ting edges.

I 5.3 KNURLING ON A LATHE

Knurling is the process of forming horizontal
or diamond-shaped serrations (raised grooves
or teeth) on the circumference of the work, Figure 15-15. One type of knurling tool.
Figure 15-14. Knurling is used to provide a gripping (Armstrong Bros. Tool Co.)
 M,uhlnl11 • Fumbm1.;1,t Is:

5. When the knurling tool reaches the proper

position, reverse spindle rotation and allow the
tool to move back across the work to the start-
ing point. Apply additional pressure to force
the knurls deeper into the work.
6. Repeat the operation until a satisfactory knurl
is formed.
A I 5.3.2 Knurling difficulties
If knurling is not performed properly, problems
can arise and destroy the work. A common problem
is the double-cut knurl, Figure 15-18. It occurs when
one wheel of the knurling tool makes twice as many
ridges as the other.
A double-cut knurl is usually caused by one
wheel being dull. Raising or lowering the knurling
tool to put more pressure on the dull wheel will fre-
B quently eliminate the trouble. Pivoting the tool
Figure 15-16. Knurling patterns. A-Diamond knurl in coarse, slightly to allow the right side of the wheels to apply
medium, and fine pitch. B-Straight knurl in coarse, medium, more pressure may also help.
and fine pitch. Considerable side pressures are developed dur-
ing knurling operations. Watch the tool carefully. Do
not permit the work to slip into the chuck or loosen
I 5.3. I Knurling procedure
on the tailstock center. If a ball-bearing center is not
If a knurling tool setup is not made properly, the used, keep the tailstock center well-lubricated.
knurls will not track and will quickly dull. The fol- Perform knurling before turning a shaft to a
lowing procedure is recommended: smaller diameter. If knurling is done after the
1. Mark off section to be knurled. smaller diameter has been machined, the ·work ·will
spring away from the tool, gidng the surface a
2. Adjust the lathe to a slow back-geared speed superficial (light, nonpenetrating) knurl. It may
and a fairly rapid feed. also cause a permanent bend in the ,vorkpiece.
3. Place the knurling tool in the tool post. Bring it See Figure 15-19.
up to the work. Both wheels must bear evenly
on the ,York with their faces parallel with the
centerline of the piece, Figure 15-17.
4. Start the lathe and slowlv force the knurls into
the work surface until a pattern begins to form.
Tool travel should be toward the headstock
whenever possible. Engage the automatic feed
and let the tool travel across the work. Flood
the work with cutting fluid. A

B
Figure 15-18. Double-cut knurl. A-This is a correctly made
Preferred Avoid
diamond knurl pattern. B-A double-cut diamond knurl. It
Figure 15-17. Always start the knurl on the work. results when one knurl wheel is slightly above or below center.
_r._h_ap_t_e_~_1_s_ _
o_th_.e_r_L_a_th_e_o
__ Pe_:r_a_ti_on_s_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ l1
• Move the carriage out of the way and remove
the tool post.
• Use the left-hand method of filing, Figure
15-21. It involves holding the file handle in
the left hand. The right hand is then clear of
the revolving chuck or face plate.
• Avoid the right-hand method, Figure 15-22.
This technique places your left arm over the
chuck or faceplate.

B
Figure 15-19. Knurling problems. A-Do knurling before turning
a shaft to a smaller diameter. B--lf knurled after being turned to
smaller diameter, shaft may take on a permanent bend and
receive only a superficial (very light) pattern.

Avoid applying too much pressure to the knurl-

ing tool. The work surface becomes hardened dur-
ing the operation and the knurled section could
"flake off." High pressure also tends to bend the
shaft.
Never stop the lathe with the knurls engaged in
Mill file Long-angle lathe file
the work. The piece will take on a permanent bend.
Figure 15-20. How a standard mill file differs from the Jong-
I 5.4 FILING AND POLISHING ON angle lathe file.
A LATHE
Lathe filing is done to remove burrs, to round
off sharp edges, and blend-in form cut outlines. A
file is not intended to replace a properly sharpened
cutting tool and should not be used to improve the
surface finish on a turned section.

15.4. I Filing on a lathe

When filing on a lathe, avoid holding the tool
stationary against the work. Keep it moving across
the area being filed. If the file is held in one position,
it will "load" with metal particles and score the sur-
face of the work. An ordinary mill file will produce
satisfactory results. However, a long-angle lathe file
produces a superior cutting action. See Figure 15-20.
Operate the lathe at high spindle speed and
apply long, even strokes. Release pressure on the
return stroke. If uneven pressure is applied, out-of-
round work will result. Clean the file often. Figure 15-21. The left-hand method of filing on the lathe is pre-
As simple as filing may appear, it can be quite ferred. How does it differ from the right-hand method shown in
dangerous if a few precautions are not observed. Figure 15-22?
15.4.2 Polishing on a lathe Carefully and thoroughly clean the lathe after
Polishing is sometimes done on a lathe using a polishing operations. If not removed, abrasive parti-
strip of abrash:e cloth suitable for the material to be cles from. the cloth 'i'Vill cause rapid wear of the
polished. The strip is grasped between your fingers machine's moving parts.
and held across the ·work, Figure 15-23. If more
pressure is required, mount the abrasive cloth on a IS.S STEADY AND
strip of wood or on a file, Figure 15-24. A high spin- FOLLOWER RESTS
dle speed is used for polishing. The steady rest and the follower rest are needed
The finer the abrasive used, the finer the result- to provide additional support ,,·hen the workpiece
ing finish. A fe\,v drops of machine oil on the abra- is long and thin. This additional support keeps the
sh·e will improve the finish. For the final polish, work from springing or bending away from the cut-
reverse the cloth so the cloth backing, rather than ting tool. The support is also needed to reduce
the abrasive, is in contact with the work surface. "chattering" ·when long shafts are machined. See
Like filing, polishing is not a substitute for a prop- Figure 15-25.
erly sharpened tool bit.

Hold abrasive cloth

on fi'e with thumb and
finger. Apply light pressure
and move against rotation.
4

Figure 15-22. In the right-hand tiling method, your left hand and
arm must be over the revolving chuck. Avoid this method, which
has the potential for injury. Figure 15-24. More pressure can be applied if abrasive cloth is
supported by a file or block of wood.

Abrasive cloth should

be pu!led against
rotation of work Figure 15-25. When the nature or shape of work prevents it
from being mounted between centers, special devices called
Figure 15-23. Polishing with abrasive cloth held in hands. Keep "rests" are used to provide support. This lathe is equipped with
hands away from revolving chuck or dog. both a steady rest and a follower rest. (South Bend Lathe Corp.)
Chapter 15 Other Lathe Cp~rations
II
The steady rest, sometimes called a center rest, is square, etc.), a cat head is employed. Care must
bolted directly to the ways. It is provided with three be taken to center the shaft within the cat head.
adjustable jaws, each with individual locking See Figure 15-27.
screws. The upper portion of the attachment is fitted
7. When machining at the end of a long shaft
with a single jaw. It can be opened to permit the
which cannot be supported with the tailstock,
work to be placed in position, Figure 15-26.
center the work in the chuck. Adjust the center
rest to the work as close to the chuck as possi-
I 5.5. I Steady rest setup
ble, then move it to a point where the support
To set up a steady rest: is needed. The same technique is employed
1. Bolt the attachment to the ways at the desired when performing drilling, reaming, tapping, or
position. other operations on the end of a long shaft.
2. Back off all jaws and open the upper section. 15.5.2 Follower rest setup
3. Mount the work between centers or in a chuck. The follower rest operates on the same principle
Support the free end with the tailstock center. as the steady rest and is used in a similar manner.
4. Lower and lock the upper segment in place. The follower rest differs slightly in that it provides
support directly in back of the cutting tool and fol-
5. Adjust the jaws up to the work and lock them lows along during the cut. See Figure 15-28.
into position. The jaws act as bearing surfaces
where they contact the work. They must be
well lubricated.
Center rest
6. If the shaft being machined is unsuitable as a jaws (3)
bearing surface (rough surface, out-of-round,

Figure 15-27. A cat head will provide a bearing surface when

needed.

Figure 15-26. To permit easy installation of work, the top of the Figure 15-28. A follower rest is being used to support a long
steady or center rest swings open. Care must be taken to have slender shaft while threads are being machined on it.
work accurately centered. (South Bend Lathe Corp.)
 The follower rest bolts directly to the carriage Size Taper 0.0005 inch per inch
and the jaws adjust in the same way as on the steady
rest. Note that the jaws must be readjusted after
I
each cut.

I S.6 MANDRELS
At times, it is necessary to machine the outside
diameter of a piece conce:itric with a hole that has ~ounterbore
A ·.1;_...,..., protects
been previously bored or reamed. This can be a sim- center hole
ple operation if the material can be held in the lathe
by conventional means. There are, hm,·ever, times
when the material cannot be gripped solidly to per-
mit accurate machining. In such cases, the ·work is
mounted on a mandrel and turned between centers,
Figure 15-29.

Metal to B t_ Expar.ding sleeve

be turned

r Body

f
Spacing collar

Figure 15-30. Different kinds of mandrels. A-Solid type.

8-Expansion type. C-Gang mandrel that allows mounting of
Figure 15-29. This lathe mandrel has work mounted on it. severai identical pieces.

A solid mandrel is made from a section of hard- burrs and cleaned. Lubricate the work with a light
ened steel that has been machined with a slight oil to pre,·ent it from "freezing" on the mandrel.
11
taper (0.0005 per inch), Figure 15-30A. These man- The mandrel is mounted between centers and
drels are made in standard sizes starting at 1i8" in driven by a lathe dog. Use care so the tool does not
diameter. The size is stamped on the large end. The come into contact ,,d th the mandrel during the
other end is slightly smaller than specified size to machining operation. In an emergency, a mandrel
permit easy installation in the work. can be machined from a section of mild steel.
An expansion mandrel permits work with open-
ings that vary from standard sizes to be turned. See 15.7 GRINDING ON THE LATHE
Figure 15-30B. The shaft and sleeve have corre- The tool post grinder permits the lathe to be
sponding tapers and are machined from hardened used for internal and external grinding, Figure
steel. The sleeve is slotted so it can expand when 15-31. With a few simple attachments, it is possible
forced onto the tapered shaft. to sharpen reamers and milling cutters on the lathe.
A gang mandrel, Figure 15-30C, is helpful when You can also grind shafts and true lathe centers.
many pieces of the same configuration must be Since steel parts sometimes warp during heat
turned. Several pieces are mounted on the mandrel treatment, it is common to machine the piece to
and separated ·with spacing collars. They are locked within 0.010" to 0.015" (0.2 mm to 0.3 mm) of fin-
in place by tightening a nut. ished size. After heat treatment, the metal is
mounted on the lathe for grinding to finished size.
15.6. I Installing a mandrel A light grinding cut is made on each pass. When
Work is pressed on a mandrel with a mechanical grinding is done properly, a very smooth finish
arbor press. The work must first be checked for results.
 Cha!)tel." 15 Ct:1er lathe Oparaticns

A diamond wheel dresser, consisting of an

industrial diamond tip mounted on a steel shank, is
used for the truing operation, Figure 15-32. It is
mounted solidly to the lathe, on center or slightly
below the center of the grinding wheel. The rotating
wheel is moved back and forth across the diamond,
removing about 0.001" (0.02 mm) on each pass.
Remove only enough material to true the wheel.

15. 7.3 External grinding

External grinding, Figure 15-33, is done to finish
the exterior surface of the piece. The following steps
are recommended to complete the job with the least
amount of difficulty:
A 1. Mount the work solidly in the lathe. Provide
adequate clearance.
.,
34
2. Adjust lathe spindle speed for 80-100 rpm, and
'• set a feed of 0.005"- 0.007" (0.12 mm-0.17 mm).
3. Turn on power for lathe and grinder. The work
t·•···-·-••-• ••-w• -· turns into the grinding wheel, Figure 15-34.

I_
- ... ®
I.
{g) fi) <&J 1i·---·
Ill
o 4. Feed the grinding wheel into the work until it
s Ir\ just begins to "spark."

Figure 15-31. Tool post grinders. A-This is a typical light tool

post grinder. (The Dumore Co.) B-A reciprocating type tool
post grinder. (NSK America)

Diamond
tip

\,_ .

A
I 5. 7.1 Preparing a lathe for grinding
Particles of the grinding wheel wear away dur-
ing the grinding operation. Abrasive particles can
cause excessive wear should they get into moving
parts, so it is important to protect the lathe from
them. When preparing to grind, cover the lathe bed,
cross-slide, and other parts with canvas or heavy
kraft paper to protect them from abrasive dust and
grit. It is also good practice to place a small tray of
water or oil just below the grinding wheel to collect
as much grit and dust as possible.
When placing protective covering on the lathe,
be sure the covering material cannot become entan-
gled in the lead screw or other moving parts.
I 5. 7.2 Preparing the grinder
Figure 15-32. Diamond wheel drssser. A-A diamond tip on the
Select the grinding wheel best suited for the job. wheel dresser is used to true tool post grinder wheels. (Black
It must be balanced and run true if a smooth, accu- and Decker) 8-Using a diamond dressing tool to true a wheel
rately sized job is to be obtained. on a tool post grinder before grinding on lathe.
 M achining Fundamentals

h
1·~
, r:_,~;1
I •
,.__-·'i· [
r-·o ----
, ·~- -

:.,,- .~.:: ,-1 I i'

i"' ·, I [- 1 , '
....:; !=ti I : I: I ·!;Cl
:_J ··- · · ., ' 0
~ :_~ "'® @ Figure 15-34. With external grinding, the work turns into grind-
;-· 't1,.~ ing wheel.
lo ·-- - (i-')
work, Figure 15-35. The work and grinding wheel
must rotate in opposite directions, Figure 15-36.
Because the quill (shaft for mounting the grinding
wheel for internal work) is quite slender, use very
light cuts and slow feeds to preYent the hole from
"bell mouthing," as shown in Figure 15-37. For the
same reason, it is suggested that the grinding "·heel
be allowed to "spark out" on the last cut.

I S.8 MILLING ON A LATHE

Some lathes can be fitted '\\·ith a vertical milling
attachment, Figure 15-38. Such machines are pri-
marily designed for home workshops, but are often
used in model and experimental shops. A vise is
mounted to the cross-slide ,Yhich also proYides tra-
verse (in and out) movement while longitudinal
(back and forth) feed is furnished by the carriage.
A special horizontal milling attachment is avail-
Figure 15-33. External grinding on a lathe. A-Grfnding the able for some lathes. It permits limited milling oper-
circumference of a workpiece. B-Grinding the end of a ations to be performed, Figure 15-39.The cutter is
workpiece. (NSK America) mounted on an arbor or fitted into the headstock.
Cutter depth is controlled by the adjusting screw on
the device. Cutter moYement is controlled by car-
5. Engage the automatic longitudinal feed.
riage and cross-slide movements.
6. Check work diameter frequently ,dth a micro-
meter. Use light cuts; othen-vise, the piece I 5.9 SPECIAL LATHE
might oYerheat and warp.
ATTACHMENTS
7. Dress the grinding '"'heel again before making A tracing or duplicating unit should be used
the final pass oYer the ,vork. Allow the work to when several identical pieces must be produced.
"spark out" (reach the point ·where the grind- The duplicating unit improYes the quality of the
ing wheel no longer cuts). part because each is an exact duplicate of the master
template. However, computer-controlled lathes are
15. 7.4 Internal grinding now doing the work formerly done by these units.
Internal grinding is done in much the same Several types oi duplicating or tracing units are
manner as external grinding but on the inside of the aYailable. One type makes use of flat templates.
Chapter 15 Other !..athe O!]ez-ations
DD

~Grinding
wheel

Figure 15-37. Bell mouthing (grinding a hole larger at its mouth)

is caused by taking too deep a cut with the grinder, or grinding
with a feed that is too rapid.

Figure 15-38. A light lathe fitted with a milling attachment.

Figure 15-35. Internal grinding operations on the lathe. Work-holding devices for milling operations are fitted on the
A-Internal grinding. B-Taper grinding. (NSK America) cross-slide after removing the too/holder. (Emco-Maier Corp.)

Figure 15-36. With internal grinding, work and grinding wheel Figure 15-39. Horizontal milling can be done on a lathe by
tum in opposite directions. using a special attachment.
JI M achining Fundamemats

Another type employs a three-dimensional tem- Limited production runs (usually less than 250
plate or pattern. Most units are hydraulically oper- pieces) are sometimes produced on a manually
ated. See Figure 15-40. operated turret lathe, Figure 15-43. This is a con-
ventional lathe equipped ·w ith a six-sided tool
l 5.10 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
OF THE LATHE
Industry makes wide use of v ariations of the
basic lathe, Figure 15-41. The super-precision tool-
room lathe is required to meet the close tolerances
and fine surface finish specifications of toolrooms,
model shops, and research and development lab-
oratories. See Figure 15-42.

... ---
?

-- ----V"L
•. ;:a '1,. . ,

C
Figure 15-41. Engine lathes. A-A typical 10" precision engine
lathe. (South Bend Lathe Corp.) B-This 15" geared head lathe
Figure 15-40. Duplicating units. A-A flat template is used to offers a wide variety of precisely controf/ed spindle speeds for
guide cutting tool as it machines the bearing area of a crank- different applications. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.) C-Heavy-duty
shaft for a large diesel engine. 8-This unit makes use of three- engine lathes like this one are used for turning very large work-
dimensional templates. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.) pieces. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.)
t.:hapte:- l !.i Oth'!r '..at:,e .:>perations

holder called a turret. Figure 15-44 illustrates how a The automatic screw machine, Figure 15-48, is a
number of different cutting tools are fitted to the variation of the lathe that was developed for high
turret. Stops control the length of tool travel and speed production of large numbers of small parts.
rotate the turret to bring the next cutting tool into The machine performs a maximum number of oper-
position automatically. ations, either simultaneously, or in a very rapid
A cross-slide unit is fitted for turning, facing, sequence.
forming, and cutoff operations, Figure 15-45. Turret Increasingly, industry is coming to rely on auto-
lathes range in size from the small precision instru- matic turning centers to produce tiny precision
ment turret lathe to the more versatile automatic parts in quantity. These centers, referred to as
turret lathe. See Figures 15-46 and 15-47. "Swiss-type" machines because they were origi-
nally used in the Swiss watchmaking industry, use
computer control to perform a number of opera-
tions in sequence, producing a finished part. See
Figure 15-49.

Section through
finished work

Work
Chuck

Cross-slide
Figure 15-42. The Hardinge Super Precision HLV-DR too/room
lathe. (Hardinge Super Precision HL V-DR is a registered trade-
marlc of Hardinge, Inc.)

Figure 15-44. Turret in relation to other parts of a lathe. The tur-

Figure 15-43. A manually operated turret lathe. ret rotates to bring tool (drilf, reamer, etc.) into position. Stops
(Clausing Industrial, Inc.) control depth of tool cuts.
m

Figure 15-47. A large, versatile turret lathe.

(Warner & Swasey Co.)

Figure 15-45. The cross-slide on a turret lathe is similar to the

cross-slide on a conventional lathe. However, it is fitted with
several cutting toois that can be brought into position as
needed.

Figure 15-48. The multiple spindle automatic screw machine is

used for precision high speed production.
(Warner & Swasey Co.)

Work that is too large or too heavy to be turned

in a horizontal position, is machined on a vertical
boring machine, Figure 15-50. These huge machines,
known as boring mills, are capable of turning and
boring work with diameters up to 40' (12 m).
Conventional metalworking lathes are manufac-
h1red in a large range of sizes from the tiny je,veler' s
-0.0005
(Z00700 lathe to large machines that turn forming rolls for

i
the steel industry, Figure 15-51.
Portable turning equipment is available for
.'I work in the field, such as chamfering the ends of
large pipe prior to welding. See Figure 15-52.
Computer numerically controlled (CNC) lathes
e:0.011 and turning machines are ,ddely used for industrial
production. With proper programming, these
Figure 15-46. Turret lathe operation. A-This machinist is using machine tools are capable of producing complex
a magnifying lens to check a drilling operation on a precision work with great accuracy and repeatability. Note:
instrument turret lathe. (Louis Levin and Son, Inc.) B -This part A detailed description of CNC machine tools and auto-
was machined from stainless steel and produced in quantity on
the turret lathe shown above. The part is only about mated manu.facturing operations can be found in
1J8H (3.0 mm) long. Chapters 21 and 22.
 Other Lathe Operations

m it 0 1}
~ -
,A ~

0
0

AI l " Figure 15-50. Boring mills. A-A twin-spindle boring mill.

B-This 17' (5. 1 m) vertical boring mill features high cutting
speeds and the capability of infinite speed variations while
the machine is operating. Workpieces are mounted on the
large turntable and rotated into position for machining.
(Simmons Machine Tool Corp.)

Jf~

Figure 15-49. Swiss-type automatic turning center. A- This

high-precision turning center machines small parts from bar
stock ranging from 1 mm to 10 mm in diameter at high produc-
tion rates. B-These tiny components, produced by a Swiss- Figure 15-51. Some idea of the size of this huge lathe can be
type automatic turning center, are used in precision gained by comparing the workpiece with the machinist in the
instruments. (Tomos-Bechler S.A.) photo.
!f!,t Mad111w1p. F11nd:irn, nt,11
llllilll - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----
Many types of CNC lathes and turning • CNC slant bed lathe with multipie-station
machines are in use today. Some examples include: tool turrets, Figure 15-55.
• Small machines used primarily for training • CNC lathes designed for specific applications,
purposes, Figure 15-53. Figure 15-56.
• ConYentional lathes ·w ith t\Yo-axis CNC • Completely automated turning centers,
movement, Figure 15-54. Figure 15-57. These centers often feature
robotic loading/ unloading, automatic gaging
of the workpiece, and tool monitoring.

Figure 15-54. A conventional lathe with two-axis CNC control.

(Bridgeport Machines, Inc.)

Figure 15-52. A portable Iarne mac can be taken into the field.
This worker is shown turning the end of a high-pressure gas
pipeline to prepare it for being welded. (Tri-Tool, Inc.)
.,.

Q
lloi.;.

- Figure 15-55. This two-axis CNC slant bed lathe has a turret
that can mount 12 different tools for various turning operations.
The menu permits the operator to simply fill In the finished
dimensions of the part. The software calculates the cutting path
Figure 15-53. This small CNC turning center is used for train- to produce that part. An on-screen graphic preview of tool path
ing. The controller (not shown) is a separate unit that connects allows the operator to verify the path prior to cutting. (Bridgeport
to the machine tool. (Light Machines Corp.) Machines, Inc.)
 Chapter !5

"
Other Lathe 'Oj)e:-~tlcns

2. Boring is:
I a. A drilling operation.
b. An internal machining operation in which
a single-point cutting tool is employed to
~--
·- enlarge a hole.
c. An external machining operation in

.I . which a single-point cutting tool is

employed to reduce the diameter of a
hole.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
3. When is reaming done?
4. The process of forming horizontal or diamond-
shaped serrations on the circumference of the
work is called _ _. It is commonly done to
provide a _ _.
5. When is filing on the lathe usually done?
Figure 15-56. A CNC lathe that is designed specifically for alu- 6. Polishing is an operation used to produce a
minum wheel production. (Okuma America Corporation) on the work.
7. When is a steady rest used?
8. What is the difference between a steady rest
and a follower rest?
9. There are times when a shaft is unsuitable as a
bearing surface and cannot be used with a
steady rest. When this occurs, a _ _ can be
employed so the shaft can be supported with
the steady rest.
10. What is a mandrel? When is it used?
11. A mandrel is usually pressed into the work
with an _ _
Figure 15-57. This twin-spindle CNC turning cell has an auto-
matic loader for material to be turned and two tool-holding tur- 12. Internal and external grinding can be done on
rets. It has two facing spindles that, in combination with the a lathe with a_ _.
upper and lower turrets, permit simultaneous 4-axis or parallel
machining operations. (Okuma America Corporation) 13. What should be done to protect the lathe from
the abrasive particles that wear away from the
grinding wheel?
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE a. Use a nonabrasive grinding wheel.
Please do not write in the text. Write your b. Cover the bed and moving parts with a
answers on a separate sheet of paper. heavy cloth.
c. Use a soft abrasive grinding wheel.
1. Drills that are used on the lathe are fitted with d. All of the above.
shanks or shanks. e. None of the above.
Broaching can be used tor flat, round, and contoured surfaces such as the ones shown on these parts. Both internal and external
surfaces can be broached. (Metal Powder Industries Federation)
 Chapter 16

• •
B oac 1g pe ·at1ons

three basic types of broaching operations. Internal

LEARNING OBJECTIVES broaching makes use of a pull broach. External
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: broaching uses the slab broach, a flat toothed strip
0 Describe the broaching operation. that is usually held (singly or in groups) in a slotted
0 Explain the advantages of broaching. fixture. In pot broaching, the tool is stationary and
0 Set up and cut a keyway using a keyway the work is pulled through it.
broach and an arbor press. A variety of broaching equipment is available.
The machines range in size from large multifunc-
tional broaching machines, Figure 16-1, to small
manually operated units using an arbor press to cut
IMPORTANT TERMS keyways in gears, pulleys, and similar components.
pot broaching The manual units will be explained more fully later
broach
pull broach in this chapter.
broaching
roughing teeth With broaching, a multitoothed cutting tool is
burnishing
semifinishing teeth pushed or pulled across the work, Figure 16-2. Each
finishing teeth
tooth on the broach (cutting tool) removes only a
keyway slab broach
small portion of the material being machined,
Broaching is a manufacturing process for Figure 16-3.
machining flat, round, and contoured surfaces. Both A broach has three kinds of teeth: roughing
internal and external surfaces can be shaped by this teeth, semifinishing teeth, and finishing teeth. See
process. Internal broaching requires a starting hole Figure 164. In many industrial applications, the
so that the cutting tool can be inserted. There are broach is assembled from units with different tooth

Figure 16-1. Three types of broaching machines. A-A front 42" stroke vertical internal pull-down broaching machine. B-A 36"
internal horizontal broaching machine. C-This high-speed vertical surface single-ram broaching machine has a tilting fixture table.
(Broaching Machine Specialties)
 Finishing
teeth
I

!
i
I

Tool travel f
Semi-finishing
teeth
I
l
Roughing
te(1h

Pilot (guide)
l

Opening
produced in
part

Figure 16-2. Broaching involves the use of a multitooth cutting

tool (the broach) that moves against the stationary work. The
operation may be on a vertical or horizontal plane, and may
involve making internal or external cuts. Figure 16-4. This drawing shows a greatly shortened section of
an internal broaching tool and a cross-section of the splines it
cuts in a part. The pilot guides the cutter into a cut or hole pre-
viously made in the work. Each tooth of the broach increases
¢=:J slightly in size until the specified size is attained.
Direation of
broach travel

Cut per
tooth

J_

Work

Figure 16-3. Each tooth on a broaching tool removes only a

small portion of the material being machined.

sizes. As shown in Figure 16-5, the tooth units are

stacked on a mandrel to be pulled through
the work.
The machining operation usually can be
Figure 16-5. This large pull broach is assembled from separate
completed in a single pass of the cutting tool, units in a variety of tooth sizes. The ring-like units are stacked
Figure 16-6. When properly employed, broaching on the mandrel in the foreground to be pulled through the work-
can remove metal faster than almost any other piece. (National Broach & Machine Co.)
machining technique. Small parts can be stacked
and shaped in a single pass, Figure 16-7. Larger close tolerances can be maintained by the broaching
units, such as compressor cylinder heads, may process. While the surface finishes produced by
require several passes to machine all surfaces, broaching are smooth compared to many other
Figure 16-8. machining processes, they can be further improved
Almost any material that can be machined by by adding burnishing (noncutting) elements to the
other techniques can be broached. Consistently finishing end of the broach.
Chapter I 6 8roaching Operations
11
16.1 ADVANTAGES OF
BROACHING
The broaching process offers several manufac-
turing advantages:
• High productivity.
• Capability of maintaining close tolerances.
• Production of good surface finishes.
• Economy (even though initial tooling costs
can be high unless standard tooling is used).
• Long tool life, since only a small amount of
material is removed by each tooth.
• Capability of using semiskilled workers, since
equipment is automated.

16.2 KEYWAY BROACHING

Cutting a keyway, in a gear, pulley, or similar
component, is a simple broaching operation that
can be done in the average machine shop. See
Figure 16-8. A typical keyway broach set, Figure
16-9, contains an assortment of precision broaches,
slotted bushings, necessary shims, instructions, and
a lubrication guide.
Figure 16-6. Two pull broaches, similar to the one shown in
Figure 16-5, are mounted on this broaching machine. Parts are
typically completed in a single pass of the broach. (National
Broach & Machine Co.)

Figure 16-8. Vertical broach machining the ffat surface of a

Figure 16-7. Typical small parts machined by broaching. cylinder head for a compressor. (The Association for Manufac-
(LaPoint Machine Tool Co.) turing Technology)
 ff:_ul'"i_·.:::_a_rr:_.e_,_
~,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _H_._a~_·;·_,;n_:_1',g_ l'.:_2J£

Keyway 2. Place the bushing into the hole and insert the
broach broach.
3. Set the assembly into position on the arbor
press, making sure there is ample.clearance for
the broach to pass through the work Also, be
sure that the broach is centered on the arbor
press ram. Otherwise, the broach may be dam-
aged by being pushed to one side. A loose or
'\Yorn arbor press ram also can damage a
broach by pushing it to one side.
/ 4. Lubricate the broach as instructed by the
broach manufacturer.
5. Push the broach through.
6. Clean the broach and insert the second pass
shim.
7. Lubricate the broach again, and push the
Figure 16-9. Cutting a keyway using an arbor press to push a broach through.
broach through the work. Several passes may be required. 8. Repeat the sequence until the keyway is the
Different size shims move cutter into the work.
correct depth.
9. Use a clean cloth to wipe the broach, bushing,
and shims clean. Apply a thin coating of oil to
pre,·ent rusting and return them to storage.
10. RemoYe any burrs from the keyway.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Please do not write in the text. ·write your
ans,vers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Broaching is a manufacturing process for
machining _ _ surfaces.

Figure 16-10. A typical keyway broach set. It contains precision 2. What does internal broaching require that
broaches, slotted bushings, and necessary shims. Ample lubri- external broaching does not?
cation is necessary (duMont Corp.)
3. What is unique about the cutting tool used on
First, measure the bore into which the keyway is a broaching machine?
to be cut. Then complete the following steps:
4. List three adYantages offered by broaching.
1. Select the bushing that fits the hole and the
required broach. Handle the broach with care. 5. lVith broaching, the machined surface can be
Its sharp teeth can cause a serious injury to the further improved by adding to the
hand. finishing end of the broach.
 Chapter 17

T illi g a ·hine

Each tooth of the cutter removes a small individual

LEARNING OBJECTIVES chip of material. A wide variety of cutting opera-
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: tions can be performed on a milling machine. The
0 Describe how milling machines operate. milling machine is capable of machining flat or con-
0 Identify the various types of milling toured surfaces, slots, grooves, recesses, threads,
machines. gears, spirals, and other configurations.
0 Select the proper cutter for the job to be Milling machines are available in more varia-
done. tions than any other family of machine tools. These
0 Calculate cutting speeds and feeds. machines are well suited to computer-controlled
operation, Figure 17-2. Work may be clamped

IMPORTANT TERMS
arbor peripheral milling
climb milling rate of feed
column and knee milling side milling cutters
machine traverse
face milling vertical spindle milling
horizontal spindle milling machine
machine
A milling machine rotates a multitoothed cutter
into the workpiece to remove material, Figure 17-1.

Figure 17-2. A CNC knee-type vertical machining center that

incorporates the latest advances in technology. It features quick
too/changing capabilities. It is easily programmed for machining
Figure 17-1. A milling machine rotates a mu/titoothed cutter into a single part or tor production work. (Republic-Lagun CNC
the workpiece. (Giddings & Lewis, Inc.) Corp.).
"
directly to the machine table, held in a fixture, or
mounted in or on one of the numerous work-hold-
ing dedces a\·ailable for milling machines.

17.1 TYPES OF MILLING

MACHINES
It is difficult to classify the Yarious categories of
milling machines, because their designs tend to
merge with one another. For practical purposes,
however, milling machines may be grouped into
two large families:
• Fixed-bed type.
• Column and knee type.
Figure 17-4. The cutter on a vertical milling machine is perpen-
Both groups are made with horizontal or verti-
dicular to the surface being machined. (Heidenhain Corp.)
cal spindles. On a horizontal spindle milling
machine, the cutter is fitted onto an arbor mounted
in the machine on an axis parallel with the work-
table. See Figure 17-3. Multiple cutters may be
mounted on the spindle for some operations.
The cutter on a vertical spindle milling machine
is normally perpendicular (at a right angle) to the
\.Vorktable, Figure 17-4. However, on many vertical
spindle machines, the spindle can be tilted to per-
form angular cutting operations.

17. I. I Fixed~bed milling machines

Fixed-bed milling machines are characterized by
very rigid worktable construction and support,
Figure 17-5. The worktable mo,·es only in a longitu-
dinal (back and forth/X-axis) direction, and can
yary in length from 3' to 30' (0.9 to 9.0 m). Vertical
(up and down/Z-axis) and cross (in and out/Y-axis)
movements are obtained by mm·ing the cutter head.

Figure 17-5. Fixed bed or bed mills have a very rigid worktable
that moves only ;n a longitudinal direction. The machine shown
can be manually or CNC operated. (Autocon Technologies, Inc.)

Bed-type milling machines can be further classi-

fied as horizontal, vertical, or planer type machines.
The type of bed permits heavy cutting on large
workpieces, Figure 17-6.

17. I .2 Column and knee milling machines

The column and knee milling machine is so
named because of the parts t."'1.at provide movement
to the workpiece. They consist of a column that
supports and guides the knee in vertical (up
and down/Z-axis) movement, and a knee that sup-
ports the mechanism for obtaining table move-
Figure 17-3. This 50 hp horizontal milling machine can make a
ments. These movements are traverse (in and
cut 1!B" deep by 12H wide. Note alignment of arbor on which the out/Y-axis) and longitudinal (back and forth/
cutter is mounted. (National Machine Tool Builders Assoc.) X-axis). See Figure 17-7.
Chapter17 ·r:,e MUllrg h achine

Figure 17-6. This large, multispindle 3-axis fixed-bed mi/Hng machine is shaping upper wing skins for the Boeing 727 aircraft.
(Northrop-Grumman Aerospace Corp.)

A B
Figure 17-7. Column and knee-type milling machines. A-Vertical. 8-Horizontal. (WMW Machinery Company, Inc.)
g H achining Fundamentals

These machines are commonly referred to as 17. I .4 Universal milling machine

"knee-type milling machines." There are three basic A universal milling machine, Figure 17-10, is
types: similar to the plain milling machine, but the table
• Plain (horizontal spindle) milling machine. has a fourth axis of movement. On this type of
• Universal milling machine. machine, the table can be s,viveled on the saddle
• Vertical spindle milling machine. through an angle of 45~ or more, Figure 17-11. This
makes it possible to produce spiral gears, spiral
17. l .3 Plain milling machine splines, and similar workpieces, Figure 17-12.
On the plain milling machine, the cutter spindle
projects horizontally from the column, Figure 17-8. 17. I .5 Vertical spindle milling machine
The worktable has three movements: vertical, cross, A vertical spindle milling machine differs from
and longitudinal (X-, Y-, and Z-axes), Figure 17-9. the plain and universal machines by having the cut-
ter spindle in a vertical position, at a right angle to

Figure 17-10. On a universal type horizontal milling machine,

Figure 17-8. Plain-type milling horizontal machine. the table can be swiveled 45" or more. (WMW Machinery
{Sharp Industries, Inc.) Company, Inc.)

Figure 17-9. Table movements of plain-type horizontal milling Figure 17-11. Table movements of the universal type milling
machine. machine.
Ch.1 (r I I

the top of the worktable. See Figure 17-13. The cut- A swivel head milling machine, Figure 17-14, is
ter head can be raised and lowered by hand or by the type often found in vocational-technical school
power feed. training programs. The spindle can be swiveled for
1hls type of milling machine is best suited for angular cuts.
use with an end mill or face mill cutter. Vertical On the sliding head milling machine, the spindle
mills include swivel head, sliding head, and rotary head is fixed in a vertical position. The head can be
head types. moved in a vertical direction by hand or under
power, Figure 17-15.
The spindle on the rotary head milling machine
can be moved vertically and in circular arcs of
adjustable radii about a vertical center line. It can
be adjusted manually or under power feed,
Figure 17-16.

17. I .6 Methods of milling machine control

The method employed to control table move-
ment is another way of classifying milling
machines, and all machine tools in general.
Basically, there are four methods of control:
• Manual-All movements are made by hand
lever control.
Figure 17-12. Note how table is swiveled at an angle to cutting • Semi-automatic-Movements are controlled
tool. This feature makes it possible to machine helical-flute by hand and/ or power feeds.
workpieces like the one being cut.
(WMW Machinery Company, Inc.)

.~Motor

Overarm~

Swivel .

Long,Udi~ •
feed
handwheel

~Base

Figure 17-13. The vertical spindle milling machine. Figure 17-14. A typical swivel-head milling machine (Republic-
(Rem Sales, Inc.) Lagun Machine Tool Co.)
 • Computerized (CNC)-Machining coordi-
nates are entered into a master computer or
computer on the machine, using a special pro-
gramming language. Instructions from the
computer operate actuators (electric,
hydraulic, or pneumatic devices) that move
the table and cutter or cutters through the
required machining sequence.
Small machines, such as the bench type milling
machine shown in Figure 17-17, have power feed
available only for longitudinal table movement. On
larger machines, automatic feed or power feed is
used for all table movements, Figures 17-18 and
17-19.

-•
,~
Figure 17-15. Spindle head is fixed in a vertical position on slid·
ing head milling machine. Entire head is moved to make cutting
adjustments.

Figure 17-17. Light plain type miffing machine is sometimes

referred to as a bench mill.

Angular feed of
head variable
through 180°

Figure 17-Ui. Movements possible on a rotary head vertical

milling machine. Milling machines with CNC capabilities are
replacing this type machine.

• Fully automatic-A complex hydraulic feed

arrangement that follows two or three dimen-
sional templates to automatically guide one
or more cutters. Specifications can also be
programmed on magnetic or perforated tape Figure 17-18. The vertical table feed handle. Power feed to
to guide the cutters and table through the raise the table is a/so available on this machine. It is activated
required machining operations. by the knobbed handle to the right.
 Chapter 17 The Mi!llng Hz.chine pp
Table movement (feed) can be engaged at cut- 1. Shifting V-belts, Figure 17-21.
ting speed; however, there is a rapid traverse feed
2. Adjusting variable speed pulleys, Figure 17~22.
that allows fast power movement in any direction of
feed engagement. This permits work to be posi- 3. Utilizing a quick change gear box and shifting
tioned at several times the fastest rate indicated on or dialing to the required speed and feed set-
the feed chart. It operates by positioning the auto- ting, Figure 17-23. On some machines, speed
matic power feed control lever to give the desired and feed changes are made hydraulically or
directional movement and activating the rapid tra- electronically.
verse lever. See Figure 17-20. Never activate rapid Always make speed changes as specified in the
traverse while the cutter is positioned in a cut. instruction manual for the specific machine being
used! Make sure the machine has come to a com-
17.1.1 Adjusting -cutting speed and feed for plete stop before attempting to adjust V-belts.
milling
Depending upon the make of the milling
machine, cutting speed (cutter rpm) and rate of feed
(table movement speed) may be changed by:

,,I

Figure 17-21. Spindle speeds on a V-belt drive are changed by

•
. __.,--•
Figure 17-19. The crank provides longitudinal table movement.
The small handle to the left activates the power feed.
using various pulley ratios. (South Bend, Inc.)

(Clausing Industrial, Inc.)

Figure 17-22. Spindle speed on this machine is controlled by

adjusting a split pulley. Pulley can be spread open or narrowed
in width to control where belt rides in pulley. This is done by
Figure tl-20. A machinist is engaging the rapid traverse on a dialing speed selector to proper position. (Cincinnati Lathe &
#2 plain milling machine. The #2 denotes machine size. Too/Co.)
 M11cltinln Fuml,,ment:il~

,_ r 1J~ r·:.ru1 ,;"\,._ir-7

. r-
i--:--~I ··..L...,.--- ··__ __,_ ··
! I L ,~ ., ; I
• ' [~ "-.,... ---; - w ~...
! \ ,: ' ;
l '; •...-· ;-::l-
( · -'- _:-=- - ·-' lI
1l
!i
r·-r1·
ji ;,"
.I -~
l..:-T·-
I I
-,--~1-·-- ---

l. I
I
i
:

l-----Jj b...l
L. -=h

B
Figure 17-23. Spindle speed control. A-Main Detr cJrive ana spindle speed control dial on .a vertical milling machine.
B-Cutaway showing sliding gear mechanism that permits dialing any of 18 speed choices. (WMW Machinery Company, Inc.)

17.2 MILLING SAFETY PRACTICES • Wear appropriate clothing and approved

safety glasses.
Milling machines, like all machine tools, should • Stop the machine before:
be cleaned after each work session. A medium • attempting to make adjustments or
width paintbrush may be used to remove accumu- measurements.
lated chips, Figure 17-24. • trying to remove accumulated chips.
Chips are razor-sharp; never use your ha.nd to • before opening or removing guards and
remove them. Never remove chips with compressed covers. Be sure all power to the machine is
air. The flying chips may injure you or a nearby per- turned off.
son. Also, if cutting oil was used in the machining • Use a piece of heavy cloth or gloves for pro-
operation, the compressed air will create a highly tection when handling milling cutters. Avoid
flammable oily mist. If ignited by an open flame, the using your bare hands.
mist can explode. Finish by wiping down the • Get help to move any heavy machine attach-
machine with a soft cloth. ment, such as a vise, dividing head, rotary
The follmving procedures are suggested for the table, or large work.
safe operation of a milling machine. • Be sure the work-holding device is mounted
• Become thoroughly familiar with the solidly to the table, and the work is held
milling machine before attempting to operate firmly. Spring or vibration in the work can
it. When in doubt, obtain additional cause thin cutters to jam and shatter!
instructions. • Never reach over or near a rotating cutter!
• Never attempt to operate a milling machine • Avoid talking with anyone while operating a
while your senses are impaired by medication machine tool, do not allow anyone to turn on
or other substances. your machine for you.
 Cllmll1 17 Th~ Millin M.id1111

• Never "fool around" when operating a Apply antiseptic and cover injury with a ban-
milling machine. Keep your mind on the job dage. Report any injury, no matter how
and be ready for any emergency. minor, to your instructor or supervisor.
• Keep the floor around your machine clear of • Launder work clothes frequently. Greasy
chips and wipe up spilled cutting fluid imme- clothing is a fire hazard.
diately! Place sawdust or special oil-absorb-
ing compound on slippery floors. Place all I 7.3 MILLING OPERATIONS
oily rags in an approved metal container that
There are two main categories of milling
can be closed tightly. operations:
• Be thoroughly familiar with the placement
• Face milling is done when the surface being
of the machine's "stop" switch or lever,
machined is parallel with the cutter face,
Figure 17-25.
Figure 17-26. Large, flat surfaces are
• Treat any small cuts and skin punctures as
machined with this technique.
potential infections. Clean them thoroughly.
• Peripheral milling is done when the surface
being machined is parallel with the periphery
of the cutter, Figure 17-27.

17.4 MILLING CUTTERS

The typical milling cutter is circular in shape
with a number of cutting edges (teeth) located
around its circumference. Milling cutters are manu-
factured in a large number of stock shapes, sizes,

Figure 17-24. Use a brush to remove metal chips; never use

your hand, since sharp chips can cause serious cuts.

Figure 17-25. Make 1t a "first point of business" to know the

location of the stop switch or stop lever. Wear safety glasses
and stop the machine before attempting to make measure- Figure 17-26. Face milling. A-With face milling, the surface
ments, adjustments, or to clear away chips. (Cincinnati Lathe & being machined is parallel with the cutter face. ~An example
Tool Co.) of face milling. (Sandvik Coromant Co.)
lffl Hachir;,ing Fu::-idamentals

17.4.2 How milling cutters are classif,ed

Milling cutters are frequently classified by the
method used to mount them on the machine:
• Arbor cutters have a suitable hole for mount-
ing to an arbor, Figure 17-31.
• Shank cutters are fitted with either a straight
or taper shank that is an integral part of the
cutter, Figure 17-32. They are held in the
machine by collets or special sleeves.
• Facing cutters can be mounted directly to a
machine's spindle nose or on a stub arbor.
See Figure 17-33.
17.4.3 Milling cutter material
A Considering the wide range of materials that
must be machined, the ideal milling cutter should
have:
• High abrasion resistance, so the cutting edges
do not wear away rapidly due to the abrasive
nature of some materials.
• Red hardness, so the cutting edges are not
affected by the terrific heat generated by
many machining operations.
• Edge toughness, so the cutting edges do not
readily break dov,n due to the loads imposed
upon them by the cutting operation.
Since no single material can meet these require-
ments in all situations, cutters are made from mate-
rials that are, by necessity, a compromise.
High-speed steels (HSS) are the most versatile of
the cutter materials. Cutters made from high-speed
steels are excellent for general purpose work or
where vibration and chatter are problems. They are
preferred for use on machines of low power.
HSS milling cutters can be improved by the
application of surface lubricating treatments, sur-
Figure 17-27. Peripheral milling. A-In this milling method, the
face hardening treatments, or by the application of
surface being machined is parallel with the periphery of the coatings (such as chromium, tungsten, or tungsten
cutter. B-An example of peripheral milling. carbide) to the cutting surfaces. While the treated
tools cost 2 to 6 times as much as conventional HSS
tools, they may last 5% to 10% longer or provide
and kinds, because they can't be economically 50% to 100% percent higher metal removal rates
ground for a particular job as can a lathe cutter bit. with the same tool life.
See Figure 17-28. Cemented tungsten carbides include a broad
family of hard metals. They are produced by pow-
17.4. I Tyj:Jes of milling cutters der metallurgy techniques and have qualities that
There are two general types of milling cutters: make them suitable for metal cutting tools.
• A solid cutter has the shank and body made Cemented carbides can, in general, be operated at
in one piece, Figure 17-29. speeds 3 to 10 times faster than conventional HSS
• The inserted-tooth cutter has teeth made of cutting tools.
special cutting material, ,vhich are brazed or Normally, only the cutting tips are made of
clamped in place, Figure 17-30. Worn and cemented carbides rather than the entire cutter.
broken teeth can be replaced easily instead of They are brazed or damped to the cutter body.
discarding the entire cutter. See Figures 17-34 and 17-35.
Chapter 17 ·rhe Milling Machine

I
Figure 17-28. A selection of HSS (high speed steel) milling cutters. (Btown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.)

Figure 17-30. A variety of cutters with indexable carbide inserts.

When the cutting edges dull, new cutting edges are rotated into
Figure 17-29. Wfth the exception of the cutter in the back row, position. The inserts are available in different grades depending
these are solid milling cutters. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.) upon the material being machined. (Dapra Corporation)
 M

Figure 17-31. An arbor-type milling cutter.

Figure 17-34. Teeth on this inserted-tooth milling cutter are

brazed to cutter body. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.)

Figure 17-35. These inserted-tooth cutters use teeth that are

clamped to the cutter body. The cutter teeth (colored gold in this
photo) can be indexed four times to present a fresh cutting edge
as they wear. (Mitsubishi Materials USA Corporation)

Figure 17-32. Shank-/ypi~ milling cwrars. Most newer inserted-tooth cutters make use of
indexable inserts. Each insert has several cutting
edges at various corners. When they become dull,
the inserts are indexed (turned) so a ne,v cutting
edge contacts the metal.
Cemented carbide cutters are excellent for long
production runs and for milling materials with a
scale-like surface (cast iron, cast steel, bronze, etc.)

17.5 TYPES AND USES OF

MILLING CUTTERS
The follmving are the more commonly used
milling cutters, with a summary of the work to
which they are best suited.

Figure 17-33. This face-type milling cutter has an unusual 17.5. I End mills
design, making use of bearing-mounted inserts that rotate as
they cut. The manufacturer claims better heat dissipation pro- End milling cutters are designed for
vided by the rotating inserts will increase cutter life and permit machining slots, keyways, pockets, and similar
higher cutting speeds. (Valenite, Inc.) work, Figure 17-36. The cutting edges are on the
circumference and end. End mills may have straight The term hand is used to describe the direction
or helical flutes, Figure 17-37, and have straight or of cutter rotation and the helix of the flutes,
taper shanks, Figure 17-38. Straight shank end mills Figure 17-40. When viewed from the cutting end, a
are available in single and double end styles, right-hand cutter rotates counterclockwise, and a
Figure 17-39. left-hand cutter rotates clockwise.
Ball nose end mills, Figure 17-41, are utilized for
tracer milling, computer-controlled contour milling,
die-sinking, fillet milling, and other radius work. A
cut with a depth equal to one-half the end mill
diameter can generally be taken in solid stock. See
Figure 17-42.

Figure 17-38. Straight shank and taper shank end mills.

Figure 17-36. An indexable-insert end mill machining clearance

slots on a face milling cutter. (Kennametal Inc.)

Figure 17-39. Single-end-type and double-end- type end mills.

Straight shank
sizes 07/8 and Driving flat
larger have 03/8 and larger
additional flats

0
Rlght•.hand

Left-hand

Figure 17-37. End mill with multiple indexable inserts are made Figure 17-40. Cutter is right-hand if it rotates counterclockwise
in both helical fluted and straight-fluted types. Two face-type when viewed from cutting end. It is left-hand if rotation is
cutters are also shown. (Mitsubishi Materials USA Corporation) clockwise.
~ 1...-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _M_. :u:
_· ._:._:r_i,in_ 3_
f r_~!_, .!_a_r:_,e_n_t_a1_:;

Several end mill styles are available: both face and end milling. Shell end mills are
• A two-flute end mill can be fed into the work made with right-hand cut, right-hand helix,
like a drill. There are two cutting edges on the or with left-hand cut, left-hand helix.
circumference, with the end teeth cut to the
center, Figure 17-43. 17.5.2 Face milling cutters
• The multiflute end mill can be run at the same Face milling cutters are intended for machining
speed and feed as a comparable h·vo-flute end large flat surfaces parallel to the face of the cutter,
mill, but it has a longer cutting life and ,,Till Figure 17-46. The teeth are designed to make the
produce a better finish. It is recommended for roughing and finishing cuts in one operation.
conventional milling where plunge cutting Because of their size and cost, most face milling cut-
(feeding into the work like a tw'ist drill) is not ters have inserted cutting edges.
necessary. See Figure 17-44.
• A shell end mill, Figure 17-45, has teeth simi-
lar to the multiflute end mill but is mounted
on a stub arbor. The cutter is designed for

Figure 17-43. The two-flute end mill can be fed into work like a
drill.

Figure 17-41. A ball nosed end mill has a rounded tip. These
mills have two replaceable cutting inserts. (Mitsubishi Materials Figure 17-44. Multifluted end mills. The peripheral grooves in
USA Corporation) the cutter at right reduce chip size, lowering cutting forces. Most
modem cutters have a nitride coating that improves resistance
to abrasive wear and corrosion.

Figure 17-42. Three-dimensional milling is being done with a Figure 17-45. A shell end mill being used on a vertical milling
ball tip end mill. (De/cam lntemational) machine.
 _C_h_ap_t_e_r_l_7_ _T_h_e_M_i_ll_ln_g_M_a_.c_h_in_e_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I, I
A fly cutter is a single-point cutting tool used as 17.5.3 Arbor milling cutters
a face mill. An example is shown in Figure 17-47. The more common arbor milling cutters and th.e
work for which they are best adapted include:
Indexable insert • Plain milling cutter
• Side milling cutter
• Angle cutters
• Metal slitting saws
• Formed milling cutters.
Cutter
body Plain milling cutter
Plain milling cutters are cylindrical, with teeth
located around the circumference. See Figure 17-48.
A Plain milling cutters less than 3 / 4" (20 mm) are
made with straight teeth. Wider plain cutters, called

Figure 17-46. Face mill with indexable inserts. A-The replace-

able inserts are mechanically clamped in place on the cutter
body. As cutting edges wear, the inserts can be turned (indexed)
to present a fresh cutting edge. B-An example of a face mill
wtth indexable inserts. Insert selection is based on material to
be machined. (Mitsubishi Materials USA Corporation)

Figure 17-48. Plain milling cutters. A- Light-duty cutters. 8---

Figure 17-47. The fly cutter is a single-point cutting tool used for Heavy-duty plain milling cutter. (Standard Tool Co.) C-Helical
face milling. plain milling cutter. (Morse Cutting Tools)
 ,,,
slab cutters, are made with helical teeth designed to
cut with a shearing action. This reduces the ten-
dency for the cutter to chatter.
• The light-duty plain milling cutter is used
chiefly for light slabbing cuts and shallow
slots.
• The heavy-duty plain milling cutter is recom-
mended for heavy cuts where considerable
material must be removed. It has fewer teeth
than a comparable light-duty cutter. The cut-
ting edges are better supported and chip
spaces are ample to handle the larger volume
of chips.
• A helical plain milling cutter has fewer teeth
than either of the two previously mentioned
cutters. The helical cutter can be run at high
speeds and produces exceptionally smooth
finishes.
Side milling cutter
Cutting edges are located on the circumference
and on one or both sides of side milling cutters.
They are made in solid form or with inserted teeth.
See Figure 17-49.
• Plain side milling cutter teeth are on the cir-
cumference and on both sides of the cutter. It
is recommended for side cutting, straddle
milling, and slotting. Plain side milling cut-
ters are available in diameters ranging from
2" (50 mm) to 8" (200 mm), and in ,vidths
from 3/16" (5 mm) to 1" (25 mm).
• A staggered-tooth side milling cutter has
alternating right-hand and left-hand helical
teeth. They aid in reducing chatter ·while pro-
viding adequate chip clearance for higher
operating speeds and feeds than are possible
Figure 17-49. Side milling cutters. A-Plain side milling cutter.
with the plain side milling cutter. This type 8-Staggered-tooth side milling cutter. C-Half side milling
cutter is especially good for machining deep cutters. (Standard Tool Co.)
slots.
• The half side milling cutter has helical teeth
on the circumference but side teeth on only
one side. It is made as a right-hand or left-
hand cutter, and is recommended for heavy
straddle milling and milling to a shoulder.
• The interlocking side milling cutter is ideally
suited for milling slots or bosses, and for mak-
ing other types of cuts that must be held to
extremely close tolerances. The unit is made
as two cutters with interlocking teeth that can
be adjusted to the required vvidth by using
I
spacers or collars, Figure 17-50. The alternat- I
IL _ __ _..___,
ing right and left shearing action eliminates
side pressures, producing a good surface Figure 17-50. Tooth pattern on interlocking side milling cutters.
finish. (Morse Tool Co.)
Chapter !7 The Milling Machine

Angle cutters i I '

Angle cutters differ from other cutters in that the

cutting edges are neither parallel, nor at right angles
to the cutter axis. See Figure 17-51.
• On a single-angle milling cutter, the teeth are
I

',,,
on the angular face and on the side adjacent to
the large diameter. Single-angle cutters are
made in both right-hand and left-hand cut,
with included angles of 45° and 60°.
• The double-angle milling cutter is used for
milling threads, notches, serrations, and simi-
lar work. Double-angle cutters are manufac-
tured with included angles of 45°, 60°, and
90°. Other angles can be special ordered.

Metal slitting saws

Metal slitting saws are thin milling cutters that
resemble circular saw blades, Figure 17-52. They are
employed for narrow slotting and cutoff operations.
Slitting saws are available in diameters as small as
2 1/2" (60 mm) and as large as 8" (200 mm).
• The plain metal slitting saw is essentially a
thin plain milling cutter. It is used for ordi- B
nary slotting and cutoff operations. Both sides Figure 17-52. Slitting saws. A-Plain metal slitting saw is used
are ground concave for clearance. The hub is for slotting and cutoff operations. 8--The construction of the
the same thickness as the cutting edge. It is side chip clearance slitting saw allows it to be used for deep
stocked in thicknesses ranging from 1 /32" slotting applications.
(0.8 mm) to 3/16" (5 mm).
• A side chip clearance slitting saw is similar to
the plain side milling cutter. It is especially
suitable for deep slotting and sawing applica- shapes can be machined with standard cutters avail-
tions because of its ample chip clearance. able. See Figure 17-53. Included in this cutter classi-
fication are the concave cutter, convex cutter, corner
Formed milling cutters rounding cutter, and gear cutter.
Formed milling cutters are employed to accu-
rately duplicate a required contour. A wide range of 17.5.4 Miscellaneous milling cutters
Included in this category are cutters that do not
fit into any of the previously mentioned groups.
• The T-slot milling cutter has cutting edges for
milling the bottoms of T-slots after cutting
with an end mill or side cutter, Figure 17-54.
• A Woodruff key seat cutter is used to mill the
semicircular keyseat for a Woodruff key,
Figure 17-55.
• A dovetail cutter mills dovetail-type ways
and it is used in much the same manner as the
T-slot cutter. See Figure 17-56.

17.5.5 Care of milling cutters

Milling cutters are expensive and easily dam-
aged if care is not taken in their use and storage. The
Figure 17-51. Angle cutters. A-Single-angle milling cutter. following recommendations will help extend cutter
B-Double-angle milling cutter. life:
 D

Figure 17-53. Formed milling cutters. A-Concave milling cutter will produce an accurate shape along cut. 8-Convex milling cutter
will produce a curved slot. C-Corner rounding milling cutter is available as left and right-hand cut. D--Corner-rounding end mill with
replaceable tungsten carbide cutting edges. E-Gear cutter. (Standard Tool Co.)

B
Figure 17-54. A T-slot mifling cutter and the cut it produces. (Morse Cutting Tools)
Chapter 17 T h~ I •!illing Ma~hlne

• Use sharp cutting tools! Machining with dull • Never hammer a cutter onto an arbor!
tools results in low-quality work, and eventu- Examine the arbor for nicks or burrs if the cut-
ally damages the rutting edges beyond the ter does not slip onto it easily. Do not forget to
point where they can be salvaged by key the cutter to the arbor.
grinding. • Place a wooden board under an end mill
• Properly support tools and make sure the when removing it from a vertical milling
work is held rigidly. machine. This will prevent cutter damage if it
• Use the correct cutting speed and feed for the is dropped accidentally. Protect your hand
material being machined. with a heavy cloth or gloves. See Figure 17-59.
• Assure an ample supply of cutting fluid,
Figure 17-57.
• Employ the correct cutter for the job.
• Store cutters in individual compartments
or on wooden pegs. They should never come
in contact with other cutters or tools,
Figure 17-58.
• Clean cutters before storing them. If they are
to be stored for any length of time, it is best to
give them a light protective coating of oil.

Figure 17-57. Rigidly supported cutters will permit heavier cuts

and prolong cutter life. An ample supply of cutting Huid is
Figure 17-55. A Woodruff keyseat cutter. essential. (Sharnoa Corp.)

B
Figure 17-56. Dovetail cutter. A-This cutter will make a slot with angled sides. B-A dovetail cutter with indexable insert cutting
edges.
 17.6 METHODS OF MILLING
Milling operations can be classified into one of
two distinct methods:
• With conventional or up-milling, the work
is fed into the rotation of the cutter,
Figure 17-60A. The chip is at minimum
thickness at the start of the cut. The cut is so
light that the cutter has a tendency to slide
over the work until sufficient pressure is built
up to cause the teeth to bite into the material.
This initial sliding motion, followed by the
sudden breakthrough as the tooth completes
the cut, leaves the "milling marks" so famil-
iar on many milled surfaces. The marks and
ridges can be kept to a minimum by keeping
the table gibs properly adjusted.
• With climb or down-milling, the ·work moves
in the same direction as cutter rotation,
Figure 17-60B. Full engagement of the cutter
tooth is instantaneous. The sliding action of
conventional milling is eliminated, resulting
in a better finish and longer tool life. The main
advantage of climb milling is the tendency of
the cutter to press the ,vork down on the
worktable or holding device.
Climb milling is not recommended on light
machines, nor on large older machines that are not
in top condition or are not fitted with an antiback-
lash device to take up play. There is danger of a seri-
ous accident if there is play in the table, or if the
work or work-holding device is not mounted
securely.

Figure 17-58. Store cuff&r"S so they cannot come into contact 17.7 HOLDING AND DRIVING
with other cutters.
CUTTERS
The arbor is the most common method
employed to hold and drive cutters. It is made in a
number of sizes and styles. Arbors with self-holding
tapers are used on some small hand milling
machines and older models of larger millers,
Figure 17-61. Today, there are three basic arbor
styles in general use, Figure 17-62.
• Style A is fitted with a small pilot end that
runs in a bronze bearing in the arbor support.
This style is best used when maximum arbor
support clearance is required.
• Style B is characterized by the large bearing
collar that can be positioned on any part of
the arbor. This feature makes it possible to
mount the bearing support as close to the cut-
Figure 17-59. When removing or replacing a cutter on a milling
machine, protect your hand with a heavy cfoth. On vertical ter as possible for maximum cutter support.
milling machines, also place a piece of wood under the cutter. This permits heavy cuts.
 Figure 17-61. The self-holding taper arbor is seldom used
today.

Figure 17-62. Basic arbor styles. A-Style A arbor. B-Style B

arbor. C--Style C arbor.

• Style C is used to hold smaller sizes of shell

end and face milling cutters that cannot be
mounted directly to the spindle nose.
In general, use the shortest arbor possible that
will permit adequate clearance between the arbor
support and the work.
Both style A and style B arbors have a keyway
milled their entire length, allowing a key to be
employed to prevent the cutter from revolving on
the arbor. See Figure 17-63.
Spacing collars allow the cutter to be positioned
on the arbor, Figure 17-64. Accurately made in a
number of widths, collars permit two or more cut-
ters to be precisely spaced for gang and saddle
milling. A left-hand threaded nut tightens the cutter
and collars on the arbor. The nut should not be
tightened directly against the bearing collar on the
style Barbor, because the bearing may be damaged.
A draw-in bar is used on most vertical and hor-
izontal milling machines, Figure 17-65. It fits
~igurs 17-60. Milling methods. A-Cutter and work movement through the spindle and screws into the arbor or col-
vith conventional (up) milling. B-Cutter and work movement let to hold it firmly on the spindle. Drive keys on the
1'ith climb (down) milling. nose of the spindle fit into corresponding slots on
" Cutter

/
Arbor_/

Figure 17-63. Keying the cutter to the arbor prevents it from slipping during the cutting operation.

the arbor, collet, or collet holder to provide positive

(nonslip) drive, Figure 17-66.
End mills may be mounted in spring collets,
adapters, shell end mill holders, or stub arbors,
depending upon the type of work to be done. See
Figure 17-67.
Spring collets accommodate straight shank end
mills and drills. Some collets must be fitted in a
collet chuck. Adapters are used for taper shank end
mills and drills. Shell end mill holders enable shell
end mills, used for face and side milling, to be fitted
to a vertical milling machine. Stub arbors are short
arbors that permit various side cutters, slitting saws,
formed cutters, and angle cutters to be used on a
vertical mill.
Figure 17-64. Spacing collars are manufactured in many differ-
ent widths. They are used to position one or more cutters on the
arbor.

~.~~ Machine
spindle
Arbor

Figure 17-65. The draw-in bar holds the arbor onto the spindle. Figure 17-66. Clearly shown are spindle drive keys, style A
Avoid operating a milling machine if the arbor is not held in arbor support, and style B arbor support. (Cincinnati Lathe &
olace with a draw-in bar. Toof Co.)
Chepte:- 17 The Milling Machine

Wrench to tighten
shell mill on holder Arbor
(not drawn to scale) screw

A
Collet
holder

Arbor
nut
B

Stub
arbor Spacers
E

C
Rgure 17-67. Mounting devices. A-Spring co/let (R-8 taper type). ~ollet chuck and co/let. C-Adapter used with taper shank
cutting tools. 0-Shell end mill holder (R-8 taper). E-Stub arbor (R-8 taper).

17. 7. I Care of cutter holding and driving

devices
To maintain precision and accuracy during a
milling operation, care must be taken to prevent
damage to the cutter holding and driving devices.
• Keep the taper end of the arbor clean and free
of nicks. The same applies to the spindle
taper.
• Clean and lubricate the bearing sleeve before
placing the arbor support on it. Also make
sure the bearing sleeve fits snugly.
• Clean the spacing collars before slipping them
onto an arbor, Figure 17-68. Otherwise, cutter
runout will occur, making it difficult to make
an accurate cut.
• Store arbors separately and in a vertical
position.
• Never loosen or tighten an arbor nut unless
the arbor support is locked in place, because
this could spring the arbor so that it will not
run true. Figure 17-68. A chip between spacing collars will cause an
• Use a wrench of the correct size on the arbor arbor to be sprung out of true. Bend in the arbor is greatly exag-
nut, Figure 17-69. Make sure at least four gerated in this drawing.
 M a,;hining Fundament.ils

17.8 MILLING CUTTING SPEEDS

AND FEEDS
The time required to complete a milling opera-
tion and the quality of the finish is almost com-
pletely governed by the cutting speed and feed rate
of the cutter.
i\1illing cutting speed refers to the distance, mea-
sured in feet or meters, that a point (tooth) on the
cutter's circumference will moye in one minute. It is
expressed in feet per minute (fpm) or meters per
minute (mpm). Milling cutting speed is directly
dependent on the revolutions per minute (rpm) of
Wrench must fit snugly the cutter.
or arbor nut will be Milling feed is the rate at ·which work moves
damaged into the cutter. It is given in feed per tooth per revolu-
Figure 17-69. Use a wrench of correct type and size to loosen tion (ftr). Proper feed rate is probably the most diffi-
an arbor nut. cult setting for a machinist to determine. In view of
the many variables (\vidth of cut, depth of cut,
threads are engaged before tightening the machine condition, cutter sharpness, etc.), feed
arbor nut. should be as coarse as possible, consistent with the
• Avoid tightening an arbor nut by striking the desired finish.
wrench with a hammer or mallet. This can
17.8. I Calculating cutting speeds and feeds
crack the nut and/ or distort the threads.
• Do not force a cutter onto an arbor. Check to Considering the previously mentioned vari-
see what is making it difficult to slide on. ables, the speeds listed in Figure 17-70, and the
Correct any problem. feeds listed in Figure 17-71, are suggested. The
• Kev all cutters to the arbor. usual procedure is to start with the midrange figure
To remove an arbor or adapter from the and increase or decrease speeds until the most satis-
machine: factory combination is obtained, consistent with
cutter life and surface quality.
1. Loosen the draK-in bar nut a few turns. Do not In general, speed is reduced for hard or abrasive
remove it from the arbor completely. materials, deep cuts, or high alloy content metals.
2. Tap the draw-in bar with a lead hammer to Speed is increased for soft materials, better finishes,
loosen the arbor in the spindle. and light cuts. Refer to Figure 17-72 to calculate the
cutting speed and feed for a specific material.
3. Hold the loosened arbor with one hand and
unscrew the dra,v-in bar ,vith the other.
4. Remove the arbor from the spindle. Clean and
store it properly.

High-speed steel cutter Carbide cutter

I
I
I
Material
Aluminum
Feet per minute
550-1000
Meters per minute* I Feet per minute
170-300 i 2200--4000
I
!
Meters per minute•
670-1200
Brass 250--650 75-200 i 1000-2600 I 300-800
Low carbon steel 100-325 30-100 I 400-1300 I 120--400
Free cutting steel 150-250 45-75 I
I 600-1000 I 180-300
Alloy steel 70-175 20-50 ! 280-700 I 85-210
Cast iron 45-60 15-20 I 180-240 1 55-75 I
Re::::.:ce speeds tor hard materia(s, abrasive rnate:'as, aeep cu:s, a1c high alloy materials. increase speeds for soft materials, better l!nishes,
itght ::uts, trali wcrl<. and sel:.ms. Sta~t at m:aoo:rit 0:-1 tr.a range a~d il'C'.ease or decrease speed until best results are obtained,
""Figu~es rcL.ndec! off.

Figure 17-70. Recommended cutting speeds for milling. Speed is given in surface feet per minute (fpm) and in surface meters per
minute (mpm).
 Chapter 17 The MIiiing Macnine g
Material
Type of cutter Aluminum Brass Free cutting
Cast iron Alloy steel
steel
0.009 (0.22) 0.007 (0.18) 0.004 (0.10) 0.005 (0.13) 0.003 (0.08)
End m/11
0.022 (0.55) 0.015 (0.38) 0.009 (0.22) 0.010 (0.25) 0.007 (0.18)
0.016 (0.40) 0.012 (0.30) 0.007 (0.18) 0.008 (0.20) 0.005 (0.13)
Face mill
0.040 (1.02) 0.030 (0.75) 0.018 (0.45) 0.020 (0.50) 0.012 (0.30)
0.012 (0.30) 0.010 (0.25) 0.005 (0.13) 0.007 (0.18) 0.004 {0.10)
Shell end mlll 0.030 (0.75) 0.022 (0.55) 0.013 (0.33) 0.015 (0.38) 0.009 (0.22)
0.008 (0.20) 0.006 (0.15) 0.003 {0.08) 0.004 (0.10) 0.001 (0.03)
Slab mill
0.017 (0.43) 0.012 (0.30) 0.007 (0.18) 0.008 (0.20) 0.004 (0.10)
0.010 (0.25) 0.008 (0.20) 0.004 (0.10) 0.005 (0.13) 0.003 (0.08)
Side cutter
0.020 (0.50) 0.016 (0.40) 0.010 (0.25) 0.011 (0.28) 0.007 (0.18)
0.006 (0.15) 0.004 (0.10) 0.001 (0.03) 0.003 (0.08) 0.001 (0.03)
Saw
0.010 (0.25) 0.007 (0.18) 0.003 (0.08) 0.005 (0.13) 0.003 (0.08)
US Customary value expressed in inches per tooth. Metric value (shown in parentheses) expressed in millimeters per tooth.
Increase or decrease feed until the desired surface finish Is obtained.
Feeds may be Increased 100 percent or more depending upon the rigidity of the machine and the power available, if carbide tipped cutters are used.

Figure 17-71. Recommended feed rates in inches per tooth and millimeters per tooth for high speed steel (HSS) milling cutters.

Rules for determining speed and feed

To find Having Rule Formula
Diameter of cutter (in inches)
Speed of cutter in feet Diameter of cutter and multiplied by 3.1416 (x) multi-
per minute (fpm) fpm = xD x r~m
revolutions per minute plied by revolutions per minute, 12
divided by 12
Diameter of cutter multiplied by
Speed of cutter In meters Diameter of cutter and by 3.1416 (1t) multiplied by mpm = D{mm) X 1t X rem
per minute revolutions per minute revolutions per minute, divided 1000
by 1000
Revolutions per minute Feet per minute and diameter Feet per minute, multiplied by
fpm X 12
(rpm) of cutter 12, divided by circumference rpm
of cutter (xD) nD
Revolutions per minute Meters per minute and diameter Meters per minute multiplied by x 1000
(rpm) 1000, divided by the circum- rpm= mpm
of cutter in millimeters (mm) xD
ference of cutter (D)
Feed per revolution (FR) Feed per minute and Feed per minute, divided by FR=_£_
revolutions per minute revolutions per minute rpm
Feed per minute (in inches or
Feed per tooth per Feed per minute and number millimeters} divided by number F
ftr =
revolution (ftr) of teeth in cutter of teeth in cutter x revolutions TX rpm
per minute
Feed per tooth per revolution, Feed per tooth per revolution
Feed par minute (F) number of teeth in cutter, multiplied by number of teeth in F = ftr X T X rpm
and rpm cutter, multiplied by revolutions
per minute
Feed per minute (F) Feed per revolution and Feed per revolution multiplied by F = FR X rpm
revolutions per minute revolutions per minute
Number of teeth per minute Number of teeth in cutter and Number of teeth in cutter multi-
(TM) revolutions per minute TM= TX rpm
plied by revolutions per minute
rpm = Revolutions per minute TM =Teeth per minute
T = Teeth in cutter F = Feed per minute
D = Diameter of cutter FR = Feed per revolution
X =3.1416(pi) fir = Feed per tooth per revolution
frm = Speed of cutter ln feet per minute mpm = Speed of cutter in meters per minute

Figure 17-72. Rules for determining cutting speed and feed.

fir.I 1'1ach1r:lng r~•r.,:fa.r:te~i:ab
- 1--------------
Example Problem: Determine the approximate of work-holding attachments. Each of these attach-
11
cutting speed and feed for a 6 (152 mm) diameter ments increases the usefulness of the milling
side cutter (HSS) ,dth 16 teeth, when milling free machine.
cutting steel. 17. I 0. I Vises
Information Available:
The vise is probably the most widely employed
Recommended cutting speed for free method of holding work for milling. The jaws are
cutting steel (midpoint in range) ..... 200 fpm hardened to resist wear, and are ground for
Recommended feed per tooth accuracy. A milling vise, like other work-holding
(midpoint in range) .................. 0.008" attachments, is keyed to the table slot ·with lugs,
11
Cutter diameter ........................ 6 Figure 17-74.
Number of teeth on cutter ............... 16
To determine speed setting (cutter rpm), the follow- Aluminum and its Kerosene, kerosene and lard oil,
alloys soluble oil
ing is given in Figure 17-72.
Rule: Divide the feet per (fpm) by the circum- Plastics Dry
ference of the cutter, expressed in feet. Brass, soft Dry, solub,e oil, kerosene and
lard oil
fpm X 12 Bronze, high tensile Soluble oil, lard oil, mineral oil, dry
Formula: rpm = 1tD
Cast Iron Dry, air jet, soluble oil
200 X 12 Copper Soluble oil, dry, minera! lard oil,
= 3.i4 X 6 kerosene
2400 Magnesium Low viscosity neutral oils
= 18.84 Malleable iron Dry, carbonated water
= 127.39 rpm* Monel metal La~d oil, soluble oil
To determine feed setting (feed in inches per Slate Dry
minute or F) Steel, forging Soluble oil, sulfurized oil, minerai
Rule: Multiply feed per tooth per revolution by lard oil
number of teeth on cutter and by speed (rpm). Steel, manganese Soiubie oil, sulfurized oil, mineral
lard oil
Formula: F = ftr X T x rpm
Steel, soft Soiubie ciL mineral lard oil,
= 0.008 X 16 X 127 su!furized oil, lard oil
= 16.25* Su1tirized r:iinera! oil, soluble oil
Steel, stainless
* The speed and feed are only approximate. Set Steel, tool Soiub1e oil, mineral lard oil,
machine to closest setting, either higher or lower. sulfL;rized oil
Increase or reduce speed until satisfactory cutting
conditions are achieved.
Wrought iron Soluble oil, m:r.eral lard oil,
sulfurized oH I
Figure 17-73. Recommended cutting fluids for various
17.9 CUTTING FLUIDS materials.
Cutting fluids serve several purposes:
• They carry away the heat generated during
the machining operation.
• They act as a lubricant.
• They prevent the chips from sticking to or fus-
ing with the cutter teeth.
• They flush away chips.
• They influence the finish quality of the
machined surface.
As this list shows, it is important that the correct
cutting fluid be used for the material being
machined. See Figure 17-73.
17.10 MILLING WORK-HOLDING
ATTACHMENTS
One of the more important features of the Figure 17-74. Lugs on the base of a work-holding attachment
milling machine is its adaptability to a large number position the device on the worktable.
 Cilapter Ii Tl?e ~!illing Machi;ie pp
A flanged vise has slotted flanges for fastening and similar operations. A dividing attachment can
the vise to the table, Figure 17-75. The slots permit be fitted to many rotary tables in place of the hand
the vi.se to be mounted on a horizontal milling wheel, Figure 17-80.
machine either parallel to, or at right angles to, the The table is graduated in degrees around its
spindle. circumference and adjustments can be made
The body of a swivel vise is similar to a flange accurately with the hand wheel to 1/30 of a degree
vise but is fitted with a circular base, graduated in (2 minutes).
degrees. This permits it to be locked at any angle to An index table permits the rapid positioning of
the spindle. See Figure 17-76. work, Figure 17-81. Indexing is usually in 15° incre-
The toolmaker's universal vise permits com- ments. However, a clamping device allows the table
pound or double angles to be machined without to be locked at any setting.
complex or multiple setups. See Figure 17-77. A dividing head will divide the circumference
A magnetic chuck, shown in Figure 17-78, is ide- of circular work into equally spaced units. It is one
ally suited for many milling operations. The magnet of the more important milling attachments,
eliminates the need for time-consuming hold-down Figure 17-82. This feature makes a dividing head
damps to mount the work to the table. The mag-
netic chuck can be used only with ferrous metals.
A rotary table, Figure 17-79, can perform a
variety of operations, such as: cutting segments of
circles, circular slots, cutting irregular-shaped slots,

Figure 17-75. This is a typical flanged vise.

Figure 17-76. The swivel vise is handy and w,ii rorare ro align Figure 17-77. Toolmaker's universal vise. A-The universal
,vork easily. Note that the base of the vise is graduated in vise can be pivoted on several planes. B-Universal vise is
Jegrees. It can be positioned and locked at an angle to the being used on light vertical milling machine to cut a compound
·nachine spindle. (Wilton Tool Mfg. Co.) angle (double angle). Note how vise is tilted.
 Machb1ing Ftmc!a.rr:entais
1111

Figure 17-81. An index table permits work to be rapidly posi-

tioned. The 3-jaw chuck is used for round workpieces. Note that
Figure 17-78. Mi!ling a workpiece held with a magnetic chuck, the unit can be mounted on the milling machine vertically or hor-
(D.S. Walker Co.) izontally. (Yukiwa Seiko USA, Inc.)

indispensable when milling gear teeth, cutting

splines, and spacing holes on a circle. It also makes
possible the milling of squares, hexagons, etc., when
required.
The dividing head consists of two parts, the
dividing unit and the foot stock. vVork may be
mounted between centers, in a chuck, or in a collet.
See Figure 17-83.
An index plate; identified by circles of holes on
its face, and the index crank; which revolves on the
index plate, are fundamental in the dividing opera-
Figure 17-79. Rotary table is being used to machine a part with tion. See Figure 17-84.
round and curved shapes. Rotating the index crank causes the dividing
head spindle (to which work is mounted) to rotate.
The standard ratios for the dividing head are five
turns of the index crank for one complete revolution
of the spindle (5:1); or 40 turns of the index crank
for one revolution of the spindle (40:1). See Figure
17-85.
The ratio between index crank turns and spindle
revolution, plus the index plate with its series of
equally spaced hole circles, makes it possible to
divide the circumference of the work into the
required number of equal spaces.
For example, if 10 teeth ,,vere to be cut on a gear,
it would require 1/10 of 5 turns (assuming dividing
head has a 5:1 ratio), or one-half turn of the index
crank for each tooth.
Figure 17-llO. Rotary table with handwheel replaced by a divid- For 25 teeth, the number of crank turns would
ing attachment. (WMW Machinery Company, Inc.) be 1/25 of 5, or dividing 5 by 25, or 5/25. By further
 pp
Number of holes
in each circle
Chuck can be removed
\ and work mounted
between centers

Footstock

Figure 17-82. Dividing head and foot stock.

Figure 17-84. Location of index plate, sector arms, and index

crank. (Kearney & Tracker Corp.)

40. 1 gear ratl , ( •o rn

d the mde:v. rr<111k to Q
revolution It

Figure 17-85. Internal mechanism of a dividing head uses pre-

Figure 17-83. Dividing head applications. A- work has been cision gears. On this dividing head, 40 turns of the index crank
mounted between centers tor a milling operation. 8-A cam is rotates the spindle (work) one complete revolution. (Kearney &
being milled while held in a co/let. (Cincinnati Lathe & Tool Co.) Trecker Corp.)
 M achining Fc;nda.m.~ntal!:

reduction, this becomes 1 / 5 of a turn of the crank operation. The dividing head spindle typically can
for each tooth. This is where the holes in the index be moved through an arc of 100=. It s-,dvels 3°
plate come into use; they allo'\-v fractional turns to be below horizontal, and 5:: beyond perpendicular. See
made accurately. Figure 17-87.
Select an index plate with a series of holes dhis- A precision device, a dividing head has an
ible by 5. On one such plate, the circles have 47, 49, indexing accuracy of about one minute of arc. This
51, 53, 54, 37, and 60 holes. In this situation, 60 is is the equivalent of 1/21,600 part of a circle.
divisible by 5. Thus, indexing would be through 12
holes on the 60-hole circle for each tooth.
When indexing, it is not necessary to count 12
holes each time the work is repositioned after a
tooth has been cut. Two arms, called sector arms or
index fingers, are loosened and positioned. One is
located against the pin on the index crank. The other
is moved clockwise until the arms are 12 holes
apart, not including the hole that the pin is in. See
Figure 17-86.
To index, first move the workpiece clear of the
cutter. Disengage the crank by withdrawing the pin
from the index plate and rotating it clockwise
through the section marked by the sector arms.
Drop the pin into the hole at the position of the sec-
ond sector arm and lock the dividing head mecha-
nism. Next, move the sector arms in the same
direction as crank rotation to catch up ·with the
pin in the index crank. For each cut, repeat the
Figure 17-87. Most dividing heads can pivot the spindle through
an arc of 100".
Pin in this hole

..
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
12 holes Please do not write in the text. Write your
~ answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Milling machines fall into two broad classifica-
0 0-~~ tions: _ _ and _ _ types .
0
•• 2. There are three basic types of milling machines.
0 a. A _ _ type has a horizontal spindle and
0 the worktable has three movements.
b. A _ _ type is similar to the above
machine but a fourth movement has been
added to the worktable to permit cutting
0 helical shapes.
0
c. A _ _ type has the spindle perpen-
dicular or at right angles to the ,vorktable.
3. List the four methods of machine control.
Briefly describe each of them.
4. Stop the machine before making _ _ and

Figure 17-86. Positioning sector arms for proper movement of

the spindle. When positioning sector arms, do not count the 5. Metal chips must never be removed with your
hole that the pin on index crank is in. . Usea _ _
Chq>ter I 7 The Millir.g Machbe fll1i
--------------~
6. Treat all small cuts and skin punctures as g. Intended for machining large flat surfaces
potential sources of infection. The following parallel to the cutter face.
should be done: h. Thin milling cutter designed for machin-
a. Clean them thoroughly. ing narrow slots and for cutoff operations.
b. Apply antiseptic and cover with a 1. Mounts on a stub arbor.
bandage. j. Has alternate right-hand and left-hand
c. Promptly report the injury to your helical teeth.
instructor. 21. F1at surfaces are machined with or
d. All of the above. tooth milling cutters.
e. None of the above.
22. Make a sketch that illustrates climb milling.
7. Milling cutters are sharp. Protect your hands
with a _ _ or _ _ when handling them. 23. Make a sketch illustrating conventional
milling.
8. Milling operations fall into two main cate-
gories: 24. In climb milling:
a. _ _ milling, in which the surface being a. The work is fed into the rotation of the
machined is parallel with the cutter face. cutter.
b. _ _ milling, in which the surface being b. The work moves in the same direction as
machined is parallel with the periphery of the rotation of the cutter.
the cutter. c. Neither of the above.
9. What are two general types of milling cutters? 25. In conventional milling:
a. The work is fed into the rotation of the
10. What is the term "hand" used to describe, in cutter.
reference to an end mill? b. The work moves in the same direction as
Match each term with the correct sentence the rotation of the cutter.
below. c. Neither of the above.
11. Two-flute end mill. 26. What is a draw-in bar, and hmv is it used?
12. _ _ Multiflute end mill. 27. _ _ refers to the distance, measured in _ _
or that a point (tooth) on the circumfer-
_____J

13. _ _ Fly cutter.

ence of a cutter moves in - -
14. Shell end mill.
28. is the rate at which the work moves into
15. _ _ Face milling cutter. the cutter.
16. _ _ Plain milling cutter. 29. Calculate machine speed (rpm) and feed (F) for
a 1.5'' diameter tungsten carbide 5 tooth (TI
17. Slab cutter.
end mill when machining cast iron.
18. _ _ Side milling cutter. Recommended cutting speed is 190 fpm. Feed
19. _ _ Staggered-tooth side cutter. per tooth (ftr) is 0.004". Use the following
formulas:
20. _ _ Metal slitting saw.
fpm X 12
a. Has cutting teeth on the circumference
rpm= 1tD
and on one or both sides.
b. Cutter with helical teeth designed to cut and
with a shearing action. F=ftrXTXrpm
c. A facing mill with a single-point cutting
tool
d. Can be fed into work like a drill. 30. Determine machine speed (rpm) and feed (F)
e. Cutter with teeth located around the for a 2.5" diameter HSS shell end mill with
circumference. 8 teeth (T), machining aluminum. Recom-
f. Recommended for conventional milling mended cutting speed is 550 fpm. Feed per
where plunge cutting (going into work tooth (ftr) is 0.010". Use the formulas given in
like a drill) is not required. Problem 29.
an
31. Calculate machine speed (rpm) for machining Match each term ·with the correct sentence
aluminum with a 6" diameter HSS side milling below.
cutter. Recommended cutting speed is 550 35. _ _ Flanged vise.
fpm. Use the appropriate formula given in
Problem 29. 36. Swivel vise.
32. Determine machine speed (rpm) and feed (F) 37. Universal vise.
for a 4" diameter HSS side milling cutter with 38. _ _ Rotary table.
16 teeth (T) milling free cutting steel. Recom-
mended cutting speed is 200 fpm. Feed per 39. _ _ Dividing head.
tooth (ftr) is 0.003". Use the formulas given in 40. _ _ Indexing table.
Problem 29.
41. _ _ Magnetic chuck.
33. Calculate machine speed (rpm) and feed (F)
for a 2.3" diameter HSS slab milling cutter 42. _ _ Vise lug.
with 8 teeth (T) machining brass. a. Kevs vise to a slot in worktable.
Recommended cutting speed is 250 fpm. Feed b. Can only be mounted parallel to or at
per tooth (f!r) is 0.006". Use the formulas given right angles on worktable.
in Problem 29. c. ~eeded when cutting segments of circles,
circular slots, and irregular-shaped slots.
34. Cutting fluids sen7e several purposes. List at d. Can only be used ,\ith ferrous metals.
least three of them. e. Has a circular base graduated in degrees.
f. Permits rapid positioning of circular
work in 15° increments and can be locked
at any angular setting.
g. Used to divide circumference of round
work into equally spaced divisions.
h. Permits compound angles (angles on two
planes) to be machined without complex
or multiple setups.
 Chapter 18

Milling Machine
Operations
The spindle head swivels 90° left or right for
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
machining at any angle, Figure 18-2. The ram, on
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: which it is mounted, can be adjusted in and out. On
0 Describe how milling machines operate. many vertical mills, it also revolves 180° on a hori-
0 Set up and safely operate horizontal and zontal plane. Both swivels are graduated in degrees
vertical milling machines. with a vernier scale to assure accurate angular set-
0 Perform various cutting, drilling, and bor- tings. See Figure 18-3.
ing operations on a milling machine.
0 Make the needed calculations and cut spur
I 8.2. I Cutters for vertical milling machine
gears.
0 Make the needed calculations and cut a Although adapters are available that permit the
bevel gear. use of side and angle cutters, face mills and end
0 Point out safety precautions that must be mills are the cutters normally used in vertical
observed when operating a milling milling machines, Figure 18-4.
machine. Taper shank end mills and drills are fitted in
an adapter, Figure 18-5A. Some machine spindles
have a Brown & Sharpe taper. When taper shanks
are large enough, they are mounted directly,
IMPORTANT TERMS Figure 18-SB. When a taper is too small to fit
directly into the spindle, a sleeve must be
addendum gang milling employed. Straight shank end mills are held in a
bevel gear slitting spring collet, Figure 18-SC, or in an end mill
circular pitch slotting adapter, Figure 18-5D. Small drills, reamers, and
dedendum spur gear similar tools are held in a standard Jacobs chuck
diametral pitch straddle milling fitted to the spindle by one of the above methods.
18.1 MILLING OPERATIONS
The versatility of the milling machine family 18.3 VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE
permits many different machining operations to be OPERATIONS
performed. Because of the number of varied opera-
In addition to the usual precautions that must be
tions that can be performed, it is not possible to
observed when getting a machine tool ready for a
cover all of them in a book of this type. Only basic
operations will be described. job, the spindle head alignment must be checked.
Make sure that the spindle head is at an exact right
angle (perpendicular) to the worktable. If the
18.2 VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE spindle is not perpendicular, it is not possible to
The vertical milling machine is capable of per- machine a flat surface, Figure 18-6.
forming milling, drilling, boring, and reaming Milling head perpendicularity can be checked
operations, Figure 18-1. It differs from the horizon- with the use of a dial indicator, as shown in
tal mill in that the spindle is mounted in a vertical Figure 18-7. The device holding the indicator may
position. be shop made or purchased.
 Ma.chining Fundamentais

Figure 18-2. Angular head adjustments are possible on many

vertical miffing machines. (Repubfic-Lagun Machine Tool Co.)

If a vise is used to mount the work, "dpe the vise

base and worktable clean. Inspect for burrs and
nicks. They prevent the vise from seating properly
on the table. Bolt it firmlv to the machine.
If extreme accuracy is required, the next step is
to alig:i the vise with a dial indicator, Figure 18-8.
However, for many jobs the vise can be aligned with
a square, as shown in Figure 18-9. Angular settings
can be made with a protractor, Figure 18-10, or by
using the degree divisions on the base of a svdvel
vise.
If you have not already done so, wipe the vise
jaws and bottom clean of chips and dirt. Place clean
parallels in the vise and place the work on them.
Tighten the jaws and tap the work onto the par-
allels with a mallet or soft-faced hammer. Thin
paper strips can be employed to check whether the
work is firmly on the parallels, Figure 18-11.
Never strike the vise handle with a hammer or
Figure 18-1. Vertical milling machine flas me mounted spindle
in a vertical position. A-Manually operated vertical milling
mallet to put additional holding pressure on the
machine. B--CNC 2-axis vertical milling machine. (Clausing jaws. If the ,vorkpiece is rough, protect the vise jaws
Industrial, Inc.) and parallels with soft metal strips.

. - - ........
 c:1apter 18 t!ilZing Machine O,:e.-eti::ir.r

Draw-in bar
/

Spindle
Adapter sleeve Spring collet
(R-8 taper)
(R-8 taper)
Taper shank
cutter
Straight
(tanged shank)
shank cutter
A C

Figure 18-3. Head adjustments. A-Closeup shows how the

head of this light vertical milling machine can be swiveled Jeff or
right. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.) 8-A Vernier scale permits the
spindle head to be set with extreme accuracy. Note the partial
extension of the ram. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.)

., Taper shank
cutter Adapter
(B&S taper) (R-8 taper)

B D

Figure 18-5. Four of the most common methods employed to

mount end mills in a vertical milling machine. A-Adapter sleeve
with taper shank cutter. B-B&S taper mounted directly in the
Figure 18-4. Adapters permit arbor and other type cutters to be spindle. C-Spring co/let with straight shank cutter. D-Adapter
mounted on a vertical milling machine. (Parlee, Inc.) with setscrew on straight shank cutter.
g

Figure 18-6. Irregular machined surface that results when the

spindle head is not perpendicular to the table.

Figure 18-9. Procedure for squaring a solid vise jaw using a

machinist's steel square.

Machine table

Figure 18-7. A dial indicator can be employed, as shown, to Protractor

1
check whether the mlfling head is perpendicular to the table. i

Figure 18-B. Use of a dial indicator permits extreme accuracy in

aligning a solid vise jaw.

18.3. I Squaring stock

A specific sequence must be follm,1,ed to Figure 18-1O. Anguiar settings can be made with protractor
machine several surfaces of a piece square with one head and steei rule of a combination set. Paper strips aid in
another, as shown in Figure 18-12. determining whether setting is accurate.
C~apter 18 Milling Mac11ine Operations

Figure 18-11. Setting work on parallels with a soft-faced ham-

mer. Thin paper strips are used to check whether the work is
firmly on the parallels.

1. Machine the first surface. Remove the burrs

and place the first machined surface against
the fixed vise jaw. Insert a piece of soft metal
rod between the work and movable jaw if that Figure 18-12. Sequence for squaring work on a milling
machine. A-Square top. B-Square side. C-Square bottom.
portion of the work is rough or not square. 0-Square other side.
2. Machine the second surface.
3. Remove the burrs and reposition the work in
the vise to machine the third side. This side 18.3.2 Machining angular surfaces
must be machined to dimension. Take a light Angular surfaces (bevels, chamfers, and tapers)
cut and "mike" for size. The difference may be milled by tilting the spindle head assembly
between this measurement and the required to the required angle. They may also be made by
thickness is the amount of material that must setting the work at the specified angle in a vise. See
be removed. Always stop the machine before Figure 18-14.
attempting to make measurements. A fix.ture, Figure 18-15, is often used when many
4. Repeat the above operation to machine the similar pieces must be milled. Compound angles
fourth side. (angles on two planes) are made in a universal vise,
Figure 18-16.
5. If the piece is short enough, the ends may be When the pivoted spindle head is used for
machined by placing it in a vertical position angular cutting, it is essential that the vise be
with the aid of a square, Figure 18-13A. aligned with a dial indicator. Make a layout of the
Otherwise, it may be machined as shown in desired angle on the work and clamp it in the vise.
Figure 18-13B. Position the cutter and machine to the line.
f!i1 Machining Fundamentals

Work

Vise
B
Figure 18-14. Cutting angular surfaces. A-Surface is being cut
Parallels with spindle head set to required angle. B-Making an angular
B cut by positioning work at desired angfe.

Position of
Figure 18-13. Squaring ends. A-Using a square to position
desired cut
short pieces for machining ends. Movable jaw is not shown for
clarity. B-Another technique for squaring ends of work. Jaw
must be checked with a dial indicator to be sure it is at a right
angle to the column.

Work mounted at an angle in the vise for

machining must be set up carefully. Alignment may
be made with a protractor head fitted with a
spirit level, Figure 18-17, or with a surface gage,
Figure 18-18.

I 8.3.3 Milling a keyseat or slot

An end mill may be used to cut a keyseat or slot.
After aligning the vise with a dial indicator, the
workpiece is clamped in the vise or to the machine
table. If mounted directly to the table, a piece of
paper between the table and the "rnrk will seat the Figure 18-15. If many pieces are to have angular surfaces
work more solidly and prevent slippage. machined, considerable time can be saved by using a fixture.
 Ch;;.pter 18 N illing ~1achine Operations

A sharp cutter, equal in diameter to the keyseat

or slot, must be used. A two-flute end mill is
employed when a blind keyseat or slot is to be
machined, Figure 18-19. Otherwise, a multiflute end
mill is used.

18.3.4 Locating end mill to cut keyseat or slot

on round work
After the milling machine has been set up, the
work is secured in a vise, between centers, in
V-blocks, or in a fixture. Before machining begins,
precise centering of the end mill must be done as
follows:
1. Lock the knee to the column.
Figure 18-16. An angular cut is being made on work held in a
universal vise. With this setup, compound angles are easily rwt.
2. Lay out the slot length, as shown in Figure
18-20.
3. Hold the end of a long, narrow strip of paper
between the cutter and the work. Carefully
move the cutter toward the work until the
paper strip is pulled lightly from your fingers
Be aware of by the rotating cutter. Pay close attention when
cutter position using this alignment technique. Use a paper
strip long enough to keep your fingers well
clear of the cutter. Release the paper as soon as
you feel the cutter "grabbing" it.
4. Unlock the knee from the column and lower
the table until the cutter is slightly above the
work. Move the cutter inward half the work

Figure 18-17. Work can be quickly set at the desired angle with
aid of a protractor head.

Figure 18-19. Blind slot being machined with a two-flute end

rigure 18-18. Positioning angular work with a surface gage. mill.
"
Length of slot,
not including
cutter radii

Step 1 Step 3
Layout slot length Position cutter for
cutting slot depth

Cutter Step 4
rotation Cut slot

Step 2
Center end mill on work

Figure 18-20. Procedure for using a paper strip to position cutter on the exact center of round stock for cutting a keyseat. Keep your
fingers clear of the rotating cutter!

diameter, plus half the cutter diameter, plus the I 8.3.5 Machining internal openings
paper thickness.
::,. Using another long, narrow strip of paper, Internal openings are easily machined w ith a
employ the same technique to get the required Yertical milling machine, Figure 18-21. A two-flute
depth. end mill must be used if the cutter is to make the ini-
Correct keyseat depth may be obtained from tial opening. It can be fed directly into the material
tabies in a machinist's handbook. in much the same manner as a drill.
 Ch~ter 18 Milling Machine O::,erations

Cuts are made until the lines are reached. For accu-
racy, the cut must be checked with a depth microm-
eter (remove any burrs before making the
measurement), Figure 18-24. Make necessary table
adjustments accordingly.

18.3.7 Milling and boring

Holes may be located to very close tolerances
for drilling, reaming, or boring on a vertical
milling machine. The first hole can be located
with a wiggler, Figure 18-25, a centering scope,

Figure 18-21. Internal openings have been milled in this aircraft

part.

When the slot is wider than the cutter diameter,

it is important that the direction of feed, in relation
to cutter rotation, be observed. Feed direction is nor-
mally against cutter rotation, Figure 18-22. This
applies only when the cutter is removing metal from
one side of the opening.

I 8.3.6 Machining multilevel surfaces

Milling a multilevel surface is probably the eas-
iest of the milling operatioru;, Figure 18-23. A layout
of the various levels is made on the work's surface.
Figure 18-23. A stepped (multilevel) surface being milled.

Depth
micrometer

Figure 18-24. Check depth of cut with a depth micrometer

before making final cutter adjustments. Remove any burrs
Figure 18-22. When making this type cut, remember that feed before making the measurement. Always stop the machine
direction is always against cutter rotation. before attempting to remove burrs and making a measurement.
ffll
I
M.:i.c:hin1ng Ftrrs,<latnentais

Fits in chuck or
collet

Hole
center line

Figure 18-26. A centering scope is another tool that aids in cen-

tering work for drilling or boring on vertical miffing machines. It
is fitted in the chuck (the chuck must run true) or coflet. The
machinist sights through the optical system and positions work
Figure 18-25. Locating holes. A-To ensure accuracy, align first using the crosshairs in the scope. ft is capable of locating true
hole with "wiggler." B-Remaining holes can be located with position within =0.0001" (0.0025 mm).
micrometer dials on cross and longitudinal feeds of machine.
Micrometer feed dials make it possible to maintain very close
positional tolerances when drilling a series of holes. (South Other highly specialized attachments are avail-
Bend Lathe, Inc.)
able for special jobs and long production runs. See
Figures 18-33 through 18-35.
Figure 18-26, or an edge finder, Figure 18-27. Then,
it is possible to locate any remaining holes within
0.001" (0.025 mm) using the micrometer feed dials. 18.4 MILLING MACHINE CARE
Tolerances of 0.0001 (0.0025 mm) are possible with
11
• Check and lubricate the machine with the rec-
a measuring rod and dial indicator attachment, ommended lubricants.
Figure 18-28, or a digital readout gaging system, • Clean the machine thoroughly after each job.
Figure 18-29, fitted to the machine. Use a brush to remove chips, Figure 18-36.
Boring permits holes to be machined accurately Never attempt to clean the machine while it is
with fine surface finishes, Figure 18-30. A single- running.
point tool is fitted to the boring head, which in turn • Keep the machine clear of tools.
is mounted in the spindle, Figure 18-31. Hole diam- • Check each setup for adequate clearance
eter is obtained by offsetting the tool point from cen- betw·een the work and the various parts of the
ter. The adjustment is graduated for a direct machine.
reading, Figure 18-32. A hole must first be drilled in • Never force a cutter into a collet or holder.
the ,rnrk before boring can be started. Check to see why it does not fit properly.
 .iilli,,z Machin~ C1pernt!ons

Figure 18-27. The edge finder is a precision positioning tool that will locate the edge of the work in relation to center of the spindle
with 0.0002H (0.005 mm) accuracy. A-With spindle rotating at moderate speed, and with edge finder tip as shown, slowly feed tip of
tool against work. 8---Edge finder tip will gradually become centered with its shank. C-When the tip becomes exactly centered, it will
abruptly jump sideways about 1/32" (0.8 mm). When this occurs, stop table movement immediately. Center of the spindle will be
exactly one-half tip diameter away from edge of work. Set the micrometer dial to "O" and, with edge finder clear of work, move table
longitudinally the required distance plus one-half the tip diameter. Follow the same procedure to get traverse measurement.

• Use a sharp cutter. Protect your hands when

mounting it.
• Check the machine to determine whether it is
level. Checking should be done at regular
intervals.
• Have all guards in place before attempting to
operate a milling machine.
• Check coolant level and condition if the reser-
voir is built into the milling machine. Change
it if it becomes contaminated.
• Start the machining operation only after you
are sure that everything is in satisfactory
working condition. It may be necessary to
make special fixtures to hold odd-shaped or
difficult-to-mount work. Figure 18-28. Measuring rods and dial indicator attachments
• Use attachments designed for the machine. will allow precise location of work. (Clausing Industries, Inc.)
 M 1.chining Fund;imenta!~

Figure 18-29. Digital readout gaging systems are linear scales

that employ magnetic or photoelectric scanning devices to dis-
play absolute distance from a predetermined datum point.
Capabilities include inch/metric conversion. (National Machine
Systems)

Figure 18-31. Boring heads. A-Micro-adjustable boring head

with digital display. This unit has an accuracy of 0.00004n
(0.01 mm), and has a decimal or metric readout display.
B-Boring head with a programmable electronic controller inter-
faced to the machine control. ft relates measurement data to
preset tolerance limits, and signals tool to make size adjust-
ments to compensate for tool wear. The boring head incorpo-
rates a small servomotor that adjusts the boring slide in
extremely tine limits. Communication to, and powering of, the
tool are entirely wireless. (Marposs Corp./Komet of America,
Inc.)

18.5 HORIZONTAL MILLING

MACHINE OPERATIONS
Like the vertical milling machine, Figure 18-37,
the horizontal mill is a Yery yersatile machine.
Figure 18-30. Boring on vertical milling machine produces a :Many different machining operations can be per-
ve,y accurately sized hole. formed on it.
 1--iillir.g Machine Operations

,,.
..... ),/'
-·~
',>. ~
.. ...·

Figure 18-34. This vertical mill fitted with a hydraulic tracer unit
is machining an irregular shape. (Bridgeport Machines, Inc.)

Figure 18-32. Dial on the adjusting screw of this boring head

permits accurate cutting tool settings. Some boring head dials
indicate actual tool movement, while others indicate actual
material removal.

Figure 18-35. A right angle milling attachment permits the

machine to be employed tor intemal and confined-area milling.

Figure 18-33. A slotting attachment mounted on a vertical

milHng machine. Rotary motion in the spindle head is changed
to reciprocating (up-and-down) movement of the cutting tool. Figure 18-36. To remove metal chips, use a brush - never
(Bridgeport Machines, Inc.) your hand!
Pl
2. Mount the work directly on the table, if possi-
ble. Figure 18-38 illustrates one method for
mounting long work If the work cannot be
mounted to the table, use a vise. Clean its base
and bolt it firmly in place. Locate the vise as
close to the machine column as workpiece
shape and the arbor support will permit. When
possible, pivot the vise so that the solid jaw
supports the work against cutting rotation,
Figure 18-39.
3. If extreme accuracy is required, align the Yise
using a dial indicator, Figure 18-40. Othen\ise,
a square or machine arbor will do, Figure
18-41. Angular Yise settings can be made using
the vise base graduations or a protractor.
4. Wipe the vise jaws and bottom clean.

Cutter
Figure 18-37. Parts of horizontal milfing machine: A-Arbor
suppon. B-Table feed lever. C-Table. D-Table (longitudinal)
hand wheel. £-Table clamp lever (lock). F-Saddfe power
feed lever. G-Saddfe (in-out) hand wheel. H-Knee power
feed lever. I-Knee (up-down) crank. J-Knee. K-Rapid tra-
verse fever. L-Telescopic coolant return and elevating screw.
M-Base. N-Knee clamp lever. 0-Saddle clamp lever (lock).
P-Saddle. Q-Saddfe plate. R-Universaf dividing head.
S-Cofumn. T-Spindle. U-Overarm. V-/nner arbor support.
W-Spindle stop-start and master switch (arm also engages
clutch). (Kearney & Trecker Corp.)

Table trave!
~ -a::
. ~~
18.5. I Milling flat surfaces
A careful study of the part drawing will let you
determine what operation is to be performed, what
cutter is best suited for the job, and the most advan-
tageous way to hold the ,;rnrkpiece. Flat surfaces
may be milled with a plain cutter or slab cutter
mounted on an arbor (peripheral milling), or with
an inserted tooth face or shell milling cutter (face
milling). The method employed ,;dll be determined
by the size and shape of the work.
After the milling method and cutter have been
selected, the follmdng sequence of operations is
recommended.
1. Check and lubricate the machine. Wipe the
worktable clean and examine it for nicks and
burrs. Nicks or burrs will prevent the work-
piece or holding attachments from seating Figure 18-38. A method used to mount long work. Reposition
properly on the table. clamps as the cut progresses across the workpiece.
 h i!ling Med,in~ "=-perz.ti:,r.;;

5. Place clean parallels in the vise with the work

seated on them. Tighten the jaws and tap the
work onto the parallels with a mallet or soft-
faced hammer. Thin paper strips can be used to
check that the work is seated tightly on top of
the parallels.
6. Select an arbor that is as short as the job will
permit. Wipe the taper section of the arbor and
the spindle opening with a dry cloth. Insert the
arbor and draw it tightly into p lace with the
draw-in bar.
7. When possible, the cutter should be wide
enough to machine the area in one pass. It
should have the smallest diameter possible,
Figure 18-39. Whenever the setup permits, the solid jaw of the while being large enough to provide adequate
vise should be in this position. clearance. See Figure 18-42.
8. Key the cutter to the arbor. Position it as
close to the column as the work will permit.

,____ Distance large cutter

travels
- Distance small cutter
_,.._.._ travels --.---- , ...

*1:i
, r----)-'
J

Figure 18-40. A11gn1ng the vise Jaw by using a dial indicator will Work
ensure work accuracy. A

Figure 18-42. Cutter diameter. A-A small-diameter cutter is

more efficient than a large-diameter cutter because it travels
Jess distance while doing the same amount of work. B-Use the
smallest cutter diameter possible, but be certain it is large
Figure 18-41. An arbor can also be used to align a vise. enough for adequate clearance.
,m
To protect your hands when mounting a cutter micrometer dial to 0. Back the work away from
on the arbor, use a piece of cloth or gloves, the rotating cutter. Make a light cut ·with ample
Figure 18-43. If a helical slab mill is used, cutting fluid flooding the surface. Make a
mount it so the cutting pressure forces it toward measurement, then raise the table the required
the column. distance.
Should a previously machined surface require
9. Position and lock the arbor support into place,
additional machining, it ·will be best to position the
Figure 18-44. Then, tighten the arbor nut.
cutter in the following manner. Hold a long, narrow
10. Adjust the machine to the proper cutting speed strip of paper with its loose end between the work
and feed. and the cutter, Figure 18-45. Raise the table until the
11. Turn on the machine and check cutter rotation paper is pulled lightly from your fingers.
Once the cutter has been positioned, it is only
and direction of power feed. If satisfactory,
necessary to move the cutter clear of the ·wark and
loosen all worktable and knee locks. Position
raise the table the required distance, plus the thick-
the workpiece under the rotating cutter until
ness of the paper. Tighten all locks (except longitu-
the cutter just touches its surface. Set the
dinal) and feed the work into the cutter. As soon as
cutting starts, turn on the coolant and po\\·er feed.
Unless there is an emergency, do not stop the
work during the machining operation. This will
cause a slight depression to be cut in the machined
surface, Figure 18-46,

Figure 18-43. Use a cloth to protect your hands when mounting

or removing a cutter from an arbor.

Figure 18-45. Positioning a cutter on the workpiece, employing

the paper strip technique. Pay close attention when positioning
a cutter by this method. Use a long strip of paper, hold it lightly,
and keep your fingers well clear of the rotating cutter.

Cutter tr:iMJI _ _ _
stoppe.-d f]art wuy
lhraugh cut
(di'ipress!on
1s ox._aggerated
·.sngn1)y)

·, "- Surface mmed

'\v1thout cuttmg
fluid being applied

Arbor n u t ~ · Figure 18-46. Stopping work movement in middle of cut will

cause a slight depression in machined surface. Also, note
Figure 18-44. The arbor nut must not be tightened until after the ridges that were made when revolving cutter was brought back
arbor support has been positioned and locked in place. over machined surface.
 Chapter IS .M Iiiing i¥&achine Ope!"ations

Complete the cut and stop the cutter. Return the Face mills smaller than 6" (150 mm) are called
work to the starting position. Avoid feeding the shell end mills and are held on a Style C arbor.
work back to the starting position while the cutter is 1. Select a cutter that is 3/4" (20 mm) to 1" (25
rotating. This will cause a series of depressions to be mm) larger in diameter than the width of the
made on the newly machined surface.
surface to be machined, Figure 18-49.
Do not attempt to feel the machined surface
while the cut is in progress or while the cutter is 2. The work should project about 1" (25 mm)
rotating. beyond the edge of the table to provide ade-
Repeat the above operations if additional metal quate clearance, Figure 18-50. In face milling, it
must be removed to bring the work to size. is frequently necessary to mount the work on
an angle plate, Figure 18-51.
I 8.5.2 Squaring stock
The sequence for squaring stock on a horizontal
milling machine is the same as that used on a verti-
cal milling machine. Whenever possible, the cutter
should be wide enough to make a full-width cut on
the material in one pass. If the material is short
enough, the ends can be machined by placing it in a
vertical position with the aid of a square, as shown
in Figure 18-13A. If too long for this technique, the
ends can be squared as shown in Figure 18-47.

I 8.5.3 Face milling

Face milling makes use of a cutter that machines
a surface at right angles to the spindle axis and par-
allel to the face of the tool, Figure 18-48. Face milling
cutters over 6" (150 mm) in diameter are usually
of the inserted tooth type and mount directly to
the spindle nose. They are used to mill large, flat
surfaces.

Figure 18-48. In face milling, both the cutter and the workpiece
face being machined are at a right angle to the axis of the
spindle. (Mazak Corp.)

Clamp

Clamping bolts
should be as
close to work
as possible

. /
Piece of paper
prevents possible
Figure 18-47. Another technique for squaring work ends. The
work slippage
solid vise jaw must be checked with a dial indicator to assure
that it is property aligned. Be sure there is adequate clearance Figure 18-49. Select cutter that is 314n (20 mm) to 1H (25 mm)
between the work and the arbor. larger in diameter than width of surface to be machined.
11P1 "1.u:h;ning Furnfamer.tals
- --------------
6. Make the finishing cut and tear down the
Shell mill setup. Use a brush to remo\·e chips. Clean and
store the cutter.

18.5.4 Side milling

Side milling refers to any milling operation that
involves the use of half side and side milling cutters.
When cutters are employed in pairs to machine
opposite sides of a piece at the same time, the setup
is called straddle milling; Figure 18-52.

Figure 18-50. Work should project approximately 1" (25 mm}

beyond the table edge to provide adequate clearance.

Angle plate
/

Matched
side milling
cutters

Figure 18-51. An angle plate is often used to mount work for

face milling. Check that mounting clamps clear the cutter. Note
the use of parallels to align the angle plate.

3. Adjust the machine for correct speed and feed.

4. Slowly feed the work into the cutter until it
starts to remove material. Roughing cuts up to
1/4" (6 mm) may be taken. Use adequate cut-
ting fluid.
Figure 18-52. Straddle milling. A-This machining method uses
5. When the cut is complete, stop the cutter. a spacer between cutters. These two cutters are machining a
Return the work to the starting position for hexagon on a machine part. 8-An example of straddle milling
additional machining, if needed. on flatwork.
 Chapter ,a triming Machine Opel"r.tions

Cutters used for this operation should be kept in A side milling cutter can also be utilized to
matched pairs. That is, they should be sharpened at machine grooves, keyseats, and when used with a
the same time to maintain equal diameters. dividing head or rotary table, squares, hexagons,
Shoulder width of the machined surface is deter- etc., on round stock.
mined by the thicknesses of the spacers between the
cutters, Figure 18-53. I 8.5.5 Locating side cutter for milling a slot in
Gang milling involves mounting several cutters square or rectangular work
on an arbor to machine several surfaces in a single The machine is set up in much the same manner
pass, Figure 18-54. It is a variation of straddle as it was for milling flat surfaces. Use a dial indica-
milling. Gang milling is used when many identical tor to check the vise to ensure accuracy. Exercise the
pieces must be made.
same care in placing the side cutter on the arbor as
was followed with the slab cutter. A plain side
milling cutter may be used if the slot is not too deep.
Otherwise, a staggered-tooth side milling cutter
Cutter (2) should be employed.
Make a layout on the end of the work, as shown
in Figure 18-55, then position the cutter by using
one of the following methods:

Cutters
to meet machining
requirements
A Parallels

Figure 1B-54. Gang milling involves the use of two or more

milling cutters mounted on a single arbor.

B
Figure 18-53. Arbor spacers. A-Spacers are used to set
distance betwBBn cutters. B-Spacers are available in a
large selection of sizes. Special sizes can be made by surface
grinding standard sizes to needed dimensions. Shim stock
spacers can be used to build up standard size spacers to Figure 18-55. An example of work that has been laid out for
desired dimension. milling.
 • Use a steel rule, Figure 18-56. :\<fake a light cut required distance, plus the thickness of the
part way up the piece and remo,·e the burrs. paper. The paper strip or depth micrometer
Measure the cut depth idth a depth microm- positioning technique may be used to set the
eter. The difference between this measure- cutter to the desired depth. When using the
mer..t and the required depth equals the paper strip technique to position a cutter,
amount of material that must be removed. remember to use a long paper strip and keep
• Use the paper strip technique to bring the side your fingers clear of the revolving cutter
of the cutter against the side of the work,
Figure 18-57. l\.fove the cutter inward the 18.5.6 Locating side cutter for milling a slot or
keyseat in round stock
There are many situations that require keyseats
for the standard square key to be cut in round stock.
The keyseat must be kept precisely on center if it is
to be in alignment with the keyway in the mating
piece.
After the milling machine has been set up and
work positioned in a vise, beh,·een centers, in
V-blocks, or in a fixture, you must center the cutter.
Precise centering of the cutter may be accomplished
by one of the following methods:
• Center the cutter visually on the work. With
the aid of a steel square and rule, adjust the
table until both sides measure the same,
Figure 18-58. Due to the difficulty of obtain-
Figure 18-56. A cutter being positioned with aid of a steel rule. ing precise measurements with a rule, most
machinists prefer to use a depth micrometer
in place of the rule.
• Short pieces cannot always be centered by the
aboYe method. For situations of this type, the
work is positioned under the rotating cutter
and brought lightly into contact with it.

"'-- Paper strip

A
~Arbor
-+-Cutter Rule

i111,L1t1,1, l~ i111,l11d,

2nd 1st
position position

Square
l-
B
Figure 18-57. Paper strip method of positioning the cutter. Square
A-Using a paper strip to secure internal dimension. Read
micrometer to move cutter the correct distance over the work.
8-Using a paper strip to position the cutter for depth. Read Figure 18-58. How to center cutter on round stock with a steel
micrometer dial as cutter is lowered. rule and machinist's square.
Chapter 18 Milling Machine Operations pp
Traverse (in/ out) feed is used to pass the • The previously mentioned narrow paper strip
work under the cutter. Because the work is technique may be used to center the cutter.
circular in shape, an oval-shaped cut will Hold the strip between the work and the
result, and the oval will be perfectly centered. cutter. Carefully move the work toward the
To center the cutter, position it on the oval, cutter until it causes the paper to be lightly
Figure 18-59. pulled from between your fingers. Lower the
table until the cutter is slightly above the
work. Move the cutter inward half the diame-
ter of the work, plus half the cutter thickness,
plus the paper thickness, Figure 18-60. The
same technique may be employed to center a
Woodruff keyseat cutter.
Lock the saddle to prevent traverse table move-
ment after the cutter has been centered.
Correct keyseat depth can be obtained from
tables in one of the many machinist's handbooks.
The paper strip technique is used to set the cutter to
the required depth. Tighten the knee locks after the
depth setting has been made. Cutting fluid should
be applied liberally during the cutting operation.
When the Woodruff keyseat cutter is used, it
must also be positioned longitudinally on the work.
Slowly feed into the piece until the required depth is
attained. This can be checked by placing a key in the
cut and "miking'' the section.

18.6 SLITTING
Slitting thin stock into various widths for the
production of flat gages, templates, etc., is a fairly
Figure 18-59. Cutter is being positioned on center using an oval
made in the work with cutter as a guide.

2nd position

Paper strip

- - - - -------- ·- - - - -

Figure 18-60. Using the paper strip technique to position round stock. Use a long strip of paper. Hold lightly between your fingers and
keep them well clear of the revolving cutter.
PD M achining Funda.me:;tais

common milling operation, Figure 18-61. It is per- dowmvard and will tend to press the v.rork onto the
formed with a slitting saw and is likely to give con- table or holding device.
siderable trouble if extreme care is not exercised. Adjust the table gibs until there is heavy drag
A slitting saw of the smallest diameter permit- felt when the table is moved bv hand. This will
ting adequate clearance is used. It must be keyed to remove table "play" and prevent the cutter from
the arbor (the key should also fit into spacers on jumping in the cut.
either side of cutter). Best results can be obtained if If the section is narrow enough, the piece may be
the cutter is mounted for climb milling. That is, the clamped in a vise, Figure 18-63. It should be well
work and cutter move in the same direction at the supported on parallels. Do not permit the parallels
point of contact, Figure 18-62. Cutting pressure is to project out into the cutter path.
Long strips must be clamped to the worktable.
The shop-made angle iron clamp shmvn in
Figure 18-64 is recommended. The work is aligned
with the column face and must be positioned to per-
C:.itter must mit the saw to make the cut over the center of a table
-be keyed to T-slot, Figure 18-65.
arbor

Work

Paper between work

and machine table
to prevent work from
slipping

Figure 18-61. Typical slitting or sawing operation setup. Work

must be positioned over a table slot and clamped securely. Be
sure the clamping bolts clear the arbor.

Parallels

Figure 18-63. Slitting work is held in vise. Be sure parallels do

not project into cutter path!

Position of cut "'-

Figure 18-62. Cutter rotation and feed direction for best slitting Figure 18-64. A worktable clamp made from angle iron. Paper
results. Use a slow feed. sheet prevents work movement.
Chapter 18 Killing Machine Operations pg
A sheet of paper between the work and table 1. Mount the cutter as for conventional milling.
will prevent the metal from slipping during the slit- Use a sharp cutter of a width suitable for the
ting operation. The cutter is set to a depth equal to job. Note the difference between a slotting cut-
the work thickness plus 1/16" (1.5 mm). Always use ter and a slitting cutter, Figure 18-67.
a sharp cutter! 2. Set the machine for the correct cutting speed.
Use the slowest feed possible, increasing feed
18.7 SLOTTING rate if conditions warrant.
Slotting is similar to slitting, except that the
3. Align the vise and mount the work.
cut is made only part way through the work,
Figure 18-66. The slot in a screw head is an example 4. Position the cutter and make a light cut. Check
of slotting. the trial cut and make adjustments if necessary.
Stop the machine before making measure-
ments or adjustments.
5. Adjust the work for proper cut depth.
Slitting saw 6. Apply cutting fluid and make the cut. Avoid
standing directly in line with the cutter.
Despite all precautions, saws shatter occasion-
. . - ,- - . - - . 1- -- - - ally and can cause serious injury.
1 ,·
- , I
Arbor
'
_ _ _ • • I • 11 ,

-/Angle iron
Work\ · clamp

Figure 18--65. Position work so that the cut is made over a

T-slot.
Figure 18--67. How slitting and slotting cutters differ. A slitting
saw is at left; a slotting saw at right.

18.8 DRILLING AND BORING ON

A HORIZONTAL MILLING
MACHINE
The machinist often finds it necessary to pro-
duce accurately spaced and drilled holes in work.
The milling machine offers a convenient way to
make these holes in a specified and precise
alignment.
Small drills are held in a standard Jacobs-type
chuck mounted in the machine spindle, Figure
18-68, or in collet chucks, Figure 18-69. Larger, taper
shank drills are fitted into an adapter sleeve,
Figure 18-70.
Boring is done with a single point cutting tool
fitted in a boring head, Figure 18-71. The boring
head may be equipped with a taper shank and
Figure 18-66. Screw heads being slotted with a slitting saw. mounted directly in the spindle, Figure 18-72, or a
Special slotting saw is available which has many more teeth straight shank and held in a collet or adapter. See
than a slitting saw of a similar diameter. Figure 18-73.
 · "1.....__________________________________M_&_-.:_h_t.._u_r.g_f_,-,_-,j_.,._w._.,2_11_•tr_.i:i

____..,. Milling machine

__...- spindle

Milling machine -
spindle

Adapter for
taper shank
accessories

Adapter for taper

Figure 18-68. Drilling can be done on a horizontal mill as shank accessories
shown.

Figure 18-70- Taper shank drills can be used by fitting an

adapter to the spindle.

Taper to fit
milling machine
spindle

Boring bar
j
i
Micrometer dial
for setting depth of cut

Figure 18-71. Boring permits large holes to be machined to

close toferances.

reamed. A dial indicator must be used to realign

previously made holes for boring to final size,
Figure 1B-69. Drills can also be mounted in co/lets. Collet Figure 18-75.
holders are available in a range of sizes. (Parlee, Inc.)

18.9 CUTTING A SPUR GEAR

A wiggler, Figure 18-74, will aid in aligning the A gear, Figure 18-76, is a toothed wheel, usually
machine for drilling the hole prior to boring, or fitted to a shaft. It typically engages a similar
when holes are small enough to be drilled and toothed wheel to smoothly transmit power or
Chapter 1B HIiiing Machine Cperations

Figure 18-74. Holes can be located with a wiggler.

F,gure 18-72. Boring tool holder and boring heads that mount
directly into the spindle. (Parlee, Inc.)
Figure 18-75. Existing holes can be realigned on a horizontal
milling machine with the aid of a dial indicator.

Micrometer
adjusting screw motion at a definite ratio between the shafts. The
teeth are shaped so that contact behveen the mating
gears is continually maintained while they are in
operation.
The spur gear has teeth that run straight across
the face and are perpendicular to the sides. It is the
simplest gear and is widely used, Figure 18-77.
Gear cutting requires a knowledge of gear
nomenclature (terminology) to aid in determining
the proper gear cutter to use, the depth of the teeth,
and the dividing head setup.

~
18. 9.1 Gear nomenclature
Taper shank unit The following information is necessary to calcu-
late data needed to machine a simple inch-based
Figure 18-73. Multipurpose boring bars permit multistep simul- spur gear. Inch-based gears and metric-based gears
taneous boring. Adjustments can be made without removing are not interchangeable. The various gear parts are
boring bar from machine. (Aloris Tool Co., Inc.) shown in Figure 18-78.
 M<lchining r-u;idamentzls

Figure 18-76. A few of the many types of gears available. A-Worm gear. B-Crossed helical gears. C-Spiral miter gears. D-Bevel
gears (small gear is called a pinion). E-Gear and pinion. F-Rolled pinion gears. G-Spur gear. H-lntemal gear and pinion.
I-Double gear. J-Rack and pinion. K-Miter gears. (Boston Gear Co.)

~
b
\ \ C a
b
= Addendum
Dedendum
=
C = Clearance
D = Pitch diameter

D
.
D, Do
D,
=
=
Outside diameter
Root diameter
\ hk = Working depth of tooth
Do ht = Whole depth of tooth
\.
p = Circular pitch
~ = Tooth thickness

Figure 18-77. Spur gear meshes in rack gear. Tne spur gear is
the simplest of gears. Teeth are cut straight across gear face.
Rack is a flat section of metal with teeth cut into it. Combination
of spur gear and rack converts rotary motion to linear motion.
~,- -
(Boston Gear Co.) Figure 18-78. Gear nomenclature.
Chaoter 18 Milling Machine O::,erations

• Pitch diameter (D): The diameter of the pitch • Tooth thickness (tc): Thickness of the tooth at
circle. the pitch circle. The dimension used in mea-
N DoN suring tooth thickness with vernier gear tooth
D = p or D = 0.3183pN or D = N + 2 caliper.
• Diametral pitch (P): The number of teeth per 1.5708
tc=-p-
inch of pitch diameter.
N N+2 1t • Pitch circle: An imaginary circle located
P = p or P = ---is:- or P = -p approximately half the distance from the
• Circular pitch (p): The distance, measured on roots and tops of the gear teeth. It is tangent
the pitch circle, between similar points on to the pitch circle of the ma ting gear.
adjacent teeth. • Pressure angle (0): The angle of pressure
1t 1tD 1tDa between contacting teeth of mating gears. It
p = p or p = N or p = N + 2 represents the angle at which the forces from
the teeth of one gear are transmitted to the
• Number of teeth (N): The number of teeth on mating teeth of another gear. Pressure angles
a gear. of 14 1/2°, 20°, and 25° are standard. How-
1tD ever, the 20° is replacing the older 14 1/2°.
N=DP or N= D0 P-2 or N=p
• Distance between centers of two mating gears
• Outside diameter (D0 ): Diameter or size of the (C): This distance may be calculated by
gear blank. adding the number of teeth of both gears and
N 1 N+2 dividing one-half that sum by the diametral
D0 = D + 2a or D0 = p + 2(P) or D0 = --y- pitch.
• Whole depth of tooth (ht): Total depth of a N1+N2
tooth space, equal to the addendum (a) plus C= 2+P
dedendum (b), or the depth to which each
N 1 = Number of teeth on first gear.
tooth is cut.
N2 = Number of teeth on second gear.
2.250 2.157
ht=a+b or ht=~ or he:::~
I B. 9.2 Gear cutters
• Working depth (hk): The sum of the adden-
dum's of the two mating gears. No one gear cutter, Figure 18-79, can be
employed to cut all gears. Gear cutters are made
hk = a 1 + a2 with eight different forms for each diametral pitch
• Clearance (c): The difference between the (P), depending upon the number of teeth for which
working depth and the whole depth of a gear the cutter is to be used. Figure 18-80 illustrates the
tooth. The amount by which the dedendum comparative sizes for gear teeth. The cutter range is
on a given gear exceeds the addendum of the as follows:
mating gear.
No. of Cutter Range of Teeth
0.157 1 135 to a rack
c=~
2 55 to 134
• Addendum (a): The distance the tooth extends 3 35 to 54
above the pitch circle. 4 26 to 34
1 D Do 5 21 to 25
a= p or a= N or a= N + 2 6 17 to 20
7 14 to 16
• Dedendum (b): The distance the tooth extends 8 12 to 13
below the pitch circle. With the information furnished, it is possible to
- 1.157 calculate the data needed to cut a simple inch-based
b- p spur gear.
rm
Having: Diametral pitch (P) = 10
Formula:
1 1
a= p = 10 = 0.100
= 0.100"

4. Tooth thickness (tc) is needed to determine

whether the gear is being machined to specifi-
cations.
Having: Diametral pitch (P) = 10
Formula:

............
_ 1.3708 _ 1.5708 _ O1,..7
Figure 18-79. A typical gear cutter. (Standard Tool Co.) tc- p - 10 - · :J
= 0.157"
20 P 18 P 16 P 14 P :,. Reference to the gear cutter chart indicates that
a No. 3 cutter, ,dth a range of 35 to 34 teeth,
MIAMM&
12P rnP 9P
must be used to cut 40 teeth.

Ml Ml
9P 7P
6. Using a 40:1 ratio dividing head for this job
means that the index crank must be turned
through one complete revolution to position

... au the gear blank for each cut. A 5:1 ratio dividing
head would require the use of an index plate
that '\\·ould permit a setting of one-eighth turn
for each cut.

Ml
Figure 18-80. Comparative sizes of gear teeth. Diametral pitch
is shown.
18. 9.3 Cutting the gear
A fe'\\· simple precautions, carefully followed,
will greatly reduce the possibility of an inaccurately
machined gear.
Example Problem: Calculate the data needed to 1. Set up the milling machine as previously
cut a 40 tooth, 10 diametral pitch gear. described. Check center alignment of the
1. Diameter (D0 ) of gear blank needed. dividing head and foot stock.
2. Press the gear blank onto a mandrel and mount
Having: Diametral pitch (P) = 10
the unit to the dividing head. Cutting is done
Number of teeth (N) = 40 toward the dividing head, Figure 18-81.
N +2 40+2 42
Formula: D0 = -p- = 10 = 10
= 4.200
= 4.200" diameter

2. Whole depth of tooth (ht) needed. This ,,·ill be

the depth of the cut.
Having: Diametral pitch (P) = 10
_ 2.157 _ 2.157 _ O 216
Formula: h t - p - 10 - ·
= 0.216" Gear blank
3. The dimension of the addendum (a) is needed Machine worktable
to measure the gear tooth for determining
whether it is being machined to specifications. Figure 18-81. Cutting is done toward dividing head.
Chapter I~ Milling Machine Operations 9111
- - - - - - - - - - - - - --
3. Use <1 dial indicator on the gear blank longitu- Make your measurement and adjust until the
dinally and turn the blank through one com- reading equals the distance calculated for tooth
plete revolution. Make any adjustments that thickness (4). Make the finish cuts. Press the
are necessary. completed gear from the mandrel. Remove all
burrs and cut the keyway, if required.
4. Center the cutter on the gear blank. Use a
Spur gears can also be measured using Van
depth micrometer and a steel square, Figure Kuren wires, Figure 18-84. A table furnished with
18-82. Position the cutter for depth and use the
paper strip technique. Set the micrometer dial
to O; then raise the table to within 0.040" of fin-
ished depth. For the example problem given
earlier, it would be raised to make a cut of
0.216" -0.040", or 0.176".
5. Move the work until the cutter just begins
removing metal. Back it away from the cutter.
Using the dividing head, bring the next cut into
position. Repeat this sequence around the gear
blank until you are back to the original cutting
position. If there is exact alignment with the
first cut, you are ready to cut the gear.
6. Make the roughing cuts. Use liberal quantities
of cutting fluid.
7. The finish cut requires more care. Set the verti-
cal scale on a gear tooth vernier caliper to the
distance calculated for the addendum (a),
Figure 18-83. Raise the work to within a few Figure 18-83. Machinist is measuring gear tooth with gear tooth
thousandths of the calculated whole depth of Vernier caliper. Tool is read in same manner as a Vernier caliper
the tooth <ht) and make cuts at two positions. and Vernier height gage. (L.S. Starrett Co.)

,,
/ I

( M

\
\ I-
l
I

M = Measurement over wires

Figure 18-84. Gears can also be measured using Van Kuren

wires. Tables fumished with the wire set provide information
Figure 18-82. A depth micrometer can be used to center the needed when measuring gears with even number and odd
gear cutter on a gear blank. number of teeth.
~L_________________________________
M_a_ch_in
_ i_n_
g _F_u_
nd_a_m_e_n_ta
_ ls

the wire set specifies the wire diameter to use I 8.10 CUTTING A BEVEL GEAR
according to the diametral pitch of the gear. Bevel gears, Figure 18-86, are employed to
The table also includes dimensions for checking change the angular direction of power between
external spur gear measurement (M) over the wires. shafts. The teeth are either straight or curved. The
Measurement is made ·with outside micrometers. procedure for cutting a straight tooth bevel gear is
Spiral gears and helical gears (refer to illustrated and explained in this section.
Figure 18-76) are cut on a universal type milling Since tooth space at the pitch diameter is nar-
machine utilizing a universal dividing head geared rower at the small end than at the large end, special
to the table lead screw, Figure 18-85. form relieved cutters have been designed to cut
bevel gears. See Figure 18-87. To achieve the
required gear tooth dimensions, additional material
must be removed from the flanks of the teeth after
the preliminary roughing operation.
Measurements of the finished gear are made of
the blank size and shape, tooth thickness, and
depth. However, there is no simple method for
checking tooth surfaces. Final inspection is made by
running the mating gears and checking for quiet-
ness and shape of the tooth contact.

18. I 0. I How to mill a bevel gear

The following information was obtained using
the dimensions shown in Figure 18-88, and the for-
Figure 18-85. Setup for cutting a spiral gear. Universal dividing
head is coupled to automatic feed mechanism of the worktable.
mulas given in this chapter.
Operation is similar to cutting threads on a lathe. Note how table • Pitch cone distance == 3.535"
is angled with respect to cutter. (Kearney & Trecker Corp.) • Pitch diameter at large end == 5.000"

,_ _ _ _ MOUNTING DISTANCE - - -

- -- PITCH APEX --....i,---,j- CROWN TO BACK

TO CROWN

/ PITCH APEX
I /

\1/
!/ AXIS OF GEAR

WHOLE DEPTH

i - - - - - - - - - PITCH DIAMETER - - - - - - - - . - 1
- - - - - - - - CROWN DIAMETER ---------i

Figure 18-86. Nomenclature of bevel gears. The smaller gear is called the pinion.
Chapter 18 Milling Machine Operations
BP
• Pitch diameter at small end = 3.585" • Addendum at large end of gear= 0.166"
• Circular pitch at large end = 0.5236" • Addendum at small end of gear = 0.1195"
• Circular pitch at small end = 0.3756" • Dedendum at large end of gear= 0.193"
• Tooth thickness and tooth • Dedendum at small end of gear = 0.139"
space at large end= 0.2618" The tooth parts at the small end of the gear are
• Tooth thickness and tooth in exact proportion to those at the large end.
space at small end= 0.1878" Dimensions at the small end can be found by multi-
• Whole depth of tooth at large end= 0.3595" plying the dimensions at the large end by the ratio
• Whole depth of tooth at small end= 0.2588" Cs
Cr
of the respective cone distances, or Cr = 3.535" and
C 5 = 3.535" - 1" = 2.535".
. Cs
The ratio: C = 0.72
r

18. I 0.2 Preparing to cut a bevel gear

1. Mount the dividing head and tilt it to 45° 53'.
See Figure 18-89.
2. Calculate the correct index plate to cut 30 teeth.
3. Secure the gear blank on an arbor.
4. Mount the gear blank and arbor in the dividing
head with the large end of the gear toward the
dividing head.
5. Select the proper bevel cutter and mount it on
the arbor. Cutting is toward the dividing head.
Figure 18-87'. A variety of form-relieved milling cutters Position the arbor bearing as close to the cutter
developed for special applications (Pfauter-Maag Cutting Tools) as possible, allowing for adequate clearance.

BEVEL GEAR DATA

NUMBER OF TEETH = 30
STEEL - AISI 3140 PRESSURE ANGLE = 14 112°
DIAMETRAL PITCH = 6
PITCH ANGLE = 45°

Figure 18-88. Dimensions of bevel gear to be cut.

11 Machinlng Fundamentals

-+-

Figure 18-90. Excess material that must be removed when

using the described technique to cut a bevel gear.

12. To remove this additional material, the rough

finished blank must be rotated slightly (2° for
this gear) and the table set over (0.044"). The
following formulas were used to make the
Figure 18-89. Tilt dividing head to the required angle (45° 53') calculations.
and mount the gear blank.
Determining angle of roll:

57.3 !Pc Cr l
c= Pd LT-w (TL-T~
6. Center the cutter on the gear blank. Lock the Where:
cross slide. Set the graduated collar to zero. C = Angle of roll in degrees.
7. Position the cutter for depth, using the paper Pd = Pitch diameter at large end of gear.
strip technique. Set the knee graduated collar Pc = Circular pitch at large end of gear.
to zero. Cr = Pitch cone distance at large end of gear,
I 5, TL = Chordal thickness of gear cutter
8. Clear the cutter and raise the table to the whole corresponding to pitch line at small
tooth depth at the large end (0.3595"). and large ends of gear, respectively.
9. Set the machine for the proper cutting speed 57.3 = Degrees per radian.
and feed. Note: Many machinists prefer to W = Width of gear tooth face.
make the cut in hvo runs before making the
Determining table setover:
final cut.
TL Ts Cr
10. Cut all teeth by plain indexing. Use adequate n = 2 - TL-2XW
coolant.
11. The correct dimensions for the finished gear
Where: n = Table setover.
teeth are 0.2618" and 0.1878". To obtain these Note: The direction of roll and setover must
dimensions, an additional amount of material always be made in opposite directions. See Figure
must be removed on each side of the teeth, as 18-91. Remove all backlash before making work
shown in Figure 18-90. movements.
Chapter 18 Milling Machine Operations
RP
·1 .2618 18.11 PRECAUTIONS WHEN
OP!:RATING A MILLING
MACHINE
• Avoid performing any machining operation
1st operation
Making first cut on the milling machine until you are thor-
oughly familiar with how it should be done.
• Some materials that are machined can pro-
duce chips, dust, and fumes that are danger-
ous to your health. Never machine materials
Gear blank
that contain asbestos, fiberglass, beryllium, or
beryllium copper unless you are fully aware
of the precautions that must be taken.
• Make sure there is adequate ventilation when
2nd operation
Milling left side performing jobs where dust and fumes are a
hazard.

l ~cuner
---11-- .044
• If the area where you work is extremely noisy,
wear hearing protectors. Take no chances.
Protect your hearing and sight at all times in
the shop.
• Maintain cutting fluids properly. Discard
- - - - -.2618 them when they become rancid or contami-
nated. Never pour used coolants or solvents
down the drain.
• Carefully read instructions when using the
3rd operation new synthetic oils, solvents, and adhesives.
Milling right side Many of them are dangerous if not handled
correctly. Return all oils and solvents to
proper storage. Always wipe up spills.
• Never start a cut until you are sure there is
Setover
1- -~ adequate clearance on all moving parts!
• Be sure the cutter rotates in the proper direc-
Figure 18-91. Sequence to be followed when milling the tseth
of a bevel gear. tion. Expensive cutters can be quickly ruined.
• Carefully store milling cutters, arbors, collets,
13. Finish machining the gear. Remove all burrs. adapters, etc., after use. They can be damaged
Measure tooth thickness at small and large if not stored properly.
ends. It may be necessary to remove a slight • Exercise care when handling long pieces of
amount of material at the small end to get metal. Accidentally contacting a light fixture
proper meshing. Refer to Figure 18-90. or busbar can cause severe electrical burns
This method of making bevel gears does not and even electrocution!
produce a tooth form that is accurate throughout
the length of the tooth face. This is especially true at
the small end of the gear even though the tooth 18.12 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
form is correct at the large end. Remove this small The milling machines found in industry operate
amount of excess material by rotating the blank on the same basic principles as those found in train-
through a small angle with the dividing head and ing programs. In many cases, the same equipment is
taking light cuts until proper meshing is attained. utilized, Figure 18-92.
,m Mach inlng Fw,damencais

Figure 18-92. Three types of vertical milling machines found in both industry and training programs. A-Manually
operated vertical milling machine. 8-CNC 2-axis vertical milling machine. C-CNC 3-axis vertical milling machine.
(Bridgeport Machines, Inc.)

There are many types of milling machines in

use. They range in size from small tabletop models
to machines capable of handling ,vork that weighs
many tons. Today, an estimated 80o/c to 90o/c of the
milling machines in use have CNC capability.
A number of the machines used in industry are
illustrated in Figures 18-93 through 18-98.

Figure 1B-93. A tabletop CNC vertical machining center. It has Figure 1B-94. This double-housing milling machine with three
industrial applications as well as being used by training cutting heads is mimng a large aircraft wing section.
programs. (Light Machines Corp.) (Lockheed-Martin)
 Chapter 18 ~lilling Machine Ol)er-ations

Figure 18-95. DoutJle-cofUmn CNC machining center designed

to machine body dies in one setup for the automotive industry.
(Okuma America Corp.)

Figure 18-98. The CNC milling machine of the future has six
degrees of freedom provided by three pairs of variable-length
legs. The legs move the multiaxis cutting head through
three-dimensional space for rapid and precise positioning.
Note that the machine has no conventional controls. (Giddings
& Lewis, Inc.)

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Please do not write in the text. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. mills and mills are the cutters nor-
mally used on a vertical milling machine.
Figure 18-96. CNC horizontal machining center (HMCJ that
uses an automated rail-guided changer to move pallets into and 2. The end mill is used when the cutter
out of the milling area. (Cincinnati Milacron) must be fed into the work like a drill.
3. Blind holes or closed keyseats are made with a
end mill.
4. Face milling cutters over 6" (150 mm) in diam-
eter are usually of the _ _ type.
5. A _ _ scale on the spindle head of a vertical
milling machine assures accurate angular set-
tings.
6. List three methods for machining chamfers,
bevels, and tapered sections on a vertical
milling machine.
7. An or a can be used to locate the
first hole of a series to be drilled on a vertical
Figure 18-97. A vertical machining center (VMC) equipped with milling machine.
an automatic too/changer holding a large number of cutters that
might be needed for various operations. (Bridgepol1 Machines, 8. The most accurate way to align a vise on
Inc.) milling machine is with a _ _.
ffll Machining Funi:lamentals

9. Explain how to center an end mill on round 13. In general, use the _ _ arbor possible that
stock for the purpose of machining a keyseat. permits adequate clearance between the arbor
Use the paper strip technique. support and the work.
10. Gang milling means: 14. Describe how to safely remove or mount a
a. Several cutters being used at the same milling cutter on an arbor.
time to machine a job. 15. How would a dividing head be set up to cut a
b. T'wo or more cutters straddling the job. 100-tooth gear? The dividing head has a 40:1
C. Several side cutters being used at the ratio and the index plate has the follm·ving
same time to machine a job. series of holes: 33, 37, 41, 45, 49, 53, 37.
d. All of the above. Number of full turns.
e. Kone of the above. Hole series used.
Number of holes in sector arm spacing. _ _
11. Why should a milling cutter be keyed to the
arbor? 16. What is a spur gear?
17. How does a rack differ from a spur gear?
12. When sawing (slitting) thin stock, the _ _
diameter cutter that provides adequate clear- 18. List five precautions to be observed when
ance should be used. operating a milling machine.
 Chapter 19

•
Precision G I ding

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
0 Explain how precision grinders operate.
0 Identify the various types of precision
grinding machines.
0 Select, dress, and true grinding wheels.
0 Safely operate a surface grinder using vari-
ous work-holding devices.
0 Solve common surface grinding problems.
0 List safety rules related to precision
grinding.
Figure 19-1. A grinding wheel removss material in the same
manner as a milling cutter, but the chips of metal removed are
much smaller.

IMPORTANT TERMS
centerless grinding planer-type surface
-~ . ·.l:} •. i~ -
• ~ ~:~-' -~-~
,. -.-._·-;:.~J¥· ~.
p
.
j ·.· .: : . .r.: . ••.
. •
""J 1 ·-- -

creep grinding
diamond dressing tool
grinders
plunge grinding
~ -..-''ii' .•. .' ~:,,.,, ? ·j -l ,·:,.• - .• ' '
'-<·· ...:r• '°· · r ,,
~
.•
"'' · ••• :ll., •• ·' ' , '\. ,
-....,· •' '!!.
" ,.,~ .+.·;
• _, f ."'~ •. ., .I • i

~....... l·~,.:-r-,• i.-l •·,, •

form grinding tooth rest - c-:-;,p " • • • 4' •
"'· • ,-/: .•-!> ~--.•.; C• ·-:-~ . • .,i .. . . -~
internal grinding
magnetic chuck
universal tool and cutter
grinder
-~ ···-
.,,,.
-» "• ' ·r ,,, . ., t''
.,1 '".. ,J\
~·-.
•. .. . .':'t.'• .. ,•:~··.·., .
.'• •
~-
. . ..... .•·~- ...... ·.~... .·,_.·,•
-. •
•' '. '. ... ,
~\
.
-
':· .
• • •• '
• ~- 2'l,,o •
. ""
...:i,,_i '
. . •
,
..·_.,., ...:,!'·-·
·... ·• ,_. • ,.._ -~~,. • :..: . . •, '-= ••
Grinding, like milling, drilling, sawing, planing,
and turning, is a cutting operation. However, instead
.
::~"' . ~---:i • ~ . .
-: ; ~, . ',

of using one, two, or several cutting edges, grinding i'~

Io-.s-::
... :::,\~
>.•-'- -~-.-~--. ... i' •.
makes use of an abrasive tool composed of thou- ~ . ,l .
i9 -~ ~-.
•.• ,,
dl.-.7" ... • •·.
:;:"-r-,~ . '•
. 1 ...
.!
'•_.·t···
r •. • •
sands of cutting edges. See Figure 19-1. Since each
of the abrasive particles is actually a separate cut- Figure 19-2. The abrasive grains that make up a typical grind-
ting edge, the grinding wheel might be compared to ing wheel are magnified about 50x in this closeup view.
(Cincinnati Milacron)
a many-toothed milling cutter, Figure 19-2.
In precision grinding, each abrasive grain
removes a relatively small amount of material, per-
mitting a smooth, accurate surface to be generated.
19.1 TYPES OF SURFACE
1

It is also one of the few machining operations that GRINDERS

can produce a smooth, accurate surface on material While all grinding operations might be called
regardless of its hardness. Grinding is frequently surface grinding because all grinding is done on
used as a finishing operation. the surface of the material, industry classifies
"'
surface grinding as the grinding of flat surfaces.
There are nvo basic types of surface grinding
machines:
Machining Fundarnenf:2Js

A variation of this type of surface grinder can be

run manually or automatically, Figure 19-78. To
prepare the machine for automatic operation, the
• Planer-type surface grinders make use of a operator simply fills in the blanks when requested
reciprocating motion to move the lvorktable by the menu prompts. No computer or CNC experi-
back-and-forth under the grinding wheel, ence is needed. As the operator creates the part
Figure 19-3. Three variations of planer-type manually, pressing a button after each move, the
surface grinding are illustrated in Figure 19-4. machine "memorizes" how the part is made. The
• Rotary-type surface grinders have circular machine can run subsequent parts automatically.
worktables that revolve under the rotating
grinding wheel, Figure 19-5. Two variations
of the technique are shown in Figure 19-6.
The planer-type surface grinder is frequently
found in training situations. It slides the work back-
and-forth under the edge of the grinding wheel.
Table movement can be controlled manuallv or
by means of a mechanical or hvdraulic drive
mechanism.
A manually operated machine is shown in
Figure 19-7A. All ·w ork and grinding ·wheel move-
ments are made by hand.
The large traverse handwheel controls the left-
and-right movement of the table. Cross-feed (in-
and-out motion) is controlled by the smaller movement
cross-feed handwheel. The down-feed handwheel
controls the up-and-dO'wn adjustment of the grind-
ing wheel. This hand,vheel is located on the top of
the vertical column.

Figure 19-3. This student is using a planer-type surface grinder

to machine a flat surface. (William L. Schotta, Millersville
University) Figure 19-4. Three variations of the planer-type surface grinder.
Chapter 19 Precision Grinding
GR

Rgure 19-5. Rotary surfacs grinder. A-This rotary fine gtind;ng system can handle work from 5132"' to 3 518"' (0.4 mm to 90 mm)
thick and 13132" to 13 5/8"' (10 mm to 340 mm) in length. It is a rapid, safe, clean, and economical way to finish material to close
tolerances. B--Ceramic p;eces in place for grinding to required thickness. Note that not only does the grinding head rotate, but the
work-holders also rotate to provkle a superior finish. (Peter Wolters of America, Inc.)

Grinding wheel
rotation

Figure 19-6. Two variations of the rotary-type surface grinder.

The machine shown in Figure 19-8 makes use of exact table positioning, Figure 19-10. At the end of
hydraulic traverse feed and cross-feed. The grinder the stroke, table direction is reversed automatically.
is also fitted with a coolant attachment. Automatic cross-feed moves the work in or out a
Both manual and automatic machines operate in predetermined distance at the completion of each
much the same manner. However, the person using cutting cycle.
a manually operated machine must develop a A control console, Figure 19-11, is located on the
rhythm to get a smooth, even cutting stroke. Spring front of the machine. Table travel is started and
stops act as cushions at the end of maximum table stopped from this station. Table speed is also con-
travel, Figure 19-9. trollable from this location. Some grinding
Adjustable table stops on the hydraulically acti- machines have a control for dwell-a hydraulic
vated traverse feed permit the operator to establish cushion at the end of each stroke.
 Mach!;ii~g hmc:amentals

Figure 19-8. A modem CNC surface grinder. The cross-feed

and longitudinal table movements are hydraulically actuated.
(Clausing Industrial, Inc.)

Grinder table
A

Figure 19-9. Springs on worktable guide are often used to

cushion the end of stroke on manually operated surface grinders.

s--- ------- -·

Figure 19-10. An adjustable table stop is employed to regulate

length of the worktable stroke.

Figure 19-7. Planer-type surface grinders. A-A manually-oper- 19.2 WORK-HOLDING DEVICES
ated surface grinder. B-A surface grinder that operates either
manually or automatically. It permits an operator in training to Much of the work done on a surface grinder is
step up to automatic grinding when ready to do so. (Harig Div. held in position by a magnetic chuck, Figure 19-12.
of Bridgeport Machines Inc.) This holds the work by exerting a magnetic force.
Chapter 19 Precision Grinding

GRINDER TABLE before it can be used. A demagnetizer like the one

shown in Figure 19-15 may be employed to neutral-
ize the magnetic field.
Other ways to mount work on a surface
grinder are:
• A universal vise, Figure 19-16A.
• An indexing head with centers, Figure 19-16B.
• Clamps to hold the work directly on work-
table, Figure 19-16C.

Figure 19-11. Typical surface grinder control console. Table

dwell sets up a cushioning action at end of each table stroke.

Figure 19-13. An electromagnetic chuck makes use of an

electric current to create a magnetic field. (O.S. Walker Co., Inc.)

Figure 19-14. Magnetic chuck with a permanent-type magnet.

Figure 19-12. A magnetic chuck being used to hold multiple

pieces for surface grinding. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.)

Nonmagnetic materials (aluminum, brass, etc.) can

be ground by bracing with steel blocks or parallels
to prevent movement.
An electromagnetic chuck utilizes an elec-
tric current to create a strong magnetic field. See
Figure 19-13.
Another type of magnetic chuck makes use of a
permanent magnet, Figure 19-14. This eliminates
cords needed for electromagnets and the danger of
the work flying off the chuck if the electrical con-
nection is accidentally broken. Figure 19-15. Demagnetizer can be used to neutralize magne-
Frequently, work mounted on a magnetic chuck tized part after it has been clamped in a magnetic chuck.
becomes magnetized and must be demagnetized (0.S. Walker Co., Inc.)
fl Mach!nbg f.:m:lamer.tt.k

• A precision vise, Figure 19-17, is hardened

and ground within 0.0002" (0.0050 mm) of
parallelism, flatness, and squareness.
• Double-faced masking tape can be used to hold
thin sections of nonmagnetic materials. Refer
to Figure 19-18.

19.3 GRINDING WHEELS

As mentioned at the opening of this chapter,
each abrasive particle in a grinding wheel is a cut-
ting tooth. As the wheel cuts, metal chips dull the
abrasive grains and wear away the bonding
material (medium that holds abrasive particles
together). The ideal grinding wheel, of course,
would be one in which the bonding material wears
away slowly enough to get maximum use from the
individual abrasive grains. However, it would also
wear rapidly enough to permit dulled abrasive par-
ticles to drop off and expose new particles.

Figure 19-17. A hardened and ground procision vise.

Figure 19-16. Work-holding aev1ces. A-A universal vise can

be used tor grinding operations. B-Centers and an indexing
head are used for grinding tasks when shape of work permits.
An indexing head is used in much the same manner as the
dividing head in milling. C-Work can also be clamped directly
to table for grinding. Coolant flow has been stopped for clarity in Figure 19-18. Double-faced masking tape is used to mount thin
this photo. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.) nonferrous material when it is ground.
 Chapter 19 li'i-ecision Gl"indlng
tm
Because so many factors affect grinding wheel Only manufactured abrasives are suitable for
efficiency, the wheel eventually dulls and must modern high-speed grinding wheels. The properties
be dressed with a diamond dressing tool. See and spacing of abrasive particles and composition
Figure 19-19. Failure to dress the wheel of a preci- of the bonding medium can be controlled to get the
sion grinding machine will, in time, result in the desired grinding performance, Figure 19-21.
wheel face becoming loaded or glazed so it cannot
cut freely, Figure 19-20.

Figure 19-20. Grinding wheels in various conditions:

A-Properly dressed. B-Loaded. C-G/azed. (Norton Co.)

Medium Hard

Figure 19-21. Wheel hardness is determined by the type and

percentage of bond and grain spacing.

I 9.3. I Grinding wheel marking system

To aid in achieving consistent grinding perfor-
mance, a standard system of marking grinding
wheels has been defined by American National
Standards Institute (ANSI). Called ANSI Standard
B74.13-1977, it is used by all grinding wheel manu-
facturers. Five factors were considered:
• Abrasive-type classifies the abrasive material
in the grinding wheel. Manufactured abra-
sives fall into two main groups identified by
letter symbols:
• A = aluminum oxide
C • C = silicon carbide
An optional prefix number may be employed
Figure 19-19. Diamond wheel dressing. A-Dressing tool will to designate a particular type of aluminum
true and clean a grinding wheel face. 8--Closeup of a natural oxide or silicon carbide abrasive.
diamond chip on a grinding wheel dresser. The diamond should
• Grain size is indicated by a number, usually
be rotated a partial tum each time it is used. This will put a new
edge of the diamond into position. C-Dressing tools manufac- from 8 (coarse) to 600 (very fine).
tured from manmade diamonds eliminate the irregularities of • Grade is the strength of the bond holding the
natural diamonds, resulting in consistent diamond exposure and wheel together, ranging from A (soft) to Z
longer wear. (CITGO Div., Western Atlas, Inc.) (hard).
Fl Machining Fundamentals

• Structure refers to grain spacing or the man- An additional number or one or more letters
ner in which the abrasive grains are distrib- may be used as the manufacturer's private marking
uted throughout the wheel. It is numbered 1 to identify the grinding wheel. Its application is
to 16; the higher the number, the more "open" optional.
the structure (wider the grain spacing). The adoption of a standardized grinding wheel
The use of this number is optional. marking system has guaranteed, to a reasonable
• Bond indicates the type of material that holds degree, duplication of grinding performance. The
the abrasive grains (wheel) together. Eight \-Vheel marking system is shown in Figure 19-22.
types are used:
• B = Resinoid 19.3.2 Grinding wheel shapes
• BF = Resinoid reinforced Grinding wheels are made in many standard
• E = Shellac shapes, Figure 19-23. While twelve basic face shapes
• 0 = Oxychloride are generally available, the face may be changed to
• R= Rubber suit specific job requirements, Figure 19-24. Wheels
• RF = Rubber reinforced used for internal grinding are manufactured in a
• S = Silicate large selection of shapes and sizes, Figure 19-25.
• V = Vitrified

Abrasive
Abrasive grain Bond Manufacture r's
Prefix type size Grade Structure type record

51 L 5 V 23
T \
Manufacturer's private
Manufacturer's symbol marking to identify wheel.
indicating exact kind (Use optional)
of abrasive. (Use optional)

A Regular aluminum oxide

TFA Treated aluminum oxide
3A
2A B Resinoid
FA Special BF Resinold reinforced
HA Aluminum E Shellac
JA Oxide Dense 0 Oxychloride
LA Very R Rubber
13A 1 RF Rubber reinforced
Coarse Medium Fine fine
36A 8 30 70 220 2 S Silicate
WA White aluminum oxide 10 36 80 240 3 V Vitrified
EA Extruded aluminum oxide 12 46 90 280 4
ZT Zirconia - 25% 14 54 100 320 5
YA Special 16 60 120 400 6
C Silicon carbide 20 150 500 7
GC Green silicon carbide 24 180 600 8
RC Mixture silicon oxide
CA Mixture of silicon 9
BA carbide and aluminum 10
Open
DA oxide Etc.
(Use optional)

Soft Medium Hard

ABC D E F G HI J KL MN OP QR STU VW XY Z

Figure 19-22. Standard system tor marking grin~ing wheels.

 ~reclsion Grinding

Type 1 straight
~~--T~~ ~i~dE .~
=1
I
I

/G~=·1=:=· Grinding
1 I
Type 21 relieved two sides
::J
face

Type 2 cylinder wheel

/4nding
[
Type 22 relieved on one side
--=7
face recessed other side
~=in=g==-===:y=p=e.dj5
face
L....
re_c_e_s~
s e- d- on-e.&:
!=s i=d=
e J""""'""""'""""'""""'""'I

Grin~!ng
tac:,,,
7 LGding ~ e ~ :.,_e_li-ev....,.e_d_a_n_d.,_r_e_c_es"'
=]
-ell~.,...d~~ side

face

Type 6 straight cup wheel

~J~=, i I
Grindlnf)
fac:e
Type 24 relieved and recessed
one slde, recessed other side
: -1
j ;1 r~ I
Grind,.,,i~...g-- _ _ _T
face
, y_p_e_7- reces
- -st-e-d_tw
_ o_s_id_e_s....,__ _....,.,_

I= i
/4nding
face
Type 25 relieved and recessed one side,
relieved other side
I
j: nd
Gn mg
face
=_c::=:==+==~'===-=
Type 26 relieved and recessed
both sides
Type 11 flaring cup wheel Grinding Grinding

'.::::::: I I
Type 12 dish wheel
~ L----~
... -==~:=,~===-/
f a c e ~ - - - - ~ - - " " '_ _ _
1

Type 27 depressed center

7',,-__-_-_-_-_==,
__

L C-
Grinding
Type 13 saucer
L Type 28 depressed center (saucer)
face

Figure 19-23. Standard grinding wheel shapes.

 Machir1lng Fundamenta[s

n
Figure 19-24. The twelve basic face shapes that are generali'y
Figure 19-26. Check the soundness of a grinding wheel before
mounting it on machine. A sound grinding wheel will give a clear
"metallic ring" when tapped as shown.
available.

signals a flange or spindle-mounted balancing head

D
to make necessary adjustments.
Mount the wheel on the spindle. It should fit
snugly. Never force a grinding wheel on a shaft. The
blotter rings or compressible washers should be
Threaded plug to large enough to extend beyond the wheel flanges,
permit mounting Figure 19-28. It is essential that the wheel be
on grinder arbor
mounted properly. If it is not, excessive strains will
develop during the grinding operation and the
wheel could shatter. Avoid standing in line with the
Figure 19-25. A few of the many grinding wheel shapes avail- grinding wheel, especially during the first few
able for internal grinding. passes across the work.
19.4 CUTTING FLUIDS
19.3.3 How to mount grinding wheels (COOLANTS)
Select a grinding ,vheel recommended for the Cutting fluids are an important factor in lessen-
job. Check its soundness by lightly tapping the ing wear on the grinding wheel. They help to main-
wheel as shown in Figure 19-26. A sound wheel will tain accurate dimensions, and are important to the
give a clear "metaUic ring." If the ·wheel is cracked, quality of the surface finish produced. As a coolant,
the tone will be "flat," rather than a clear ringing the cutting fluid must remove the heat generated
sound. during the grinding operation. Heat must be
Always discard unsound grinding wheels. If removed as fast as it is generated.
possible, break them into several pieces to ensure Several types of cutting fluids are utilized in
they are not used. grinding operations:
Unbalanced ,,vheels will cause irregularities on • Water-soluble chemical fluids are solutions
the finished ground surface. They should be stati- that take advantage of the excellent cooling
cally balanced as shown in Figure 19-27A. On CNC ability of water. They are usually transparent
grinders, automatic wheel balancing systems can and include a rust inhibitor, water softeners,
lengthen the life of the wheel and provide improved detergents to improYe the cleaning ability of
surface finishes. Automatic systems like the one water, and bacteriostats (substances that regu-
shown in Figure 19-27B use vibration sensors and late and control the growth of bacteria).
ultrasound wheel contact sensors to monitor opera- • Polymers are added to water to improve
tion of the wheel. A microprocessor-based controller lubricating qualities.
 Chapter 19 Precision Grinding
fID
• Water-soluble oil fluids are coolants that are
usually "milky white," since they consist of a
mixture of oil and water. They are also less
expensive than most chemical-type fluids.
Bacteriostats are added to control bacteria
growth.
Coolant can be applied by flooding the grinding
area, Figure 19-29. The fluid recirculates by means
of a pump and holding tank built into the machine.
A mist system forces the coolant over the wheel or
applies it to the work surface under pressure (air). It
cools by evaporation. A coolant can also be applied
manually by pumping the fluid from a pressure-
type oil pump can. If coolant is applied manually,
keep the tip of the oil pump can a safe distance from
the wheel.
For safety, long equipment life, and quality con-
trol, a coolant system should be cleaned at regular
intervals. Cleaning means removing all dirt and
sludge from the holding tank, Figure 19-30. Discard
the fluid when it becomes contaminated.

Wheel blotter

T Flange
/recessed

\ Inner flange
\ Inner flange sliding fit on
keyed to spindle spindle

A B
Figure 19-28. Do not operate a grinder unless the wheel is
properly mounted. A-Correctly mounted wheel. B-Wheel
incorrectly and dangerously mounted.

Figure 19-27. Grinding wneel balancing. A-Static balance

method. The wheel nut shown features a series of threaded
holes on a bolt drcle. By adding/subtracting setscrews of dif-
ferent lengths opposite the wheel's heavy/light sections, the
wh96I may be statically balanced. (Revolution Tool Company)
B-Automatic grinding wheel balancing syst9111 uses a flange-
or spindle-type balancing head, vibration and ultrasound sen-
sors, and a microprocessor-based controller to keep wheel in
balance. (Marposs Corp.) Figure 19-29. Coolant must flood area being ground.
 i'ilachini,1g Fundamen~als

as possible to true the surface. For high-preci-

sion work, this should be done each time the
chuck is remounted on the machine.
4. Check the coolant system to be sure it is oper-
ating satisfactorily.
:J. Locate the work, and energize the chuck. If the
work is already ground on one surface, protect
it and the chuck surface by fitting a piece of
oiled paper between them before energizing
the chuck, Figure 19-33.
6. Adjust the table stops, Figure 19-34.

Figure 19-30. The coolant tank must be cleaned frequently.

Chips and grinding wheel residue in the coolant can mar the
ground surface of the workpiece.

19.5 GRINDING APPLICATIONS

The follO"wing procedure is recommended to
produce a surface that is flat or free of waviness:
1. Select and mount a suitable grinding wheel.
2. True and dress the wheel with a diamond
dressing tool, Figure 19-31.
3. Mount the work-holding device. If a magnetic
chuck is used, it should be "ground-in" to
assure a surface that is true and parallel to table
travel, Figure 19-32. Grind off as little material
Figure 19-33. A piece of oiled paper placed between the mag-
netic chuck and a newly ground surface will protect the finish of
the work when it is removed from the chuck.

Approx. 1/4"
(6.0 mm)
Magnetic
chuck"\

Figure 19-31. For best results when cleaning or truing a grind-

ing wheel, position the diamond wheel dresser as shown.

Control console
Figure 19-32. A machine operator is "grinding in" the surface of Figure 19-34. Adjustable stops regulate length of the table
a magnetic chuck to true it before use. Note how the surface is stroke. Care must be taken to be sure stop adjustment permits
flooded with coolant. the entire work surface to be ground.
 Chapter 19 Precision Grinding

7. Check the holding power of the magnetic

chuck by trying to move the work.
8. Down-feed the grinding wheel until it just
touches the highest point on the work surface.
The grinding wheel can be set to the approxi-
mate position by down-feeding until it just
touches a sheet of paper placed between the
wheel and the work surface.
9. Turn on the coolant, spindle, and hydraulic
pump motors.
10. Set the cross-feed to move the table in or out
about 0.020" (0.5 mm) at the end of each cycle.
11. With the wheel clear of the work, down-feed
about 0.001" to 0.003" (0.025 mm to 0.075 mm)
for average roughing cuts per pass.
12. Use light cuts of 0.0001" (0.0025 mm) for fin-
ishing the surface. It is wise to redress the
wheel for finishing cuts.
When the work surface has been ground to the
required dimension and finish, use the following
procedure to turn off the machine:
1. Move the grinding wheel clear of the work.
2. Turn off table travel. Figure 19-35. Sequence for turning off a surface grinder.

3. Turn off coolant.

4. Let the grinding wheel run for a few moments Edge2
after the coolant has been turned off. This will
permit the wheel to free itself of all traces of Edge 3
fluid, Figure 19-35; otherwise, the wheel can
absorb some of the coolant and become out of
balance.
5. Use a squeegee to remove excess coolant from
the work. De-energize the chuck and remove
the work. Be careful of the sharp edges on
newly ground work when removing it from
the machine.
Edge4 Edge 1
6. Clean the machine. Apply a light coating of oil
on the chuck's work surface to prevent possible
rusting. Figure 19-36 The sequence for squaring edges of a rectangular
7. Place all tools in proper storage. workpiece after the faces have been ground flat and parallel.

19.5. I Grinding edges square and parallel with

face sides
Most rectangular work requires the edges to be After edges 1 and 2 are ground square with each
parallel to each other and square with the finished other, they will serve as reference planes to grind
face sides. In one commonly used technique, edges 3 and 4 to required dimensions. Use oiled
Figure 19-36, edge 1 is ground while being held in a paper in the vise to protect the ground faces and
precision vise. After burrs are removed, the adjacent edges from stray metal and abrasive particles. The
edge 2 is ground. Its squareness is checked verti- vise must be carefully wiped clean and burrs
cally with a dial indicator. removed after each edge is ground.
fl
An angle plate can also be used when grinding Ji...•~--Length of stroke- - ~
edges square and parallel ·with the finished faces.
See Figure 19-37. A parallel may be used to set the Depth
work in approximate position. otcutJ
The same positioning and grinding sequences
are followed as previously described.

Depth
ofcutJ

h
A

dial indicator

Figure 19-37. An angle plate can also be used to hold work for
grinding the edges square and parallel.

19.5.2 Creep grinding

Creep grinding is a relatively new production-
type machining technique that makes a deep cut
into the \-vork. It is also sometimes known as deep
grinding. Special grinding machines are required for Figure 19-3B. Creep grinding. A-The difference between con-
this type of work. ventional and creep grinding. Creep grinding equipment must
Creep grinding is a surface grinding operation be specially designed for this heavy-duty work. B--A heavy-
duty CNC creep grinding machine. (Jones & Shipman, Inc.)
that is often performed in a single pass ,vith an
unusually large depth of cut, Figure 19-38. In com-
parison to conventional surface grinding, the depth
of cut is increased 1000-10,000 times and the work
speed is reduced in the same proportion. Machining a hydraulic pump that is not functioning properly,
time can be reduced by 50% to 80%. The tools or inadequate table lubrication. A cold hydraulic
(grinding wheels, work-holding devices, etc.) must system may also cause these symptoms. Let the
be designed for this heavy-duty work. machine warm up for at least 15 minutes before use.
Air in hydraulic lines can cause erratic table move-
19.6 GRINDING PROBLEMS ment. Make corrections as recommended by the
There are many problems peculiar to precision manufacturer of the machine.
surface grinding. A few of the more common diffi- Irregular scratches, of no identifiable pattern, are
culties, with suggestions for their solution, are as frequently caused by a dirty coolant system, or by
follows: particles becoming loosened in the wheel guard.
Irregular table movement or no table movement (on This could also mean that the grinding wheel is too
hydraulic-type machines) may be caused by soft, and the abrasive particles are carried to the
clogged hydraulic lines, insufficient hydraulic fluid, wheel by the coolant system.
Chapter I? F'=-acision Grinding

Work surface waviness can be caused by a wheel

being out of round. It can be corrected by truing the
wheel.
Chatter or vibration marks may be caused by a
glazed or loaded grinding wheel. There is a slipping
action between the wheel and the work. The wheel
cuts until the glazed section comes into position and
slides over the work, rather than cutting. Correct the
problem by redressing the grinding wheel. The
same effect can also be caused by a grinding
machine that is not mounted solidly, or by a wheel
that is loose on the spindle. Check for these condi-
tions and make corrections if necessary.
Burning or work surface checking may be the result
of too little coolant reaching the work surface, a
wheel that is too hard, or a wheel with grain that is
too fine. Make needed corrections as indicated by
inspection.
Wheel glazing or loading often indicates that the
wrong coolant is being used. A dull diamond on the
wheel dresser can also cause this problem. Figure 19-39. Effect of insufficient coolant. A-If not enough
Deep, irregular marks on the work surface may be coolant is used, frictional heat may cause the work to expand
caused by a loose grinding wheel. in center of cut, causing more material to be removed in center
than at each end. B-As piece cools, center becomes
Work that is not flat may be caused by insufficient depressed.
coolant, a nicked or dirty chuck surface, or a wheel
that is too hard. Check and make any necessary
corrections.
• Check the wheel often to prevent it from
Work that is not parallel is frequently caused by a
becoming glazed or loaded. Dress the wheel
chuck that has not been "ground in" since the last
when required.
time it was mounted on the machine. A nicked or
• Make sure the grinding wheel is clear of the
dirty chuck can also cause the same problem.
work before starting the machine.
Insufficient coolant may allow the work to heat up
• Never operate a grinding wheel at a speed
and expand in the center of the cut, permitting more
higher than specified by the manufacturer.
material to be removed in that area than at each end.
• Change coolant fluid before it becomes conta-
As the piece cools, the center will become
minated. It is good practice to set up a sched-
depressed, Figure 19-39. Correct the problem by
ule for replacing the fluid at regular intervals
directing more fluid to the cutting area.
or adding chemicals to control bacterial
19.7 GRINDING SAFETY growth.
• Never attempt to operate a grinder until you • Have any cuts and grinding "burns" treated
have been instructed in its proper and safe promptly - major infections can result from
operation. When in doubt, consult your untended minor injuries.
instructor. • Immediately wipe up any spilled coolants
• Do not use a grinder unless all guards and from the floor around the machine.
safety devices are in place and securely • Stop the machine before making measure-
attached. ments or performing major machine and
• Never try to operate grinding machines while work adjustments.
your senses are impaired by medication or • If a magnetic chuck is used, make sure it is
other substances. holding the work solidly before starting to
• Always wear approved-type eye protection grind.
when performing any grinding operation. • Remove your watch, rings, etc., before using a
• Never place a wheel on a grinder before magnetic chuck to prevent them from becom-
checking it for soundness. Destroy faulty ing magnetized or pulled toward the
wheels! machine.
 M achining Fundamentai~

• If automatic feed is used, run the work

through one cycle by hand to be sure there is
adequate clearance and that the dogs are
adjusted properly.
• Keep all tools clear of the worktable.

19.8 UNIVERSAL TOOL AND

CUTTER GRINDER
The universal tool and cutter grinder is a grind-
ing machine designed to support cutters (primarily
milling cutters) while they are sharpened to speci-
fied tolerances. See Figure 19-40. Special attach-
ments permit straight, spiral, and helical cutters to
be sharpened accurately. Other attachments enable
the machine to be adapted to all types of internal
and external cylindrical grinding. See Figure 19-41.

19.9 TOOL AND CUTTER

GRINDING WHEELS
The wheel shapes most frequently employed for
tool and cutter grinding are shown in Figure 19-42.
Charts prepared by the various grinding wheel
manufacturers are used to determine the correct
wheel composition (abrasive, grain size, and bond)
for the job at hand.

£0.LEE

l
"Y --
820608 Figure 19-41. Tool and cutter grinder applications. A-Limited
cylindrical grinding can be done on a tool and cutter grinder. 8-
Tool and cutter grinder can also be employed tor internal grind-
ing. C-Center is being trued on tool and cutter grinder. Work is
Figure 19-40. Universal tool and cutter grinder. (K.O. Lee Co.) rotated by a powered work head. (K.O. Lee Co.)
Chapter 19 Precision Grinding

Tooth rest
bracket
---------.....
/
. ·1 Gnndmg
_ ....,.~,J • wheel
/

Figure 19-42. Typical wheel shapes used for grinding cutters. A

Keep the grinding wheel clean and sharp by fre-

quent dressing with a diamond tool. Use light cuts
to avoid drawmg the temper out of the tooth cutting
edge.
Crowding the wheel into the cutter is a common
mistake when grinding cutters. The cutters are
made from materials (HSS and cemented carbides)
that do not give off a brilliant shower of sparks
when in contact with a grinding wheel. This creates
the illusion that the cut being made is too light.

19. 9.1 Sharpening cutters

A tooth rest locates each tooth quickly and
accurately into position. Several types are employed
to permit different cutter types to be sharpened. The
supporting bracket can be mounted to the work-
table or on the grinding wheel housing. See Figure
19-43. Figure 19-43. Tooth rest. A-The tooth rest being used to
position teeth of cutter. Note the support bracket and the cup-
Grinding plain milling cutters shaped wheel that does the grinding. (K.O. Lee Co.)
B- Several-types of tooth rests.
1. Select the correct wheel for the job. True it with
a diamond tool. into the cutting edge of the tooth, there is less
2. Mount the cutter on a suitable arbor and place chance of drawing the temper. Also, no burr is
the unit between centers, Figure 19-44. formed that must be oilstoned off to secure a
sharp edge. See Figure 19-46.
3. Mount the tooth rest to the wheel head.
Position the edge about 1/4" (6.0 mm) 5. Flare cup wheels are also used for cutter and
above the center line of the grinding wheel, tool grinding. How they are set up is shown in
Figure 19-45. This will produce a 5° to 6° clear- Figure 19-47. Since there is a greater area of
ance angle on the tooth cutting edge of a 6" contact when using a flare cup wheel, lighter
(150 mm) diameter cutter. Adjust to suit the cuts should be taken than with straight grind-
cutter being ground. ing wheels.
4. The setup should permit the wheel to grind 6. Start the machine and feed the cutter into the
away from the tooth cutting edge. While wheel. Take a light cut. A bit of thinned layout
requiring more machining care than grinding bluing should be applied to the back of the
Figure 19-44. Cutters must be mounted on an arbor for sharp-
ening. Approved-type eye protection is a must. If machine is not
equipped with a vacuuming system, a respirator mask should
also be worn. (Norton Co.)

/t\l I
B
1/4" (6.0 mlm) : _/\
V
~,, ): Figure 19-46. Tooth grinding setup. A-Wheel grinds away
from cutting edge of tooth. With this technique, there is less
I \ • chance of drawing temper out of tooth and no burr is formed.
·- ) b 8- When wheel grinds into cutting edge of tooth, there is some
danger that a burr will be formed or temper drawn.

_/' ~
tooth. This will allow a Yisual check of how the
-.._:_.-.> grinding operation is progressing and whether
the setup is producing the proper clearance
angle.
7. vVhen satisfied with the setup, bring the next
tooth into position on the tooth rest and grind
that tooth.
Figure 19-45. Setup is for grinding a 6H (150 mm) diameter 8. Repeat the operation until all of the teeth are
cutter. sharpened. Make necessary adjustments to
 Chapter 19 Precision Grinding
DD
An indexing disc may also be used to position
each tooth for sharpening, Figure 19-49. It is
mounted on the arbor. The divisions are normal to
each other, plus or minus 4 minutes (1/15°). They
are available in a range of graduations.
Teeth on a side-milling cutter must also be
sharpened. This is done by mounting the cutter on a
stub arbor and fitting the unit into a workhead,
rather than positioning it between centers. Facing
mills are sharpened in the same manner. See
Offset below
Figure 19-50.
wheal centerline
Grinding cutters with helical teeth
Slabbing cutters and other cutters that have heli-
cal teeth are sharpened in much the same manner as
plain milling cutters, Figure 19-51. However, these
cutters must be held against the tooth rest as the

Tooth rest
offset

Figure 19-47. Milling cutter is being ground with a flare cup

wheel.

assure tooth concentricity (the cutting surfaces

of all teeth must be the same distance from
arbor hole center line). Figure 19-48. This cutter has been sharpened so many times
After a cutter has been sharpened several times, that a secondary clearance angle is needed to permit the tool
to cut properly.
the clearance angle flat (land) will become too wide.
Then, it becomes necessary to grind in a secondary
clearance angle, Figure 19-48.
If it becomes apparent that more material is
being removed from some teeth than others, a quick
check must be made to determine the cause:
• The grinding wheel may be too soft and wear-
ing down too rapidly. As the wheel wears,
less material is removed from the cutter tooth.
• The tooth rest may not be mounted solidly,
allowing it to move during the grinding oper-
ation.
• The arbor may not be running true on the cen-
ters. Test the arbor runout with an indicator as
it is rotated.
When the cause of the problem has been identi-
fied, make the necessary corrections and continue Figure 19-49. An indexing disc is often used to position each
the operation. tooth for sharpening. (K.0. Lee Co.)
,m M achining Fundamentals

Figure 19-50. A grinder being used to sharpen the side of teeth

of a face milling cutter.

B Correct Incorrect

Figure 19-52. Form tooth cutters. A-This convex cutter is typ-

ical of form tooth cutters. (Standard Tool Co.j B-Form tooth
cutters must be ground radially; otherwise, the form or shape
Figure 19-51. Setup for sharpening a cutter with helical teeth.
that the cutter was designed to machine wilf be altered.
(K. 0. Lee Co.)

Grinding taps
table is traversed. Tnis will impart a twisting motion A universal tool and cutter grinder may also be
to keep the tooth correctly located against the grind- used to resharpen taps. Normally, a tap becomes
ing wheel. dull when the leading edges of the starting chamfer
become worn. The chamfer can be reground by
Grinding end mills mounting the tap in a workhead, Figure 19-53.
End mills are sharpened in much the same way Flutes are reground using a straight ·wheel with an
as helical teeth cutters, with the end mill mounted in edge that has been shaped to fit the flutes.
a workhead rather than between centers. The end
teeth are sharpened with the same teclutlque used Grinding reamers
to sharpen the side teeth on a side milling cutter. The cutting action of a machine reamer takes
place at the front end of the teeth, Figure 19-54.
Grinding form cutters Sharpen the reamer in the same manner employed
Form tooth cutters must be ground radially to to sharpen a face milling cutter. The worktable is
preserve the tooth shape, Figure 19-52. An index pivoted at a 45~ angle. L"'sing a cup ·wheel, adjust the
disc may be employed, or a special form cutter tooth rest and/ or grinding head to give the correct
grinder may be utilized. clearance.
 Chapter 19 ~recislon Grinding
DD

Figure 19-55. A CNC cylindrical grinder capable of producing

extremely fine surface finishes while meeting tolerances of
0.00001" (0.0002 mm). (K.O. Lee Co.)

Figure 19-53. Grinding taps. A-Setup for regrinding chamfer

on a tap. B-Flutes are being reground on tap to renew cutting
edges of teeth. (K.O. Lee Co.)

Figure 19-56. This heavy-duty 60" x 228" (1500 mm x

1 r. Lan~ width
5700 mm) cylindrical grinder is being used to recondition form-
ing rolls used by steel mills. (Simmons Machine Tool Corp.)
-Jrt- Marg1n
-Chamfer ~ adial rake
angle On this machine, work is mounted between cen-
relief angle
ters and rotates while in contact with the grinding
wheel, Figure 19-57. Straight, taper, and form grind-
ing operations are possible with this technique. Two
variations of cylindrical grinding are traverse grind-
Helical flutes
ing and plunge grinding.
R.H. helix • In traverse grinding, a fixed amount of mate-
Machine reamer
rial is removed from the rotating workpiece
as it moves past the revolving grinding
wheel. Work wider than the face of the grind-
ing wheel can be ground. See Figure 19-58.
• In plunge grinding, the work still rotates;
Rgure 19-54. Cutting edges of a machine reamer. however, it is not necessary to move the
grinding wheel across the work surface. The
area being ground is no wider than the wheel
19.10 CYLINDRICAL GRINDING face. Grinding wheel infeed is continuous
With a cylindrical grinder, it is economically fea- rather than incremental (minute changes at
sible to machine hardened steel to tolerances of end of each cut), Figure 19-59. Grinding to a
0.00001" (0.0002 mm) with extremely fine surface shoulder by both techniques is shown in
finishes. See Figures 19-55 and 19-56. Figure 19-60.
fJ!1L- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - ~t~1~a_chining Fundamentals

Traverse grinding

Figure 19-57. Closeup of a cylindrical grinding operation.

(Landis Div. of Western Atlas)

Traverse gri~ding
with angular wheel

Work
rotation Work

Figure 19-58. The principle of traverse grinding. The rotating

work moves past the rotating grinding wheel.

Plunge grinding

Plunge grinding
with angular wheei

Figure 19-59. With plunge grinding, grinding wneel is fed into

rotating work. Since work is no wider than grinding wheel, reci- Figure 19-60. Grinding to a shoulder by traverse and plunge
procating motion is not needed. grinding techniques.
 Chapter 19 ilrecision Grinding
DD
19. I 0.1 Holding and driving the work (back-and-forth in front of the grinding wheel) be
As the work rotates on centers, it is extremely smooth and steady.
important that the centers be free of dirt and nicks. Table movement should be adjusted so that the
They must also run absolutely true. If possible, the wheel will overrun the work end by about one-third
head center should be ground in place. The center the width of the wheel face, Figure 19-63. This per-
holes must also be clean, of the correct shape and mits the grinding wheel to do a more accurate
depth, and well-lubricated. grinding job. Insufficient runoff will result in work
Long work is best supported by work rests,, that is oversize. Complete runoff of the grinding
Figure 19-61. These support the workpiece from the wheel will cause the piece to be undersize.
back and bottom and are adjustable to compensate The grinding wheel must be trued and balanced.
for material removed in the grinding operation. Otherwise, vibration will cause chatter marks on the
work and may cause it to be out-of-round.
Work rotation is accomplished through the Cutting speeds and feeds can be determined
use of a drive plate that revolves around the head- from information available on charts furnished by
stock center and an adjustable drive pin and dog, the grinding machine and grinding wheel manufac-
Figure 19-62. Work may also be mounted in a chuck. turers. They will also specify what coolant will give
the best results.
I 9.10.2 Machine operation
To assure a good finish and size accuracy, it is 19.11 INTERNAL GRINDING
vital that work rotation and traverse table movement Internal grinding is done to secure a fine
surface finish and accuracy on inside diameters,
Figure 19-64. Work is mounted in a chuck and

Grinding
wheel~

Rgure 19-61. Work rests should be placed every four or five

diameters along the work for support. They must be adjusted
after each grinding pass.

Figure 19-63. Table movement should permit about one-third of

wheel's width to run beyond the end of the work. This permits
the wheel to do a more accurate job.

Counterbalance
weight
Figure 19-64. Internal grinding operation is being performed on
Figure 19-62. One method used to rotate work on a cylindrical a universal grinding machine. Note how extended work piece is
grinder. supported. (Norton Co.)
rotates. During the grinding operation, the revolv-
ing grinding wheel moves in and out of the hole.
A special grinding machine that finishes holes in
pieces too large to be rotated by the conventional
machine is shown in Figure 19-65. Hole diameter is
controlled by regulating the diameter of the circle in
·which the grinding head mm·es.

19.12 CENTERLESS GRINDING

In centerless grinding, the work does not have to
be supported behveen centers because it is rotated
against the grinding wheel, Figure 19-66. Instead,
the piece is positioned on a work support blade, Figure 19-66. A CNC center!ess grinding machine. (Cincinnati
and fed automatically beh,·een a regulating or Milacron)
feed wheel and a grinding wheel. See Figure 19-67.
Basically, the regulating wheel causes the piece to
rotate, and the grinding "·heel does the cutting.
Feed through the ,,vheels is obtained by setting the
regulating wheel at a slight angle.
There are four variations of centerless grinding,
Figure 19-68:
• Through feed grinding can only be employed
to produce simple cylindrical shapes. Work is
fed continuously by hand, or from a feed
hopper, into the gap between the grinding
wheel and the regulating wheel. The finished
pieces drop off the work support blade.
I
Grinding
wheel
\
\
\
Regulating
Work rest
wheel
blade
Figure 19-67. Basic arrangement for centerless grinding.

• Infeed grinding is a centerless grinding tech-

nique that feeds the work into the wheel gap
until it reaches a stop. The piece is ejected at
the completion of the grinding operation.
Work diameter is controlled by adjusting the
,vidth of the gap between the regulating
wheel and the grinding wheel. Work ,-\ith a
shoulder can be ground using this technique .
• End feed grinding is a form of centerless
Worktable
grinding ideally suited for grinding short
tapers and spherical shapes. Both wheels are
dressed to the required shape and work is fed
Figure 19-65. Internal grinding technique employed when work in from the side of the wheel to an end stop.
is too large or odd-shaped to be rotated. The finished piece is ejected automatically.
 Chapter 19 Pl/'eci:.lon t;rinding
DP

Work _,__ __

Grinding
wheel

Regulating
wheel
C

Grinding
wheel

ll/ ,I
, I'

Work End
stop

Regulating
wheel
B

D
Figure 19-68. Centerless grinding variations. A-In through feed centerless grinding, angle of regulating wheel pulls work over the
grinding wheel. B-lnfeed centerfess grinding. The work is fed into the wheel gap until ft reaches a stop. The piece is ejected at
completion of the grinding operation. C-End feed centerless grinding. It is best suited for grinding short tapers and spherical shapes.
D-Setup for internal centerless grinding.

• Internal centerless grinding minimizes distor- Wheel moves forward

tion in finishing thin-wall work and elimi- during grinding. Retreats at

fI
nates reproduction of hole-size errors and end of cycle to permit
new stock to move
waviness in the finish.
into position.
Centerless grinding is utilized when large quan-
tities of the same part are required. Production is
high and costs are relatively low, because there is no
need to drill center holes nor to mount work in a
holding device. Almost any material can be ground
by this technique. ~
Material feed
19.13 FORM GRINDING
In form grinding, the grinding wheel is shaped Figure 19-69. Form grinding of this engine part is done at
to produce the required contour on the work. rate of 200 pieces an hour. Material was heat-treated before
Figure 19-69 shows this principle. grinding.
ma r fad1i11ing Fundamentals

Thread grinding is an example of form grinding, 19.14. I Abrasive belt machining

Figure 19-70. A form or template guides a diamond Abrasive belt grinding was first employed for
particle wheel that dresses the wheel used to grind light stock remo\·al and polishing operations.
the required thread shape, Figure 19-71. There is However, the capability of the technique has
automatic compensation on the grinding machine advanced to the stage where high-rate metal
for the material removed from the grinding wheel remo\·al to close tolerances is possible. This is pri-
when it is dressed. marily due to tougher and sharper abrasive grains,
19.14 OTHER GRINDING improved adhesives, and stronger backings. Several
abrasive grinding machine applications are shown
TECHNIQUES in Figure 19-72.
In addition to the grinding techniques already
described, industry makes considerable use of other
abrasive-type processes.

Abrasive
A belt

Figure 19-70. This CNC thread grinding machine has electronic

controls that provide thread accuracy and cost-efficiency.
(Reishauer Elgin)

Vertical grinder with

double-roller backup

Tracing > - , ~ ('i-...- Rolls

template Form-60° Thd.

BT.P.I.
Stock Removed-
0.87" on R.
Time Out for
B
Dressing-.04 min.
Production-31 +
pcs. per hr.

Finished
stud~

..........
' . ' ..
--
,- -
---;s;Eilii~
, ............ ..
---'- ' "

Ground
threads

Conveyorized grinder
C with two heads
Figure 19-71. Precision threads are being form-ground on a
special stud. (Jones & Lamson Machine Co.) Figure 19-72. A few of many abrasive belt grinding techniques.
 .:C..:.:h~apt~e::_r..:..I~::___?_re....:.....:.ci_sl_o_n_G_n_·n_d_in..::g:__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 111
Abrasive belts, because of their length, run cool 19.14.2 Electrolytic grinding
and require light contact pressure, thus reducing the Electrolytic grinding is actually a form of elec-
possibility of metal distortion caused by heat. Soft trochemical machining, Figure 19-73. Applications
contact wheels and flexible belts conform to irregu- of the technique include rapid removal of stock
lar shapes. Belts may be used dry or with a coolant. from alloy steel parts, sharpening carbide tools, and
The most satisfactory belt speed for grinding fer- machining heat-sensitive work.
rous and nonferrous metals is between 5000-9000 An electric current is passed between a metal-
sfm (surface feet per minute). Slower speeds of bonded grinding wheel (cathode) and the
1500-3000 sfm are required for tougher materials work (anode) through a conductive electrolyte,
like titanium. Figure 19-74. The surface of the work is attacked
Abrasive belt grinding usually requires support electrochemically and dissolved (a process similar
behind the belt. This may be in the form of contact to electroplating, but in reverse).
wheels or platens.
• Contact wheels are usually made of cloth or
rubber. Hardness and/ or density of the con-
tact wheel affects stock removal and finish. Plastic
Serrated or slotted wheels improve cutting reservoir
action and prolong abrasive belt life. housing
• Platens are made of metal (some have Minimum
cemented carbide inserts) and are usually not clearance
as effective as contact wheels. They are flat, between
housing
but can be shaped to conform to the contour and
required on the work. Jets of air or water may ,of- grinding

be applied between the belt and platen to wheel

reduce friction.
A major advantage of abrasive belt grinding is
its versatility. A machine can be converted quickly
from heavy stock removal to finishing operations,
or for grinding a different material, by simply Figure 19-73. Electrolytic grinding process. It is actually an
changing the abrasive belt. electrochemical machining process.

DC power
Electrolyte supply

I
-""'-""~~
,. _ .,.~«
Insulated spindle

• t _,, ,
~ i c k - u p brushes

.
Slip ring
Automatic

;,1 Bus bars

Insulating
bushings
......,,....,.._ _ _ _ and
pads

....__ _ _ _ Negative

Automatic
~-----control circuit

Figure 19-74. Nomenclature (parts) of an electrochemical grinding machine designed to sharpen carbide lathe tools. (Hammond
Machinery Builders)
II__________________________________ M_ac
_h_i_n_in_g_F_u_·n_d_a_m_e_n_ta_!s

The dissolved material is removed by the wheel.

No burr is developed, making it possible to machine
fragile work like stainless steel and exotic metal
honeycomb sections. No heat is generated, and
there is no metallurgical change in the metal.
An electrochemical grinding machine for sharp-
ening carbide tools is shmvn in Figure 19-75.

19.14.3 Computer controlled (CNC) grinders

Many types of computer numerical control
(CNC) grinders are available, Figure 19-76. They are
designed to operate automatically. Such functions as
positioning, spindle start and stop, vertical feed
motion, and linear feed rates are programmed into
the machine's computer. The operator is then
relieved from the responsibility of controlling and A
monitoring the numerous coordinate settings and
related machine functions.
The grinding 'Wheel path representing the con-
tours of the part (at a selected distance from the part
edge) is programmed directly to its dimensional
specifications. Grinding wheel wear (\vheel diame-
ter decreases each time it is dressed) is compensated
for automatically.
The part's contour is generated in a continuous
motion by the X- and Y-axes slides of the machine.
See Figure 19-77.

C
Figure 19-76. CNC grinders. A-Gear grinding machine is
capable of grinding spur or helical gears to close tolerances and
precise tooth geometry at high stock removal rates. (Reishauer
Corp.) 8-Cutaway of CNC grir.der for remanufacturing and
sharpening fluted cutting tools such as drills, reamers, and end
mills. (Unison Corp.) C-CNC cylindrical grinder with automatic
Figure 19-75. An electrochemical grinding machine. (Hammond loading system. The machine is capable of plunge, contour,
Machinery Builders) and traverse operations. (Weldon Machine Tool, Inc.)
_c_hap_t_er_l9_ _?_re_c_is_io_n_G_rl_nd_i_ng_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ fl
6. A solid grinding wheel will give off a _ _
when stru.ck lightly with a metal rod.
7. List the two conditions that commonly prevent
a grinding wheel from cutting efficiently.
8. Why are cutting fluids or coolants necessary
for grinding operations?
9. List the basic types of cutting fluids.
10. A _ _ wheel dressing tool is usually used to
true and dress wheels for precision grinding.
11. Chatter and vibration marks are caused on the
work when the grinding wheel is _ _ or

12. The problems in Question 11 can be corrected

by _ _ the _ _.
13. Irregular scratches on the work are usually
caused by a _ _ system. How can this prob-
lem be corrected?
14. What is the difference between conventional
grinding and creep grinding?
Figure 19-77. Contour grinding using CNC to shape a cam. In
this illustration, it appears that the grinding wheel is moving 15. A _ _ and _ _ is a grinding machine
around the cam edge. In reality, the part moves along its pro- designed to support cutters (usually milling
grammed path around the vertical machine spindle holding the
cutters) while they are being sharpened.
rotating wheel.
16. List the two variations of cylindrical grinding.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 17. With _ _ grinding, it is not necessary to sup-

port work between centers or mount work in a
Please do not write in the text. Write your
chuck while it is being rotated against the
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
grinding wheel.
1. Industry classifies surface grinding as the
18. Make sketches of nine standard grinding
grinding of _ _ surfaces.
wheel shapes.
2. Surface grinding operations fall into two cate-
19. The grinding technique that employs a belt on
gories. List them.
which abrasive particles are bonded for stock
3. Various work-holding devices are used to hold removal, finishing, and polishing operations is
work for surface grinding. Name three of them. known as _ _
4. List five (5) factors that are distinguishing char- 20. _ _ or _ _ grinding is actually an electro-
acteristics of a grinding wheel. chemical machining process. Describe how is it
done.
5. The ideal grinding wheel will:
a. Wear away as the abrasive particles
become dull.
b. Wear away at a predetermined rate.
c. Wear away slowly to save money.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
ll,____________________________________ M_a_c_h_in_i_
ng_ F_1.i_n_
da_m
_ e_
n_ta_ls

Vertical contour band saws are used for various band machining operations. This saw is available with throat depths of up to 366
(91 cm), and a blade speed of 5000 fpm. The table is able to tilt 45= right and 10= left, and can be power-operated for high-capacity
production. (Armstrong-Blum Manufacturing Company)
 Chapter 20

and achin· g

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
0 Describe how a band machine operates.
0 Explain the advantages of band machining.
0 Select the proper blade for the job to be
done.
0 Weld a blade and mount it on a band
machine.
0 Safely operate a band machine.

IMPORTANT TERMS
blade guide inserts mist coolant
diamond-edge band raker set
file band straight set
intemal cuts tooth _form
knife-edge blade wavy set
Band machining is a widely employed machin-
ing technique that makes use of a continuous saw
blade, Figures 20-1. Each tooth is a precision cutting
tool, Figure 20-2, so accuracy can be held to close
tolerances. This eliminates or minimizes many sec-
ondary machining operations.

20.1 BAND MACHINING Figure 20-1. Vertical band saw designed for metal machining.
(DoALL Co.)
ADVANTAGES
Band machining offers severat' major advan-
tages over other machining techniques, Figure 20-3.
• Band machining maintains sharpness. Wear is
distributed over many teeth. Chip load is uni- produces the desired shape with a minimum
form and constant on each tooth, minimizing of chips. There is little waste, since band
tool wear. machining cuts directly to shape, and
• Band machining provides unrestricted cutting unwanted material is removed in solid
geometry. Cutting can be done at any angle, in sections.
any direction, and the length of the cut is • Band machining provides a built-in work-
unlimited. holder. Cutting action is downward, so cutting
" Band machining is efficient. Excess chip forces hold the workpiece to the table. In most
production wastes power. Band machining situations, work need not be clamped.
 20.2 BAND BLADE SELECTION
Some blade manufacturers list more than 500
different band saw blades. Points that must be con-
sidered by the machinist "'·hen selecting the correct
blade for a specific job are the blade type and blade
characteristics.
There are six basic band saw blade types.
Figure 20-4 lists them, along with their
applications:
• Tungsten carbide.
• Bimetal (high-speed steel cutting edge with a
flexible carbon steel back).
• High-speed steel.
• Shock resistant high-speed steel.
• Hard edge with spring-tempered back.
• Carbon steel flexible back.
Blade characteristics include width, pitch, set,
gage, and tooth form.
• Width of the blade is important-the ·wider
the blade, the greater its strength and the
Figure 20-2. Band machining makes use of a continuous saw
blade. Each tooth is a cutting tool.
more accurately it will cut, Figure 20-5.

b Downward
cutting
action
Uniform
light
tooth load

A C

Cuts directly
to layout line

B D

Figure 2D-3. Band machining advantages. A-Wear is distributed over many cutting edges (teeth) with band machining. B-Band
machining permits machining at any angle or direction. Cut tength is almost unlimited. C-Band machining is very efficient and pro-
duces little waste. Unwanted material is removed in solid sections. 0-Cutting action helps hold work on table.
 Chapter 20 Band Machining
m
Match the Tools to the Job
Type of blade Applications Band machine
T/C Heavy production and slabbing Horizontal cutoff machines
Inserted tungsten carbide operations in tough materials. over 5 hp with positive feed.
teeth on fatigue-resistant Vertical contour machines
blade. over 5 hp with positive feed.

Imperial blmetal Mild to tough production and Horizontal cutoff machines over
HSS cutting edge with cutoff applications. 1 1/2 hp with controlled feed,
flex-resistant carbon- generally with variable-speed drives
alloy back. and with coolant system.
Vertical contour machines over
1 1/2 hp with coolant system.
Demon Heavy-duty tool room and Horizontal cutoff machines over
M-2 HSS blade. maintenance shop work. 1 1/2 hp with controlled feed,
Full-time production generally with variable-speed
applications. drives and with coolant system.
Vertical contour machines over
1 1/2 hp with coolant system.

Demon Structurals, tubing, materials Horizontal cutoff machines over

shock-resistant of varying cross section. 1 1/2 hp with controlled feed,
M-2 HSS blade specially generally with variable-speed drives
processed for greater and with coolant system.
shock resistance. Vertical contour machines with
1 1/2 hp with coolant system.
Dan Superior accuracy for light Horizontal cutoff machines under
Carbon-alloy, hard-edge, toolroom and maintenance 1 1/2 hp with coolant system.
spring-tempered back blade. shop applications as well as Vertical contour machines under
light manufacturing. 1 1/2 hp with coolant system.

Standard carbon Light toolroom and main- Horizontal cutoff machines under
All-purpose, hard-edge, tenance shop applications. 1 1/2 hp with weight feed and
flexible back blade. without coolant. Generally
step speeds.
Vertical contour machines under
1 1/2 hp without coolant.

Figure 2()..4. Recommendations for using basic blade types. (DoALL Co.)

Width Smallest The width of the blade

of blade radius is determined by the
smallest radius to be cut
1/16 1/16

3/32 1/8

1/8 7/32
3/16 3/8
Figure 20-5. Blade width is from tooth tip to other edge or back. 1/4 5/8

5/16 7/8
Use the widest blade the machine will 3/8 1 1/4
accommodate when making straight cuts.
Contour cutting should utilize the widest 1/2 3
blade that will cut the required radius,
Figure 20-6. Widths from 1/16" to 2" (1.5 mm Figure 2D-6. How blade width affects smallest radius that can
to 50 mm) are available. be cut.
IIJ__________________________________ M_a_c_h_in_in_g_ F
_u_n_d_a_m_e_n_ta
_ls

• Pitch refers to the number of teeth per inch or

the distance between teeth measured in mil-
limeters, Figure 20-7. The thickness of the y~,-~~·.r I;-, -:T-1-,.. :- ,·., _; .' .·. I
material to be cut determines the proper pitch :,. ~ :,( .. ·.' .• ...: ·. . . ' . '

blade to use. At least three teeth should be in =-==..;:--

I ,:,, .-·.._' •
-.·
.·.- ,
' - - ::...._ ~

contact with the work for best performance.

Blades in pitches from 2 to 32 teeth per inch
are manufactured.
r
Figure 20-9. Blade thickness is referred to as gage.
• Set provides clearance for the blade back,
Figure 20-8. Raker set is recommended for
cutting large solids or thick plate and bar stock.
Wavy set should be used for work with vary-
ing thicknesses, such as pipe, tubing, and struc-
tural materials. Straight set is specified for
free cutting materials, such as aluminum and A Standard tooth

magnesium.
• Gage refers to blade thickness, Figure 20-9.
Extra strength can be obtained ·when using
narrow blades by securing a blade of a heav- B Skip tooth

ier gage.
• Tooth form is the shape of the tooth,
Figure 20-10. C Hook tooth

Figure 20-1 O. Tooth forms. A-Standard tooth blades, with their

well-rounded gullets, are best for most ferrous metals, hard
bronzes, and brasses. 8-Skip tooth blades provide more gul-
Material thickness Band pitch
let and better chip clearance without weakening blade body.
Less than 1" (25 mm) 10 or 14 This type blade is best-suited for aluminum, copper, magne-
sium, and soft brasses. C--The hook tooth blade offers two
1 to 3" (25 to 75 mm) 6 or 8
advantages over skip tooth blade: blade design makes it feed
3 to 6" (75 to 150 mm) 4 to 6 easier and its chip breaker design prevents it from gumming up.
6 to 12" (150 to 300 mm) I 2 or 3

Figure 20-7. Recommended band pitches to saw various

thicknesses of material. There are three basic forms. Each has its specific
application.
• Standard tooth blades, with well rounded
gullets, are usually best for most ferrous
metals, hard bronze, and brass.
• Skip tooth blades provide more gullet and
better chip clearance without weakening
the blade body. They are recommended for
most aluminum, magnesium, and brass
alloys.
• Hook tooth blades offer two adYantages
Straight set
over the skip tooth blade. Blade design
makes it feed easier and its chip breaker

ccJ=:r Raker set

t5==1]
design prevents gumming up.
The parts of a blade are shown in Figure 20-11.
Many band machines have built-in blade selection

B
r:cc.._,.......Jei_.L_:-_c_..i,_1-D
Wavy set
devices, Figure 20-12. With them, it is a simple mat-
ter to dial in the various bits of information neces-
sary to determine the best blade for the job.
Figure 20-8. Blade set. A-The term "blade set" refers to side
Following this recommendation will result in the
angle of the teeth. 8-The different types of blade set. job being done faster and with a better finish.
 Chapter 20 Band t'iachining
:P
·'., ( -~-. - - - i = _1

. '
' I •

• ~ • ,' - '_; :~- .: 4. ,_.,.,; · \ , . ; . , · · : ~ , ; , \ ..... ';~;.· f _:

lnoomplaie weld

. r --~~ -=.-- - - -- :
- • - I
I '
1
11 I I
Figure 20-11. Saw blade terminology. ; l .. .
. ·, .· .,. • .-. :,·,~....- -.~' ,,..-r:·· .--;.-~
Misaligned blade

Figure 20-13. Common problems encountered when welding

band saw blades. They are usually the result of poorly squared
blade ends or dirty blade material.

20.3.2 Making the blade weld

For convenience, most band machines have a
welder built-in. This is a resistance-type butt welder,
Figure 20-14. Blades up to 1/2" (12.3 mm) wide can
be welded in a light-duty welder. A heavy-duty
"flash" butt welder is required for heavier blades.
Refer to Figure 20-15. Clean the welder jaws before
and after making a weld.
Figure 20-12. Selector dials used to determine the best blade
and cutting speed for a specific job. (DoALL Co.) The blade ends are butted together and clamped
in the jaws of the welder. The saw teeth should be
placed against the aligning plates. Pressure (deter-
20.3 WELDING BLADES mined by width and thickness of blade being
joined) is applied to the band ends. Check the blade
Band saw blade stock can be purchased as to be sure the ends are touching across their entire
ready-to-use welded bands. However, it is more width and are in the center of the gap between the
economical to buy it in 100', 300', or 500' (30 m, welder jaws.
90 m, or 150 m) strip-out containers. The desired After checking, stand to one side to be clear of
length of blade material is withdrawn from the con- any "flash" that might result. Press the welder
tainer, the ends squared, and the blade welded. switch as far in as it will go; then release it immedi-
Extreme care must be taken to make a good weld ately. The weld will be made automatically. The
(one that is as strong as the blade). resulting weld should look like the one shown in
When handling band saw blade stock or welded Figure 20-16.
blades, always wear leather gloves and approved
eye protection.

20.3. I Preparing blade for welding

Use snips or blade cutoff shears to trim the blade
to length. Cuts in blade stock must be square or the
problems shown in Figure 20-13 will result.
After squaring the blade ends, it will be neces-
sary to remove several teeth (depending upon blade
pitch) by grinding. Since about 1 / 4" (6.5 mm) of the
blade is consumed in the welding process, teeth
must be ground off to assure uniform tooth spacing
after the weld has been made. Remove only the Figure 20-14. Resistance butt welder is used for blades up to
teeth. Do not grind into the back of the blade. 112" (12.5 mm) in width. (DoALL Co.)
 Machining Fundamentals

I
-K
I Radius of
grinding
wheel

Figure 20-18. A blade is seriously weakened if it becomes

"dished" during grinding operation that removes weld flash.

20.4 BAND MACHINE

Figure 20-15. A heavy.duty "flash" welder in operation. It is evi· PREPARATION
dent how the welder got its name. Eye protection is a must!
As with all other machine tools, a band machine
must be made ready with care if the tool is to oper-
ate at maximum efficiency.

20.4. l Band machine lubrication

Use the grades of lubricants specified in the
Figure 20-16. Flash buildup at point of the weld should be uni· manufacturer's manual for the machine. Develop a
form across blade. Do not flex blade at the weld until the welded definite lubrication sequence. It will reduce the
section has been annealed. It is very brittle and will break if
possibility of missing a vital point.
flexed. (DoALL Co.)

20.4.2 Band blade guides

Select and install blade guides suitable for the
Wear approved tinted glass-type eye protection job at hand, Figure 20-19. Use blade guide inserts for
when welding band saw blades. The bright flash light sawing. Roller guides are recommended for
can cause eye injury. continuous high-speed sawing.
The weld, at this point, is brittle and must be Guides must be the proper width, Figure 20-20.
annealed before it can be used. Follo-w the recom- If thev are too wide, the sa,,· teeth will be damaged.
mendations for annealing furnished by the manu- If they are too narrow, the blade will tend to twist in
facturer of the machine being used. Avoid the work, making it difficult to follm,T the desired
overheating the blade, or it will remain brittle. Let it path or cut.
cool slmvhT after heating. Before sawing, inspect and clean the upper and
Remo~e the "flash" formed during welding on lower guide units. Make sure the backup bearings
the grinder built into the welder. A finished weld are not clogged with chips. Typically, there should
should look like Figure 20-17. Use care when grind- be 0.001" to 0.002" (0.025 mm to 0.050 IIL."ll) clear-
ing to prevent dulling the teeth. The blade v\rill also ance between the guide and blade, Figure 20-21. For
be weakened if it becomes "dished" during the best results, folluw the manufacturer's recommen-
grinding, Figure 20-18. dations.

20.4.3 Blade tracking

Adjust the band carrier wheels so the blade will
track correctly. Again, it is important that the manu-
facturer's recommendations be carefully follo,ved.
If the manufacturer's information is not available,
Figure 20-17. A properly made and cleaned weld. If done prop·
observing the follovdng points will usually permit
erly, the weld will be as strong as blade itself. satisfactory operation:
 Chapter 20 Band Machining

Clearance -

Figure 20-20. Blade guides must be wide enough to prevent the

blade from twisting, but narrow enough so they will not damage
the teeth.

A Lower
guides

Note:
guard removed
for clarity
.001-.002"
screw .025-.050 mm

Figure 20-21. How blade guides are adjusted to produce long

blade life.

• The center of the band should ride directly

over the center of the wheel crown on the rub-
ber tire, Figure 20-22. Replace the tire if it
becomes frayed or damaged.
• There should be no noticeable gap between
the back of the band and the back-up bearings
of the saw guides.
• Remember that the blade must be installed
with the teeth downward.
Observe extreme caution when handling saw
blades. They are sharp and can cause serious injury.
Figure 20-19. Blade guides. A-Blade guide inserts are used Be sure that power to the band machine has been
for light sawing. B--Roller guides are recommended for contin- turned off at the master switch before attempting to
uous high-speed cutting. install a blade.
"
Machining Fundamentals

heavy-duty machines, it is applied hydraulically.

[ Crown Rubber
tire The amount of blade tension is determined by the
width and pitch of the blade. Use the band tension
t rWheel
chart furnished with the machine.
Many band machines have built-in tension
meters that make it easy to adjust and maintain
proper blade tension. This is especially important
when a new blade is installed. A new blade has a
tendency to stretch slightly when first used. This
can create a safety problem if tension is not read-
justed before it falls off too far.

20.4.5 Band cutting speed

As with other machining operations, best results
will be obtained if recommended cutting speeds are
Figure 20-22. Blade should ride directly on center line of wheel
maintained. See Figure 20-24 for band speeds of a
crown. few selected materials.

20.4.4 Band blade tension 20.4.6 Band cutting fluids

Blade tension refers to the pressure put on the Cutting fluid can be applied on a band machine
saw band to keep it taut and tracking properly. On by flooding, in the form of a mist, or as a solid-type
smaller machines, tension is usually applied by lubricant.
means of a hand crank, Figure 20-23. On large • Flooding is recommended for heavy-duty
band machining.
• 1'1ist coolant is used for high-speed sawing of
free machining nonferrous metals. It is also
employed when tough, hard-to-machine
materials are cut.
• Solid lubricants are applied when the
machine does not have a built-in coolant
system.
Upon request, coolant manufacturers will fur-
nish a coolant chart with recommendations for band
machining operations.

20.S BAND MACHINING

OPERATIONS
The vertical band machine is designed to do the
following sawing operations.

20.5. I Straight sawing

Straight, two-dimensional sa,ving is band
Tension crank machining in its simplest form, Figure 20-25. The
(removable)
operator just follows a straight layout line. Slitting,
shown in Figure 20-26, is another job that can be
done rapidly on a band machine.
Exercise extreme care when the blade breaks
through the work at the completion of a cut. If pos-
sible, a piece of backup metal should be between
your hand and the point where the band will break
Figure 20-23. Blade tension is determined by the width and
through the work. The sharp moving blade can
pitch of the blade. Use the band tension chart furnished with the
machine.
cause serious injury! See Figure 20-27.
Chapter 20 Band Machining
RP
Material Thickness Band speed
Inches Surface feet per minute
(millimeters) (meters per minute)

Low-to-medium Under1" 345-360 sfm

carbon steels (25 mm) (105-110) mpm

1"'-6" 295-345 sfm

(25 mm-150 mm) (90-105) mpm

Medium-to-high Under 1" 225-250sfm

carbon steels (25 mm) (70-75) mpm

1"'-6" 200-225sfm
(25 mm-150 mm) (60-70) mpm

Free machining Under 1n 26D-395 sfm

steels (25mm) (80-120) mpm

1"-6" 26D-345 sfm

(25 mm-150 mm) (80-105} mpm

Titanium, Under1 " 100-115 sfm

pure and alloys {25 mm) (30-35) mpm

1"-6"' 90-110 sfm

{25 mm-150 mm) (30-35) mpm

Figure 20-24. Recommended cutting speeds for selected metals and alloys.

Figure 20-26. Slitting operation. Note how this bearing is held

in place tor machining. (DoALL Co.)

Note:
blade support and
guard omitted
for clarity

Figure 20-25. An example of two-dimensional band machining.

Two pieces 16"' long, 6" wide, and tapering from 3/4,, at one
end to 1/4"' at the other, are cut quickly and accurately from a
16" x er r
x section of steel. (DoALL Co.) Backup metal piece
between your hands /
and blade _ /
20.5.2 Contour sawing break-through point

Contour sawing is possible on a vertical band Figure 20-27. To protect your hands, be sure that a piece of
machine, Figure 20-28. Machine size is the limiting backup metal is in place a the point where the saw blade breaks
factor on the work dimensions that can be cut. through.
flJ Me.chining ~uncfa•ment:..1s

20.5.3 Angular sawing

The table on the vertical band machine is usu-
ally mounted on trunnions, permitting it to be tilted.
This makes it possible to machine compound angu-
lar cuts, Figure 20-29.

20.5.4 Internal cuts

Precision internal cuts can be made on a vertical
band machine, Figure 20-30. The band is threaded
through a hole drilled in the piece, welded, and the
work maneuvered along the prescribed line.
Additional holes must be drilled if sharp corners are
specified, Figure 20-31. It may be necessary to use
the blade as a file to get the work into cutting posi-
tion.
After completing the internal cut, cut the band
close to the weld so that the entire weld can be cut
Figure 20-30. Precision internal cuts can be made on band
away prior to rewelding. It is recommended that
machine. The blade is threaded through holes drilled in the
there be no more than one weld in the band. workpiece, then welded. Cutting is done by guiding the work
along prescribed lines. (DoALL Co.)

Figure 20-28. Contour sawing. Power teed and nandles on the

work-holding cradle provide the machinist with excellent control
of the work during the cutting operation. (DoALL Co.)

I ( -l:
· ~1

Figure 2D-31. Making internal cuts. A-Typical layout of drilled

Figure 20-29. Compound angular cuts, such as those around holes when sharp corners are specified on an internal cut.
the edge of this workpiece, can be made by tilting the worktable. B- Start internal cuts by using blade as a file, and notch work
(DoALL Co.) until blade can be positioned to start cut.
 Chapter 20 :iland Ml!ochining

20.6 BAND MACHINE blade guide senses changes in feed force on the
POWER FEED work and automatically counteracts them. To main-
tain a constant feeding force on the work, the device
Power feed or mechanical pressure attachments advances, slows, stops, or reverses the worktable
are available for band machines. The simplest movement. To leave the operator's second hand
attachment makes use of weights to pull work into free, a foot switch permits moving the table by
the blade, Figure 20-32. Both hands of the operator remote control.
are free to guide the work. Another type feed mechanism is a self-con-
Several types of hydraulic power feed attach- tained unit attached to the machine. A hydraulic
ments have been devised. On some vertical band cylinder applies and maintains constant pressure on
machines, the worktable is hydraulically actuated the work through a sprocket and chain system.
and feeds the work into the blade at a constant rate. Figure 20-34 shows the parts of this type of system.
Accidental overfeeding is eliminated, greatly
extending band life.
A hand wheel, eonnected to the work by a 20.7 OTHER BAND MACHINING
sprocket and chain, guides work along the layout APPLICATIONS
line, Figure 20-33. A servomechanism on the lower The great versatility of the band machine is fur-
ther utilized by the addition of accessories and/ or
Blade
minor tool modifications.
(guard not shown)
20. 7.1 Band filing
A smooth, uniformly finished surface may be
obtained rapidly and with considerable accuracy on
a band machine fitted for filing, Figure 20-35.

Hydraulic
cylinder
Foot pedal
with lock
Roller (2)
I
Figure 20-32. The simplest type of power feed device makes
use of weights to pull the work into the blade.

Feed control~
Figure 20-33. Band machine is fitted with a servo-contour feed valve
attachment. Only one hand is needed to guide cutting opera-
tion. Table movement is controlled by a foot switch. (DoALL Co.) Figure 20-34. A hydraulically actuated power feed unit.
 20. 7.2 Band polishing
Parts can be polished on a band machine with a
polishing attachment, Figure 20-36. A continuous
band abrasive cloth replaces the saw blade. Best
results can be obtained if the back of the abrasive
band is lubricated with graphite powder. Abrasive
band life ·will also be greatly extended.

20. 7.3 Friction sawing

Friction sawing makes use of extremely high
cutting speeds of between 6000 and 15,000 feet per
minute (fpm) or 1800 to 4500 meters per minute
(mpm) and heayy pressure to cut ferrous metals.
In friction sawing, the band operates at high
speed, generating sufficient heat to soften the metal
just ahead of the blade. The band removes the soft-
ened metal as it moves through the work. Only a
small area on either side of the blade is affected by
the heat.
The blade teeth do not actually cut - they are
used to scoop out the softened metal. As a matter of
fact, dull teeth are superior to sharp teeth, since they
generate heat better. Friction sawing is a spectacular
operation, as can be testified to by the sho,ver of
sparks produced.

Table

Backup /
support~

Screw~
Keeper
block
Adjusting
screws

B
Figure 20-35. Band filing. A-Filing is being done on this band
machine. (DoALL Co.) B-Guides are set up for band filing.
Worktable has been removed for clarity.

Guide
A series of small file segments make up the file support
band. The individual units interlock and form a con-
tinuous file. The segments are fitted to a flexible
Figure 20-36. Polishing can be done on a band machine by
back. File guides replace the regular sa,v guides replacing the saw blade with an abrasive band, and using the
,vhen a band file is used. A variety of file shapes and guide and support shown. Worktable has been removed for
cuts are available. clarity.
 "
Chapter 20 Band Machining

The technique is a rapid way to cut ferrous The knife-edge blade is employed to cut material
metals under 1" (25 mm) in thickness. Thicker stock that would tear or fray when machined by a con-
can be cut if a rocking movement is employed. ventional blade. For example, sponge rubber, cork,
Hardness is not a deterring factor. cloth, corrugated cardboard, and rubber would tear
Wheels on machines used for friction sawing are easily.
usually large in diameter and are carefully balanced The diamond-edge band is specially designed to
for smooth vibration-free operation. Large wheels cut material that is difficult or impossible to cut with
are necessary to reduce fatigue due to the high oper- a conventional toothed blade. The diamonds are
ating speed of the band. only on the front edge of the band where the cutting
Band machines designed for friction sawing is accomplished. On a wire band, diamonds are
cannot be used for conventional band machining fused around the circumference on the band per-
unless they are equipped with variable speed mitting it to cut in any direction, Figure 20~38.
drives. Most band machines are not adaptable for Friable materials (those that are easily crumbled
friction sawing. or reduced to powder) of extreme hardness, or with
Friction sawing requires a full face shield, abrasive qualities, can be cut economically with spe-
leather gloves, and a transparent shield fitted cial bands.
around the cutting area. In addition to the bands mentioned, blades with
unusual characteristics are available to meet almost
20. 7.4 Other band tools any band machining requirement.
Tooth-type bands are most commonly used on
the vertical band machine. However, other types of 20.7.5 Specialized vertical band machines
blades have been developed for special work, The vertical band machine is manufactured in a
Figure 20-37. wide range of sizes, and has been adapted to do
many kinds of band machining. Some large

-·----··----------- '

S1raighl-eage knire

Scallop-edge ii;nire

A Wavy-eo.:ge knife

..,

I
Conlinuotm band
- ~-
I
'
B Segmented band
Figure 20-38. Diamond-impregnated abrasive wire is being
Figure 20-37. Other band tools. A-Types of knife edge blades. used to cut an extrusion die opening. Note guides used to allow
~ Cutting edge of diamond band is impregnated with diamond unidirectional cutting. Guides have been raised to show blade
dust. more clearly. (DoALL Co.)
m
machines have been fitted with closed circuit TV
Machining Fundamentals

interpolation (allowing them to cut circular and

and a remote control console to permit the operator elliptical contours).
to contour-machine large sections of material or to
perform hazardous or dangerous work. For exam- 20.8 TROUBLESHOOTING BAND
ple, this type of machine is employed to machine MACHINES
toxic and/ or radioactiYe materials. There are a number of problems that can ocur
Band machines with computer numerical con- during band maching. Cse the table shown in
trol (CNC) are now available. They have "X" and Figure 20-39 to identify various problems and the
"Y" table mm·ement capability plus circular methods that can be used to correct each of them.

Troubleshooting Band Machines

Problem Correction
1. Teeth dull prematurely. a. Use slower cutting speed.
b. Replace blade with a finer pitch band.
c. Be sure proper type cutting fluid is used.
d. Increase feed pressure.
e. Check to be sure band is installed with teeth pointing down.

2. Band teeth breaking out. a. Reduce feed pressure.

b. Use finer pitch band if thin material is being cut.
c. Be sure work is held solidly as it is fed into band.
d. Use a heavier-duty cutting fluid.

3 Bandb rea ks. a. Ch ange t o a heav1er

. ban d.
b. Reduce cutting speed.
c. Check wheels for damage.
d. If blade breaks at weld, use longer annealing time.
Reduce heat gradually.
e. Use finer pitch balde.
I f. Reduce feed pressure.
g. Decrease band tension.
h. Check blade guides for proper adjustment. i
i. Use cuttir.g fluid '
4. Cutting rate too slow. a. Increase band speed.
b. Use coarser pitch blade.
c. Increase feed presssure.
d. Use cutting fluid.

5. Band makes "belly-shaped" cut. a. Increase blade tension.

b. Adjl.ist guides close to work.
C. Use coarser pitch band.
d. Increase feed pressure.

6. Band does not run true against saw guide I a. Remove burr on back of band where joined.
backup bearing. 'I b. If hunting back and forth against backup bearing on guide,
reweld blade with back of band in true alignment.
C. Check alignment of wheels.
d. Check backup bearing. Replace if worn. ;

7. Premature loss of set. a. Use narrower band.

b. Reduce cutt,r.g speed.
C. Apply cutting fluid.

Figure 2D-39. Troubleshooting band machines.

---------------------------------------II
Chapter 20 Band Machining

20.9 BAND MACHINING SAFETY 5. Blade pitch refers to:

• Do not attempt to operate a band machine a. Width of the blade in inches or
until you have received instructions on its millimeters.
safe operation! b. Thickness of the blade in inches or
• Never attempt to operate the machine while millimeters.
your senses are impaired by medication or c. Number of teeth per inch of blade or tooth
other substances. Be sure all guards are in spacing in millimeters.
place before starting to operate a band d. All of the above.
machine. e. None of the above.
• Do not start a cut until the guides have been
set properly! Guides should be positioned as 6. Tooth form is the:
close to the work as the job will permit. a. Shape of the tooth.
• Other than changing blade speeds (some
b. Thickness of the blade.
machines require band to be running when
speed changes are made), make no adjust- c. Number of teeth on the blade.
ments until the blade has come to a complete d. All of the above.
stop! e. None of the above.
• Wear eye protection and leather gloves when
handling band blades or blade material. 7. When making straight cuts, use the _ _
• Get help when handling heavy material. blade the machine can accommodate.
• Remove burrs and sharp edges from the work
8. The joint of a properly welded blade should be
as soon as possible. They can cause serious
as _ _ _ as the blade itself.
cuts. Have cuts and bruises treated immedi-
ately. Report all injuries! 9. The blade must be _ _ after welding because
• Do not clean chips from the machine with the joint is extremely _ _ and cannot be used
your hands. Use a brush. Stop the machine in this condition.
before attempting to dean it!
• Keep your hands away from the moving 10. A welder is used to weld band machine
blade! Use a push stick or piece of metal for blades.
additional safety. Never have your hands in
11. Blade tension is the pressure put on the saw
line with the cutting edge of the band.
band to:
a. Cut the metal more rapidly.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE b. Keep it taut and tracking properly.
Please do not write in the text. Write your c. Reduce the power needed to do the
answers on a separate sheet of paper. cutting.
1. Band machining makes use of a _ _ blade. d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
2. The cutting tool must be installed with the
teeth facing _ _ . 12. Cutting fluids are applied on the band machine
in the form of:
3. List three advantages band machining has over a. _ _ is recommended for heavy-duty
other machining techniques. sawing.
b. _ _ is used for high-speed sawing of
4. What two points must be considered when free machining nonferrous metals.
selecting a blade for a specific job? c. _ _ are applied when the machine is not
fitted with a built-in coolant system.
m, Machining Fundamentals

13. What is the simplest form of band machining? 17. Describe friction sav;ing.
14. The worktable on many vertical band 18. Of what use is a knife-edge blade on a band
machines can be tilted to make cuts. machine?
15. How can internal cuts be made on a band 19. When are diamond-edge bands used?
machine?
20. What is unique about a diamond impregnated
16. Smooth, uniformly finished surfaces are possi- wire band?
ble when the machine is fitted for _ _

Computer numerical control is used to produce automotive crankshafts accurately and efficiently on this centerfess grinder. (Landis
Div.. of Western Atlas)
 Chapter 21

Com uter umerical

o tr I
series of coded instructions, Figure 21-2. The code
LEARNING OBJECTIVES consists of alphanumeric data (numbers, letters of
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: the alphabet, and other symbols) that are translated
0 Define the term "numerical control."
0 Describe the difference between the incre-
mental and absolute positioning methods.
0 Explain the operation of NC (numerical
control), CNC (computer numerical con-
trol), and DNC (direct or distributed
numerical control) systems.
0 Point out how manual and computer-aided
programming is done.

IMPORTANT TERMS
absolute positioning incremental positioning
Cartesian Coordinate machine control unit
System (MCU)
circular interpolation open loop system Figure 21-1. This machinist is manually operating a vertical
closed loop system point-to-point system milling machine. (U.S. Army)
continuous path system straight-cut system

21.1 COMPUTER-AIDED
MACHINING TECHNOLOGY
Note: Because of the complexity of this area of
machining technology, only a basic description of it can
be included in a textbook of this nature.
In manual machining, where cutting operations
are performed on conventional machine tools, the
machinist first studies the print. After determining
the machining sequence, the cutter is installed and
the work mounted and positioned on the machine.
Machining is done by moving one or more of the
machine's lead and feed screws. After selecting the
cutting speed and feed rate, the cutter is fed into the
material and manually guided through the various
machining operations that will produce the part
specified on the print, Figure 21-1. Figure 21-2. A series of coded instructions, called a program, is
Numerical control (NC) is not a machining used to control machine tool movements and operations in
process, but the operation of the machine tool by a numerical control (NC) machining. (Giddings & Lewis, Inc.)
~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -M
_1_ac_h_in_i_n_g_il=_u_n_da_r.1_._en_t_.:._ls
into pulses of electric current. These pulses of cur-
rent activate motors and other devices to run the
machine through the specified machining cycles.
The motors, called servos, are connected to the
machine's lead and feed scre,•,s. They prmide the
power to position the "·ork and feed the work into
the cutter. The coded instructions may be punched
into paper or plastic tape, encoded on magnetic tape
or a floppy disk, or sent directly from a computer.
These instructions control the electronic impulses
that tell the serYos ,•,hen to start, in what direction
to move, and how far to move. Feed rate, cutter
speed, coolant flo.v, and (on some machines) tool
changes are controlled by the same set of instruc-
tions or program. See Figure 21-3.
Numerical control (NC) has evolved into CNC
(computer numerical control) and DNC (an abbrevi- Figure 21-4. This CNC machine tool includes a computer that,
through the part program, controls all of machining functions.
ation used for both direct numerical control and dis- The computer console at right is used to monitor operation and
tributed numerical control). to enter and modify part programs. (Sharnoa Corp.)
The term "CNC," is usually used to describe a
self-contained ~C system for a single machine tool
utilizing a computer controlled by stored informa- The N C program can be entered by direct elec-
tion (part program) to perform basic NC functions. tronic transfer from a CAD (computer-aided draft-
See Figure 21-4. ing) dra'.·ving or manually written and entered into
the machine tool's on-board computer.
DNC is an abbreviation used to identify two dif-
ferent numerical control methods: direct numerical
control and distributed numerical control. In both
cases, the system consists of a group of CNC
machine tools (and sometimes other devices, such
• as robots and inspection stations) connected to a
I .l-t..,I"'"'' central or mainframe computer that has substantial
memory for storage of many parts programs. See
Figure 21-5. The machine tools can be located in
,ddely dispersed locations. DKC systems do not
require the use of punched tapes or disks.
Direct numerical control systems connect the
central computer directly to the CNC machine tools.
NC data is fed to each machine tool in the system
segment by segment to meet the machine's peak
rate demands (for example, '\.vhen machining an
undulating profile). The machine tool's .i\1CU
(machine control unit) is constantly on-line with the
central or host computer.
Distributed numerical control is typically used
in large manufacturing situations. A number of
intermediate computers are located between the
central computer and the machine tools. Each of
these intermediate computers distributes the neces-
sary machining instructions to a separate group
of CNC machine tools. This control method pro-
Figure 21-3. The program also controls the starting and stop- vides greater flexibility than direct numerical con-
ping of coolant flow and may be used to perform automatic tool trol and permits more rapid response to changing
changes. (Giddings & Lewis, Inc.) conditions.
=::~apter 2 I Com:3uter Nume.i"'!cal Cont:-ol • I

Direct Numerical Control

(DNC)

Host
computer

CNC CNC CNC CNC CNC

machine machine machine machine machine

A
Distributed Numerical Control
(DNC)

Host
computer

I
Intermediate Intermediate
computer computer

CNC CNC CNC CNC CNC CNC

machine machine machine machine machine machine
B
Figure 21-5. The term ~DNC" has two different meanings. A-Diagram of a Direct Numerical Control (DNC) system. 8--Diagram of
s Distributed Numerical Control (DNC) system.

21.2 POSITIONING WITH used, the movement may involve the tool, work-
NUMERICAL CONTROL piece, or both.
More sophisticated NC machines are fitted with
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology a closed loop system to control the positioning
(MIT) is given credit for coining the term numerical of the tool or work. This system uses an elec-
control in the early 1950s. Numerical control permits tronic feedback device (transducer) to continually
the precise positioning of a tool' s cutting point in monitor tool position. It "tells" the servo or servos
space through the use of numbers to express dis- to stop when the instructed distance (desired tool
tance and direction of movement. Movement may position) has been reached. The feedback unit also
be up/ down, side-to-side, or back-to-front (and vice serves as a check on the accuracy of the desired tool
versa). Depending upon the type of machine being movement.
p M;:.chi11ing r- :.i,1cfa.rne:-itals

Other NC machine tools are fitted with an open

loop system to control positioning. It has no feed-
back for monitoring or comparing purposes. The
system relies on the integrity of the control unit
itself for positioning accuracy.

21.2. I Cartesian Coordinate System

ZL~
Vertical x
spindle
Since the NC program must instruct the servos
on the direction and distance the ,,-ork and/ or tool
must move, there must be some way to define this
movement.
The Cartesian Coordinate System, shown in
Figure 21-6, is the basis of NC programming.
Programs, written in either inch or metric units,
specify the destination of a particular moYement.
With the destination established, the axis of move-
ment (X, Y, or Z) and the direction of movement (+ A
or -) can be identified. To determine whether the
movement is positiYe (+) or negati,·e (-), the pro-
gram is written as though the tool, rather than the
·work, is doing the moving.
Spindle motion is assigned the Z axis. This
means that for a drill press or vertical milling
machine, the Z axis is vertical. For machines such as
a lathe or horizontal milling machine, however, the
Z axis is horizontal. See Figure 21-7. The system of
coordinates used for machine axis designation is
specified according to the right-hand rule of
Cartesian coordinates, Figure 21-8.
Most NC machine tools manufactured today are
of the CNC (computer numerical control) type and
are equipped ·with an on-board computer control

Figure 21~7. Axes of machine tool movements. A-Vertical

milling machine. B-Lathe. C-Horizontal milling machine.
Spindle motion is assigned Z axis. Note how Z axis differs
Figure 21-6. The Cartesian Coordinate System is the basis of between machines with vertical spindle and machines with hor-
all NC programming. izontal spindle.
 Computer Numei"ical Control ""'
- - - - - - - - - - - - - --
tool position, Figure 21-10. Absolute positioning
measures aJl tool movement from a fixed point cf
origin, or zero point. See Figure 21-11.
Whenever possible, the absolute positioning
method should be employed, because a mistake in
dimensioning an individual point does not affect
remaining dimensions. It is also easier to check for
errors.
A machine control unit (MCU) is a microcom-
puter or electronic circuit for controlling the
Figure 21-8. Machine tool axes are specified according to right- machine. Most will accept program information in
hand system of Cartesian coordinates. Whan right hand is held either the incremental or absolute mode. It is also
as shown, the thumb, forefinger, and next finger point in positive
(+) directions of X, Y, and Z axes. (IBM)

Reference point
system, Figure 21-9. Machining instructions can be for tool movement
programmed directly into computer memory and to hole 8 only Reference point
do not require input via punched or magnetic tapes. for tool movement
to hole Conly
However, since many tape-controlled machine tools
are still in use, tape information will be included in
this chapter.
I
\ r I
~---1:........-1-'"V\_.,
r fr - -

r
21.2.2 NC Tool Positioning Methods _:1~
NC tool positioning may be incremental or
absolute. With incremental positioning, each tool
movement is made with reference to the prior (last) ---1..2_.,.__ ,_ 8
--x
2-~-2-.o-4---2

Zero point-tool movement

only to hole A from this origin

Figure 21-10. Incremental positioning system. Each set of coor-

dinates has its point of origin from last point established.

2
ttr
/L__2~--.i -x

Zero point-all tool movements

Figure 21-9. CNC machine tools are equipped with onooarr1 measured from this origin
computers that permit computer-aided or manual programming.
A CRT screen displays all important machining information, Figure 21-11. Absolute positioning system. In this system, all
such as the tool path shown in yellow. (Giddings & Lewis, Inc.) coordinates are measured from fixed point (zero point) of origin.
11 Mach!ning fundamentals

possible to s,,vitch back and torth from one mode to Point-to-point systems generally do not require
the other in the same program. Either inch or metric computers for program preparation. Anyone ,vith a
dimensions may be used. The choice can be made basic knowledge of machining practices and the
by a s-witch or by a specific code in the part ability to read engineering drawings can prepare a
program. simple program.

21.3 NC MOVEMENT SYSTEMS 21.3.2 Straight-cut System

There are three basic NC movement svstems: A straight-cut system permits controlled tool
point-to-point, straight-cut, and contour or continu- travel along one axis at a time. length of cut and
ous path, Figure 21-12.

21.3. I Point-to-Point System

The point-to-point system is typically used for
drilling, punching, spot welding, or any operation
performed at a fixed location in terms of a two-axis
coordinate position. While mming from one ,,·ork
position to the next, the cutting tool is not in contact
,vith the work, so a rapid traverse feed can be used.
Tool mo,·ement from one point to the next does not
have to follow a specific path, Figure 21-13. B
Some point-to-point ~C machines have the
capability of straight-line milling along either the
X-axis or Y-axis, or at a 43~ angle between two Figure 21-13. In point-to-point NC systems, there is no concern
points, with no change in depth along the line that what path is taken when tooi moves from Point A to Point B,
the tool travels. except when performing straight-tine milling.

Figure 21~12. The basic NC systems. A-Point-to-point. B-Straight cut. C-Contour or continuous path (in either two or three
dimensions).
Chapter 21 Computer Numerical Control ...
feed rate are determined by the program. Straight- Geometrical complexity makes a computer
cut systems are used on simple milling machines mandatory when preparing programs to machine
and lathes, Figure 21-14. two- and three-dimensional shapes, Figure 21-19.
This is especially necessary for making circular,
21.3.3 Contour (Continuous Path) System elliptical, or similar complex cuts, Figure 21-20,
A contour or continuous path system precisely since the cutting tool must be fed a constantly
controls machine and tool movement at all times, in changing series of instructions.
all planes, as the cutter moves along the pro- In a way, continuous path machining might be
grammed path, Figure 21-15. Cutting is continuous described as a very sophisticated point-to-point sys-
and can be on six axes simultaneously, Figure 21-16. tem, because tool movement is only a series of
Cutter location is monitored continuously straight lines. However, the straight line movements
through a feedback mechanism to the machine con- are so small (0.0001" or 0.003 mm), and blend so
trol unit (MCU). This is necessary to maintain the well, they appear to be a continuous smooth curved
correct direction of cutter movement and proper cut, Figure 21-21.
cutting speed and feed. Cutter size and other vari-
ables must be considered when programming,
Figures 21-17 and 21-18.

End
mill

Figure 21-14. Straight-cut NC systems are used on simple

milling machines and lathes.

-X +X

-Y

Figure 21-15. Witn contour or continuous path system, cutter

path is controlled at all times. By adding a Z axis, three-dimen- Figure 21-16. Multiaxis machining. To~5-axis NC milling
sional machining is possible. machine. Bottom-6-axis machining center.
• t.

To reduce the number of calculations required to

program a curYed surface, most NC machines have
a MCU encoded for circular interpolation,
Figure 21-22. Information needed for the program
includes:
• The coordinate locations of the end points of
the arc component.
• The radius of the circle.
• The coordinate location of the circle.
• The direction the cutter is to proceed.

Programmed path Programmed path Figure 21-19. Complex pa/1 geometry makes a computer vital
for specified cutter for reduced size to preparing a program to machine two- and three-dimensional
' diameter cutter. Corrections shapes. (CG Tech)
1 / made only on Y axis.
t
===:::z.. I
/ --·-
- - - - -,._............ . . \ ,/ t ~-------=--,

-~ '\\ {II I
j ~-J
, ___,. - i
/
, ___.--"

y
Figure 21-17. In a contour program, adjustments must be made
if a cutter is smaller or larger than one specified; otherwise, con- Figure 21-20. The program required to machine this impeller is
tour will deviate from required pa/1 outline. far too complex to be calculated manually. (CG- Tech)

--~
Path of tool point Path of milling cutters
1
is programmed on a lathe , and drills are programmed
=-,. from center point

~7
I

Roughing
cuts
Machining al!owance for fina!
contouring operation must not For optimum machining.
exceed maximum depth of cut a constant cutting speed
of tool. Excess material must be •
should be maintained
removed with roughing cuts.

Figure 21-18. Variables that must be considered when designing an NC program.

 Chapter 21 Computer Numerical Control •I.

Programmed tool path segments

T(tolerance) can be as small as 0.0001" (0.003 mm)
Cutter

4-Chords 8-Chords 12-Chords 24-Chords

A

Cutter diameter
(not drawn to scale)

\__ Programmed
surface

t
0.0001"
L_---JI--?'
Programmed
surface

Smallest increment Smallest increment

0,0001H 0.001 mm
0.00254mm 0.0000394"

B Inch mode Metric mode

Figure 21-21. A-Contours obtained from contour or continuous path machining are resuff of a series of straight-line movements. The
degree to which a contour corresponds with specified curva depends upon how many movements or chords are used. Note how, as
number of chords increase, the closer the contour is to a perfect circle. The actual number of lines or points needed is determined by
the tolerance allowed between design of the curved surface and one actually machined. 8-This exaggerated illustration shows why
metric machine movement increments are often preferred when contour machining. The benefit has to do with the least input incre-
ment allowed in the metric mode. In the inch mode, the least input increment is 0.0001", which means you can input program coor-
dinat8S and tool offsets down to o.0001u. In the metric mode, the least input increment is 0.001 mm, which is less than one-half the
least input increment when using the inch mode. The coordinates going into the program will then will be much closer to what is
desired for accurately machined parts.

The circular interpolator in the MCU will in small numbers, without the need for expensive
automatically compute the necessary number of jigs, fixtures, or templates. On most NC machine
intermediate points to describe the circular cut. tools, the reversal of plus and minus values along an
It also generates the electronic signals that will axis will allow the machining of a mirror image
run the servos and guide the cutting tool in making part. That is, a left-handed part can be machined
the cut. using a right-handed part program, or vice versa.
Using the continuous path system, Figure 21-23, See Figure 21-24. This technique is known as axis
very complex parts can be produced economically inversion.
 Start point

End point

Figure 21-22. On NC units encoded with circular interpolation,

only the coordinate location of the start and end points of the
arc, radius of the circle, coordinate location of the circle's cen- Right-hand unit
ter, and the direction of cut need to be programmed. The inter-
mediate points required to describe circular cut are then
computed by the MCU's circular interpolator. On some
machines, the circle is divided into four 90° segments and must
be programmed accordingly.

Left-hand unit

-<:-Y axis
2nd quadrant 1st quadrant

Figure 21-23. Complex parts, like this impeller, are produced

quickly and economically by a continuous path NC system.
(Courtesy of SURFCAM by Surfware) (-X, -t-Y) (+X, +Y)
-X axis - - - - - - - • - - - - - - - +X axis
(-X, -Y) (+X, -Y)
2 1.4 PROGRAMMING NC
MACHINES
A machining program is a sequence of instruc-
tions that tells the machine what operations to per- Y mirror image
(right-hand reverse)
form, and where on the material they are to be done.
A program is also referred to as software. 3rd quadrant 4th quadrant
Each line of a program is called a block. It con- B -Yaxis
sists of a sequence number, preparatory codes for
setting up the machine, coordinates for the destina- Figure 21-24. Mirror image machining. A-On many NC
tion of the tool, and additional commands (feed machine tools, mirror image parts can be machined using the
rate, coolant on, coolant off, etc.). Some typical same program. B- Mirror image to produce a reverse duplicate
codes are sho·wn in Figure 21-25. part. The technique is known as axis inversion.
c:iaptel" 21 Computer Nume:-ical Control •fl••

!
Preparatory Functions (G-codes)"' NC equipment can be programmed manually
i (drilling, straight-line cutting, spot welding, etc.) or
Code Function with the aid of a computer (complex two- and three-
! GOO Rapid traverse (slides move only at rapid traverse dimensional shapes).
speed).

G01 Linear interpolation (slides move at right angles 21.4. I Manual Programming
and/or at programmed angles). As noted earlier, manual programming may be
G0.2 Circular interpolation CW (tooi follows a quarter done if the pa.rt is not too complex. It can be accom-
part of circumference in a clockwise direction.) plished by anyone who can interpret engineering
drawings and has a working knowledge of machine
G03 Circular interpolation CCW (tool follows a quarter
part of circumference in a counterclockwise
tool operations, Figure 21-26.
direction). A program is developed by converting each
machining sequence and machine function into a
G04 Dwell (timed delay of established duration. coded block of information that the MCU can
Length is expressed in X or F word).
understand, Figure 21-27. The code consists of
G33 Thread cutting. alphanumeric data (letters, numbers, punctuation
marks, and special characters). Each code identifies
G70 Inch programming.
a different machine function.
G71 Metric programming. Each block of information is a line on the pro-
gram sheet or program script and is identified by a
G81 Drill.
sequence number, Figure 21-28. Included in this
G90 Absolute coordinates. information are the coordinate dimensions (X, Y,
and Z movement) or the location where the opera-
G91 Incremental coordinates. tion (drilling, punching, spot welding, etc.) is to take
*G-codes may very on different N/C machines. place, along with miscellaneous functions (spindle
on, spindle off, tool change, etc.).
Miscellaneous Functions (M-codes)"' Blocks of information must be separated with
end of block (EOB) codes. An end of program code
Code Function
completes the program. If punched tape is used, a
MOO Stop machine until operator restart. final EOB rewinds the tape. It will then be ready to
M02 End of program. repeat the machining cycle.
M03 Start spindle-CW. The coded information may be recorded on
magnetic tape, or punched into a paper or Mylar-
M04 Start spindle--CCW.
tape on a tape punch/reader unit. See Figure 21-29.
MOS Stop spindle. Today, however, it is more common for program
MOS Toof change. information to be entered directly into the
M07 Coolant on. machine's onboard computer as electronic data. The
M09 Coolant off.
input information is proofed for omissions and/ or
errors and corrected, if necessary, before being
M30 End program and rewind tape.
released to the production area.
M52 Advance spindle.
M53 Retract spindle. 21.4.2 Computer-aided Programming
M56 Tool inhibit. Computer-aided programming reduces and sim-
*M-codes may vary on different N/C machines. plifies the numerical calculations that the program-
Figure 21-25. Examples of NC programming codes for prepara-
mer must perform when programming the
tory functions and mlscelfaneous functions. machining of more complex parts, Figure 21-30.
 Machining Fundamentals

0.437(TYP.) -----.

4.000
I
13000
I 2.000r----t----1--
I
I 1.000

1.000
100()1 I 500
I I.
~ ~ 5~-----
START
POINT 1_
·
~ 1000 --+------------- 6000
· -----------
IJ!U,ESS Oi"ERWISE S PECIFltD CIIAWlril IY RJW WAL.KER INDUSTRIES
DIMEMStOtilS '"tlE ll'll INCIIES
h~f.i•rn,,-----b...,..--------------1
••Gers
TOL[AAIIC[S 0 11
~:~f;~~;s !• ~
•
J:,~ en D
7-12-XX TITLE PLATE
I ,
t-:~=•T=c=Ri.!,.1.,.,----~-""'--I JFF sc&..c FULL I DflAWllrilG NO .
.,,...5., ALUM n..,,1n ~••· T. . . , ... ~T
.!500 THK. skm I OF 1234A
Figure 21-26. Point-to-point programming can be done manually by anyone who can interpret engineering drawings and has a work-
ing knowledge of machine tool operations.

Stop Stop
Drill
. ..-~
1234A
l ~Joll~

l 2-AXIS ORILI..ING
MSIIAIIKS

SET POINT (0,0)

Drill fli ~T NA,.E w:rri FIXED FEED
Seq4
TADEtflO
PLATE l RATE
M56 IS TOOL INHiBlT

:234A
!"';;~~ DIA. DRILL
Seq 3
··~ 7-12-XX
I,..,,. I c• .:
' I
PROCHSCO
JFF 1-·· w
Stop Seq5
Drill N G X ! '( z F 1EOB M INSTRUCTIONS
000 90 f EOB 7/16 DIA. DRILL
Seq2 Stop 00 i EOB SET !E>TH STOP

Drill 0 0 0 l EOB 03
I 2000 2000 EOB 07
2 2500 3000 EOB
3 2500 4000 EOB
4 6000 4000 EOB
5 6000 1 2000 EOB
Seq 6
Start point 6 0 I 0 EOB P956

Drilling sequence
7 l EOB 05
8 j EOB 30 CHANGE PART
Figure 21-27. Machining operations must be converted into
individual coded blocks of information that the MCU can under-
stand. This is the planned drifling sequence for the part shown Figure 21-28. Information given on print shown in Figure 21-26
in Figure 21-26. was developed into this program.
 ~h&pter 21 ,Computer ii umarical Control

Channel Number Channel Number Machine tools manufactured today have control
87654 321 87654 321
units of the CNC type. That is, the machines have a
RS-244 RS-358
self-contained NC system with an onboard com-
0
• 0 •••

•• puter dedicated exclusively to that particular

I
2 2r •
• •
••• • • •
3
4 • •••• 3 •••••
4 ••••• machine, Figure 21-31. They can also be connected
5
6
••••
• ••••
••• 5
6
•••••
••••• to, and controlled by, a more powerful central host
7 7 •••••••
computer. A host computer is a mainframe com-
I .: : • B • ••••
9
A e
•••• •
e puter that can simultaneously monitor and control a
A •• •
B •• • • B • • •
C ••• • •• C •• •• number of CNC machines.
D •• ·• D • ·•
E
F
•••
••• ·••
·• • E ••
F ••
·• •
•••
Programming, in one of the computer languages
.G
H
••• ·•••
• • ••
G e ·••• that describe the geometry of the part to be made,
• H • ••
can be entered into the system in a number of ways.
••
JI ••••·
• •• I •
J ••• •
• ·• • •
K e e I< • • •••
L e •• The display screen (cathode ray tube or CRT) can
M •
N e ••••••
L ••
M
N e
•
•••
••• •
•·•• show the operational data as the part is being
0 • • ••
p
Q
•
•
•••••••• p0 • •
• • •••••
Q •• • • •
R • •• •
s •••• sR • •
• • • •
••••
T
u •• • •• • • • T •• • ••
u • • ·• •
V
w •• ••
• •• • V •••••••
• • ·••
w
X
y
z
.. •• ·•••
••••
•••
•· ee
••••
•••
••
ee ,
•• e +/
(PERIOD)
ICDMMAJ
IILOCK CELETEJ
Cl'LUS)
X •• •• •
y
z
• •••
•••••
•• •
•••••••••
•• • •••
• •••
•
SPACE
DELETE
LINE FEED
CARRIAGE RETURN
•• -CMINUS)
SPACE
• ••
• •••••••
• '!I, (REWIND STIIP)
a
•••••
•••••••••
11;1.ETE
• t IPl..lJSl

•••••••
EllB OR CARRIAGE RETIJRN - (MINUS)

••••
TAB
••••• / IBL.OCK OELETEI

• ••••
•
END OF REXXlRD TAB
••••••
••••••
ll'PER CASE
LOWER CASE
••• e ) SACK FACE
( (CONTROL CUTI
BLANK TAPE
••••
.....__-~~_J
(CaITROL IN)
BLANK TAPE

Figure 21-30. Computer-aided programming is common today,

especially when machining complex parts. The computer sim-
plifies the calculations a programmer must perform in such
cases. (Giddings & Lewis, Inc.)

Figure 21-29. Punched tape. A-Tape code. Note that every

level of RS-244 tape has an odd number of punches for parity
check. RS-358 tape has an even number. Parity check is a
method of automatically checking to reduce possibility of tape
errors caused by malfunctioning tape punch. Both tapes are in
current use. B-Tape punch/reader unit is used to transfer Figure 21-31. Most machine tools manufactured today have
program information to tape. It can also be used to read tape control units of the CNC type. Shown is a lathe capable of high-
prepared elsewhere. (Facit) volume production. (Mazak Corp.)
~
r,....'-l. __ Machining
___________ _ Fundamentals
__
machined, Figure 21-32. Graphic capability may Computer memory capacity on CNC machines
include a picture of the part and tools, and a simu- is often given an equivalent tape capacity in feet
lation of the cutter path, often in vhid colors. See and/ or meters. After use, the program can be
Figure 21-33. moved to another larger computer, or stored on
magnetic tape or disk.

21.5 COMPUTER LANGUAGES

There are many different computer-aided pro-
gramming languages, such as APT (Automatic
Programmed Tools), ADAPT (Adaptation of APD, APT
III (provides for five axes of machine tool motion),
COMPACT II, and AUTO "\1AP (Automatic
Machining Programming).
Some are ,·ery powerful and allmv program-
ming for such tasks as milling complex cuffed
three-dimensional surfaces that require fh·e and
sometimes six axes of motion by machine tools,
Figure 21-34. Other programming languages are
designed to be used by a specific machine or for a
particular machining application.
Figure 21-32. The computer's display screen (a cathode ray Programming languages consist of a vocabulary
tube, or CRT) can show full operational data as part is being of words, numbers, and other symbols. When com-
machined. (Cincinnati-Milacron) bined according to certain rules, called syntax, the
languages are capable of producing sets of instruc-
tions for machining parts.
APT is the most powerful of the computer-aided
programming languages in common usage. It is a
system that defines, in a series of statements, part
geometry, cutter operations, and machine tool
capabilities.

Figure 21-34. A controllable pitch propeller blade for a ship is

being machined on a 5-axis milling machine. Reflections from
Figure 21-33. Computer graphics display. A-Top view of job overhead fights show hov'1 the geometry of machined surface
with dimensions. B-An isometric view of tool paths relative to changes from hub to tip. The blade is about B' or 2.5 m long.
part design. (Computervision) (Bird-Johnson Company)
Chapter 21 Computer Numerical Control

An APT word used in a programming statement 21.6 ADAPTIVE CONTROL

must be spelled exactly as it is spelled in the APT Normally, programmed cutting speeds and
system dictionary. The dictionary specifies the only feeds are on the conservative side. The programmer
spelling the computer recognizes. For example: must include a safety factor to account for variables
• C00LNT = Coolant. C00LNT/ 0N means such as thickness of cut, tool wear, and other ele-
turn the coolant on. It will continue on until ments that can occur during a machining operation.
getting a C00LNI'/0FF or ST0P command. CNC machines are often fitted with adaptive
• FEDRAT = Feed rate., FEDRAT/6, IPM means control (AC). A machine control for which fixed cut-
feed rate in all directions will be 6" per ting speeds and feeds are not programmed, AC
minute. automatically optimizes speeds and feeds by judg-
• SPINDL = Spindle. SPINDL/100O RPM, CLW ing machining conditions through sensors. See
means the spindle is to rotate 1000 revolu- Figure 21-36. These sensors monitor such factors as
tions per minute in a clockwise direction. cutting torque, heat, tool deflection, vibration, cutter
Spindle stays on until SPINDL/0FF or ST0P wear, adherence to programmed work dimensions,
command. and quality of surface finish, Figure 21-37.
• G0RGT = Tool movement is to the right. See
Many types of AC are available. They range
Figure 21-35.
from simple automatic tool wear compensation
• G0LFf = Tool movement is to the left.
devices to sophisticated systems which monitor and
• FINI = Part program is completed.
control a multitude of machining variables.
APT programming, as with most computer
assisted programming languages, is done in three Adaptive control benefits include increased prod~c-
tivity, reduced machining costs, extended cutter life,
parts:
• Geometry: part features are defined in geomet- reduced scrap, improved work quality, and greater
ric figures.
machine utilization.
• Machining statements: used to direct the cutter
around the geometry of the part in a prede- 21.7 NC AND THE FUTURE
termined sequence. Computer technology has reached the stage
• Auxiliary function statements: include tool where an engineer can use computer graphics to
changes, cutting speeds, feed rate, coolant on, design and control the manufacture of a part. See
coolant off, etc. Figure 21-38. The computer is used to place the
design elements (lines, curves, circles, etc.) and
Up
dimensions on a display screen, Figure 21-39.

f Speed and feed

control

Back
,tleft Adaptive
Machine
control
unit

control
sensors
Adaptive
control

Right"" Cutter
Forward
unit

J
Down
Position of
operator

Figure 21-35. Tool motion commands used when programming

~-------· Adaptive control sensors

Figure 21-36. Diagram of one type of adaptive control (AC).

Adaptive control automatically optimizes cutting speeds and
feeds by judging machining conditions through sensors that
in APT. monitor various operating factors of the machine.
 H.i chlning Fundamenta[s

Amplifier

Measuring F:lter
detector
C
Rectifier

Smoothing
filter

Quotient
former
Figure 21-39. Display screen can show necessary
machining information and picture of part being machined.
Measuring
Amplifier (Bridgeport Machines, Inc.)
instrument

Figure 21-37. Measurement of surface finish is being done by

detecting the Intensity of a laser beam reflected from the work.

Figure 21-38. The use of computer graphics to design a product and the die to mold it. A-First step in designing a product, a tool
housing. B-Curvature analysis of the surface of the design. The model is shaded in a range of colors, from blue for flat surfaces to
dark orange for those with maximum curvature. C-Corrected design of the tool housing. Its geometry will provide the information to
develop the program to machine the dies to mold it. D-Developing the program to machine the dies needed to mold the tool hous-
ing. (DELCAM lnternationa! Inc., Ontario, Canada)
 Chapter 21 Computer N:umerical Control

Design changes can be made easily, using the com-

puter keyboard or other input devices. When the
design has been edited and proofed, the computer
can be instructed to analyze the geometry of the
part and calculate the tool paths that will be
required when machining the part.
The tool path is translated into a detailed
sequence of machine axis movement commands
that will enable the appropriate CNC machine to
produce the part, Figure 21-40. No engineering
drawing or program script is required. However,
the data can be used to produce hard copy (detail
and assembly drawings) for the part and determine
how it fits into the overall product assembly. The
computer-generated data can be stored in a central Figure 21-41. NC and CNC programs are usually checked out
by using them to produce a part in an inexpensive material,
master computer for direct transfer to a CNC such as plastic or wax. (Maho Machine Tool Corp.)
machine tool for parts manufacture. See the discus-
sion of direct numerical control earlier in this chapter.
The data can also be stored on punched tape (being
phased out), magnetic tape (similar to an audio tape
cassette), or a disk. stereolithography and Laminated Object Manufacturing
Before being released for production, the pro- are also used to proof a part design. These tech-
gram is often verified by machining a sample part niques are described in Chapter 22.
from plastic, wax, or a similar inexpensive material, The system that makes all of this possible is
Figure 21-41. Newer prototype techniques like called CAD/CAM (computer-aided design/ com-
puter-aided manufacturing). See Figure 21-42.
New machine tools are being introduced
where the cutter moves over the ·work on all axes
rather than the work moving under the cutter,
Figure 21-43.
CNC machine tools can be upgraded to take
advantage of pinpoint accuracy and high speed of
the laser-based digitizing technology that has been
developed. See Figure 21-44. The laser digitizing
system optically scans and converts surface details
into digital information at speeds up to 70 points
per second, 110'' per minute. Noncontact, nonde-
forming technology preserves shape integrity, even
if the model is soft clay or rubber. Detail is not lim-
ited by shape and size of a physical contact probe,
so detail is more accurate and complete. True sur-
face data is saved as a separate file, and can be mod-
ified and used to generate NC code repeatedly
without having to generate the original surface
code.

21.8 ADVANTAGES AND

DISADVANTAGES OF NC
NC can offer many advantages over traditional
Figure 21-40. Tool path data developed on a computer can be
machining techniques. A few of the more important
translated info a detailed sequence of machine axis movement advantages include:
commands that will enable an appropriate CNC machine to pro- • Increased production.
duce the part. (Courtesy of SURFCAM by Surfware) • Reduced tooling costs.
 H, c.h,nin Funrt:1mc11t I~

~MHi$$08WftdffiMt%1@

- - - - - - :;Jfil1
.rl~JB

Po.11~~-r!~
(' H<ii!, " tkl/~
,.. Ftd:.;, £( C'I
r ~-, n ci(.I
(' ..
~~
I"~
(' f'I~~ Q ',lC'tfc ('" n-.••~i'!
r ~ ?~,u , (' p.,_,._,P..:R:.it-.
f' P-•i/.i!c· l\~t,-d
!.,i;,i,;,,.,,
r.· i;,~ ~~8
r- ~• .•li'!J r-----7
l _,
r hit .1,•-,.;I~ ~
,- ~i;,I
(" i.:t, •dlt,..
I
9,m,•., (: W'-1-9
......
~-~- fi•~CO _,• I \ .
ll
--~~-J _H•-11

B
Figure 21-42. CAD/CAM. A-With some software, the geometry of the part to be machined can be created at the machine too( or
imported from files. B-The software defines the features of the part. C-The software automatically produces ready-to-use
Operations Sheets and Tool Lists for the machinist. D-The software generates NC code that is ready to run and machine the part.
(EZFeatureMILL-Engineering Geometry Systems)
Chapter 21 Computer Numerical Control pp
rtaff· l lmJ Pllf-JE,

Figure 21-42. CAD/CAM (continued).

 Machining Fundamentals

• Improved quality control.

• Economical production of difficult-to-manu-
facture parts.
• Versatility, since NC machines can be pro-
grammed to produce a single piece or a large
scale production run.
• Repeatability.
• Elimination of many expensive jigs and
fixtures.
• All, or nearly all, the machining operations
can be performed on a single machine set-up.
• Direct savings in labor.
• Easy inch/ metric conversion.
• Increased machining capabilities.
NC does have some disadvantages. Most can be
overcome by careful planning.
• High initial cost of equipment.
• Shortage of skilled technicians to service
equipment.
• Increased maintenance costs over traditional
machine tools.
• Machine capabilities must be fully utilized.

Figure 21-43. The CNC milling machine of the future has six 21.8. I NC for Training Programs
degrees of freedom, provided by three pairs of variable-length Many NC and CNC machine tools have been
legs. The legs move the multiaxis cutting head through
developed for both production and training pro-
three-dimensional space for rapid and precise positioning.
(Giddings & Lewis, Inc.) grams, Figure 21-45. The complexity of the work
they are capable of performing is limited by
machine size and onboard computer capacity.
When using these machines, students and
trainees are able to develop programs, prepare the
tooling, program the machine, and see the resulting
finished part within a reasonable time. Figure 21-46
shows a trainee using this type CNC machine tool.

.2 i .8.2 Other NC Appiications

NC and CNC systems have been adapted to a
broad range of metalworking-related equipment,
Figure 21-47. Spot welding, riveting, and punching
were among the first KC systems because they are
basically point-to-point operations. Today, virtually
every type of machining operation has been
adapted to NC.
Multiple-operation equipment, like that
employed to machine automobile engine blocks, is
typically computer controlled. The machine shmvn
Figure 21-44. A laser digitizing system optically scans and dig-
in Figure 21-48 has rough castings loaded into one
itizes any complex 3D part or model. The data obtained can be
manipulated for male/female conversions, reductions, and end. The castings are then transferred from station
enlargements, and then be used to duplicate the part itself, or to to station, through several machining operations.
machine a die, punch, mold, or electrode. It is a noncontact The system unloads the finished blocks automati-
operation. (Optica) cally at the end of the machining cycle.
Chapter 21 Computer r'umerlcal Control

Figure 21-46. Industry and many schools use relatively inex-

pensive CNC machine tools for educational purposes. They
simulate actual industrial practices on how programs are devel-
oped. Students and trainees can see resulting finished part
within a reasonable time. (Millersville University, Dept. of
Industry and Technology)

Coordinates for machirung auto body dies

(shaped steel blocks that form sheet metal body sec-
tions) can be scanned or "lifted" from carefully
made clay and wooden models, Figure 21-49.
(Some die shapes are of such complexity that they
cannot be fully described by CAD.) The coordinates
mathematically define die geometry and are stored
in computer memory. The information is then used
to control machine tools when the three-dimen-
sional body dies are machined, Figure 21-50.

Figure 21-45. Machines for training. A- Tabletop vertical

machining center. Its size and cost make it ideal for CNC train-
ing programs as well as for industrial use. The complexity of the
work it is capable of performing is limited only by machine size
and onboard computer capacity. (Defiance Machine and Tool
Co., Inc.) 8- A small horizontal CNC turning center controlled
by a separate computer unit. Excellent for training purposes and
small size production work. (Light Machines Corporation)
 B

Figure 21-47. CNC applications. A-Precise positioning control is a must for this laser cutting tool as it makes hexagonal openings
in tubing. (Roffn-Sinar) 8-The versatility of a CNC knee-type vertical milling center makes it a piece of equipment found in many
machine shops. (Hurco Manufacturing Company) C- A CNC machine used to cut, punch, and bend metal sheet and plate. (U.S.
Amada)
Figure 21-48. A large machining complex employed to machine automobile engine blocks. At any one time, 104 blocks are having
some machining or inspection operation performed on them. The machine is almost two city blocks long and performs 555 opera-
tions, including: 265 drilling, 6 milling, 56 reaming, 101 countersinking, 106 tapping, and 133 inspection operations. It produces 100
pieces an hour. (Cross Co.)

Figure 21-49. Coordinates for machining auto body dies are

scanned from clay and/or wood models. The coordinates math-
ematically define body geometry and can be used to control cut-
ting tools when three-dimensional body dies are machined.
(Advanced Concept Center, General Motors Corp.) Figure 21..SO. Body dies machined using technique shown in
Figure 21-49. (Buick Div., General Motors Corp.)

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 5. List the three basic NC systems.

Please do not write in the text. Write your 6. Using sketches, show how the three NC
answers on a separate sheet of paper. systems differ.
1. Describe the differences between manual 7. Which of the three NC methods require the use
machining techniques and NC methods. of a computer? Why is a computer required?
2. Prepare a sketch showing the Cartesian 8. What do the following terms mean?
Coordinate System. a. MCU.
b. Alphanumeric data.
3. Prepare two similar sketches. Show incremen-
c. Program sheet.
tal dimensioning on the first sketch and
absolute dimensioning on the second sketch. 9. How is an NC program often verified?
4. What is an NC program? 10. Briefly explain adaptive control (AC).
This large machining center, with its five-axis head, was developed to perform cutting and machining operations of large panels used
in aircraft production. It can handle workpieces as large as 14 m x 4 m x 2 m (46' x 13' x 7') and can process materials ranging
from wood, plastics, and composites to steel, aluminum, and most other metals. (AsquithButler)
 Chapter 22

tomated
u actur·n
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
0 Define the term "automation."
0 Describe several automated production
systems.
0 Define the term "industrial robot."
0 Discuss the use of robotics in automated
production systems.

IMPORTANT TERMS
computer integrated Laminated Object
manufacturing (CIM) Manufacturing (LOM)
flexible manufacturing manipulator
system (FMS) robot
Fused Disposition smart tooling
Modeling (FDM) stereolithography
/IT work envelope
Automation is a term coined in 1947 by a Ford
Motor Company engineer. It is not a revolutionary
new form of manufacturing, but a manufacturing
procedure that has evolved over many years. Figure 22-1. A robotic system used to assemble the compo-
Automation is concerned with the continuous auto- nents of automobile engines. (Hirata Corporation of America)
matic production of a product, Figure 22-1.
It involves a machine or group of machines,
Figure 22-2, activated electronically, hydraulically,
mechanically, or pneumatically (or a combination of
these means) to automatically perform one or more
of the five basic manufacturing processes:
• Making
• Inspecting
• Assembling
• Testing
• Packaging
The principles of automation have been known
for many years. An automated flour mill was in
operation in the late 170Os near Philadelphia. It fea-
tured the continuous milling of grain into flour. The Figure 22-2. This integrated manufacturing system is used to
mill used many of the elements found in modern automate the production of motorcycle parts. (Westech
automated operations. Automation Systems)
 Machining Fundamentals

The integration of the computer, Figure 22-3, veyors, or specially designed loaders, Figure 22-5.
\\'ith specially designed machine tools and equip- Robots may also be employed in some operations.
ment has revolutionized production technology Machine tools typically used in FMS are CNC
while improv ing product quality and reducing (computer-aided numerical control) Yertical and
manufacturing costs. Human involYement is also horizontal machining centers. Other CNC machine
reduced to an absolute minimum. tools (such as grinders) and automatic gaging
equipment also may be included in such systems.
22.1 FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING Each step of the manufacturing process is com-
SYSTEM puter-controlled and linked with the succeeding
one, Figure 22-6. Measuring sensors, often utilizing
One of the more recent automated production
lasers, are sensitive enough to detect tool ,,vear as it
techniques is known as the flexible manufacturing
occurs and automatically compensate for it. Every
system (FMS). This general category of machin-
part is inspected. Problems such as tool malfunc-
ing/manufacturing technology is also wideiy
tion, tool breakage or damage, etc., are immediately
referred to as computer integrated manufacturing
identified so corrections can be made before addi-
(CIM); the grouping of machines used to perform
tional parts are produced that do not meet specifi-
multiple operations automatically is often called a
flexible machining cell (FMC). cations.
FMS also includes the use of smart tooling, JIT
The PMS brings together workstations (machine
(just-in-time arrival of materials, parts, subassem-
tools), automated handling and/or transfer
systems, and computer control in an integrated blies, etc.), and robots.
Smart tooling uses cutting tools and work-hold-
manner, Figure 22-4. It is capable of producing a
ing devices that can be readily reconfigured to pro-
selected range of work configurations randomly
duce a variety of shapes and sizes within a given
and simultaneously. 'Nork is transferred to and from
part famih:.., This makes it economically- feasible to
member machines by automated fixture carts, con-
manufacture products in smaller lot sizes.
]IT is a system that eliminates the need for large
inventories of materials and parts. They are sched-
uled for arriYal at the time needed and not before.
While JIT lessens (and often eliminates) storage
costs, production can be reduced or stopped if the
delivery of the needed items is hampered by
weather delays and strikes.

22.2 ROBOTICS
The Robotic Industries Association (RIA) has
adopted the following definition of the industrial
robot, Figure 22-7.
"A robot is a programmable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to mm·e material, parts,
tools, or specialized devices through variable pro-
grammed motions for the performance of a variety
of tasks."

22.2. I Robotics in Automation

There are two implied requirements in the RIA
definition of a robot:
• The robot must be a multiaxis machine that is
capable of moving parts or tools to a specific
location as well as positioning them at anv
attitude. The work envelope of a robot is the
Figure 22-3. The computer, integrated with specially designed
volume of space defined by the reach of the
machine tools and equipment, has revolutionized automation
technology while improving product quality and reducing manu-
robot arm in three-dimensional space. See
facturing costs. (Vector, a Division of Artran, Inc.) Figure 22-8.
Chapter 22 f1utomatec:l i'-Janutac~uring

Machining center 1 Machining center 2 Machining center 3

Remote
operator
terminal

Figure 22-4. Flexible manufacturing cell that uses a pallet transporter to link the machines. A cell controller automatically queues work
for immediate delivery to the next machine available. (Cincinnati Milacron)

Figure 22-5. Gantry loader transfers workpieces from conveyor Figure 22-6. In a flexible manufacturing system, each step in
(foreground) to an unattended horizontal machining center in the manufacturing process is linked with the succeeding one.
this manufacturing cell. It is capable of handling parts weighing There is an automated flow of raw material, total machining of
up to 70 lbs. (Westech Products Group/Gantrex Machine Tool parts across machines, and removal and storage of finished
Loaders) parts. (Mazak Corporation)
 Machining Fundamentals

• Power Supply. May be hydraulic, pneumatic,

or electric. Most modem robots have electric
drive.
• Manipulator. The articulated "arm" of the
robot. The end of the arm is fitted vvith a
"wrist" capable of angular and/ or rotational
motion.
• End-of-arm Tooling. A device attached to the
robot wrist for specific applications, such as a
gripper, welding head, spray gun, etc.

22.2.3 Robot Applications

Industrial robots have a number of applications
in which they are "\\idely used:
• Hazardous and harsh environments. Fumes pro-
duced by spray painting and welding, heat in
foundry or forging operations, feeding mater-
Figure 22-7. Robots can be programmed to do many types of
jobs that are hazardous or very monotonous for human opera- ial into punch presses, etc. See Figure 22-10.
tors. Spot welding, paint spraying, and loading parts onto • Tedious operations. Repetitive operations such
machines are among jobs performed by robots. This robot is as parts feeding, loading and unloading parts
paired with a press brake to load and remove sheet metal parts. from machines, some assembly operations,
(U.S. Amada, Ltd.) etc. See Figure 22-11.
• Precision operations. Precisely repeating posi-
• There must be a control system that can be tioning operations, maintaining consistent
programmed to drive the manipulator (device tool speed, follow complex welding and cut-
that grasps the part or tool) through a series of ting paths vdthout patterns, quality control
specified motions and be capable of interacting using lasers, clean room operations, etc.,
with other machines and equipment. Figure 22-12.
• Handling heavy materials. Lifting material onto
22.2.2 Design of a Robot or from a stack, moving material beyond the
As shown in Figure 22-9, a robot consists of four normal reach of a human, mounting heavy
basic components. workpieces on machine tools, etc.
• Controller. Performs computations for control- Many types of robots have been developed, but
ling the movement of the arm and wrist to the almost all can be classified into one of the four basic
proper location. geometric configurations shmvn in Figure 22-13.

Figure 22-8. The work envelope of a robot is the volume of space defined by the reach of the robot ann in three dimensions.
Figure 22-9. A robot consists of four basic parts: controller, power supply, manipulator, and end-of-arm tooling. A-The controller and
power supply provide signals to the robot's servomotors to perform necessary operations and movements. The teach pendant hung
on the front of the cabinet is used to program robot movements. B-The manipulator, or articulated robot arm, is moved in various
directions by servomotors at each joint. The end-of-arm tooling on this robot is a vacuum gripper used to pick up workpieces.
(Motoman).

Figure 22-11. This robot is being used to load and unload

Figure 22-10. A robot ladles molten aluminum into a wheel castings from a drilling machine. (Fanuc Robotics North
mold. (Fanuc Robotics North America, Inc.) America, Inc.)
 Figure 22-13. Basic geometric configurations of robots. All pro-
vide three articulations (specific arm movements). A-Cartesian

- coordinates. B-Cylindrica/ coordinates. C-Polar coordinates.

D-Revolute coordinates.

• Carefully check tool clearance to be sure the

Figure 22-12. Specially equipped robots are used for handling cutter will clear the workpiece, lvork-holding
tasks in clean room environments where computer chips, preci- devices, clamps, etc., ,,·hen manually postion-
sion disks for computer hard drives, and similar products are ing the work and during rapid traverse.
produced. (Adept Technology, Inc.) Make a "dry run" for a safety check of tool
positioning for each machining operation.
Advanced technology robots can be programmed to • Never enter the work envelope of a robot
serve a wide range of automated manufacturing until you are sure power is turned off.
applications. They can be in.terfaced with testing • Establish that the machine tool and control
devices to ·weigh, gage, or measure. unit are functioning correctly, and continually
Some robots are capable of selecting and posi- monitor machining operation to be sure each
tioning complex shaped parts for machining or stor- tool is cutting properly. Know how to safely
age. A laser is utilized to "see" and define the part stop machining operations in case of an
outline so the correct item will be selected and posi- emergency.
tioned for machining. • To avoid cuts, remove burrs and sharp edges
before inspecting finished parts for accuracy
22.3 SAFETY IN AUTOMATED or finish of machined surfaces.
MANUFACTURING
22.4 RAPID PROTOTYPING
• Observe the same safe operating procedures
that are used with traditional machine tools TECHNIQUES
and machining. A number of new techniques have been devel-
• Wear approved eye protection and a snug-fit- oped to allow designers to quickly generate three-
ting apron or shop coat. dimensional models or prototypes of parts in
• Be sure work-holding devices are positioned relatively inexpensive materials. These techniques
correctly and are securely fastened to the help to impro,·e design and identify potential
worktable. machining problems.
 Chapter 22 Automated Vianufacturing

22.4. I Laminated Object Manufacturing for such processes as injection molding, vacuum
(LOM) forming, and sand casting. See Figure 22-16. LOM
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOMYM is a parts are accurate enough for form-and-fit verifica-
new technology for the rapid generation of models, tion applications. The finished part has a composi-
prototypes, accurate patterns, and molds. See tion similar to wood and can be easily machined
Figure 22-14. This state-of-the-art three-dimensional or modified to obtain the exact fit required.
modeling method was developed in 1991 by Modifications and corrections can be incorporated
Helisys, Inc. Since then, many automotive, aero- into the CAD design before manufacturing.
space, appliance, and medical product manufactur-
ers have adopted the process, Figure 22-15. The
equipment is compact and can operate 24 hours a
day.
LOM uses inexpensive solid sheet material, such
as paper, plastic, and composites, to form the
desired designs. Molds made from the composite
materials can be used in direct tooling applications

Figure 22-15. Aluminum sand casting of the prototype of a

large rear-engine power takeoff housing for a diesel truck
engine. The pattern was made by the LOM process. Using this
technique cut development time in half. (Helisys, Inc.)

Figure 22-14. Laminated Object Manufacturing. A-LOM was

used to produce these extremely accurate, full-size matchplates
(patterns) and core box to be used in casting prototype metal
projectiles. B-Rapid prototyping of the molds to make the wax
patterns for the investment casting of oversized golf club irons
was done with LOM. Design changes could be carried out Figure 22-16. Multiple vacuum formed plastic prototypes and
before making the expensive molds necessary for quantity sand cast production tools were produced directly off the same
production. (Helisys, Inc.) LOM pattern. (Helisys, Inc.)
Operation of the LOM System The stereolithography process uses a computer-
CAD data is programmed into the L0~1's guided low-power laser beam to harden a liquid
process controller. A cross-sectional slice is gener- photocurable polymer plastic into the programmed
ated and a laser cuts the outline of the cross section, shape, Figure 22-19.
then cross hatches the excess material for later
removal, Figure 22-17. A new layer of material is
bonded to the top of the previously cut layer. The
next cross section is prepared and cut. This auto-
matic process continues until all layers are lami-
nated and cut. Excess material is then removed to
expose the finished part. The completed object's
surface can then be sanded, polished, or painted as
desired.

22.4.2 Stereolithography
Another new technology, called stereolithogra-
phy, can also produce complex design prototypes of
castings and other objects in hours, instead of the
days or weeks previously required, Figure 22-18.
The three-dimensional hard plastic models can be
studied to determine whether they are the best solu-
tion to a design problem. Since new models can be
made quickly, design changes and modifications
can be evaluated without the expense of making
new patterns or molds.

Figure 22-18. Stereolithography equipment used to produce

durable, finely detailed patterns extensively used in modeling,
functional prototyping, and tooling applications. (30 Systems)

X-Y movement Z movement

UVllg~ "'."".'."' LJ elevator

laser ~ l
Sheet beam ~
liquid
material
surface

Formed
object

Figure 22-19. Basic diagram of how the stereolithography

Figure 22-17. The Laminated Object Manufacturing process. process works.
Chapter 22 Automated Nanufacturin1

The process starts by creating the required

design on a CAD system and orienting it in three-
dimensional space, Figure 22-20. A support struc-
ture is added to hold the various elements in place
while the model is built up. The design is then sliced
into cross sections of 0.005" to 0.020" (0.12 mm to
0.50 mm) in thickness.

Figure 22-21. The casting design as made by the stereolithog-

raphy process and the casting that was used in the night vision
system. The part design was proofed before the dies to produce
the castings were made. (Hughes Electro-Optical & Data
Systems Group)

The finished part requires final ultraviolet cur-

ing. It is removed from the platform and the support
structure is clipped away. It can be finished by fil-
ing, sanding, and polishing. Paint or dye can be
applied. The entire stereolithography process is
shown in Figure 22-22.

22.4.3 Other Rapid Modeling Techniques

Rapid modeling techniques that operate on a
system similar to stereolithography can produce
fully functional prototypes made of ABS (acryloni-
trile butadiene styrene), medical ABS, or investment
casting wax. When made of investment casting wax,
the three-dimensional models can be used as the
master for a cast part.
Rgure 22-20. The stereolithography process starts by creating Called Fused Disposition Modeling (FDM)™,
the required design on a CAD (Computer-Aided Design) sys- the process can produce fully functiorring proto-
tem. The CAD-designed part, in this case a yoke housing cast- types, Figure 22-23. When made of ABS, the parts
ing for a helicopter night vision system, is shown on the can be installed and run, for the best proof that a
computer screen. The prototype part made by the technique is
design works. The parts can be made in color,
shown in the foreground. (Hughes Electro-Optical & Data
Systems Group) Figure 22-24.
The FDM process forms three-dimensional
objects from CAD-generated solid or surface mod-
The design data is downloaded into the stere- els. A temperature-controlled head extrudes ther-
olithography machine, which operates in a way moplastic material layer by layer. The designed
similar to a CNC machine tool. The machine's con- object emerges as a three-dimensional part without
trol unit guides a fine laser beam onto the surface of tooling.
a vat containing the liquid photocurable polymer. A variation of the technology has been devel-
The liquid solidifies wherever it is struck by the oped that produces parts made of ceramic material,
laser beam. instead of plastic. Layers of a special ceramic pow-
The model is created from the bottom up, on der are built up, using an inkjet style printer to
a platform located just below the surface of the spray a quick-hardening binder to solidify each
liquid plastic. After each "slice" is formed, the layer. The technology has been used to quickly pro-
platform drops a programmed distance. The duce shell molds for casting such metals as inconel
sequence is repeated until the entire model is and aluminum. The moldmaking process is called
formed, Figure 22-21. Direct Shell Production Casting (DSPC).
 , ·•.\
I
2. Orient and support
1. CAD design 3 CAO Interface

4. Slice
10. Final cure

5. Interface
6 . Merge
7 . Ut!llty
8. Prepare

Figure 22-22. The stereo!ithography process.

Figure 22-23. Fused Disposition Modeling equipment can pro-

duce fully functional prototypes from ABS, medical ABS, or
investment casting wax. When made from ABS, the parts can
be installed and run to proof the design. (Stratasys, Inc.) Figure 22-24. ABS parts can be made in color. (Stratasys, Inc.)
Chapter 12 Automated ~anufacturin1

22.S THE FUTURE OF Such developments were condemned then, just

AUTOMATED as automated manufacturing and robots seem to be
condemned today. However, machines eventually
MANUFACTURING helped employ, directly or indirectly, many more
With technological advances being made at such people than the number they originally displaced.
a rapid pace, only time will tell what effect the com- Better jobs, with higher pay and improved working
puter and new automated manufacturing tech- conditions, were created. These changes also
niques will have on our society. demanded that workers and technicians become
Some workers, mostly unskilled and semi- better educated. The key to the future, then, will be
skilled, will lose their jobs, much like the home arti- men and women who are well versed in the various
sans d id during the Industrial Revolution. The same areas of industrial technology.
thing happened to the carriagemaker, blacksmith,
buggy whip manufacturer, and feed dealer when TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Henry Ford started to mass-produce the automo-
Please do not write in the text. Write your
bile, Figure 22~25.
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. What is automation?
2. How are the machines in automation
activated?
3. List the five basic manufacturing processes that
automated machines can perform.
4. What do the following acronyms stand for in
their relation to automation? (An acronym is a
word formed using the initial letters of words
in a phrase. For example: RPM stands for revo-
lutions per minute.)
a. FMS.
b. CIM.
C. FMC.
d . CNC.
e. CAD/CAM.
f. LOM.
5. In a flexible machining cell, specially designed
_ _ are often used to place workpieces in a
machine.
6. Explain the following terms:
a. Smart tooling.
b. JIT.
c. Robot.
7. In robotics, what is meant by the term "work
envelope" ?
8. List three current uses of the robot.
9. List three techniques that are now available for
the rapid prototyping of a CAD design.
Figure 22-25. Then and now in the manufacture of motor cars.
10. In several of the rapid prototyping systems, a
When Henry Ford opened the first production line, he paid the
workers $5 per day, a very good salary for the time. (Ford Motor
_ _ is used to harden a thin layer of material
Company) as the object is built up.
 Machining Fundamentals

Circular geometry gage is designed to make exact measurement of out-of-roundness, eccentricity, flatness, and perpendicularity.
(Precitech, Inc.)
 Chapter 23

on I

into the planes, Figure 23-2. Tests were made to

LEARNING OBJECTIVES determine the strength of materials. Engines were
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: made to specific standards and were checked many
0 Explain the need for quality control. times during their manufacture. As a result, aircraft
0 Point out the difference between the two dependability increased greatly. In the automotive
basic quality control techniques. field, Henry Ford began the mass production of the
0 Describe how some nondestructive testing Model-T using similar quality control methods.
methods operate.
0 Explain advanced methods for assuring
quality control during and after machining.

IMPORTANT TERMS
coordinate measuring megahertz (MHz)
machine (CMM) optical comparator
eddy-current test profilometer
fluorescent penetrant statistical process control
inspection (SPC)
magnetic particle ultrasonic testing
inspection ultraviolet light
The primary purpose of quality control is to Figure 23-1. There was little or no quality control in the manu-
seek out and prevent potential product defects in facture of early aircraft, like this one on display at an aeronauti-
the manufacturing process before they can cause cal museum. If a wood strip was straight with no knots, and
looked strong enough, it was used. To build such an aircraft, a
injuries or damage and substandard products. The full-size drawing was usually drawn in chalk on the shop ffoor.
eventual goal of quality control is not to detect The plane was built over the chalk drawing.
imperfect products after manufacture, but to prevent
them from ever being made.
Quality control is one of the most important seg-
ments of industry. It plays a vital role in improving
the competitive position of a manufacturer.

23.1 THE HISTORY OF

QUALITY CONTROL
The development of the science of quality
control closely parallels the development of the
airplane. Early aircraft were made "by-guess-and-
Figure 23-2. The favorite type aircraft of World War l's aRed
by-golly," with little concern for quality control, Baron. n This Fokker ORI triplane was constructed more-or-less
Figure 23-1. to specifications. Some of the materials were inspected and
As the theory of flight became more refined, tested before use. However, some aircraft components had tol-
more care was taken in selecting materials that went erances of± 25 mm or 1". (Bill Hannan)
 Machining Fundamentals

The volume production of all-metal aircraft in Aerospace vehicles, such as the Space Shuttle,
the early 1930s introduced many new quality con- Figure 23-5, require quality control programs of
trol techniques, Figure 23-3. Jigs and fixtures, which great scope and magnitude. Because they are sub-
held the parts ·while they were machined or fabri- jected to pressures, stresses, and temperatures sel-
cated, ,vere aligned with optical tools. The use of dom found on earth, a breakdown or malfunction of
iron filings and a magnetic current, called mag- any of the thousands of critical parts would be
naflux, helped to find defects and flaws in ferrous disastrous.
metals. Measurements of 0.0001" (0.0025 mm) were Following the lead of the aerospace industry,
common in engine components. Inspectors made up other industries began placing increasing emphasis
a larger percentage of the ·workforce than ever on quality control techniques. As products became
before. Ylany other industries established quality more complex and sophisticated, and demand for
control programs. reliability continued to grow, an increasing percent-
The need for thousands of high performance air- age of industry's budget had to be spent on quality
craft during World War II, Figure 23-4, led to the control.
introduction of many of the quality control tech-
niques in use today. The inspector became a ,Tital
part of the manufacturing team.

Figure 23-5. The Space Shuttle is one of the most complex

products ever constructed. Its manufacture required a quality
control program second to none to assure its integrity. Before
Figure 23-3. Tne manuraccure m quantity ot ail-meta! aircraft each flight, 488 nondestructive and visual inspections must be
during the 1930s brought about the development of quality con- made. (NASA)
trol techniques that are still in use. This was one of the first PBY
Catalina amphibian aircraft constructed. It was built in 1935 and
is still in fiying condition. (John Winter) 23.2 CLASSIFICAT!ONS OF
QUALITY CONTROL
Quality control techniques fall into two basic
classifications:
• Destructive testing results in the part being
destroyed during the quality control testing
program.
• Nondestructive testing is done in such a man-
ner that the usefulness of the product is not
impaired.

23.2. I Destructive Testing

..
IIL . --
Destructive testing is a costly and time-consum-
ing quality control technique. A specimen to use
Figure 23-4. The B-17 Flying Fortress was the backbone of the for testing is selected at random from a great
Air Force during the 1940s. Mass production was made possible number of pieces, Figure 23-6. Statistically, at least,
only because of modem quality control procedures. {Bob Walker) it indicates the characteristics of the untested (and
Chapter 23 Quality Control

inspection. While satisfactory for many products,

they leave much to be desired for others. To assure
effective quality control in all areas of manufactur-
ing, industry has developed more sophisticated
testing techniques.

23.3. I Measuring
The use of micrometers, vernier tools, dial
indicators, gages, and similar devices falls into the
measuring category of quality control testing. See
Figure 23-8. To guarantee their accuracy, these tools
must be checked at frequent intervals against
known standards. The calibrating is done in a preci-
Figure 23-6. Automobile bodies, selected at random, are cut sion tool calibration laborato111, Figure 23-9.
apart so that quality control inspectors can check placement
and size of welds made on the plant's highly-automated framing
line. Destructive testing is done to assure that structural Integrity
of bodies is maintained.

undestroyed) remaining pieces. It gives no assur-

ance of perfection, however, since many of the
untested parts could be defective and be used in the
manufacture of a product.

23.2.2 Nondestructive Testing

Nondestructive testing, Figure 23-7, is a basic
tool of industry. It is well-suited for testing elec-
tronic and aerospace products where the perfor-
mance of each part is critical. Each piece can be
tested individually and as part of a completed
assembly.
Figure 23-8. Some quality control techniques are based on
23.3 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING m9asurement. To guarantee accuracy of measuring tools, they
must be carefully checked against known standards at frequent
TECHNIQUES intervals. (L.S. Starrett Co.)
You are familiar with several methods of nonde-
structive testing: measuring, weighing, and visual

Figure 23-9. Personnel in the precision tool calibration labora-

tory test and keep an accurate set of records on all production
Figure 23-7. This quality control technician Is checking the con- measuring tools to assure their accuracy. This technician is
centricity of a tire mold tread ring using dial indicators. This is a using a dial indicator to check the accuracy of a plate lamination
nondestructive quality control technique, because the part is not gage used by automatic press operators at a production site.
damaged in any way. (Aluminum Company of America) (Master Lock Co.)
 M achin!ng Fundamentals

The shape of some products, Figure 23-10, pre-

vent accurate measurements from being made by
conventional measuring tools. The coordinate mea-
suring machine (CMM), Figure 23-11, has been
devised to make measurements electronicallv. A
C~ can be programmed to check thousands of
individual reference points on the object against
specifications.
Measuring can be done Yisually on an optical
comparator, which is a gaging system for inspection
and precise measurement of small parts and sec-
tions of larger parts. See Figure 23-12. A part can be
magnified up to S00x \vithout distortion to permit
accurate measurement. An enlarged image of the
part being inspected is projected onto a screen,
,-.·here it is superimposed upon an accurate drawing
overlay of the part. Variations as small as 0.0005"
(0.013 mm) can be noted by a skilled operator,
Figure 23-13.
An optical gagi.ng system, Figure 23-14, auto-
mates the process of optical comparator inspection.
The software builds a graphical model of the mea-
surements and remembers each step as the user
measures a part. The resulting procedure is saved
on a disk. When measuring additional samples, the
software prompts the user by highlighting each
measurement in the model. The user simply follows
these graphical instructions to finish the inspection.

Figure 23-11. Coordinate measuring machines. A-This CNC

3-axis coordinate measuring machine, with a weight capacity of
1000 lbs., can achieve an accuracy of 0.0002" (0.005 mm).
Because of ceramic material used in parts of its construction,
accuracy is guaranteed between 64cF and 78°F. The probe sys-
tem can scan the work at a velocity of 17" (425 mm) per sec-
Figure 23-10. Complex parts, sucn as rnese turbine wheels, ond. (Carl Zeiss, Inc.) B-This probe is being used to verify the
cannot be checked for accuracy with conventional measuring accuracy of the hOlss machined into a complex part. A CMM
tools. Why do you think those measuring tools cannot be used? can achieve accuracy far higher than any manual measuring
(Howmet Corp.) method. (Rsnishaw, Inc.)
Chapter 23 O.ualiq• Control

Figure 23-14. Optical gaging system. It automates optical com-

parator inspection. (Optical Gaging Products, Inc.)

Flgun, 23-12. Parts can be magnified up to 500X on an optical

comparator. (Bridgeport Machines, Inc.)

Figure 23-15. Performing frequency distribution (random

inspection of parts to determine that they are within established
standards) on a part tor a lock assembly, using a desk top com-
puter interfaced with a snap gage and digital readout to collect
data and assure that the manufacturing process is within statis-
tical control. (Master Lock Co.)

Figure 23-13. A quality control engineer is checking hole loca-

tion on a plate lamination of an automatic lock body assembly,
using an optical comparator with a part overlay transparency. Special gaging and inspection tools can be
(Master Lock Co.) designed for almost any application, Figure 23-16.
Combining precision tools with electronic devices
permits accurate inspection to be made by semi-
Quality control can also be assured by a statisti- skilled workers.
cal method that involves measuring a number of
parts in a production run, Figure 23-15. This is care- 23.3.2 Radiography (X-ray) Inspection
fully worked out in a mathematical approach to Inspection by radiography involves passing
quality measurement known as statistical process gamma rays through a part and onto light sensitive
control (SPC). A wide variation in the accuracy of film to detect flaws (crack, pores, etc.). It has become
the parts being inspected will make it necessary to routine in the acceptance or inspection of critical
increase the inspection rate to include more or all of parts and materials, Figure 23-17. The technique
the units manufactured. involves the use of X-rays and gamma radiation
 Machining Fundamentals

"
Object under
investigation

Figure 23-18. How radiographic inspection works.

Figure 23-16. A technician employing a radial measuring sys-

tem to assure roundness of the taper at the cutting unlt gageline
of an element used in a quick-change tooling system.
(Kennametal, Inc.)

Figure 23-17. A laser alignment device is being used with an

X-ray generator, to precisely locate X-ray radiation on a titanium
structure that has been electron-beam welded. Highly accurate Figure 23-19. X-ray examination is being used to check a num-
alignment is required because of the very narrow heat-affected ber of similar parts. Hidden flaws are easily detected.
zone characteristic of EB welds. (Northrop-Grumman Corp. ) (Westinghouse Electric Corp.)

(highly energetic, penetrating radiation found in

certain radioactive elements) projected through the
object under inspection and onto a section of photo- Many kinds of peripheral (outside circumfer-
graphic film, Figure 23-18. The deYeloped film has ence) inspection operations can be made because of
an image of the internal structure of the part or the omnidirectional (all directions) characteristics of
assembly, Figure 23-19. the rays, Figure 23-20.
 Chapter- 23 Quality Control
II
These poles will hold the finely divided magnetic
particles, thus outlining the flaw. The limitations of
this technique are apparent when the flaw is paral-
lel to the line of magnetic force. The flaw will not
interrupt the force, so no indication of it will appear
when magnetic particles are applied, Figure 23-22.
In practice, a magnetic field is introduced into
the part and fine particles of iron are blown (dry
method) or flowed in liquid suspension (wet
method) over it. As noted, a flaw will disturb or dis-
Figure 23-20. Technique employed to inspect cylindrical tort the magnetic field, giving it magnetic properties
objects by radiographic (X-ray) means. A flaw causes more
exposure of the film, so an image of the flaw is shown on the
different from the surrounding metal. Many of the
film when it is developed.

The radiographic inspection process offers many

advantages:
• Inspection sensitivity is high.
• The projected image is geometrically correct.
• A permanent record is produced.
• Image interpretation is highly accurate.
In addition, the internal and hidden parts of
complex assemblies can be inspected without fear of
damage. Objects can also be inspected without tak-
ing them out of use. For example, wheels and axles
on locomotives and railway cars are inspected at
regular intervals without having to remove them
and take them to special facilities.
If you make radiographic tests, you must
observe strict safety precautions when handling
radioactive materials. Exposure to X-rays beyond
established limits can be harmful.

23.3.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection, commonly known
as "magnafiuxing" (a trademark of Magnaflux Corp.)
is a nondestructive testing technique employed to
detect flaws on or near the surface of ferromagnetic
(iron-based) materials. The technique is rapid, but
shows only serious defects. It does not show
scratches or minor visual defects, Figure 23-21.
The magnetic particle inspection technique is
based on the theory that every conductor of electric-
ity is surrounded by a circular magnetic field. If the
part is made of ferromagnetic material, these lines
of force will, to a large extent, be contained within
the piece. A circular magnetic field, if not inter-
rupted, has no poles. However, because a flaw or
Figure 23-21. Magnetic particle inspection. A-A large mag-
other imperfection present in the piece is oriented netic particle inspection machine being used to check a huge
(positioned) to cut through these magnetic lines of machined section. B-Highlighted flaws in a fitting that were
force, poles will be formed at each edge of the flaw. found by magnetic particle inspection. (U.S. Anny)
pp Machining r-undamentals

Current flow

\
/4 i'
' ~\
Transverse flaw
will not show

A B
~ Magnetic lines
of force Figure 23-24. Three ways to inspect a kingpin for a truck front
axle. A-Under visual or "eyeball" inspection, the part appears
Figure 23-22. Theory, scope, and limitations of magnetic parti-
to be sound and safe tor service. 8-Examination with magnetic
cle inspection technique. (Magnaf/ux Corp.)
particle inspection shows that excess heat generated during
grinding has caused dangerous cracks. C-The same kingpin
after being treated with a fluorescent penetrant testing material
and photographed under ultraviolet light. The cracks show
much more clearly. (Magnaflux Corp.)
iron particles will be attracted to the area and form
a definite indication of the flaw (its exact location,
shape, and extent), Figure 23-23.

23.3.4 Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection 23.3.5 Spotcheck

Another of the penetrant inspection tools,
The theory of fluorescent penetrant inspection is
Spotcheck is easy to use, accurate, economical, and
based on capillary action to show fla,vs in parts,
does not require a biack light to bring out the flaws.
Figure 23-24. A penetrant solution is applied to the
Application is similar to that described for the fluo-
part's surface by dipping, spraying, or brushing.
rescent type penetrant. The specimen is coated with
Capillary action literally pulls the solution into the
a red liquid dye which soaks into the surface crack
defect. The surface is rinsed clean, and a developer
or fla,.,,. The liquid is then washed off and the part
is applied. This acts as a blotter drawing the pene-
dried. A developer is dusted or sprayed on the part,
trant back to the surface.
and flaws and cracks show up red against the white
When the part is inspected under ultraviolet
background of the developer. See Figure 23-25.
light ("black light"), any defects will glow ·with flu-
orescent brilliance, making them easily visible. This
23.3.6 Ultrasonic Inspection
is because dye penetrant has flowed into and
remains in the flav.'. Ultrasonic testing techniques make use of
sound waves above the audible range. They can be
used to detect cracks and flaws in almost any kind
of material that is capable of conducting sound.
Sound ,,·a,·es may also be employed to measure the

--------- Iron particles thickness of the same materials from one side.

--- - ~;~
-.... .....:::::
-......:..-_._.,.
----
--
---- ------..
- -• ----
Ultrasonic test equipment is shown in Figure 23-26.
The human ear can hear sound waves whose
frequencies range from about 20 to 20,000 hertz
(cycles per second, abbre,iated Hz). Sound waves
that oscillate (vibrate) with a frequency greater than
20,000 Hz are inaudible (cannot be heard) and are
Figure 23-23. Crack in steel bar generates a magnetic field out-
kno,vn as ultrasound. UltrasoPic testing equipment
side the part to hold iron particles. Buildup of iron particles utilizes waves measured in millions of cycles per
makes even tiny flaws visible. second, or megahertz (MHz).
Chapter 23 Quality Control

.,,,.--,
II
\ /"
tw:
\ >

Figure 23-25. Spotcheck penetrant inspection technique.

A-Spray on penetrant, then apply developer. B-lnspect tor
flaws. They will stand out sufficiently to be seen easily.
(Magnaf/ux Corp.)

Figurs 23-26. Ultrasonic test equipment. A-The part being

inspected is located in the tank below the scanning bridge on
Sound waves are employed to obtain informa- this automatic ultrasonic immersion testing system. Note the
vertical search tube where the sound waves are emitted.
tion about the interior structure of a material. By B-A portable contact-type ultrasonic testing device.
observing the echoes that are reflected from within (Msgnsflux Corp.)
the material, it is possible to judge distances by the
length of time required to receive an echo from an
obstruction (flaw). See Figure 23-27. The ultrasonic
testing equipment is partly a timing device for mea- piece. The same results can be achieved by immers-
suring the relative length of elapsed time between ing both the test piece and transducer in water,
the sending of the sound waves and the return of Figure 23-29. Immersion-type testing is ideal for
the various echoes. production testing, since there is no contact between
High-frequency sound is produced by a piezo- the transducer and the work; thus, no transducer
electric transducer (crystal) which is electrically wear occurs.
pulsed and then vibrates at its own natural fre- The transducer vibrates for about two-mil-
quency, Figure 23-28. lionths of a second. The result is a very short burst
In order to transmit the sound waves from the of sound waves that travel through the liquid to the
transducer to the metal and return the echoes to the surface of the test material. A portion of the sound is
transducer, it is necessary to provide a liquid cou- immediately reflected from the surface of the metal
pling. This is accomplished with a film of oil, glyc- as a very large echo. Part of the sound will not be
erine, or water between the transducer and the test reflected and will continue into the test material.
"'
Machining Fundamentals

2---
Front Test piece
surface

rnl 1 Back
Front

~~-! Front
surface
surface

Flaw
surface
Back surface
A Image on cathoae ray tube Cathode ray tube
presentation

Pu!se of
ultrasonic vibration Pulse travels

Electrical pulse
\ through materiai
i
to crystal

[ Flaw
A - Front surface

Electrical pulse
to amplifier Pu!se bounced
i . .~ ---~•--1-1
.l _ ' - ~ Water path

B
back to search
unit by reflecting
- ·-L- -....::,-........... ~---'!'"-------~
surface

Figure 23-27. Ultrasonic waves. A-How ultrasonic sound

waves are used to detect and locate a flaw in a test piece. L .- ........- - - ·
B-How sound waves travel through a part and bounce back to
locate flaws in the material. Front s:.irface Flaw Baci< surface
Search unit

Aiterna!ing voltage
app!ied to an X-cut Cathode ray tube presentation
crystal

I______I
B Initial pulse
Crystal expands Crystal contracts
Figure 23-29. Liquid coupling. A-Action of a contact-type ultra-
Figure 23-28. A piezoelectric transducer is a device that sonic inspection device. A film of oil, water, or glycerine is
receives energy from one system and retransmits it to another employed to make a positive contact between the transducer
system, often in a different form. For inspection, it is pulsed and the test piece. B-lmmersion type ultrasonic testing. Note
electrical!y to generate ultrasonic sound waves. the extra spike on the CRT, indicating the path through water.
 Chapter 23 Quality Control
II
If this portion of the sound encounters no interfer- device (flashes a light, rings a bell, etc.) to alert the
ence, in th.e form of a discontinuity (flaw) in the operator to the flaw. The technique is frequently
material, it will continue until it is partially reflected employed to check the integrity of helicopter rotor
from the back surface as a second echo or "back blades, for example.
reflection." If there is a flaw in the interior, a portion Apparently, there is no size limitation on work
of the sound will be reflected from the flaw and will that can be tested by ultrasonic techniques.
return to the receiver as a separate echo between the Figure 23~33 shows one application.
echoes received from the front and back surfaces.
After the transducer has given off its short burst
of sound waves, it stops vibrating and "listens" for
the returning echoes. When the echoes are received,
they cause the transducer to vibrate and to generate 14---,1-- 2"
1 30'
o-~
an electric current which can be visually displayed
on a trace of a cathode ray tube (CRV, which is sinl-
ilar to a television picture tube, Figure 23-30.
Information transmitted to the CRT can be ex- I
panded or condensed to improve readability. This is
shown in Figure 23-31.
There are two basic categories of ultrasonic test-
ing, as shown in Figure 23-32:
• Pulse echo uses sound waves, generated by a
transducer, that travel through the test piece.
The reflected sound waves (echoes) locate the
flaws. One crystal is used to both transmit the
Cathode ray
sound and receive the echoes. tube
• Through inspection has one crystal that trans- presentation
mits the wave through the piece, and another Expanded sweep Compressed sweep
crystal that picks up the signal on the oppo-
site end of the piece. Figure 23-31. The CRT presentation can be expanded or
The beam is partially blocked by a flaw. The compressed for easier reading or to compensate for different
material thicknesses.
reduced intensity of the beam activates a signaling

Angular back surface Porous material Braze or lamination

Front
Front Flaw surface Slight
surface No back No major Partial or back surface
surface flaws complete loss Front surface
Slight indication
of back surface
of interference
Figure 23-30. How various flaws appear on the cathode ray tube (CRT).
m, Machining Fundamentals

Transmitting
Sourid waves search unit

Flaw causes reduction

in the amount of energy
that gets through to
- --
--- -
___,,- receiving search unit

=====.-------
'\

Echo returns To CRT

faster from

A
fiaw
- B
Receiving
search unit

Figure 23.-32. Types of ultrasonic inspection. A-With pulse echo ultrasonic inspection, reflected wave wi!f return sooner when it
bounces off a flaw. B-Through-type ultrasonic inspection uses sensor to detect waves on opposite side of the piece.

Figure 23-33. This aircraft wing section is the fongest adhesively bonded panel ever produced. Ultrasonic test equipment is being
used to check the integrity of the bonding. (AVCO Aerostructures Div., AVCO Corp.)

23.3.7 Inspection by Laser devices can also be used to evaluate the condition of
products that are in use. One such application is
The laser has also been adapted for quality con-
trol, Figure 23-34. In addition to being able to check shown in Figure 23-36.
the fit of components on an assembly line, the com-
puter-controlled laser can be made sensitive enough 23.3.B Eddy-current Inspection
to detect tool wear and automatically compensate The eddy-current test is based on the fact that
for it, Figure 23-35. This helps prevent imperfect flaws in a metal product will cause impedance
parts from ever being made. Laser measuring (resistance) changes in a coil brought near it.
 Chapter 23 Quality Control
au
Slightly different eddy-currents will result in test
coils placed next to metal parts with and without
flaws. This difference will show which parts pass or
fail inspection.
Eddy-current testing methods can be divided
into two general categories:
• The eddy-current differential system is used
to detect cracks, seams, holes, or other flaws
in metal parts (such as wire, tubing, and bar
stock) as they move off the production line.
The test equipment must be sensitive to rapid
change.
• The eddy-current absolute system is used to
detect variations in dimension, composition,
Figure 23-34. A laser being us8d to inspect a part used in an and other physical properties of a metal prod-
automatic transmission. Parts inspection gives an immediate uct. Instrumentation for this type operation
indication whether machine adjustments are required. must be responsive to comparatively small
(Ford Motor Company) changes.
Eddy-current instrumentation is designed to
Reflecting detect changes and convert them into a form that
mirror allows them to be monitored by the operator. See
Figure 23-37.
Work being tested can be passed through encir-
cling detection coils, Figure 23-38, at speeds up to
To
control
500 fpm (150 mpm). When a flaw in the test piece is
unit

Laser
I 1111/1 souree.
Feed-adjusting
mechanism
I
To control unit

Figure 23-35. One type of laser inspection device. With it, tool Flaw detector
wear can be continuously monitored. Note how laser beams
can detect work that is oversize or undersize.

r work

Feed mechanism
Figure 23-36. This technician is using a laser step and gap tool
to measure the heights and distances between thermal protec-
tion tiles on the Space Shuttle Columbia. The measurements
are necessary to ensure that the tiles are precisely aligned. A Figure 23-37. Operation of the eddy current flaw detection sys-
rough surface or unevenly spaced tiles would increase friction tem. Photoelectric cells turn off alarm system when the end of a
and keep the thermal protection system from working properly. test piece passes into the test coil. Any flaw would cause small
(NASA) current changes in the test coil.
 Nachining Fundamentals

,.,.
'\ ·
Figure 23-38. Various sizes and types of encircling test coils
that are used to check tubing, bar stock, or wire with the eddy-
current system.
A

'
\

detected, the eddy-current unit does one or more of

the following:
• Flashes a warning light to alert the operator.
• Sounds a tone alarm.
• Activates a rejection device to eject the part
that does not meet standards.
• Marks the section that contains the flaw so it
can be removed.
• Provides an electronic record of the section
under test.
Figure 23-39. Methods of checking surface finishes. A-Machinist
is using a surface finish comparative-type checking panel.
8-Surface roughness can also be checked electronically with a
23.4 OTHER QUALITY CONTROL profilometer. (Mitotoyo/MTI Corp.)
TECHNIQUES
In addition to the quality control techniques
described, industry makes wide use of highly
specialized testing devices. For example, the quality
of a machined surface may be highly critical. The
surface finish can be inspected visually with a
comparative checking unit or electronically with a
profilometer. See Figure 23-39.
Because of the versatility of the computer, many
new quality control techniques are being developed
as the need arises. Computers will also make 100%
inspection of parts or entire products possible,
Figure 23-40.
Remember! The goal of quality control is not to Figure 23-40. New quality control devices make 100%
detect and discard imperfect parts, but to prevent inspection possible. Here lasers scan front end, door frames,
the defective parts from being manufactured in the and other assemblies to a,, accuracy of 3.0 mm or about 1/BH
first place. (Pontiac Div., General Motors Corp.)
Chapter 23 Quality Control

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 9. The _ _ is an optical gaging instrument

Please do not write in the text. V\Trite your designed for the inspection of small parts and
answers on a separate sheet of paper. sections of larger parts.
10. Explain how the magnetic particle inspection
1. Quality control is an important segment of
industry. Its purpose is to: technique operates.
a. Improve product quality. 11. Only _ _ metals can be inspected by the
b. Maintain quality. magnetic particle technique.
c. Help to reduce costs.
12. Ultrasonic inspection makes use of:
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above. a. Accurately made measuring fixtures.
b. A high-frequency sound beam.
2. Quality control falls into two basic classifica- c. X-rays.
tions. Name and explain each. d. All of the above.
3. Precision measuring tools, such as microme- e. None of the above.
ters, vernier tools, or dial indicators, are 13. Make a sketch showing the two methods of liq-
inspected and calibrated in a _ _ laboratory. uid coupling used for ultrasonic testing.
4. Inspection by radiography involves the use of 14. List the two basic categories of ultrasonic test-
_ _ and gamma radiation. ing. Briefly describe each.
5. List four advantages of the radiographic 15. Make a sketch showing how ultrasonic testing
inspection process. is done.
6. Magnetic particle inspection is commonly
known as _ _
7. Describe the fluorescent penetrant inspection
process.
8. Quality control is an important industrial tool
because:
a. It can be done easily.
b. It guarantees that the parts being pro-
duced meet standards and specifications.
c. It can be done by unskilled labor.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
 Machining Furtdarnental!.

Tool selection, cutting speeds and feeds, and other machining considerations are affected by the characteristics of the metal being
processed. This carbide-coated cutter insert is being used for semi-finished turning on a high-carbon steel workpiece. (Valenite, Inc.)
 Chapter 24
•
I er1 tics

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
0 Explain how metals are classified.
0 Describe the characteristics of metals.
0 Recognize the hazards that are posed when
certain metals are machined.
0 Explain the characteristics of some rein-
forced composite materials.

IMPORTANT TERMS
alloy ferrous
Aluminum Association Figure 24-1. An example of the revolution in materials technol-
honeycomb ogy is this splint used to immobilize severe fractures. The orig-
Designation System nonferrous inal metal version, shown at top, has bean replaced by the
base metal red hardness high-strength carbon fiber composite at bottom. The composite
carbon content tungsten carbide version is lighter, stiffer, and does not interfere with X-rays or
ductility other diagnostic tools. (Polygon Company).

More than a thousand different metals and

alloys are used by the metalworking industry. Most
of them are worked in the machine shop. However,
it must be noted that there is a "new materials revo- In addition to the conventional metals worked
lution" taking place, especially in the aerospace and in a modern machine shop, several of the newer
medical equipment industries. Many nonmetals materials will be described in this chapter. Plastics
and composites of metals and nonmetals are rapidly are described in Chapter 29.
emerging in applications that were once the exclu-
sive domain of metals. See Figure 24-1. 24.1 CLASSIFYING METALS
Can you tell by looking at a piece of metal Modern industrial metals may be classified as:
whether it is ferrous (containing iron), or nonferrous • Ferrous metals.
(containing no iron)? Is it an alloy (a mixture of two • Nonferrous metals.
or more metals)? Could it be a base metal, like tin, • High-temperature metals.
copper, or zinc? From a practical point of view, it is • Rare metals.
almost impossible to find out much about a piece of Because of space exploration and military
metal by just looking at it. research, great strides have been made in the devel-
A machinist is not expected to have a complete opment of the latter two groups in recent years.
understanding of all the technicalities of metals. Note: For tables that show physical properties of
However, a working knowledge of the various metals, dimensional tolerances, and feeds and
materials, and the common terms associated with speeds for machining, see the Reference Section of
them, is essential. this text.
 M.ichlnlng F1111d.1nHmah;

24.2 FERROUS METALS

The irons and steels, and their alloys, make up
the family of ferrous metals. For simplicity and eas-
ier understanding, ferrous metals can be further
subdivided in.to various categories.

24.2. I Cast Irons

Cast irons are iron alloys that contain 2.0% to
5.0% carbon 'With small quantities of silicon and
manganese. There may also be traces of other ele-
ments in the alloy.
Of the cast irons, gray iron and malleable iron
are most widely used in industry. They can be found
in great quantities in automotiYe, railroad, farm
equipment, and machine tool bodies. See
Figure 24-2.

Figure 24-3. Moiten iron from a blast furnace is being charged

into a basic oxygen furnace vessel at a Bethlehem Steel plant.
After charge has been completed, vessel will return to its
upright position for oxygen "blov1." Blast furnace iron, mixed with
scrap and selected additives, will then be refined into steel.

major alloying agent. The alloying elements impart

to iron the desired characteristics needed to perform
Figure 24-2. Many quality gray and malleable iron castings are a specific job.
used in modem machine tool construction, because of iron's
The physical properties of steel are unique. Steel
rigidity and stability with wide changes in temperature, and its
ease of machining to close tolerances. Shown is the assembly can be made soft enough to be easily machined. By
of a rail-type multiaxis milling machine. (lngerso!i Rand) careful heat treatment, the soft steel can be trans-
formed into a "glass-hard" material. By slightly
varying the heat treatment procedure, steel can be
Malleable iron can be hammered into shape given a hard, wear-resistant surface ,vhile retaining
,;.dthout fracturing. Most cast irons can be readily a soft, tough core to resist breaking. Its magnetic
machined once the hard surface scale has been pen- qualities also make steel ideal for many electrical
etrated. Carbide cutting tools are recommended applications.
because of the abrasive nature of the iron scale. No Carbon steels are classified according to the
cutting fluids should be used on cast iron. amount of carbon they contain. The carbon content
Compressed air is recommended if a coolant is is measured in percentage or in points (100 points
needed. Use extreme care when employing com- equal 1%). They are available in all standard mill
pressed air as a coolant. To prevent injury, chips and forms, Figure 24-4.
dust be contained. Low-carbon steels do not contain enough car-
bon (less than 0.30% or 30 points) to be hardened.
24.2.2 Steels They are easy to work and can be case-hardened.
Steel is often considered the "backbone" of the Lmv-carbon steel is often called mild steel or
metalworking industry, Figure 24-3. Carbon steel is machine steel. It is used for nuts, bolts, screws, gun
very common. It is an alloy of iron and carbon parts, precision shafting, tie rods, tool cylinders, and
and/or other alloying elements, but carbon is the similar applications.
Chapter 2': Metal Characteristics

be purchased with ground surfaces. Drill rod and

gronnd flat stock are examples.
High-carbon steels are found in products that
must be heat-treated, Figure 24-6. Applications
include heavy machinery parts, control rods,
-~ _/ wrenches, hammers, screwdrivers, pliers, springs,

l and a large variety of agricultural equipment.

Figure 24-4. A small portion of the hundreds of shapes and

sizes of metals that are available.

Hot rolled steel is steel that has been rolled to

finished size while hot. It is easily identified by its
black oxide surface scale, Figure 24-5.
Cold finished steel is steel that has been "pick-
led# or treated with a dilute acid solution to remove
the oxide coating. After pickling, the steel is drawn
or rolled to finished size and shape while cold. Cold
finished steel is characterized by a smooth bright
finish. The process improves the machinability of
the steel.

Figure 24-6. The teeth of this giant helical gear are being hard-
ened by the induction method. Only the faces of the teeth are
hardened to minimize their wear. {Philadelphia Gear Corp.)

Adding controlled amounts of sulfur and/ or

lead to carbon steels will result in improved
machinability without greatly affecting the metal's
mechanical properties. Usually, machining involves
the removal of considerable metal. The machine
tool must be capable of increased cutting speeds
Figure 24-5. Hot rolled steel, left, is characterized by a black before the machining of high-carbon steels will
oxide coating. Cold finished steel, at right, has a smooth shiny
surface. prove economical.

2 4.2.3 Alloy Steels

Medium-carbon steel contains 0.30% to 0.60% Alloy steels have other metal elements added to
(30 to 60 points) carbon. The carbon content is suffi- change their characteristics. Alloy steels are more
cient to allow partial hardening with proper heat costly to produce than carbon steels because of the
treatment. The heat-treating process improves the increased number of special operations that must be
strength of the steel. Available in all standard mill performed in their manufacture, Figure 24-7.
forms, medium-carbon steels are used for machine Elements such as nickel, chromium, molybde-
parts, automotive gears, camshafts, crankshafts, cap num, vanadium, manganese, and tungsten are used
screws, precision shafting, etc. to make alloy steels harder, stronger, or tougher. A
High-carbon steels contain 0.60% to 1.50% (60 to combination of two or more of the above elements
150 points) carbon. They are available in hot rolled usually imparts some of the characteristic proper-
form. However, some high-carbon steel shapes may ties of each.
ffll
t.~L...____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _Machining
_ Fundamentals
__
structure and increased toughness at high
temperatures.
• Manganese purifies steel and adds strength
and toughness. Manganese steel is used for
parts that must withstand shock and hard
wear, Figure 24-9.

-----· ----;
Figure 24-7. Preparing to lift an engine into the number one
position on the Discovery Space Shuttle. Many alloy and high-
temperature steels were used in the manufacture of this huge
engine (for size comparison, note technician at bottom center).
The engine has been designed to safely handle the super cold
of liquid oxygen at one end and the blast furnace temperature
of exhaust gases at the other, while operating in the near
absolute zero temperature of space. (NASA)

Chromium-nickel steels, for example, develop

good hardening properties with good ductility (a
property of metal that permits permanent deforma-
tion by hammering, rolling, and drawing without
breaking or fracturing). Chromium-molybdenum
combinations develop excellent hardenability with
satisfactory ductility and a certain amount of heat
resistance.

24.2.4 Alloy Metallic Elements Figure 24-8. Chromium steel is used extensively in the landing
gear assembly of this aircraft. It has ability to withstand the
Metallic elements that may be added to alloy shock of landing the multi-ton aircraft. (U.S. Air Force
steels, and properties they impart to the steel, Thunderbirds)
include:
• Nickel imparts toughness and strength, par-
ticularly at low temperatures. Nickel steels
permit more economical heat treatment and
have improved resistance to corrosion. They
are especially suitable for the case-hardening
process and are used for applications such as
armor plate, roller bearings, and aircraft
engine parts.
• Chromium is added when toughness, hard-
ness, and wear resistance are desired. It is the
basis of stainless steel. Chromium steel is
found extensivelv in automotive and aircraft
parts, Figure 24-8.
• Molybdenum is employed as an alloying
agent when the steel must remain tough at
high temperatures. Figure 24-9. Many components of earthmoving vehicles are
• Vanadium, when added as an alloying ele- made from manganese steel. This type of steel is strong and
ment, produces a steel that has a fine grain tough enough to withstand constant abrasive wear.
 Chapter 24 Metal Characteristlc:s
rm
• Tungsten, when added in the proper amount,
makes steel that has a fine, dense structure
with improved heat treatment qualities. It is
one of the principal alloying agents in many
tool steels. Tools made with these steels retain
their strength and hardness at high tempera-
tures.
• Cobalt is the chief alloying element in high-
speed steels because it improves the red hard-
ness (quality of remaining hard when red hot)
of cutting tool materials. Wear resistance is
also improved.
Some alloy steels possess relatively high
strength at moderately elevated temperatures. They
are finding many applications in airframe structures
of aerospace vehicles.

24.2.5 Tool Steel

Tool steel is the term usually applied to steels Figure 24-10. Two high-speed steel (HSS) milling cutters are
found in devices that are used to cut, shear, or form being used to mill an aluminum plate into the specified shape.
materials. They may be either carbon or alloy steels.
Steels in the lower carbon content range (0.70% to
0.90% or 70 to 90 points) are used for tools subject to
shock. Higher--carbon-content tool steels (1.10% to
1.30% or 110 to 130 points) are utilized when tools
with keen cutting edges are required.
Drills, reamers, milling cutters, punches, and
dies are made from alloy tool steels. Although sev-
eral tool steels can be hardened using water as a
quenching medium, most must be hardened in oil
or in air. The latter are often known as oil-hardened
or air-hardened steels.
Some alloy steels are also classified as high-
speed steels, because they are capable of making
deeper cuts at higher cutting speeds than regular
tool steels. They possess red hardness, or the ability
to retain their hardness at high temperatures, Figure
24-10. They also possess high abrasion resistance. In
spite of the development and wide spread use of Figure 24-11. Cutting tools made from tungsten carbide can cut
cemented carbides and ceramics, high-speed steels many times faster than high-speed steel cutters. (Valenite, Inc.)
remain a major cutting tool material.

24.2.6 Tungsten Carbide

Tungsten carbide is the hardest human-made Applying a 0.0001" (0.002 mm) thick coating of
metal. It is almost as hard as a diamond. The metal titanium nitride (TiN) and titanium carbide (TiC) to
is shaped by molding tungsten, carbon, and cobalt the surface of carbide tools extends their life 3 to 8
powders under heat and pressure in a process times longer than uncoated tools. Uncoated tools
known as sintering. The metals fuse together with- acquire a buildup of material on the cutting edge,
out melting. which produces a ragged surface finish on the work.
Tungsten carbide, while not a true steel, is usu- Coated tools resist buildup from the chips. They
ally classified with the steels. Tools made from this also run cooler, last longer, hold tolerances better,
family of materials can cut many times faster than and produce a better surface finish. See Figure
high-speed cutting tools, Figure 24-11. 24-12.
 ganese stainless steels. Generally, they are
hardenable only by cold working. The
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) 300
series of stainless steels are in this category.
• The martensitic stainless steel alloys of iron,
carbon, and chromium are characteristically
magnetic in nature and obtain their hardness
through normal heat-treating processes.
• The ferritic stainless steels have more than
18% chromium. They are nonhardenable and
all of them are magnetic.
Stainless steels may be machined with tech-
niques normal for mild steels. However, some pre-
cautions must be observed with stainless steel:
A • Feeds must be high enough to ensure that the
Titanium nitride coating cutting edge(s) get under the previous cuts
and thus avoid the hardened portions.
• Tools must be as large as possible, because the
life of the cutting edge(s) depends on good
heat dissipation into the body of the cutting
tool.
• Finishing cuts should be used when working
Improved to close tolerances.
surface finish • The machine should be adjusted so there is
minimum play. Otherwise, the cutting tool
may "ride" the work and glaze and/ or
harden the surface.
B
24.2.8 Identifying Steels
Figure 24-12. Tool coating benefits. A-Uncoated cutting tools
acquire a buildup of material on the cutting edge, which pro- Because different kinds of steels look alike, sev-
duces a "ragged" surface finish as parts of the buildup flake off. eral methods of identification have been devised.
B-Tools coated with titanium nitride (TiN) and titanium carbide They include identification by chemical composi-
(TiC) resist the buildup from the chips. The coated cutting tools
run cooler, stay sharp longer, and produce a better surface
tion, mechanical properties, the ability to meet a
finish. standard specification or industry accepted practice,
or the ability to be fabricated. The shape of the mill
form (rod, bar, structural shape, etc.), and the
Recommended carbide grade applications and intended use for the metal, can also determine the
how the various manufacturers list their corre- method of identification.
sponding products are shown in chart form in
Figure 24-13. AISI/SAE codes
The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and
24.2. 7 Stainless Steels the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) have
There are more than a hundred different stain- de\'i.sed almost identical standards that are "'-'1.dely
less steels. However, one characteristic common to used for identifying steel. Both systems use an iden-
all of them is that they contain enough chromium to tical four-number code (some steels require a fifth
render them corrosion resistant. Stainless steels digit) that describes the physical characteristics of
may be divided into three basic groups: the steels. The AISI system also makes use of a pre-
• The austenitic classification includes the fix letter (A, B, C, etc.) that indicates the steel man-
chromium-nickel and chromium-nickel-man- ufacturing process used.
Cl,apc r l Ch ,.- t, t

Recommended Carbide Insert Grade Applications

Grade C2 uncoated For cast iron, nonferrous materials, and general-purpose use.

Grade C4 uncoated Light finishing cast iron, nonferrous, and general-purpose.

Grade C6 uncoated For steel, steel casting, malleable cast iron, stainless steels, and free cutting steels.

Grade C5-C6 For carbon steels, tool steels, alloy steels, steel castings, malleable cast iron,
Titanium nitride austenitic and martensitic stainless steels, and free cutting steels.
coated (TiN)

Grade C6-C7 For steel, steel castings, malleable cast iron, nodular iron, and martensitic
Titanium carbide stainless steels.
coated (TiC)

Grade C2--C4--C6-C8 For carbon steels, tool steels, stainless steels, alloy steels, steel castings, gray cast iron,
Aluminum oxide, malleable cast iron, and nodular iron.
ceramic coated

Carbide Comparison Chart

Class RTC
Newcomer Cerboloy lacar Kennametal Mitsubishi Sandvik Seco Sumitomo Valenlte V.R.Weason RTW
C-2 RTC2 N21 B33 IC20 K-68 UTi20T CG-20 HX G10E VC-1 2A5 CQ-2
HTi10 VC-'2/VC-28
C-6 RTC5 N60 395 IC54 K420 STi20 S-2 S-2 ST20E VC-6 VR-75 Cy-5
78 UTi20T S-35 S-4
TiN RTC052 NN60 516 IC656 KC810 - GC-425 AC720 VN-5 663
KC950 GC-315 TP15 AC815 VC-7 650 TRW-755
GC-225 AC15 VC-88 660
VO1
TiN& RTC054 1000 550 IC635 KC850 U610 GC4025 TP10 - VN2 653 718
AlO2 & 560 GC235
TiN
B

Figure 24-13. Recommendations for various tungsten insert type cutting tools. A-Recommended applications. B-Carbide insert
comparisons.

The four-numeral code works as follows: The

first digit classifies the steel. The second digit indi-
cates the approximate percentage of the alloying
element in the steel. The last two digits show the
approximate carbon content of the steel in points or
hundredths of one percent. For example, a steel des-
ignated SAE 1020 is a carbon steel with approxi-
mately 20 points or 0.20% carbon. The AISI and SAE
four-digit code applies primarily to bar, rod, and
wire products. See the Reference Section of this text
for more information on this subject.
Color coding
Color coding is another method of identifying
the many kinds of steel, Figure 24-14. Each Figure 24-14. Note color coding of steel rods.
commonly used steel is designated by a specific 24.3. I Aluminum
color. The color coding is painted on the ends of bars Aluminum has come to mean a large famiiy of
that are 1" (25 mm) or larger in diameter. On bars aluminum alloys, not just a single metal. As first
smaller than 1" (25 mm), the color code may be
applied to the end of the bar or on an attached tag.
Spark test
The spark test is also employed at times to
determine grades of steel. The metal is touched to
the grinding wheel lightly and the resulting sparks
are carefully observed. See Figure 24-15.
When performing or observing a spark test,
wear approved eye protection. The grinder eye-
shield should be clean and in position. The tool rest
must also be properly adjusted.

24.3 NONFERROUS METALS

There are many metals that do not have iron as
their basic ingredient. Known as nonferrous metals, Figure 24-16. Aluminum alloys are utilized in construction of
they offer specific properties, or combinations of this high-speed train designed to travel at 200 mph (320 kph).
properties, that make them ideal for tasks where fer- The metal is light, strong, and corrosion resistant. (French
rous metals are not suitable, Figure 24-16. National Railroads)

Wrought Mild Tool High-carbon High-speed Manganese

iron steel steel steel steel steel

~ \·
"I
1 !
I
i
!
X
I l

Lt. straw Lt. straw White White Chrome yellow White

Figure 24-15. A spark test is sometimes employed to determine the grade of steel. Touch steel to the grinding wheel lightly, and
observe the color and form of the resulting sparks.
Chapter 2'.l Metal Cha.--acteristics

produced, aluminum is 99.5% to 99.76% pure. It is hardness of the alloy. It follows the alloy identifica-
somewhat soft and not very strong. tion number and is separated from it by a dash.
The strength of aluminum can be greatly Aluminum alloys possess many desirable quali-
increased by adding small amounts of alloying ele- ties. They are extremely strong and corrosion-resis-
ments, by heat-treating, or by cold working. A com- tant under most conditions. The alloys are lighter
bination of the three techniques has produced than most commercially available metals. They can
aluminum alloys that, pound for pound, are be shaped and formed easily, and are readily avail-
stronger than structural steel. In addition to increas- able in a multitude of sizes, shapes, and alloys.
ing strength, alloying elements can be selected to
Machining aluminum
improve welding characteristics, corrosion resis-
tance, machinability, etc. Most of the wrought aluminum alloys possess
There are two main classes of aluminum alloys: excellent machining characteristics. They are capa-
wrought alloys and cast alloys. The shape of ble of being machined to intricate shapes at high
wrought alloys is changed by mechanically work- cutting speeds. However, the makeup of an alu-
ing them by forging, rolling, extruding, hammering, minum alloy is a factor that can affect machinability.
or other techniques. Cast alloys are shaped by Some aluminum alloys of a nonabrasive nature
pouring metal into a mold and allowing it to solid- (those containing copper, magnesium, or zinc), have
ify, Figure 24-17. improved machinability. Other alloys with abrasive
constituents (such as silicon) reduce tool life and
machined surfaces may have a slightly gray finish
with little luster.
Most aluminum alloys are easier to machine to a
good finish when in full hard temper than when in
an annealed state. Machining characteristics of more
commonly used aluminum alloys are:
• Number 1100 and 3003 alloys have good
machinability but are gummy in nature.
Turnings are long and stringy, causing diffi-
culty in chip disposal. Good results can be
obtained if the cutting tools have large top
and side rake angles, with keen, smooth cut-
ting edges.
• Number 5052 alloy has turnings that are long
and stringy, and the machined surface is not
as good as on 3003. Machinability is good,
however.
• Number 5056 alloy has good machinability
with the advantage of fairly easy chip dis-
posal.
• Numbers 2017-T4 and 2014-T6 alloys machine
to an excellent finish. Of the two, 2014-T6 has
better machinability because of the heat-treat-
ing method employed. It causes greater tool
wear.
Figure 24-17. This die cast aluminum wheel is emerging trom • Number 2024-T3 alloy has good machining
die (mold) of a casting machine. The wheel is lighter, stronger, characteristics with properly sharpened and
and more attractive than conventional pressed steel whesls. honed tools. Surface finishes are excellent.
(Kelsey-Hayes) • Number 6061-T6 alloy contains silicon and
magnesium. It is more difficult to machine
than the 2000 series alloys. Properly sharp-
Each alloy is given an identifying number. ened cutting tools and coolants with good
Known as the Aluminum Association Designation lubricating qualities are essential. Fine fin-
System, it is a four-digit code, plus a temper desig- ishes are obtainable with moderately heavy
nation. Temper designation indicates the degree of cuts.
 • Number 7075-T6 alloy is the highest strength 24.3.2 Magnesium
aluminum allov that is commerciallv avail- Magnesium alloys are the lightest of the struc-
able. Machining qualities are good. - tural metals. They have a high strength-to-weight
High-speed cutting tools will produce satisfac- ratio. These alloys have excellent machining proper-
tory results ·when machining most aluminum alloys. ties, and can be machined by all common metal-
However, optimum results will require the use of ,vorking techniques. The lathe tool recommended
carbide or ceramic tools. Recommended tool geom- for magnesium is shown in Figure 24-19.
etry for aluminum is shown in Figure 24-18. Despite their many advantages, magnesium
allovs must be worked ,._i.th extreme care. Several of
the -alloys deYeloped for use at elevated tempera-
hires in aerospace vehicles contain thorium, a low-
Small nose
level radioactive material. They must be handled
radius ..___, according to strict safety precautions for radioactive
materials.
Another concern when machining magnesium
is that extreme care must be taken because the chips
or particles are highly flammable. (Because of the
relatively high thermal conductivity of magnesium,
there is normally no fire hazard when a solid section
of the metal is exposed to fire, however.) Burning
magnesium chips are so intensely hot (600°F or
315::C) they cannot be extinguished by conventional
firefighting techniques. Water or commercial extin-
guishing agents will actually intensify the fire. A
special (Class D) extinguishing agent is made for
Figure 24-18. Configuration of carbide fathe roof for machining
aluminum.
flammable metals fires.

Figure 24-19. Configuration of HSS lathe tool recommended for machining magnesium.
Chapter 24 :-1~tal Cha.-acteristks

To guard against magnesium fires, do not allow 24.4 COPPER-BASED ALLOYS

magnesium chips to accumulate on or around the Brass and bronze are the most familiar of the
machine, and use a straight mineral oil cutting fluid copper-based alloys. However, lesser-known heat-
in adequate quantities to flood the work. Avoid treatable alloys are available. The newer alloys
water-based coolants, since they react with the chips include copper and exotic metals like zirconium and
and actually intensify a magnesium fire once it gets beryllium. Most copper-based alloys are available in
started. rod, bar, tube, wire, strip, and sheet forms.
24.3.3 Titanium
24.4. I Copper
Titanium is a metal as strong as steel but only
Copper is a base metal; that is, a pure metallic ele-
half as heavy. It bridges the gap between aluminum
ment. It is probably the oldest known metal. It can
and steel. It is silvery in appearance, and extremely
be shaped easily, but becomes hard when worked
resistant to corrosion. Most titanium alloys are capa-
and must be annealed or softened. Copper is
ble of continuous use at temperatures up to about
difficult to machine because of its toughness and
800°F (427°C). This makes titanium ideal for use in
softness.
high-speed aircraft components. Aluminum fails
With copper, keep tools honed sharp and make
rapidly at temperatures above 250°F (121 °C).
as deep a cut as possible. Cutting fluids are not ordi-
Machining titanium narily needed. except when tapping.
Titanium can be machined with conventional 24.4.2 Brass
tools if the following practices are observed:
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. It ranges
• Tool and work setups must be rigid.
in color from reddish yellow to a silvery yellow,
• Tools must be kept sharp.
with the color determined by the percentage of
• Good coolants must be applied in adequate
zinc it contains. Most brasses can be readily
quantities.
machined.
• Cutting speeds must be slower, with heavier
feeds than those used for steel.
Turning titanium that is commercially pure is 24.4.3 Bronze
very similar to turning 18-8 stainless steel. The Bronze, Figure 24-20, is an alloy of copper and
alloys are somewhat more difficult to machine. tin. It is harder than brass and is much more expen-
Tungsten carbide and some types of ceramic tools sive. Many special bronze alloys include additional
produce the best results. alloying elements, such as aluminum, nickel, sili-
Milling titanium is more difficult than turning con, and phosphorous. Most bronzes are relatively
because the chips tend to weld to the cutter teeth. easy to machine with sharp tools, Figure 24-21
Climb milling may alleviate the problem to a great
extent. Cast alloy tools often prove more economical 24.4.4 Beryllium Copper
to use than carbide tools. A water-based coolant is Beryllium is one of the newer copper-based
recommended. alloys. Its machining qualities are similar to those of
Drilling titanium with conventional high-speed copper.
steel drills will produce satisfactory work. Drills Machining beryllium copper can pose a definite
should be no longer than necessary to produce the health hazard if precautions are not observed. The
required depth hole and still allow the chips to flow fine dust generated by machining and filing can
unhampered. cause severe respiratory damage. A respirator-type
Tapping titanium is one of the more difficult face mask must be worn. Special procedures must
machining operations. The tap has a tendency to also be followed when cleaning machines used to
freeze or bind in the hole. Careful selection of cut- machine beryllium copper.
ting fluid will minimize this problem. A vacuum system should be employed to
Sawing titanium requires a slow speed of about remove the beryllium copper dust, or the work
50 fpm (15 rnpm) with heavy, constant pressure. The should be liberally flooded with cutting fluid. Do
tooth geometry of the blade must be designed for not permit cutting tools to become dull; since dull
sawing titanium. tools generate more dust than sharp tools.
 Figure 24-21. Configuration of HSS lathe tool for turning brass
and bronze.

20°-30°

'
10°-15°

Figure 24-22. Configuration of HSS lathe tool tor turning beryl-

lium copper.
Figure 24-20. Bronze. A-Bronze is an excelfent metal for ship
propelfers. The one shown is 31 feet in diameter. (Bethlehem
Steel Co.) 8-Ship propelfers are machined on large CNC mul-
tiaxis machine tools. (Bird-Johnson Company)

Beryllium copper can be heat-treated. It should 24.S HIGH-TEMPERATURE METALS

not be machined in the annealed state. Recom- The nuclear and aerospace industries are chiefly
mended tool geometry for lathe tools used with responsible for the development of a number of
beryllium copper is shown in Figure 24-22. When high-temperature metals. These metals have the
machining beryllium, employ a mineral oil-based unique properties of high strength for extended
cutting fluid. The fluid should be selected for its periods at elevated temperatures, Figure 24-23.
cooling properties, rather than for lubrication. They are sometimes called superalloys.
Chapter 24 Metal Characteristics

24.5.3 Tantalum
Tantalum alloys are specified where depend-
ability at temperatures above 2000°F (1094°C) is
Fan portion
140°F (60°C) required. Tantalum is used for rocket nozzles, heat
exchangers in nuclear reactors, and in some space
structures.
Tantalum is not an easy metal to machine. It is
gummy and has a tendency to tear. High-speed steel
tools are usually recommended. Extreme cutting
angles are used to keep the tool and chip clear of the
Shroud and work. The tool should be well supported, with little
inter-blade overhang.
seal

24.5.4 Tungsten
Tungsten melts at a higher temperature -6200°F
(3429°C) - than any other known metal. However,
tungsten is not resistant to oxidation at high temper-
atures (above 930°F or 499°C) and must be protected
Turbine blade driven
by hot gas flow with a suitable coating, such as one of the silicides.
from angina It has many uses in rocket engines, welding elec-
1049°F (565°C) trodes, and high-temperature furnaces. Tungsten is
an ideal metal for breaker points in electrical
devices.
Machining is quite difficult, but can be done
with carbide and ceramic tools if the work is pre-
heated to about 400°F (204°C). The final shaping of
a tungsten part is frequently done by grinding.
Rgure 24-23. Metal usea for tlle manufacture ot tnts fan jet tur- Adequate cooling of the grinding wheel with an oil-
bine blade must be able to withstand high temperatures for long based compound is recommended.
periods of time without failing.

24.6 RARE METALS

Name just about any rare metal, and the odds
24.5. I Nickel-based Alloys are that someone is attempting to find a way to use
Nickel-based alloys are known commercially as it for aerospace applications. Most metals in this cat-
Iconel-X, Hastealloy-X, Rene 41, etc. They have many egory are available only in small quantities for
uses in jet engines, rocket engines, and electric heat- experimental purposes. Many of them cost consid-
treating furnaces. These applications require metals erably more than gold.
that can operate at temperatures of 1200°F to 1900°F Included in the rare metals group are such ele-
(649°C to 1038°C). These metals are not easy to ments as scandium, yttrium, cerium, europium, lan-
machine by conventional methods. thanum, and holmium. While they may seem
strange and almost unknown at the present time, it
24.5.2 Molybdenum was not too long ago that uranium, titanium, and
Molybdenum has excellent elevated temper- beryllium were in the same category. In fact, it has
ature strength in the 1900°F to 2500°F (1038°C to only been slightly more than 100 years since alu-
1372°C) range, and has found many applications in minum was considered a rare metal worth many
modern technology. It also has great resistance to times more than gold!
corrosion by acids, molten glass, and metals.
Molybdenum machines similar to cast iron if 24.6. I Other Materials
both the work and cutting tool are mounted rigidly. In addition to conventional metals and plastics,
For most work, tungsten carbide and ceramic tools the modern machine shop is also expected to work
are preferred over high-speed steel tools. other types of materials.
Honeycomb
Many ·ways have been devised to give existing
metals greater strength and rigidity while reducing
weight. Honeycomb sandwich structures, Figure
24-24, are an example. Sections of thin material (alu-
minum, stainless steel, titanium, and nonmetals like
Nomex® fabric) are bonded together to form a struc-
ture that is similar in appearance to the wax comb
that bees create to store honey.

Figure 24-25. Machining honeycomb can be a delicate opera-

tion. A three-dimensional miffing machine is being used to carve
aluminum honeycomb to airfoil shape for the tail section of an
aircraft. (Hexcel Corp.)

Figure 24-24. Honeycomb has great strength and rigidity for its
weight. ft has many applications in aerospace industries.

When honeycomb is rigidly bonded between

hvo metal or composite sheets to form a sandwich
panel, it becomes a strong structure. It has a very
high strength-to-vveight ratio and rigidity-to-v,,eight
ratio. The bonding is done with an adhesive, or the Figure 24-26. An orbiter (space shuttle) being mated to the
materials fused by brazing or resistance welding. back of its 747 carrier aircraft. The metals and composites used
Because the material is fragile (before being in the manufacture of each vehicle were carefully selected to
provide maximum strength while keeping weight at a minimum.
shaped and bonded into rigid units), it can cause
This was no easy task, given their operating requirements.
problems in machining, Figure 24-25. In addition to (NASA)
special tools that literally pare the material off, elec-
trolytic grinding is the most rapid method for
machining honeycomb. lt does not leave a burr that epoxy) under heat and pressure. These materials are
,vould create problems in its removal. generally lighter, stronger, and more rigid than
The space shuttle and other late-model aero- many conventional metals. Some are being used in
space vehicles utilize large quantities of aluminum, commercial jet engines for parts like bushings and
stainless steel, and titanium honeycomb in their washers. Some are capable of withstanding temper-
structures. See Figure 24-26. atures of 600:)F (315:)C) for long periods of time, and
temperatures of 1000°F (540°C) for short periods of
Composites time.
Composites are a relatively new development Present uses for composites are concentrated
that utilize fibers of conventional materials (and in the aerospace and automotive industries,
some not so common materials), in both pure and Figure 24-27. However, composites are finding
alloy forms. Fibers such as pure iron, graphite, applications in such things as fishing poles, skis,
boron, and fiberglass are bonded together in a spe- golf clubs, tennis rackets, bicycle frames, and other
cial plastic matrix (binding substance, such as an products, Figure 24-28. Much research is being done
 Chapter 24 Metal Characteristics
IJ
3. Carbide cutting tools are recommended for
machining cast iron because:
a. Cast iron is hard and brittle.
b. Cast iron has a hard surface scale.
c. Cast iron is difficult to machine.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
4. Carbon steel is an alloy of _ _ and _ _.
5. How are carbon steels classified?
6. Hot rolled steel is characterized by the _ _
on its surface.
7. The machinability of carbon steel is improved
if _ _ or _ _ is added as an alloying
Rgure 24-27. The F-117 "Stealth" aircraft utilizes large quanti- element.
ties of composites in its manufacture. Many new manufacturing
techniques had to be developed to construct an aircraft of this 8. Nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium,
type. (Lockheed Martin Corp.) and tungsten are used to make steel _____J

___;and _ _.
9. Drills, reamers, some milling cutters, and simi-
lar tools are usually made from _ _ steel.
10. The chief characteristic of stainless steel is its
resistance to _ _
11. List the three basic groups of stainless steel.
12. Aluminum, magnesium, and titanium are
metals.
13. Magnesium is the _ _ of the structural
metals.
14. Titanium is a metal that is as as steel but
Figure 24-28. One of the many types of composite materials is
only _ _ as _ _.
glass or carbon fiber bound together with a resin. Here, glass
fiber is being wound around a large metal mandrel before resin 15. Brass and bronze are _ _-based alloys.
is applied. Once the resin cures (hardens), grinding and other
machining techniques can be used to achieve final dimensions. 16. Brass is an alloy of copper and _ _.
Note the dust mask being worn by the technician to prevent
inhaling tiny airbome fibers. (Compositek Corporation) 17. Bronze is an alloy of copper and _ _.
18. Why must a machinist take special precautions
to reduce the cost of composites so they can be when working beryllium copper?
employed to make lighter and safer automobile 19. Nickel-based alloys, molybdenum, tantalum,
bodies and other components. and tungsten are classified as _ _ metals.
20. What is the structural material known as
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE honeycomb?
Please do not write in the text. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper. 21. What are composites?

1. What are the four main categories of metals?

2. Iron and steel are classified as metals.
II ----··

This t&chniciall iS adjusting ths controls ol a multizone carbonitrldtng furnace used to case-harden st99/. (Master Lock Co.)
 Chapter 25

eat Treatment
of Metals
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
0 Explain why some metals are heat-treated.
0 List some of the metals that can be heat-
trea ted.
0 Describe some types of heat-treating tech-
niques and how they are performed.
0 Case harden low-carbon steel.
0 Harden and temper some carbon steels.
0 Compare hardness testing techniques.
0 Point out the safety precautions that must
be observed when heat-treating metals.

IMPORTANT TERMS
annealing Rockwell hardness tester
Brinell hardness tester scleroscope Figure 25-1. A computerized material testing system being
case hardening stress-relieving us9d to determine tensile strength of metals. Metal is subjected
hardness number tempering to a slowly applied fores that pulls it apart. The metal fractures
normalizing Webster hardness tester when the ultimate tensile strength of the specimen is exceeded.
{MTS Systems Corp.)

Since many parts produced in the machine shop

must be heat-treated before use, it is important that
the machinist be familiar with the basic science of
heat-treating metals.
Heat treatment involves the controlled heating
and cooling of a metal or alloy to obtain certain
desirable changes in its physical characteristics,
Figure 25-1. These changes include improving resis-
tance to shock, developing toughness, and increas-
ing wear resistance and hardness, Figure 25-2.
Heat treatment is done by heating the metal to a Figure 25-2. Many parts of this huge ore-carrying truck are
predetermined temperature, then quenching it heat-treated. Without heat-treated parts (wheels, drive shaft,
(cooling it rapidly) in water, brine, oil, blasts of cold gears, axles, etc.), the vehicle would not be able to maintain its
air, or liquid nitrogen. Refer to Figure 25-3. grueling workload for long without part wear and failure. (Euclid)
Desired qualities do not always prevail after
quenching. Stresses can develop that, under certain lower temperature, followed by another cooling
conditions, may cause some steels to shatter. cycle to develop the proper degree of hardness and
Therefore, the metal may have to be reheated to a toughness.
 M achining Fundamentals

metals, the other with nonferrous metals. Because

each area is so broad, it is beyond the scope of this
text to include more than basic information on the
heat treahnent of metals.
Changes in the physical characteristics of steel
and its alloys can be affected by these basic types of
heat treatment.

25.2. I Stress-relieving
Stress-relieving is done to remove internal
stresses that have developed in parts that have been
cold '"'orked, machined, or welded. See Figure 25-4.
To stress-relieve, steel parts are heated to 1000°F to
1200°F (547°C to 660°C), held at this temperature
one hour or more per inch of thickness, and then
slowly air- or furnace-cooled. The technique is
sometimes called process annealing.

25.2.2 Annealing
Annealing is a process that reduces the hardness
of a metal to make it easier to machine or
Figure 25-3. A cryogenic quenching area in a modern heat- work, Figure 25-5. It involves heating the metal to
treating facility. Characteristics of several aluminum alloys and slightly abo,,e its critical temperature, but never
some space-age metals are greatly improved by heating them more than 50°F to 75cp (28°C to 40°C) above this
to a predetermined temperature and quickly quenching (cool-
ing) them in liquid nitrogen at about -300°F (-185aC).
point, Figure 25-6. The time that it is held at this
(Grumman Aerospace Corp.) temperature depends upon the shape and thickness

Heat treahnent involves a number of processes,

which are described in later sections of this chapter.
Similar techniques can be employed to anneal
(soften) metals to make them easier to machine, or
to case harden (produce a hard exterior surface)
steel for better resistance to V\'ear.

25.1 HEAT-TREATABLE METALS

Steel and most of its alloys are hardenable.
However, when heat-treating carbon steel, it must
be remembered that the carbon content of the metal
is an important consideration. Carbon steels are
classified by the percentage of carbon they contain
in "points" or hundredths of 1%. For example: 60
point carbon steel would contain 60/ 100 (0.60) of
1% carbon. Steel with less than 50 points carbon can-
not be hardened.
Magnesium, copper, beryllium, titanium, and
many aluminum alloys are also capable of being
heat-treated.

25.2 TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT

The heat treatment of metals may be divided Figure 25-4. The stresses that develop In metals when they are
into hvo major categories. One deals with ferrous machined or welded are removed by stress-relieving.
 -------------------------------------------'r ·.
Chapter 2S Heat Treatment of Metals

of the part. After the holding period, the piece is In reducing the hardness of the metal, its
allowed to cool slowly in the furnace or other insu- mac!,inability is improved. Many nonferrous metals
lated enclosure. can also be softened by annealing.
For some steels, it may be necessary to use the
box annealing method or a controlled atmosphere 25.2.3 Normalizing
furnace to prevent the work from scaling or decar- Normalizing is a process where the metal is
bonizing (loss of carbon on surface). With box heated to slightly above its upper critical tempera-
annealing, the part is placed in a metal box and the ture and allowed to cool to room temperature.
entire unit is heated, then allowed to cool slowly in Normalizing is employed to refine the grain struc-
the sealed furnace. ture of some steels and thereby improve machin-
ability. It is a process closely related to annealing.

25.2.4 Hardening
Hardening is a technique normally employed to
obtain optimum physical qualities in steel, Figure
25-7. This is accomplished by heating the metal to
a predetermined temperature for a specified period
of time.
The temperature at which steel will harden is
called its critical temperature, and ranges from
1400°F to 2400°F (760°C to 1316°C), depending upon
the alloy and carbon content. For a "rule-of-thumb"
range of hardening temperatures for carbon steel,
see Figure 25-8.
After heating, the part is quenched in water,
brine, oil, liquid nitrogen, or blasts of cold air. Water
Figure 25-5. Annealing reduces hardness of metal and
or brine is employed to quench plain carbon steel.
improves its machinability. When annealing is done in a con- Oil is usually used to quench alloy steels. Blasts of
trolled atmosphere, oxidation does not take place and the part cold air or liquid nitrogen are used for high-alloy
remains bright. (Lindberg Steel Treating Co.) steels.

1800
..... ..........
..... Annealing and
normalizing
1600

-
·a;
..c
C
/

Critical range
~
..c
ca
LL 1400
ti)
Q)
~
Cl
Q)
Cl

1200

Stress-relieving
range
1000 ....__ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___,______....__ _ ___.__ _ _ _....__ _ __.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Percent carbon

Figure 25-6. Critical range diagram for plain carbon steel.

 !'•fa.chining r-c.:n:::fa1me11<!:i<!S

Figure 25-9. Lathe ways are frequently surface-hardened for

improved wear resistance.

Figure 25-7. Molds for plastic bowling pins are being placed in
a furnace for hardening. (Lindberg Steel Treating Co.)

Carbon Content I Hardening Temperature Range I

0.65% to 0.80% l 1450°F to 1550°F (788°C to 843°C)
(
0.80% to 0.95% I 1410°F to 1460°F {766°C to 793cq
0.95%to 1.10% l 1400°F to 1450°F (760°C to 788°C) Figure 25-10. A lathe bed being flame hardened.
Over 1.10% ! 1380CF to 1430°F {749°C to 777°C)
Figure 25-8. This chart shows the "rule-of-thumb" (rough prac-
tical method) way to determine a range of hardening tempera-
tures for carbon steel. Heated metal must be quenched in water, Induction hardening makes use of a high-
brine, light oil, or blasts of cold air. frequency electrical induction current to heat the
metal, Figure 25-11. The quenching medium follows
the induction coil. The technique is rapid and tends
Quenching leaves the steel hard and brittle. It to minimize distortion in the piece being heat-
may fracture if exposed to sudden changes in tem- treated. Induction hardening is ideal for production
perature. For most purposes, this brittleness and hardening operations.
hardness must be reduced by a tempering or draw- Laser hardening works on the same principle as
ing operation. the previously described hardening techniques. A
laser beam 1/8" to 5/8" (3.2 mm to 15.9 mm) wide
25.2.5 Surface Hardening is focused on the area to be hardened, Figure 25-12.
Surface hardening is often used when oniy a The light energy emitted by the laser is converted
medium-hard surface is required on high-carbon or into heat energy and is absorbed by the metal.
alloy steels, Figure 25-9. The internal structure of The surface heats rapidly, so the part must be
the metal is not affected. Harne hardening, induc- moved under the beam or the area will be heated to
tion hardening,, and laser hardening are used to the melting temperature. Since there is very little
attain these characteristics. heat input into the part, the hardened area cools
Flame hardening involves the rapid heating of rapidly (self-quenches) enough to touch within a
the surface with an acetylene torch, and immediate few seconds.
quenching of the heated surface, Figure 25-10. The With the laser technique, the area being hard-
flame must be moved constantly to prevent burning ened can be carefully controlled. It may be as small
or hardening the metal too deeply. as 1 / 4" (6.5 mm) square.
 "
Chapter 25 Heat Treatment of Metals

25.2.6 Case Hardening

Low-carbon steel cannot be hardened to any
great degree by conventional heat treatment.
However, a hard shell can be put on the surface,
while the inner portion remains relatively soft
and tough, by the process called case hardening,
Figure 25-13.

Interior remains
relatively soft
and tough

Figure 25-13. Cross section of a case-hardened part shows

that interior remains relatively soft and tough, while a hard
"shell" is formed on the exterior.

Figure 25-11. A stand-alone vertical-scanning Induction system Case hardening is accomplished by heating the
for heat treating. It is equipped with a touch screen and program piece to a red heat and introducing small quantities
recall from program/file base. The furnace may be loaded/
unloaded manually or by a robotic manipulator. (Radyne)
of carbon or nitrogen to the metal's surface. This can
be done by one of the following methods: carburiz-
ing, cyaniding, or nitriding.
• During carburizing, sometimes termed the
pack method, the steel is buried in a dry
carbonaceous material (material rich in
carbon) and heated to just above its transfor-
mation range, Figure 25-14. In the transfor-
mation range (1350°F-1650°F or 730°C-900°C),
steels undergo internal atomic changes that
radically affect their properties. The part is

Figure 25-12. A laser beam being used to heat-treat the bear-

ing area of a shaft." Black paint on the bearing area prevents the
beam from being reflected back from the surface without heat-
ing the metal. The small flame rising from the spot being treated
is caused by the black paint burning off.
(Ught Beam Technology, Inc.)

There is very little chance of part warping or dis-

tortion with laser hardening. The process produces
a fine grain structure that has a tougher wearing Figure 25-14. A part packed in a container of carbonaceous
surface than other techniques. material, ready to be case hardened.
 Macnining Funda7T,en~..ls

held at this temperature for 15 minutes to one

hour, until the desired case thickness is
attained. The part is removed from the fur-
nace and quenched. Deep (very thick) cases
can be obtained by this method.
• During the liquid salt method of case harden-
ing, also known as cyaniding, the part is
heated in a molten cyanide salt bath, then
quenched, Figure 25-15. The immersion
period is usually less than one hour. A high
hardness is imparted to the work, and the
parts treated have good wear resistance.

Figure 25-16. Nitriding operation develops high hardness with-

out quenching, and distortion is virtually nonexistent. (Undberg
Steel Treating Co.)

With the internal stresses released, the tough-

ness and impact resistance increase. As the temper-
ature is raised, ductility is improved, but there is a
decrease in hardness and strength.

25.3 HEAT TREATMENT OF

Figure 25-15. This operator is carefully removing a die block OTHER METALS
from a cyanide salt pot. (Master Lock Co.) In addition to steel, many other metals and their
alloys are potentially heat-treatable. You should
have a basic understanding of these processes.

• In the nitriding method or gas method of case 25.3. I Heat-treating Aluminum

hardening, parts are placed in a special air- Aluminum is a general term applied to the base
tight heating chamber where ammonia gas metal and its many alloys. When heat-treating alu-
is introduced at high temperature. The minum, it is imperative that the exact alloy be known
ammonia decomposes into nitrogen and or the part being heat-treated may be ruined.
hydrogen. The nitrogen enters the steel to Aluminum alloys are heat-treatable in much the
form nitrides which give an extreme hardness same manner as steel. That is, the metal is heated to
to the metal's surface. Wear-resistance and a predetermined temperature, quenched, and then
high-temperature hardness are greatly reheated to a lower temperature. However, some
increased. See Figure 25-16. aluminum alloys age-harden at room temperature.
These alloys must be kept refrigerated to remain
25.2. 7 Tempering soft and ductile (property of metal which permits it
Tempering or drawing is used to lower a metal's to be drawn out or hammered thin) while they are
brittleness or hardness. It involves heating the steel being worked.
to below the metal's critical range. Refer to Figure Heat-treating temperatures for several of the
25-6. The exact temperature will depend upon the more common aluminum alloys are shown in
type of steel used and its application. This informa- Figure 25-17. Information on other alloys, each of
tion can be found in steelmakers' catalogs and the which requires special treatment to bring out opti-
various machinist's handbooks. Hold the tempera- mum physical qualities, can be obtained from hand-
ture until complete penetration is achieved, then books available from the various producers of
quench. aluminum.
Chapter '-5 H2atTreatment of Metals
RD
Heat-treatable Aluminum Alloys
Solution Precipitation (aging)
Aluminum 0
Heat to f (°C) Quench Resulting 0
Heat to f (C 0
) Hold for Resulting
alloy temper hours temper
2024-0 910°f-930°f In cold - Room 48-96 2024-T4
(488°f--499°C) water as
quickly as 6061-W 315°f-325°f 16-20 6061-T6
6061-0 960°f-980°f
possible (157°C-162°C)
(515°C-527°C)
after
removal 345°f-355°f 6-10
from (174°C-179°C)
7075-0 860°f-930°F furnace 7075-W 245°f-255°f 20-26 7075-T6
(460°C--499°C) (118°C-124°C)
Note: When heat treating clad 2024 and clad 7075 aluminum, hold temperature for shortest possible time.

Figure 25-17. Heat-treating temperatures tor several common aluminum alloys.

25.3.2 Heat-treating Brass

Brass can be annealed after cold working by
heating to 1100°F (593°C) and cooling. The rate of
cooling has no appreciable effect on the metal.
..l _,;.' ':"(

- l·
• I•
I

25.3.3 Heat-treating COj>f>er

Copper is annealed in much the same manner as
brass. The metal may be quenched or allowed to
cool slowly at room temperature.
-------
25.3.4 Heat-treating Titanium ,,1 I
!
Most titanium alloys are heat-treatable.
However, special facilities are necessary because
titanium is a reactive metal: it readily absorbs oxy-
gen, carbon, and nitrogen. These elements greatly
affect the strength of titanium and its resistance to
Figure 25-18. A circulating oil-quench system. The shop rule tor
fatigue and corrosion. a circulating quench tank is one gallon of quench medium for
each pound of steel quenched at 1500°F per hour. Standard
25.4 HEAT-TREATING EQUIPMENT quench oils give best results when heated to 120°F to 140°F
(50°C to 60°C).
Heat-treating involves three distinct steps: high (MIFCO McEnglevan Industrial Furnace Co., Inc.)
temperature heating, rapid cooling or quenching to
harden, and tempering for final hardness and phys-
ical properties. Each step is significant in its effect
on final results. of forming gases when the hot metal is immersed in
it. The gas bubbles adhere to the metal, retard cool-
25.4. I Quenching Media ing, and cause soft spots in the treated piece. The
The main problem in heat-treating is to cool the use of brine (5% to 10% salt in the quench water)
metal at a uniform rate over its entire area. Water, prevents the formation of gases and gives better
oil, air, and liquid nitrogen are standard quenching cooling results.
media used to draw heat from the part being Mineral oils cool more slowly and produce less
treated. Quench tanks for oil and water are available distortion in the treated part than water. Special
with temperature controlling systems, Figure 25-18. quenching oils have been developed. They have a
Water has the most severe cooling effects. It is high flash point (the lowest temperature at which
employed mainly when treating plain carbon steel the oil vapor will ignite in air) and do not have a dis-
for maximum hardness. Water has the disadvantage agreeable odor. In production heat treatment using
g Machining Fundamental~

oil, the quenching bath must be filtered and cooled Some models are equipped with two chambers,
down to room temperature. Oils are used to harden Figure 25-20. The upper high-temperature chamber
alloy steels. · can be equipped with atmosphere control for
Quenching heated metal in oil should be done heat-treating with inert gases. The lower chamber is
only in a well-ventilated area. Avoid inhaling any of used for tempering and drawing.
the fumes.
Freely circulated air is used to cool some highly
alloyed steels. The air used as a cooling medium
must be dry, because any moisture may cause the
steel to fracture.
Liquid nitrogen, a supercold medium for
quenching, is used with several aluminum and
space-age alloys. Special facilities are required.
25.4.2 Furnaces
The heat-treating furnace must be capable of
reaching and maintaining the temperatures needed
for heat-treating. They are heated by electricity, gas,
or oil.
Most smaller furnaces are heated by electricity.
They are safe to operate, quiet, require no elaborate
venting systems, reach temperature quickly, and can
be controlled \'\11.th accuracy. When equipped with a
microprocessor-based controller, it is possible to
program the furnace for precise time/temperature
cycles, Figure 25-19.

Figure 25-20. Dual electric furnace with digital readout and

microprocessor-based controller. Top unit features atmospheric
control for hardening with inert gases; the lower unit is used for
drawing and tempering.
(MIFCO McEnglevan Industrial Furnace Co., Inc.)

When fitted with atmospheric control, the fur-

nace can be sealed and a vacuum drawn to remove
atmospheric gases that might contaminate the metal
being heat-treated. The chamber is then flooded
with an inert gas (one that will not oxidize or be
absorbed by the metal's surface) during the heat-
treating operation.
Modern electric furnaces are fitted with
numerous safety devices. Avoid using a furnace
until you are thoroughly versed in their safe
operation.
Gas-fired furnaces are also widely employed for
heat-treating. For safe operation of a gas-fired fur-
nace, refer to the following section of this chapter.
Gas-fired furnaces are noisy. Hearing protectors
must be worn when working near them.
Figure 25-19. Bench-top muffle type furnace with a program-
mable controller for precise time/temperature management. Industry employs many types of heat-treating
This electric-powered furnace has a temperature range of 90°F furnaces. Most are automated and continuous in
to 2012°F (32°C to 110ocC). (NEYTECH) operation. See Figure 25-21.
Chapter 25 Heat Treatment of ;"ietals

Figure 25-21. Heat-treating furnaces. A-Two automatic furnaces. The one on the right has a wafer tank quench with a conve.)IDr.
Furnace on the far left incorporates an automatic oil quench cycle. B-A production type, controlled atmosphere heat-treating furnace.
(Undberg Steel Treating Co.)

25.5 HARDENING CARBON STEEL

Heat-treating any metal requires maintaining
accurate temperatures. A pyrometer1 Figure 25-22, is
an instrument that accurately measures furnace
temperature. On electric furnaces, the pyrometer
can be set to the desired temperature and used to
maintain that temperature once it is reached.
If the furnace is not equipped with a pyrometer,
it will be necessary to judge the temperature by the
color of the metal as it heats. Color charts are avail-
able from the steel companies. See Figure 25-23.
The following procedure is recommended when
hardening carbon steels. Oxidation of the metal dur- Figure 25-22. Pyrometer is used to measure temperatures in a
ing heat-treating can be avoided by wrapping the furnace. This pyrometer is used on gas-fired furnaces.
part in stainless steel foil, Figure 25-24. (Johnson Gas Appliance Co.)
~.___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _M_a_c_h_in_in_g_F_u,_1~_a_m_e_n_t_als

Figure 25-23. Before metal becomes incandescent (glows red), steel will pass through the colors listed on this table. Colors are also
useful for tempering steel if no pyrometer is fitted to the furnace. (Bethlehem Steel Co.)

I Double fold 3 sides 1. Place the metal in the furnace and set controls

If r·
I when wrapping parts (if applicable) for the desired temperature. If
I ~-_,, the furnace is gas-fired, light it according to the
'
! 1 ,2
~

I3 P.
4': ; . ,
manufacturer's instructions. When lighting a
gas furnace, stand to one side and do not look
into the fire box. After the gas has ignited,
Press out excess air after
~ 2nd folding operation adjust the air and gas valves for the best
operation.
/
2. Heat the metal to its critical temperature
(1300°F to 1600°F or 705°C to 870°C). Avoid
~ placing the part being heat-treated directly in
*Typical all sides.
Added to dimensions
the gas flames. If it has not been wrapped in
of wrapped part stainless steel foil, position it in a piece of iron
pipe, as shuwn in Figure 25-25. Allow the part
Figure 25-24. Procedure tor wrapping parts in stainless steel
foil as protection against oxidation and decarburization during to "soak" in the furnace until it is heated
heat treatment. evenly throughout.
Chapter 25 Heat Treatment of Metals

4. Quench the piece in water, brine, or oil

(depending upon the type of steel being
treated). Except for some alloy steels, steels
are usually classified as water-11flfdening or oil-
11flrdening types, according to the quenching
medium to be employed on them. The quench-
ing technique is criticai.
5. To secure even hardness throughout the piece,
dip long slender sections straight down into
the quenching fluid with an up-and-down
motion. Avoid a circular motion, since this may
cause the piece to warp. Parts with other
shapes should be moved around in a manner
that will permit them to cool quickly and
evenly.
Steel that has been hardened properly will be
"glass-hard" and too brittle for most purposes.
Figure 25-25. Work being heat-treated must be protected from
direct flames in a gas furnaca by inserting it in a section of pipe.
Hardness may be checked by trying to file the work
Elevate unit from furnace floor to permit uniform heating. surface. A file will not cut the surface if the piece has
been hardened properly. Do not use a new file for
testing hardness-it will be damaged!

25.6 TEMPERING CARBON STEEL

3. Preheat the tong jaws, then remove the piece
from the furnace. Dress properly for any oper- As mentioned earlier, tempering or drawing is
ation involving the furnace, Figure 25~26. The employed to relieve the stresses and strains that
metal is very hot and serious burns can result develop in the metal during hardening. Until tem-
from relatively minor accidents. pering is done, the brittle hardened steel may crack
or shatter from shock (dropping, striking, etc.) or
from sudden changes in temperature.
Tempering is done as follows:
1. Polish the hardened piece with abrasive cloth.
2. Heat the piece to the correct tempering tem-
perature. This is determined by the type of
steel and the job the finished part is to do. It
will range from about 380°F or 193°C (the
metal will turn a silvery yellow or straw color)
to 700°F or 371 °C (the metal will turn light gray
or blue color). Color charts available from steel
companies can be employed as a guide for
determining when the desired temperature is
attained if no pyrometer is available on the fur-
nace. Refer to Figure 25-23. Quench immedi-
ately upon reaching the required temperature.
3. Small tools are best tempered by placing them
on a steel plate that has been heated red-hot.
Have the point of the tool extend beyond the
Figure 25-26. Heat-treating temperatures are very hot. Dress
edge of the plate, as shown in Figure 25-27.
properly for job and keep the area around furnace clean so
there is no danger of slipping or stumbling. Also, preheat tongs Watch the temper color as it heats up. Quench
before grasping the heated part. when the proper color has reached the tool
(MIFCO McEnglevan Industrial Furnace Co., Inc.) point.
 Machining r-undar.1,;int~ls

3. Dip, roll, or sprinkle Kasenit on the piece,

Figure 25-29. The powder will melt and adhere
to the surface, forming a shell.
4. Reheat the workpiece to a bright red and hold
at that temperature for a few minutes.
5. Quench in cold water.

Figure 25-27. use a heated steel plate when tempering small

tools. Have point of tool extend beyond edge of plate.

Hot liquid baths of oil, molten salts, or lead are

often employed in place of a furnace for heating
parts to their proper tempering temperature. The
pieces are held in the bath until the heat permeates
them. They are then removed from the bath and
allowed to cool in still air.
25.7 CASE HARDENING Roll

LOW-CARBON STEEL
Of the several case hardening techniques, the
simplest is carburizing, which requires a minimum
of equipment. It uses a nonpoisonous commercial
compound, such as Kasenit™.
The hardening technique known as cyaniding is
not recommended, because cyanide is a deadly poi-
son and very dangerous to use under any but ideal
conditions.
There are two methods recommended for using
Kasenit to harden low-carbon steel. The first
method is as follows:
1. Bring the furnace to temperature. Dip
2. Bring the ,-vorkpiece to a bright red (1650°F -
1700:'F or 900°C - 930"C). Use a pyrometer or
thermocouple to monitor the temperature,
Figure 25"'.'28.

Sprinkle
Figure 25-28. A modern microprocessor-based digital controller
for electric heat-treating furnaces. It can accept ten different Figure 25-29. Dip, roll, or sprinkle Kasenit, or another safe com-
thermocouple types. mercial case hardening compound, on the work until a shell of
(Honeywell, Inc., Industrial Automation and Control) compound has been formed.
Chapter 25 Heat Treatment of Metals
cm
The second method for case hardening low-
BHN = p
carbon steel is to: 1tf (D- v-02---d-2)

1. Secure a container large enough to hold the

work. A tin can will do if care is taken to burn Where:
off the tin coating before use.
BHN = Brinell Hardness Number in
2. Completely cover the job with Kasenit. Refer to kilograms per mm.2.
Figure 25-14. P = Applied load in kilograms.
3. Place the entire unit in the furnace and heat it D = Diameter of steel ball in millimeters.
d = Diameter of impression in millimeters.
to a red heat. Hold the temperature for 5 to 30
minutes, depending upon the depth of case
To perform the Brinell test on a compressed air-
required.
type hardness tester, Figure 25-31, then follow these
4. Quench the job in clean, cool water. Be sure to instructions:
use dry tongs to remove the piece from the con-
1. Gradually turn the adjustable air regulator
tainer.
valve in a clockwise direction until the desired
With either method of using Kasenit, work in a
load is indicated on the load gauge. Any Brinell
well-ventilated area and wear full face protection,
load from 500 to 3000 kilograms can be selected
leather apron, and heat-resistant gloves.
by adjusting this regulator. Check the load
reading when making the initial test of a series,
and adjust the air regulator valve, if necessary,
2S.8 HARDNESS TESTING so that the desired load is indicated on the dial
Hardness testing will make sure that the metal when a specimen is actually under load.
has been given the proper degree of heat treatment,
cold working, or a combination of the two, for its 2. Place the test specimen on the anvil, then tum
intended use. With hardness testing, it is also possi- the handwheel until the gap allows inserting
ble to establish standards for hardness that can be the specimen into the machine. This distance
cited on drawings and specifications. (between the surface of the specimen and the
The most commonly utilized technique involves Brinell ball) should be kept to a minimum prior
determining the distance a steel ball or special to applying the load.
shaped diamond penetrates into the metal under a 3. Pull out the load/unload plunger on the left
specific load. side of the machine. The load will be instantly
Brinell and Rockwell testing machines, known released and the test completed when the
as indention hardness testers, are used. The hard- plunger is pushed in.
ness number indicates the degree of material hard-
4. Read the impression with the special micro-
ness. See Figure 25-30.
scope and obtain the Brinell hardness number
25.B. I Srinell Hardness Tester from the hardness table. Do not apply the test
load when the anvil is within travel range of the
The Brinell hardness tester is employed exten- ram and Brinell ball, unless a test specimen is in
sively in both laboratory and production situations. place. If no test specimen is in place, a Brinell
The Brinell test is a measure of resistance of the impression will be made on the machine's
material. It is an excellent index of such factors as anvil.
machinability, uniformity of grade, temper after
heat treatment, and body hardness of the metal. 5. The test specimen must be thick enough to pre-
The Brinell test for determining the hardness of vent a bulge, or other marking showing the
a metallic material consists of applying a known effects of the applied load, from appearing on
load to the surface of that material through a hard- the side opposite the impression.
ened steel ball of known diameter. The diameter 6. When necessary, the surface on which the
(depth of penetration) of the resulting permanent impression is to be made should be filed,
impression in the metal is measured. The Brinell ground, machined, or polished with abrasive
hardness is taken as the quotient of the applied load, material, so that the edge of the impression is
divided by the area of the surface of the impression defined clearly enough to permit measuring
(which is assumed to be spherical): the diameter to the specified accuracy.
 M a::hinfng Fundamentals

Hardness Conversion Table

(Approximate)
Values vary depending on grades and conditions of material involved. Rockwell "B" Scale should
not be used over 8-100. The "C" Scale should not be used under C-20 .
.
Shore Tensile lbs.
I
I
Shore I Tensile lbs.
Brinell Rockwell scleroscope sq. in. l Brinell Rockwell scleroscope I sq. in.
Hard B C Hard In 1000 Hard B Hard II In 1000
No. Scale Scaie No. lbs. No. Scale No. lbs.

782 .. . 72 107 383 163 84 25 84

744 .. . 69 100 365 159 I 83 25 82
713 . '' 67 96 350 156 82 24 80
683
652
. --
...
65
63
92
88
334
318
153
149
I 81
80
24
23
I
79
78
627
600
. ..
. -.
61
59
85
81
307
294
j
146
143
78
77
I 23
22 I 77
76
... 76 i ..
I
74
578
555 .
...
-.
58
56
78
75
284
271
140
137 II 75 I
I ..
..
I 73
71
532
512
i' .. . i
54
52
72
70
260
251
I
134
131
l
74
72 ..
j

70
495 . -. I 51 68 242 128 71 .. 69
477 ... 49 66 233 126 70 67
460 ... 48 I
64 226 124 69 .. 66
444 ... 47 61 217 121 67 .. 65
430
418
...
...
45
44
59
57
210
205
I 118
116
66
65
.
..
. 63
62
402
387
375
...
...
...
43
41
40
55
53
52
i

I
197
189
183
114
112
109
l 64
62
61
..
..
..
61
60
59
I

I I I
364 ... 39 50 178 107 59 .. 58
351 (110) 38 49 172
I 105 58 .. 57
340 (109) 37 47 167 103 57 .. 56
332 (108.5) 36 46 162 'I 101 56 .. 55
321 (108) 35 45 157 99 54 .. 54
311 (107.5) 34 44 152 I 97 53 .. I 53
302 (107) 33 42 148 i 96 52 .. 53
293 (106) 31 41 144 95 51 i .. 52
286 (105.5) 30 40 140 93 50 .. 52
277 (104.5) 29 : 39 136 I 92 49 .. 51
269 (104) 28 38 132 90 48 .. 50
262
255
248
(103)
( 102~
(101}
27
26
25
37
36
36
I
I
128
125
121
i 88
87
86
47
46
45
.. 49
48
48
241 100 24 35 118 85 44 47
235 99 (22) 34 115 83 43 47
228 98 (21) 33 113 82 42 46
81 41 46
223
217
212
97
96
95
(20}
(19)
(18)
33
32
31
109
106
104
80
79
40
39
...... 45
45
! j
207 94 (17) 30 101 78 38 .. I
I 44
202 93 (15)
(13)
30
29
99
96
77
76
37
36
.... I
I
44
43
196 92
192 91 (12) 29 94 75 35 .. 43
187 90 (10} I 28 91 74 33 .. 42
183 89 ( 9) I 28 90 73 31 .. 42
179 88 .. ~
27 89 72 30 -- 41
174 87 .. 27
'
88 71 29 .. 41
170 86 .. 26 86 70 27 .. 40
166 85 .. 26 j 85 69 26 . . 40
'

Figure 25-30. Hardness conversion table.

Chapter 25 HeatTreatmeo1t of Metals

/~... : -
,., ,
Load - - t ,...~
gage \... .
/ 1 ,· ~~- Air
line
Load/~~~~ad ~
plun/1/

Ram
Brinell
1/ I
ball

Handwheel

Figure 25-31. The parts of compressed air-type Brina/I hard-

ness tester. (Tinius Olsen Testing Machine Co.)

25.B.2 Rockwell Hardness Tester

The most widely used of all hardness testing
methods is the Rockwell testing technique, Figure
25-32. When using the Rockwell hardness tester,
Figure 25-33, either a steel ball or a specially
designed diamond cone penetrator is used, depend-
ing upon the material being tested. See Figure 25-34.

Figure 25-33. Rockwell hardness fester. A- The basic-type,

tester. (Mitutoyo/MTI Corp.) 8-This state-of-the-art tester
offers pushbutton Sf)89d for all functions Including test scalss,
statistical calculations, hardness scale conversions, and correc-
tions for round parts. The machine can be set for higMow limits
Figure 25-32. This technician is using state-of-the-art Rockwell tolerance with a graphical icon displaying values in the go/no go
hardness tester. (Wilson lnstrumentsllnstron Corporation) mode. (Wilson lnstrumentsllnsfron Corporation)
'. ~

or conical diamond penetrator is driven by the

major load beyond the depth of the previously
applied light load. The hardness number is auto-
matically indicated on the dial gage.
Typically, a 1/16" steel ball is employed in con-
junction with a 100 kg load for testing such metals
as brass, bronze, and soft steel. All readings made
with the 1/16" ball and 100 kg load are Rockwell B
readings; the letter B must be placed before the
number. There is no Rockwell hardness designated by a
number alone. It must always be prefixed by the
proper scale letter.
The conical diamond test point, knovvn as a
brale penetrator, is used with a 150 kg load for test-
ing hardened steel or any hard metals, Figure 25-36.
A B All readings with the brale penetrator and 150 kg
load are Rockwell C readings; the letter C must pre-
Rgure 25-34. Rockwell penetrators. A-Ball-type. B-Conical
diamond-type (Brale). cede the hardness number.
Special penetrators are available for testing soft
materials. The scale designation depends upon the
A minor load of 10 kg is first applied, then the ball size used to make the test. See Figure 25-37.
dial gage is set to zero. The major load is then added Two weights are normally supplied with a
and removed, Figure 25-35. The hardness number Rockwell hardness tester. One of them has a red
represents the additional depth to which the test ball marking and the other black. However, three

Dial reads B-C plus constant

amount due to added spring
of machine under major load,
but whose value will disappear Rockwell hardness
Dial now set from dial reading when major number is
Dial is now idle to zero load is withdrawn registered on dial Dial is now idle
l

Major
load
(notapp~
Major
Major l7
load:t:_J
Minor load
Minor c-1 :oad- (applied)
released) .
load-[:;=:J (applied)
(not applied) ·

1/16N Dia. c
steel ball ta
Elevating
screw--.=lii?:....- -~

Work placed Text specimen raised Depressor bar is Crank is turned Test specimen has
in tester. to apply minor load. released. Major to remove major been lowered. It
load is applied. load. Minor load can now be removed
still applied. from tester.
Figure 25-35. This diagram shows how 1/ 16" steel ball penetrator is used to make a Rockwell B hardness reading. Size of the ball
has been greatly exaggerated for clarity.
 Cha:,ter 25 HeaCi:-eatment or M~tals

different loads- 60 kg, 100 kg, and 150 kg - can be To operate the Rockwell hardness tester, select
applied. The weight arm, together with the link and and mount the proper penetrator point, then check
weight pan, will apply a load of 60 kg. The weight that the weight for the desired test load is in posi-
with the red marking is placed on the weight pan tion. Place the correct anvil in the elevating screw
for the 100 kg load. When the weight with the black with extreme care, or the penetrator might be dam-
marking is added, a 150 kg load is applied. The aged. See Figure 25-38. Inspect the test specimen
black weight is never used alone. and remove any scale or burr that would flatten
When making tests with the 100 kg load, the dial wider the test and give a false reading.
scale with red figures is used. The dial scale with
black figures apply with the 150 kg load.
The 60 kg load (weight arm and weight pan
alone) is employed with the brale penetrator for
testing extremely hard metals, such as tungsten car-
bide alloys. The 1/16" ball is extensively used with
the 60 kg load for testing sheet brass.

Figure 25-38. Protect the penetrator with your finger when

removing and replacing an anvil. Striking the hard, but brittle,
diamond with the anvil may fracture the diamond. A steel ball
Figure 25-36. How conical diamond penetrator (brale) is penetrator may be deformed if it is hit by the anvil.
employed to determine Rockwell C hardness. (Wilson Mech. Inst. Div., American Chain and Gable Co., Inc.)

Scale MaJor Dlal Typlcal applications

symbol Penetrator load (kg) figures of scales
B Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminum alloys,
1/16'" ball 100 Red
malleable iron, etc.

C Diamond cone 150 Black Steel, hard cast iron, titanium, deep case
hardened steel, etc.
A Diamond cone 60 Black Cemented carbides, thin steel, and
shallow case hardened steel.

D Diamond cone mo Thin steel, medium case hardened steel, and

Black
pearlite malleable iron.

E 1/BH ball Cast iron, aluminum and magnesium alloys,

100 Red and bearing materials.
F 1/16" ball 60 Red Annealed copper alloys, thin soft sheet metals.
G 1/16'" ball 150 Red Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, malleable iron, etc.
H 1/8" ball 60 Red Aluminum, zinc, lead.

Figure 25-37. A letter is used as a prefix to the hardness value read from the Rockwell tester dial. The letter depends upon load, type
of penetrator, and scale from which dial readings are taken.
"
H achlning Fundamentals

The following procedures are considered to give

the most precise hardness readings. Note that the
numbers in Figure 25-39 correspond to the follow-
ing sequence numbers.
1. Place the test specimen on the anvil.
2. Gently raise the specimen until it comes into
contact with the penetrator. Continue to turn
the capstan handwheel slowly until the small
pointer (8) is nearly vertical and slightly to the
right of the dot. Continue raising the work
until the long pointer is approximately upright
(within five divisions plus or minus). The
minor load (10 kg) has nmv been applied.
Figure 25-40. A thumb is used to ''zero-in" the dial pointer
3. Set the dial to zero (line marked "set") by turn- before applying the major load. Same thumb is used to push
ing the knurled ring that is located belmv the down the depressor bar to apply major load.
handwheel, Figure 25-40. (Wilson lnstruments/lnstron Corporation)

4. Carefully push down on the depressor bar to

apply the major load. The penetrator is forced load is 100 kg, the reading is taken from the red
into the work. The depth to which it penetrates scale and the letter B is prefixed to the number
depends upon the metal's hardness. to signify the condition of the test. The letter C
5. Watch the pointer until it comes to rest. is prefixed to the number if the brale penetra-
tor and 150 kg load were employed. The read-
6. Pull the crank handle forward to lift the major ing is then made from the black scale.
load, but leave the minor load still applied. After completing the test, lower the work away
7. Read the Rockwell Hardness Number. If the from the penetrator and remove it from the testing
test has been made with the 1/16" ball, and the machine.
Like other precision tools, the Rockwell Tester
must be handled with care if it is to maintain its
accuracy. There are a few precautions that must be
observed:
• When moving the tester, grasp it only by the
cast iron base, never by any parts that are
attached to the base.
• The tester should be leveled on a solid bench,
in a location free from grit and vibration.
Keep the machine covered when not in use!
• False readings will result if the shoulder on
the brale penetrator is not kept clean, Figure
25-41. Carefully wipe it with a clean, soft cloth
before installing it in the tester.

Shoulder

r6

Figure 25-41. Shoulder of the brale (penetrator) must be free of

Figure 25-39. Basic Rockwell hardness tester operating dirt and burrs before it is mounted in tester. Otherwise, incorrect
procedures. readings will result.
 Chap!~r 25 Keat Treatment or Metals
• Use only lubricants specified by the manufac- 25.8.4 Scleroscope Hardness Testing Machine
turer. A scleroscope is a testing device that drops a
• Support long work properly. hammer onto the test piece, with the resulting
• Clean the work with an abrasive cloth to bounce or rebound of the hammer used to deter-
remove scale and roughness; a smooth sur- mine hardness.
face is necessary for accurate readings. Two styles of scleroscope are in use. One is fitted
Castings and forgings should have a spot with a vertical scale, the other is a dial recording
ground or machined where the test is to be instrument. See Figure 25-43. They may be
made, so that the penetrator will test the true
metal underneath.
• The specimen must be thick enough so that
the undersurface does not show the slightest
indication of the test.
• Corrections must be added to readings made
on round stock, if it is not possible to file or
grind a flat spot in the test area.
• Prevent damage to the penetrator or the anvil
by being careful to avoid forcing them
together when a test piece is not in the Barrel
machine.
• If the tester is used on case hardened steel,
accurate readings cannot be made unless the
"case" is several times thicker than the inden-
tation depth.
25.8.3 Webster Hardness Tester
The Webster hardness tester, Figure 25-42, is a Bulb~
portable test device for checking materials such as A
aluminum, brass, copper, and mild steel. It can be
used on assemblies that cannot be brought into the
laboratory, or to test a variety of shapes that other
testers cannot check, such as extrusions, tubing, or
flat stock.
The tester's dial indicator reading is converted
to the Rockwell hardness scale by referring to a con-
version chart furnished with the tool.

Figure 25-42. The Webster hardness tester is a portable device

used with materials such as aluminum, brass, copper, or mild
steel. By referring to a conversion chart, the tester's dial indica- Figure 25-43. Two types of Shore scleroscope. A-A vertical-
tor reading can be converted to the appropriate Rockwell scale. scale model. B-A scleroscope with a direct reading dial.
(Webster Instrument, Inc.) (Shore Instrument and Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
 M11chln01J1 Fundami!nbl1

employed for testing the hardness of all metals, fer- specimen must be mounted on the anvil. See Figure
rous and nonferrous, polished or unpolished, with 25-43. The unit should be leveled. Do so by turning
virtually no limitation in size or shape. Hardness the leveling screws while observing the built-in
testing with the scleroscope is essentially a nonmar- spirit level. The instrument is operated pneumati-
ring test. No craters are produced that would cally by means of a rubber squeeze bulb.
require refinishing of the test area. To perform a test, revolve the knob to bring the
The scleroscope hardness test involves dropping barrel cap firmly into contact ,-.1th the test specimen.
a diamond hammer from a fixed height to make a It is essential that you maintain a firm pressure on
minute (very tiny) indentation in the metal. The the specimen during the test. Squeeze and release
hammer rebounds, but not to its original height, the rubber bulb to draw the hammer to the up posi-
because some of the energy in the falling hammer is tion. While maintaining torque on the knob, again
dissipated in producing the tiny indentation. The squeeze and release the rubber bulb to release the
rebound of the hammer varies in proportion to the hammer. Observe the reading on the scale.
hardness of the metal-the harder the metal, the The height to which the hammer rebounds on
higher the rebound. the first bounce indicates the hardness of the speci-
The tester scale consists of units determined by men. The correct hardness of the piece, however, is
dividing into 100 parts the average rebound of the the average of several tests. Do not make more than
hammer from quenched tool steel of ultimate hard- one test at a given spot or false readings will result. The
ness. These rebounds will range from 95 to 105. The dial recording scleroscope works on the same
scale is carried higher than 100 to cover super-hard rebound principle, but is direct reading.
metals. See Figure 25-44. While the method may sound unorthodox, the
The scleroscope is capable of yielding accurate results are very close to those obtained with Brinell
hardness readings on the softest or the hardest met- and Rockwell testers.
als without changing the scale or diamond hammer.
When testing objects vdthin the capacity of the 25.9 HEAT-TREATING SAFETY
clamping stand of the vertical scale scleroscope, the • Never attempt to heat-treat metals while your
senses are impaired by medication or other
substances.
• Make sure that the furnace is in good operat-
ing condition before attempting to use it.
Avoid lighting a furnace until you have been
instructed in its safe operation. Never stand
in front of a gas furnace while igniting it.
• Never look into the furnaces unless you are
wearing tinted goggles or glasses under your
face shield.
• Heat-treating involves raising metal to very
high temperatures. Handle the hot metal with
appropriate tools, and always wear an
approved full face safety shield and the
proper protective clothing. Wear heat resis-
tant gloves and a leather apron (never a cloth
apron, especially one that is greasy or oil-
soaked.)
• Work only in areas that are well ventilated.
• Do not stand over the quenching bath when
immersing hot work.
• Potassium cyanide should never be used in a
school shop or lab as a case hardening
medium. If you work in a situation that per-
mits the use of potassium cyanide, never
Figure 25-44. Scales on scleroscope dial. Note that the dial
includes scales for the equivalent Brinne/1 and Rockwell C hard-
breathe the toxic fumes. Wash thoroughly
ness values. after completing the heat-treating operations
Chapter 25 Heat Treatment :;>f Metals

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 12. Tempering a piece of hardened steel makes it:
a. Britt-le.
Please do not write in the text. Write your
b. Soft.
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
c. Tough.
1. Heat-treating is done to: d. All of the above.
a. Obtain certain desirable changes in the e. None of the above.
metal's physical characteristics.
13. What advantages does an electric heat-treating
b. Increase the hardness of the metal.
furnace have over a gas fired heat-treating
c. Soften (anneal) the metal.
furnace?
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above. 14. The is used to measure and monitor the
high temperatures needed in heat-treating.
2. What does heat-treating involve?
15. What is hardness testing?
3. Carbon steels are classified by the percentage
of carbon they contain, expressed in "points" 16. List three types of commonly used hardness
or hundredths of 1%. If this statement is true, testers.
briefly explain what it means.
17. What safety precautions must be observed
4. Other than steel, list four other metals that are when lighting a gas-fired heat-treating
capable of being heat-treated. furnace?
5. In addition to water, _ , _ , blasts of 18. List five safety precautions that must be
cold _ _ or liquid _ _ may be used as a observed when heat-treating metal.
quenching medium.
The following are matching questions. Each
word in the numbered list matches one of the
sentences that follow. On your paper, write the
letter next to the appropriate number to match the
words and statements.
6. _ _ Stress-relieving.
7. _ _ Annealing.
8. _ _ Normalizing.
9. _ _ Casehardening.
10. _ _ Surface hardening.
11. _ _ Hardening.
a. Involves heating metal to slightly above
its upper critical temperature and then
permitting it to cool slowly in insulating
material. Hardness of the metal is
reduced.
b. Used to refine grain structure of steel and
to improve its machinability.
c. Done to reduce stress that has developed
in parts that have been welded, machined,
or cold worked during processing.
d. Used when only a medium-hard surface
is required on high-carbon or alloy steels.
e. Only the outer surface of low-carbon steel
is hardened while the inner portion
remains relatively soft and tough.
£. Accomplished by heating metal to its crit-
ical range and cooling rapidly.
 Ma.chining Fundamentals

Superfinishing provides an extremely smooth finish on parts used in automotive and other applications. This superfinishing attach-
ment, mounted on a lathe, uses fine abrasive stones and a special lubricant. An oscillating motion is employed to eliminate chatter
and surface waviness. (Sunnen Products Co.)
 Chapter 26

•
e al 1s an

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
0 Describe how the quality of a machined
surface is determined.
0 Explain why the quality of a machined
surface has a direct bearing on production
costs.
0 Describe some metal finishing techniques.
End mill

Shaper/planer
IMPORTANT TERMS Figure 26-1. Each type cutting tool leaves characteristic
anodizing roller burnishing markings.
electroplating surface roughness
lay standards
metal spraying vitreous enamel The problem reached such proportions that in the
micro inches waviness early 1940s, the Standards Associations of Canada,
micrometers Great Britain, and the United States developed ten-
The term metal finish refers to the degree of tative surface roughness or texture standards.
smoothness or roughness remaining on the surface The terms and ratings of surface roughness stan-
of a part after it has been machined. A machined dards or texture standards relate to surfaces pro-
surface has geometric irregularities that are pro- duced by machining, grinding, casting, molding,
duced by the cutting action of the tool. Each type of forging, or similar processes. These standards are
cutting tool leaves its own characteristic surface not concerned with luster, appearance, color, corro-
marking, Figure 26-1. sion resistance, wear resistance, hardness, and the
many other characteristics that may be governing
considerations in specific applications.
26.1 QUALITY OF MACHINED The standards also do not define the different
SURFACES degrees of surface roughness and waviness suitable
At one time, the quality of a machined surface for specific purposes, nor do they specify the means
was noted by the symbol ''f" This was not based on by which any degree of such irregularities may be
specific standards. Therefore, the engineer or drafter obtained or produced. The standards deal only with
included explanatory notes such as rough grind, the height, width, and direction of surface irregulari-
smooth turn, surface grind, etc., on the drawing. These ties, since these are of practical importance in speci-
notes indicated the desired quality of general sur- fications.
face finish. The present surface finish system arrives at
The technique left much to be desired, since roughness values by averaging, arithmetically, the
each machinist interpreted the specifications irregular contours on a surface. The values are given
differently. Often, the piece was better finished than in microinches (millionths of an inch, shown as
it had to be, increasing its production cost. XX µin.) or micrometers (millionths of a meter,
..,
------~-------··-·" ---------------
shoi-vn as XX µm). With established standards, a uni- roughness or texture are now used on drawings and
versal set of numbers and symbols indicating surface in specifications. See Figures 26-2 and 26-3.

Symbol I Description
I
i
v Basic surface roughness/texture symbol. Surface may
be produced by any method. I!
!
Material removal by machining required. Horizontal bar !'
~ I
indicates that material removal by machining is required.
Material must be provided for that purpose.
r
Material removal allowance. Number indicates amount
of material that must be removed in inches/millimeters.
.187~
Tolerances may be added. I!
!
Material removal prohibited. Circle in vee indicates that
surface must be produced by processes such as
'
I
I

v' casting, forging, hot finishing, cold finishing, powder

metallurgy, or injection molding without subsequent
!

removal of material.
I
Surface texture symbol. To be used when any surface

r 'I
!
characteristics are spedfied above horizontal line or to
right of symbol. Surface may be produced by any
method.

Figure 26-2. Surface roughness or texture symbols.

!
1 Roughness Height Rating I Surface i Process
Microinch / Micrometer 1 Description
I
10o/ 25ij I Very rough
!
Saw and torch cutting, forging,
or sand casting.
I
I so/ I
12q : Rough machining
I
Heavy cuts, coarse feeds in
I turning, milling, and boring.
I I
i
I
I

2o/ 6,y Coarse Very coarse surface grind, rapid

feeds in turning, planing, milling,
boring, and filing. iI

I 13/
!
j
3ij Medium Machining operations with sharp
tools, high speeds, fine feeds, and
light cuts.

I
I o/ \1/ Good machine finish Sharp tools, high speeds, extra
fine feeds, and cuts.

High grade machine finish Extremely fine feeds and cuts on

~
lathe, mill, and shaper required.
0~
Easily produced by centerless,
I ; cylindrical, and surface grinder.
I
I

3/ ov I High quality machine finish

I

I
I
Very smooth reaming or fine
cylindrical or surface grinding, or
coarse hone or lapping of surface.
I
I

-3/ I

I 001' I Very fine machine finish Fine honing and lapping of

surface.
i I
I
0.05 Extremely smooth Extra fine honing and lapping of
I!
i
2v \1/ I machine finish
I
l surface.
'
I i I
Figure 26-3. Roughness values. When used on a drawing, a number indicates roughest surface in microinches/micrometers that is
acceptable for that specific application.
Chapte:- 26 Metal r l!11ishi11g _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___.~
==~-=-=--___::..::.:..:.:.:.:___:_:_:_:_::_

In addition to surface roughness, other surface Lay is the term that describes the direction of the
conditions are considered and values given for predominant tool marks, grain, or pattern of surface
them. roughness. See Figure 26-6.
Waviness ordinarily takes the form of smoothly 26. I. I Degrees of Surface Roughness
rounded peaks and valleys caused by tool and Milling and turning can produce surface fin-
machine vibration and chatter, Figure 26-4. ishes in the order of 125 µin . to 8 µin. (3.2 µm to
Waviness is of greater magnitude than roughness. It is 02 µ.m). Grinding, depending on the coarseness of
measured with reference to a nominal or geometri- the wheel and feed rate, has a range of 63 µin. to
cally perfect surface. 4 µin. (1.6 µm to 0.1 µm) .
Waviness is specified in inches (millimeters) Lapping produces the smoothest finish on a pro-
as the maximum allowable peak-to-valley height. duction basis. It is used by automotive manufactur-
It is measured using a sensitive dial indicator with ers to produce mating surfaces that are flat and
a ball contact 0.06" (15 mm) in diameter. Figure smooth enough to form a gasketless oil-tight seal in
26-5 shows how acceptable waviness tolerances automatic transmissions and other applications.
are specified on drawings, in reports, and as Surfaces are as fine as 2 µin. to 3 µin. (0.05 µm to
specifications. 0.07 µm). See Figures 26-7 and 26-8.

Waviness height

Figure 26-4. How surface waviness is measured. Note the dif- Figure 26·5. On drawings, symbols and numbers show rough-
ference in magnitude between waviness and roughness.
ness, waviness, and lay. They specify finishes required on a
surface.

Parallel to edge Perpendicular to Angular in both

11 of surface .L edge of surface X directions to
indicated indicated edge

Approximately
C circular M Multldirectional R Approximately
relative to or random radial relative
center to center

Figure 26-6. The lay symbols and their meanings. Lay symbols are located beneath the horizontal bar on a surface texture symbol.
 H acMn!ng Fumiame:-:1:als

Figure 26-7. Computerized vertical honing machine. It is

designed for precision honing of bores in such applications as
small engine blocks, air compressor cylinders, valve bodies, and
aircraft cylinders. The unit has a microprocessor-based control
system that enables the operator to control all aspects of the
production cycle. (Sunnen Products Company)

Several tools have been developed to measure

surface quality. The most accurate is the profilome-
ter, which measures and amplifies surface rough-
ness electronically, Figure 26-9. Surface roughness is
usually read on a meter. A hard copy graphic read-
out can be provided by some models.
The surface roughness gage, Figure 26-10, is a
visual or comparison tool. It contains sample speci-
mens of the various degrees of surfaces that con-
form to values established by the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI Y14.36-1978).

26. I.2 Economics of Machined Surfaces

The quality of a machined surface has a direct
bearing on production costs: the finer the finish, the
higher the cost. If costs are to be kept within accept-
able limits, care must be taken to meet, but not Figure 26-8. Lapping machines. A-Free abrasive lapping
exceed, the required specifications. machines provide exceptional accuracy v1ith part thickness
The chart in Figure 26-11 illustrates the range of accuracies of ±0.00015", flatness of 0.00001N, and a fine sur-
face finish. (SpeedFam) B-A twin-plate diamond lapping sys-
surface quality normally attainable by the Yarious tem. It laps and/or polishes both sides of a workpiece
machining processes. Values are relatiYe and will simultaneously and produces parallel parts with uniform edge-
vary depending upon the condition of the machine, to-edge flatness. The unit uses a menu-driven microprocessor
sharpness of the cutting tool, and the material controller. (Engis Corporation)
being machined.
other finishing techniques may be employed for one
26.2 OTHER METAL FINISHING or more of the following reasons:
• Appearance affects product salability and is
TECHNIQUES more important than often realized. A prod-
While the quality of the machined surface is of uct is much more attractive with a proper
paramount importance in the machining of metal, finish than when the metal is left unfinished.
 "
Chapter 26 Metal finishing

Figure 26-9. Handheld surface roughness gage (profilometer) Figure 26-10. A surface roughness gage is being used to visu-
with a digital display that presents the measured readout value ally compare surface of a milled aluminum block. Since it is
in microinches or micrometers. It has a variety of interchange- often difficult to check machined surfaces visually, a test by feel
able probes tor different applications. (Federal Products Co.) is also used. More obvious roughness standards are identified
by appropriate symbols in microinches.

Machining flnlshes/microinches
Machine process
500 250 125 63 43 16 8 4 2
i I I I I
_Ab_r_as_iv_e_cu_to_ff_ _ _-,. ____1
_ _ l~--1----f,----.1-----+---+--]I_ --~-
Automatic screw machine I I
1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - + - -1- - · - - - 1 - - - - - ---1- - - >- - - - - - : - - - + - - - - - ,
I

Bore I I
1---B-ro-ac-h-----t---1--,-------- -- 1 - - - j - - 1 - - I -
I I i I !
Counterbore - · -1_·--_-1
-- 1 _ _1 _ _ _ 1 _ _ !,--
Countersink
f--D_r_ill--------+--1--l
1 1 1

I i1 I
1
~-
1
Drill (center) I :
1------'----'"--------+-- - - - - -- - -....- - - - - _ _ ,_ _ - - · -
I I I I :
Face I I ___ _ I I I I
f---F-ile-------+--1- 1- 1 ____ - 1 _ 1 _ 1 _ _
' -
Grind,cylindrical ·--· -1----,- ---1 -- ' · ! 1-- - : - - ---1-- ·
1---G-ri-nd-,-s-=-u-rf-ac-e------+---l--'.---i---.--'-·--1·-- 1- - - - -:-
Hone, cylindrical I ---1--·- - i J ] ·- ----

Hone, flat I - - -· I :·-- -i -- -!-- I ---- -----

f---L-ap--------1f----l--·- I I I l I I
{=. =______-__,_-_-_-..,I-_-:_-~..~-_~--_-_...
1--_M_il_l,_fi_ni_s_h_ _ _ _ _ _-+~ ~--_
1
_
- _- _- -_,==--=-- ,_---;_
MIil, rough
Ream
1---S_aw_ _ _ _ _ _.___l
i
__ ________
,
I
I I I
1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - + - - ---·-··- - -·-···· - - - - - - - - i,-- - - - - - - - ----· - - -
! ..,... I.. I
__ i _ l __ l__ l___ __ _
I

Shape I I I I I I
f--S-p-otf-a-ce-------+--1 ·- - . - ' I--,-- ·---i--- ----.·--
Super finish
1-------------- - - - - - -
__ I___ --- I ! r-
,___T_um_,_sm_o_ot_h_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ i__ 1 _ _ j__ ·________ l____ i _
Tum, diamond I i ! ,
.....--+--+-----+----, . - . .
I I
. --- - ·-
I
,.__ - -
Tum, rough I I ' I I i
Figure 26-11. Typical surface finishes resufflng from various machine processes. The finer the finish {the lower the roughness value
in microinches), the higher the cost of obtaining it.
= A car would be drab if left unfinished
(unpainted), Figure 26-12.
Machining f-m1damentals

• Protection is important because all metals are

affected to some degree by contaminants in
the atmosphere and by abrasion. For exam-
ple, metal sheet is often textured as a means of
protection. The textured surface will reduce
reflected light so that surface defects
(scratches and small dents that occur during
product use) are "hidden" within the irregu-
larities of the surface treatment.
• Identification makes the product stand out
from its competition. Finishes are also applied
to make the product blend into the surround-
ings. See Figure 26-13.
Figure 26-13. A computer-designed camouffage pattern for an
• A form of cost reduction can result by use of a
aircraft that will be employed in desert areas. It was developed
surface finish. For example, an expensiYe to make aircraft blend into its surroundings, both in the air and
metal can be coated onto a less costly metal, on the ground. (Evans & Sutherland)
or other material. The finished part will be
less costly than if it were made from the more gold, for example, are often applied to steel to
costly metal. The part will retain the proper- improve electrical conduction, heat distribu-
ties of the higher priced metal. Silver and tion properties, solderability, and appearance.

Figure 26-12. An automobile would be quite drab if a color finish were not applied. Automotive finishes are planned in the design
stage. (Ford Motor Co.)
Chapter 26 Metal Finishing

Figure 26-14 shows the many finishes that can

be applied tc aluminwn. Regardless cf the finish
that is to be employed, the surfaces must be cleaned
of all contaminants before the finish can be applied,
Figure 26-15. Oxidation can be removed mechani-
cally (sandblasting or burnishing), or chemically
(etching with an acid, etc.). Solvents are often
employed to remove oil and grease.
Special methods have been devised to clean
complex machined castings. They are needed to
remove loose casting sand, metal chips, and other
foreign matter trapped in recesses and passages
during manufacturing operations, Figure 26-16.
Figure 26-15. Before the colorful protective finish can be
26.2. I Organic Coatings
applied to the body of this fire/rescue vehicle, 1719tal surfaC9S
A wide range of finishes fall into the category of must be cleaned of all dirt, oil, and grease. Otherwise, the finish
organic coatings: paints, varnishes, lacquers, enam- will not adhere properly. (Emergency Vehicles, Inc.)
els, various plastic-base materials, and epoxies in
both clear and pigmented (color) formulas. With the
exception of the epoxies, they are set by the evapo-
ration of their solvents. This may be accomplished
by air drying or baking. Epoxies require the addi-
tion of a catalyst or hardener to set. Organic fin-
ishes are seldom applied to machined surfaces.
A primer is often required to secure satisfactory
bonding between the metal and the finish. Some
types of castings may need a filler to smooth out the
rough cast surface, Figure 26-17.
Organic coatings are applied in the following
ways:
• Brushing, at one time, was the only way of
applying finishes.
Figure 26-16. A truck engine block being cleaned after machin-
• Spraying atomizes the finishing material and ing operations. Chemical flow and agitation of the part will
carries it to the work surface by air pressure, remove foreign matter from deep cavities, holes, and recesses
Figure 26-18. Small pressurized spray cans, of the casting. The final operation of the cleaning cycle is appli-
offered in a wide range of colors, are cation of rust-inhibiting chemicals. (Magnus Chemical)

Aluminum Clear
as reoetved Cleaning Deoxidizing Anodizing Dyed
Integral color

Mechanieal Etching
f1mshing Polishing F1ntshtng Brightening
_ _ _ _ _.... Buffing
Scratch brushing
Abrasive blasting Organic coatings
-Lacquers
-Paints
Coating -Baked enamel
-Laminates
Porcelain enamel
Electroplating

Figure 26-14. Various types of finishes that can be applied to aluminum.

Figure 26-17. A filler is used to smooth surface irregularities on
a lathe bed casting. The filler is being smoothed with an air
sander before a finish is applied. (Clausing Industrial, Inc.)
Figure 26-19. Robotic painting is commonly used in the auto-
motive industry. Robot movement is controlled by computer.
(Chrysler Corp.)

Figure 26-18. With spraying, the finishing marerial is atomized Figure 26-20. Electrically charged particles of paint will evenly
and carried to the work surface by air pressure. Shown is a CAD coat and protect all bare surfaces of this van body as it is sub-
illustration used by a truck manufacturer to develop the robotic merged in tank a containing tens of thousands of gallons of
spray patterns that will completely cover the vehicle cab. (Deneb primer. (Chrysler Corp.)
Robotics, Inc.)

available. Spraying is easily adapted to mass- 26.2.2 Inorganic Coatings

production techniques, Figure 26-19. Several well-known finishing techniques fall
• Roller coating can be used only on flat sur- into the inorganic coatings category: anodizing,
faces. It is a lmv-cost technique that can be glass coating, chemical blackening, etc.
mechanized. Anodizing is the best known of this type finish.
• With dipping, the part is submersed into the This process forms a protective layer of aluminum
finish, removed, and allmved to dry~ Figure oxide on aluminum parts.
26-20. Dipping is ,,videly used today by the There are three classes of anodizing: ordinary
automotive industry to apply body primer anodizing, hard coat anodizing, and electrobrightening.
and rust proofing. The coating is dried by The basic procedure for producing all three is the
warm air. same, Figure 26-21.
• During flow coating, the part is flooded with The anodized coating of aluminum oxide forms
the finish and allowed to drain while held in by reaction of the aluminum with an electrolyte
an atmosphere saturated with solvent vapor. when the aluminum is used as the anode. Oxygen is
Drying is thus delayed until draining is liberated at the surface of the aluminum and an
complete. oxide forms. Ordinary anodizing leaves a layer
 Etch Electrobrighten

Rinse

Anodic oxidation
(electrolyte here)

Rinse

Color
Figure 26-22. Vitreous or porcelain enamel is a glass coating
Rmse Seal fused to steel or cast surfaces. It is an extremely hard coating
that is smooth and easy to clean. Here, a quality control inspec-
Seal tor checks color part with a standard color patch. (Eljer
Plumbingware)

Rinse

Dry & unrack

Figure 26-21. Sequence of operations when anodizing

aluminum.

0.0001" to 0.0006" (0.003 mm to 0.015 mm) in thick-

ness. Hard coating produces a layer about 10 times
thicker. It has superior abrasion-, erosion-, and cor-
rosion-resistance; however, the strength of the mate-
rial is slightly reduced.
Electrobrightening occurs when the aluminum
is the anode in an electrolyte that dissolves the oxide
film at about the same rate that it is formed. The
process leaves a smooth, bright, mirror-like finish.
The anodized coating can be dyed in a wide range
of colors. The color becomes part of the surface of
the metal.
Vitreous enamel or porcelain is a glass coating
that has been fused to sheet or cast iron surfaces.
They form an extremely hard coating that is smooth
and easy to clean, Figure 26-22. Available in many
colors, they can be applied to metals that remain
solid at the firing (melting) temperatures of the coat-
ing material. The finish is applied as a powder (fri.t)
or as a thin slurry known as "slip." After drying, the
material is fired at about 1500°F (815°C) until it
fuses to the metal surface, Figure 26-23.
Chemical blackening is a finishing technique that
produces a black oxide coating on the machined
surfaces of ferrous metals, Figure 26-24. It chemi- Figure 26-23. Porcelain application and firing. A-Porcelain is
applied as a powder, called "frft," or as a thin slurry, known as
cally bonds with the metal surface, instead of
"slip." B-After frit has been applied, the unit is fired at 1500°F
merely adhering to it like paint or other applied (815°G} until porcelain has fused to the metal. (E/jer
finishes. Plumbingware)
m 26.2.3 Metal Coatings
With the exception of electroplating, which can
be used on a number of materials, metal coatings
are applied primarily to steel. They adhere to the
surface tightly enough to offer protection from cor-
rosion, as well as improving wear resistance and/ or
fae appearance of the item. For example, cutting
tools are now available with a titanium oxide coat-
ing that extends tool life up to 800%.
The more commonly employed metal coatings
include electroplating, metal spraying, and detona-
tion gun coating.
Electroplating is a process in which a layer of
metal is deposited on a metal surface by the use of
an electrical current. Practically any metal can be
Figure 26-24. Chemical blackening is a surface finishing tech- used as a coating. Chrome plating is one common
nique that can be applied to steel parts and products like those
shown. It bonds with the metal's surface, rather than coating it;
example of electroplating.
there is no surface buildup. Coating thickness can be controlled closely.
Unlike many other metal coating processes, electro-
plating can deposit coatings that improve both
Blackening is employed as a finish on precision wear-resistance and appearance. When a product is
parts that cannot tolerate the added dimensional machined, allowance must be made for the addi-
thickness of paint or plating (the blackening is tional metal thickness that will be deposited by the
0.00003" or 0.0008 mm thick). It will not chip or peel. plating process.
The process can be carried out at room tempera- In metal spraying, a metal wire or po-wder is
ture and takes about 15 minutes to complete. heated to its melting point and sprayed by air pres-
Operators must wear eye protection and gloves that sure to produce the desired coating on the work sur-
provide chemical protection. Wear a plastic apron to face. See Figure 26-25.
protect clothing.
Chemical blackening offers several advantages:
• The black finish enhances the appearance of
many items. Because the cost is so low, it is
possible to finish parts that were previously
left unfinished.
• It aids in protecting the machined surface
against humidity and corrosion.
• Light glare is greatly reduced. When
employed on moving tool and machine parts,
safetv factors are improved by reducing eye
fatigue.
• Abrasion resistance is improved.
• Adhesion qualities are improved. Paint and
other finishes applied over blackening take
hold faster, adhere more strongly, and last
longer.
There are two drawbacks to the process, both
invoking environmental treatment and disposal
laws:
Figure 26-25. The plasma flame process is one of several metal
• The water used in the process must be filtered
spraying techniques used in industry. It is capable of tem-
and treated before it can be discharged as peratures up to 30,000'F (16 649°G) and can be used to spray
wastewater. any material that will melt without decomposing. Note how the
•· Chemical residue from the process must be operator is dressed for protection against the high heat gener-
handled as toxic waste. ated by the process. (Metco, lnc,j
 Ill 2h

Most inorganic materials that can be melted

without decomposition can be applied by spraying. Spa;k plug
Flame-sprayed coatings can be applied to build up Barrel
worn or scored surfaces so they can be remachined ~:z::tf:z===c+
:z: z: z: ;
to the required size, Figure 26-26. Superhard coat- i;:~~it =:00o?,::z:z:ci::d
Oxygen gas
ings can be sprayed when abrasion-resistant sur- --i

faces are needed.

Acetylene gas

Figure 26-27. Cross section of a D-Gun or detonation gun used

to apply metal coatings. (Union Carbide Corp.)

molten coating droplets quickly solidify on the

workpiece surface. The complete coating consists of
many overlapping "pops" that build up to the
required thickness. The application process can be
fully automated.
The process can be used to apply coatings with
very high melting points to fully heat-treated parts
without danger of changing the metallurgical prop-
erties or strength of the part and without danger of
thermal distortion.
Almost any material that can be melted without
decomposing can be sprayed. Coatings include pure
metals and metallic alloys such as nickel and
nichrome, tungsten carbide, and ceramics. These
coatings are used in many applications, especially
where there is need to combat wear (abrasive, ero-
sive, or adhesive) often in very corrosive environ-
Figure 26·26. This metallizing gun is applying stainless stBBI ments. Refer to Figure 26-28.
onto a roller surface. (Metco, Inc.)

The detonation gun coating process, or D-Gun®

process is another technique for depositing a metal-
lic coating on a workpiece. The process was
invented and developed by the Union Carbide
Corporation. The D-Gun is essentially a water-
cooled barrel several feet long and about 1'' (25 mm)
in diameter. It is fitted with valving for introducing
gases and material to be sprayed. See Figure 26-27.
A carefully measured mixture of gases (usually
oxygen and acetylene) is fed into the barrel, along
with a charge of coating material in powder form.
The powder has a particle size of less than 100
microns. A spark ignites the gases. This heats the Figure 26-28. Some examples of metal and ceramic coating
powder and creates a high-temperature, high-veloc- application on gas turbine engines by detonation gun coating
process. (Union Carbide Corp.)
ity gas stream. The stream of gas carries the molten
material to the surface to be coated. A pulse of nitro-
gen purges the barrel after each detonation; the 26.2.4 Mechanical Finishes
process is repeated many times a second. Buffing is a power polishing operation. Buffing
Each detonation, called a "pop," results in a cir- wheels are attached to a buffing lathe, Figure 26-29.
cle of coating material a few microns thick and The wheels are charged with different grades of
about an inch in diameter. The molten or semi- abrasives that remove scratches and polish the
 11 M.icJiinln Fu11d roent.l.ls

metal's surface to a high luster. Unless the buffing Roller burnishing, Figure 26-31, is a cold-work-
lathe is fitted with a high efficiency dust-collecting ing operation. It remoyes no metal, but rather com-
system, an approved filter mask must be worn. presses or "irons out" the peaks of a metal's surface
Diamond dust and air-powered, hand-held pol- into the yalleys. With the process, no honing or
ishing units are used to polish the hardened steel grinding is necessary. Both ID and OD burnishing is
dies used for die castbg or the injection molding of possible and can be done at speeds and feeds com-
plastics. See Figure 26-30. parable to cutting tools.
A roller-type burnishing tool is also available
for finishing holes, Figure 26-32. The tool can size,
finish, and ,-vork-harden metal parts to tolerances as
close as 0.0002" (0.003 mm), and surface finishes as
fine as two to four microinches, Figure 26-33.

r ~el
Tool

··---~.:.J
Figure 26-31. Burnishing is a cold-working operation that gives
a high quality finish to the metal. It "irons out" the peaks of a
metal's surface into the valleys.

Figure 26-29. This buffing lathe is equipped with wheel guards

and a dust collection system. (Hammond Machinery Inc.)

Figure 26-32 Roller burnishing too! for finishing holes. It sizes,

finishes, and work-hardens the metal. The process removes no
metal. Each hole size requires a different roller burnishing tool.
(Cogsdilf Tool Products, Inc.)

26.2.5 Deburring Techniques

Powerbrushing is frequently employed to

-
remove burrs from machined surfaces, Figure 26-34.
Wire or fiber brushes replace the buffing wheels on
the buffing lathe. In removing burrs, the wheels
Figure 26-30. Polishing a steel die with a diamond dust to pro- produce a satin sheen on the brushed surface,
duce a mirror-like finish. (NSK America) Figure 26-35.
 _ _Metal
_
Chapter 26 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___Jr-.
Finishing mil

Figure 26-33 Roller burnishing. A-Closeup of reamed hole. Resulting microscopic ridges and valleys are exaggerated in the draw-
ing. 8-Finish in hole after roller burnishing.

Figure 26-34 Buffing lathe tnat can tJe titted with wire or fiber
brush wheels to remove burrs, and flannel wheels to polish.
Always wear a dust mask when using a buffing lathe. Guards Figure 26-35. Top gear has burrs. Lower gear has had burrs
and wheels have been removed for clarity. (Baldor) removed using wire brushes. (Osborn Mfg. Co.)
 Fu 1d 1 'lit ,

Hand deburring of small holes and intricate TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

parts is tedious and expensive so other methods are Please do not write in the text. Write your
desirable. One technique, known as extrude-hone, answers on a separate sheet of paper.
makes use of a silicon putty (very similar to the
"Silly Putty®" found in toy stores) permeated with 1. The symbol _ _ ,vas used at one time on
finely divided abrasive particles. The silicon plastic dra,dngs to designate a machined surface.
is forced into and through the part to be deburred. 2. Why was the abo,·e symbol's use
As it flows Lhrough the openings to be deburred, the discontinued?
abrasive grains remove any machine burrs in the
part. See Figure 26-36. 3. Surface roughness is now measured in _ __
and _ _. What does each equal?
4. In addition to surface roughness, other surface
conditions were given values. Waviness was
one such condition. It means:
a. Very rough surfaces.
b. Smoothly rounded undulations caused by
tool and machine conditions.
c. Scratches on the machined surface.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
5. lay is another surface finish condition. What
does it mean?
6. A 500/12.5 surface finish is than a
125/3.2 surface finish.
7. \Vhile the quality of a machined surface is of
paramount importance in the machining of
metal, other finishing methods are used in the
machine shop. They are employed for one or
more of the following reasons. Explain each.
a. Appearance.
b. Protection.
c. Identification.
Figure 26-36. Extrude hone technique. A-This block has BO d. Cost reduction.
intersecting holes; a few of which are shown in cut-away sec-
8. Regardless of the finishing method utilized,
tions. Access to them tor hand deburring was virtually impossi-
ble. Abrasive-charged silicon putty removed afl burrs rapidly the surface to be finished must be thoroughly
and economically. B-Several difficult jobs deburred on a pro- of all contaminants.
duction basis by this process. (South Shore Tool and
Development Corp.)
9. Paints, lacquers, and enamels are in the fa..-nily
of _ _ coatings.
10. List the fiYe ways employed to apply the fin-
ishes in Question 9.
11. list three types of anodizing.
12. Describe electroplating.
 Chapter 27

Elec

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 27.1 ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE

MACHINING (EDM)
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
. I Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a
process where hard, tough, fragile, and/or heat-
sensitive metals difficult to machine by conven-
tional "chip-making" techniques can be worked to
close tolerances.
Die blanks, for example, can be worked after
heat-treating, Figure 27-1. This eliminates warping
and distortion that frequently occur when
a finished die is heat-treated. Superhard metals
IMPORTANT TERMS are readily worked to tolerances as close as
0.0002" (0.005 mm). Surface finishes can be
varied from very rough to almost mirror-smooth.
"Washed-out" (worn) dies can also be reworked
in the heat-treated state.

The most notable advantage of electromachining

is that mechanical forces have no influence on the
processes. Material is not removed by "brute force,"
as with conventional machining techniques. Rather,
electrical energy is applied directly to remove metal
by erosion.
Electrical discharge machining and electrochem-
ical machining are two electromachining processes
that have made a great impact on the field of metal-
working and machining. Notably, neither process
produces a chip as metal is removed. Instead, the
particles are disposed of completely by vaporization
or are reduced to microscopic particles. In order to
be machined by either of these processes, the metals
must conduct electricity. Figure 27-1. Die blanks, like this extrusion die used to produce
storm window frames, can be machined by EDM while in the
Never attempt to operate electromachining heat-treating stage. The job can be done quickly, with no possi-
equipment while your senses are impaired by med- bility of die warping, and at a considerable cost savings 0119r
ication or other substances. traditional machining techniques.
27. I. I EDM Principle
In a gasoline engine, sparking (or arcing) takes
place at the spark plug gap when the ignition coil
fires to ignite the fuel mixture. After prolonged
operation, the spark plug electrodes will be eroded
by the action of the electric arcs. This is the basis of
EDM. See Figure 27-2.

Figure 27-2. How the EDM process works. A spark (or arc) from
an electrode causes the work to erode.

An electrical discharge machine, Figure 27-3, is

composed of the following parts.
• The power supply is needed to provide direct
current and to control Yoltage and frequency.
• The electrode, Figure 27-4, can be compared Figure 27-3. Electrical discharge machines. A-A CNC ram-
to the cutting tool on a conyentional machine type EDM machine. (Charmilles Technologies) B-A CNC EDM
tool. Graphite has become the most-used machine which has automated loading and unloading of elec-
material for ED\.1 electrodes. Because of the trodes and workpieces. (LeBlond Makino Machine Tool Co.)
dust produced when machining graphite
electrodes, special machine tools with The serYomechanism maintains a thin gap of
enclosed cutting zones and pmverful suction about 0.001" (0.025 mm) between the electrode and
systems have been deYeloped, Figure 27-5. the work The electrode and the work are sub-
• The servomechanism (driYe unit) is used to merged in the fluid, Figure 27-6. When the voltage
accurately control electrode movement and across the gap reaches a point sufficient to cause the
to maintain the correct distance between dielectric fluid to break down, a spark occurs. Each
the ,,·ork and the electrode as machining spark erodes only a tiny particle of metal, but since
progresses. the sparking occurs 20,000 to 30,000 times per sec-
• The dielectric fluid, usually a light mineral ond, appreciable quantities of metal are removed.
oil, is used to form a nonconductiYe barrier Besides providing a nonconductive barrier, the
between the electrode and the work at the dielectric fluid also se1Tes to flush particles from the
arc gap. gap, keep the electrode and the work cool, and
 --+- 1
I
.., I
I ;
(
,J

l
Figure 27-5. Machines for milling graphite electrodes must be
environmentally clean. This CNC graphite mill has a totally
enclosed cutting zone and a powerful suction system that con-
tains, captures, and removes chips and dust.
(LeB/ond Makino Machine Tool Co.)

Servomechanism
Power supply (feed)

g 0

Controls

Figure 27-4. Graphite electrodes. A-Note now thin tne cutting

areas are on this graphite electrode. It would be difficult to
machine them by conventional means. B--A more complex Pump
shaped graphite electrode. A probe is being used to check
whether the electrode's shape meets specifications.
(LeBlond Makino Machine Tool Co.)
Dlelectnc fluid
reserv01r

prevent fusion of the electrode with the workpiece. Flgun, 27-6. Diagram of the EDM process.
A filter removes particles from the fluid.
Roughing cuts are made at low voltage and low
frequency, with high amperage and high capaci-
tance (opposition to any change in voltage). 2 7. I .2 .EDM Af>Plications
Finishing cuts require high voltage and high fre- The EDM process is employed to:
quency, with low amperage and low capacitance. • Shape carbide tools and dies.
Hard metals erode at a much slower rate than • Machine complex shapes in hard, tough
soft metals. Since the electrode is also consumed, metals. See Figure 27-7.
but at a much slower rate than the work, consider- • Machine applications where the physical
able savings can be effected by making interchange- characteristics of the metal or its use make it
able electrodes for roughing, sizing, and finishing. impractical or very expensive to machine by
Long runs may require several sets of electrodes. conventional methods, Figure 27-8.
 I•

Figure 27-7. EDM makes it possible to machine complex

shapes to close tolerances in hard, tough materials. This die is
employed to make electronic parts.
Figure 27-9. An EDM electrode must be an exact reversal or
mirror image of the cut to be made. Many electrodes are made
Inserts from graphite.

(~~
~/

Figure 27-8. This guide would be expensive to manufacture

using conventional machining techniques.

• Eliminate tedious and expensive handwork in

die making because the cavity produced in
the metal is a "mirror image" of the electrode,
Figure 27-9.
• Drill holes ranging in size from 0.0012" to
0.120" (0.3 mm to 3 mm) in diameter. They
can be square, rectangular, triangular, or
round. Multiple holes can be produced at the
same time. Hardness is not a factor as long as
the material ·will conduct electricity. Workpiece Sapphire
movement ( { ) or diamond
guide
27.2 ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE
WIRE CUTTING (EDWC)
A process similar to band machining, electrical Figure 27-10. How electrical discharge wire cutting (EDWC)
discharge wire cutting (EDWC) makes use of a works. It differs from EDM in that a fine, moving wire electrode
small-diameter wire electrode in place of a saw. Like is used for cutting instead of a solid electrode. This technique is
EDM, this process removes material by spark ero- ideal for CNC operations.
sion as the wire electrode is fed through the work-
piece, Figure 27-10. The wire electrode is fed from a dielectric fluid cools the electrode and the work. The
spool over sapphire or diamond guides. A starter or wire electrode is used only once because it becomes
threading hole is required. A steady stream of ·warped or distorted after just one pass through the work
Chapter 27 Electromachining Processes

EDWC is well-suited for CNC applications,

Figure 27-11. Titls makes it possible to produce dies,
shaped carbide cutting tools, and punches in less
than one-third the time required by conventional
methods. When employed for other types of work,
layers of sheet metal stacked up to 6" (150 mm)
thick can be gang-cut to produce a number of parts
in one pass. See Figure 27-12 for examples of
EDWCwork.

Figure 27-12. Examples of work produced using EDWC.

27.J ELECTROCHEMICAL
MACHINING (ECM)
Electrochemical machining, more commonly
known as ECM, might be classified as electroplating
in reverse. Like electroplating, the process requires
DC electricity and a suitable electrolyte (an electri-
cally conductive fluid). However, with ECM, the
metal is removed from the work rather than
deposited onto it, Figure 27-13.

Figure 27-11. EDWC equipment. A-Submerged wire EDM

machine. Submerged processing allows thicker cuts and can
produce ultrafine finishes. The machine is fitted with an auto-
matic wire threader and is self-cleaning. (LeBlond Makino
Machine Tool Co.) 8-Automated wire EDM cell with robotic
loading and unloading.
(Charmilles Technologies/Mecatool USA Ltd.) Figure 27-13. How electrochemical machining (ECM) works.
 Machining Fun damentals

The electrolyte for ECM is usually common salt

(NaCl) mixed with water. A stream of electrolyte is
pumped at high pressure through a gap between
the positively (+) charged work and the negatively
(-) charged tool (electrode). The current passing
through the gap removes material from the work by
electrolysis, duplicating the shape of the electrode
tool as it advances into the metal. In some applica-
tions, tolerances as close as 0.0004" (0.010 mm) can
be maintained.
The work is not touched by the tool; hence, no
friction, heat, sparking, or tool wear occur. The
machined surface is free of burrs and, in some
instances, is highly polished. The operation of the
machine is unique because the only sound heard is
the rush of liquid. See Figure 27-14.

Figure 27-15. The blades of this titanium turbine wheel were

machined in a metal blank. One blade was machined in two
wheels simultaneously at a feed rate of approximately 0.250"
(6.5 mm) per minute.

Figure 27-14. The rush of fluid is the only noise heard when an
electrical discharge machine is in operation.

27.3.I ECMAdvantages
ECM offers many advantages:
• Metal is removed rapidly - up to 1 cu. in. per
minute for each 10,000 amps of machining
current.
• The kind of metal or its hardness does not
affect the speed of material removal. Cast iron
is about the only metal that offers problems, Figure 27-16. This pipe elbow forging die was machined into
and it is machined by other processes. hardened steel to the shape and finish shown in 20 minutes.
Conventional machining and polishing would require several
• ECM is accurate. Difficult shapes can be hours to produce the same form. Danger of warping would also
machined easily, Figure 27-15. be present when the machined die was heat-treated.
• The machined metal is stress-free and will not
warp or spring out of shape when removed
from the machine.
• There is no tool wear. • Advances continually are being made in
• Several operations (milling, grinding, debur- ECM. The ability to produce highly complex
ring, and polishing) often can be eliminated shapes with simple tooling ·w idens the range
with ECM. See Figure 27-16. of application for this machining process.
Chapter '1.7 iElectromachining li'roces~s :u.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 7. Explain the functions of the dielectric fluid

usedinEDM.
Please do not write in the text. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper. 8. The EDM machine _ _ maintains a very thin
gap of about 0.001" (0.025 mm) between the
1. EDM stands for _ _
electrode and the work.
2. EDWC stands for _ _
9. In EDM, the cavity produced in the work is an
3. ECM stands for _ _. exact of the electrode.
4. Metals to be machined by EDM and ECM must 10. How does EDWC differ from EDM?
conduct ___; otherwise, neither process can m
11. ECM might well be classified as
be used.
reverse.
5. Neither of the processes in Question 4 pro-
12. InECM:
duces a as metal is removed. Particles are
a. The work is not touched by the tool.
disposed of completely by _ _ or reduced to
b. There is no friction or heat generated.
--· c. There is no tool wear.
6. EDM is a process that permits metals that are: d. All of the above.
a. Hard or tough to be machined. e. None of the above.
b. Difficult or impossible to machine by con-
13. In ECM, metal is removed _ _ .
ventional means to be worked to close
tolerances. 14. What are five advantages that ECM offers?
c. Fragile or heat-sensitive to be machined.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
Operating under computer numerical control, this five-axis laser beam machining system can produce some complex parts in min-
utes, rather than the hours required with conventional machining. (Lumonics Corp.)
 Chapter 28

na
•
ac I ues
In general, chemical machining falls into two
LEARNING OBJECTIVES categories: chemical milling and chemical blanking.
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
28. I. I Chemical Milling
Chemical milling, also called chem-milling or
contour etching, is a recognized and accepted
technique for machining metal to exacting toler-
ances through chemical action. The process makes
possible the selective removal of metal from
relatively large surface areas, Figure 28-1. For
) example, chem-milling may be employed to reduce
the weight of sheet metal p arts, critical to
aerospace vehicle performance.
Basically, chem-milling is a process in which
the prepared part is immersed in an etchant (usu-
ally a strong alkaline solution) where the resulting
IMPORTANT TERMS chemical action removes the desired metal. The
machining

water jet cutting

The metalworking industry is responsible for

cutting, shaping, and fabricating both metals and
nonmetals. Given the broad range of materials and
rapid development of new ones, new machining
techniques have been devised to keep pace. This
chapter will describe several of the new techniques
that differ from the traditional chip-removal
method of the lathe, drill press, milling machine,
grinder, and saw.

28.1 CHEMICAL MACHINING

Chemical machining is a refinement of the Section AA
process once used by photoengravers to prepare
Figure 28-1. Chemical milling is employed to remove metal to
printing cuts and plates. Chemicals, usually in an close tolerances. This aircraft wing panel has been chemically
aqueous (with water) solution, are employed to etch reduced in sections where spars are not attached. Considerable
away selected portions of the metal to produce an weight reduction is accomplished with no sacrifice of structural
accurately contoured part. strength.
immersion time must be carefully controlled. Areas
that are not subject to metal removal are protected
by masks (special coating materials) that do not
react to the etching solution.
Chem-milling and conventional milling are
complementary processes. Refinements in chem-
milling make it possible to remove metal to form
shapes or microscopic parts that would be difficult
or impossible to do by conventional machining
techniques. Tapers and multiple-depth cuts also can
be produced. See Figures 28-2 and 28-3.

Figure 284. Cleaning removes all grease and dirt that might
affect the etching process.

Figure 28-2. The outer skin of an aircraft engine housing is

integrally stiffened. Aluminum sheet is approximately 48H x 72"
(1219 mm x 1829 mm) and is chem-milled after being formed.

~(z
Figure 28-3. Multiple depth cuts are possible with chem-milling
by masking shallower sections when the correct depth has been
reached. Tapers are produced by withdrawing metal from an
etchant at a predetermined rate.
Figure 28-5. A template is placed over the entire part; then,
Steps in chemical milling areas to be exposed are circumscribed and masking material is
stripped away. (Northrop-Grumman Corp.)
There are six major steps in the chemical milling
process:
• Cleaning. Removes all grease and dirt that
might affect the etching process. See Figure • Rinsing and solvent stripping. After rinsing,
28-4. parts are lowered into a solvent tank which
• Masking. The entire part is coated with a releases the maskant bond. Maskant residue
masking material, applied by brushing, dip- is stripped from the part.
ping, spraying, or roller coating. The masked • Inspection. The accuracy of the chemical
metal sheet is t.1-ien baked to remove all sol- milling etch is measured with the aid of an
vents. ultrasonic thickness gage.
• Scribing and stripping. A template is placed
over the entire part. Then, the areas to be Advantages of chemical milling
exposed are circumscribed, and the masking Chemical milling offers many advantages:
material is stripped away. See Figure 28-5. • Tooling costs are low.
• Etching. Parts are racked and lowered into an • Tolerances of + /-0.003" (0.07 mm) are obtain-
etchant for milling operation. See Figure 28-6. able on cuts up to 0.50" (12.5 mm) deep.
Chapter 28 NontraC:itional MachiningTedm!que::.

as in depth. Typical lateral tolerances work on

an etch factor of 3:1. This means that for every
0.003" (0.08 mm) of etched depth, 0.001"
(0.03 mm) of undercut will occur. The top
edges of the cavity will be sharp; however, the
inside edges and corners will have a radius
approximately equal to the cut depth,
Figure 28-8.

28. I .2 Chemical Blanking

Chemical blanking, also called chem-blanking,
photoforming, or photoetching, involves total removal

Figure 2B-6. Parts are racked and lowered into an etchant for
milling operation.
Sheet metal part-
severe forming
• The size of the workpiece size is limited only
Local reduction of .008 due to forming
by the size of the immersion tank.
• Warping and distortion of formed sections is 0.092
negligible. 0.100 0.100
• Contoured or shaped parts can be chem-
milled after they are formed, Figure 28-7.
• Many parts can be produced simultaneously. Prior to chemical milling
• Unsupported pieces that are as thin as 0.015"
(0.4 mm) can be machined without danger of
buckling. 0.060-0.063 Thinnest point
• Both sides of the metal can be milled at the I ±i"une _J
same time. i - tolerance-- ~,
• Any metal, regardless of its state of heat treat-
ment, can be machined chemically. 0.0681-0.071
Thickest point
J
• No burrs are produced in the area machined.
After chemical milling
Disadvantages of chemical milling
Figure 28-7. This aircraft part was chem-milled after it was
The chemical milling process does have some formed. Pieces even more severely formed than this part can be
disadvantages: chem-milled economically. (Northrop-Grumman Corp.)
• The process is slow; it takes considerable time
to remove large quantities of metal.
• All surface imperfections must be removed
before etching; otherwise, these areas would
etch at a faster rate and be amplified on the
finished surface.
• Chem-milling is not recommended for etch-
ing holes.
• Surface finishes on deep etches are not com-
parable to conventionally machined surfaces. Figure 28-B. The inside edges of a chem-milled section will
• Lateral dimensions are difficult to hold have a radius equal to the depth of the etch, an advantage in
because the etchant works sideways as well many applications.
of metal from certain areas by chemical action. It is Steps in chemical blanking
a variation of chemical milling. Chem-blanking is There are five major steps in the chemical blank-
employed by the aerospace and electronics indus- ing process:
tries to produce small, intricate, ultrathin parts. See
1. A master drawing of the part is made, Figure
Figure 28-9.
Metal foil as thin as 0.00008" (0.002 mm) can be 28-11. Depending upon the tolerances that
must be met, it may be drawn as large as
worked by chem-blanking. (By comparison, a
cigarette paper is about 0.001" or 0.023 mm thick.) 50 times the size of the required part.
This ultrathin metal is laminated to a plastic 2. The drawing is reduced photographically. This
backing to protect it from damage during shipping, produces a film or glass master the exact size of
Figure 28-10. the required part. Since many identical parts
The process is not recommended for metals usually must be made, a negative ·1.vith multi-
thicker than 0.09" (2.3 mm). However, almost any ple images often is often produced on a photo-
metal can be chem-blanked. repeating machine, Figure 28-12.

PART 6789

Figure 28-9. Made by chemical blanking, these electronic Figure 28-11. A master drawing may be up to 50 times the
parts range in thickness from 0.0001" to 0.002" (0.0025 mm to actual size of the required part, depending upon tolerances that
0.05 mm). (Microphoto_. Inc.) must be met. (Microphoto, Inc.)

Figure 28-10. A plastic sheet holds 0.001" (0.025 mm) thick Figure 28-12. A master drawing is photographically reduced to
computer components. Computer parts are laminated to plastic the required size. Since many identical parts must be made, it is
to assure a flat, crease-free condition. most economical to etch several at a time. (Microphoto, Inc.)
Chapfar 22 Nontraditional MachiningTechaique~

3. A metal sheet is thoroughly cleaned and coated

with photosensitive resist. The multiple-image
negative is contact-printed on the surface of the
metal blank, Figure 28-13. After exposure, the
images are developed. The resist in unexposed
areas is dissolved during the developing pro-
cess, exposing bare metal.

Figure 28-14. After designs have been developed on metal,

strips are placed in a spray etcher. These are stainless steel
computer parts. (Hamilton Watch Co.)

conveyorized spray etcher used for chem-

blanking. The spray nozzles move back and
forth while the holding tray oscillates to assure
maximum exposure of the work to the etchant.
Figure 28-13. The technician is using a double-sided printing
Etching time varies from just over three min-
unit. Metal is placed between two identical, perfectly aligned utes for metal 0.0001" (0.002 mm) thick, to as
photographic negatives. A light source deposits the part's image long as an hour for 0.010" (0.25 mm) material.
onto the metal blank. (Hamilton Watch Co.) Etching removes all of the metal not protected
by the resist coating.
4. The processed metal blank is placed in a spray 5. After etching, the photoresist is removed with
etcher, Figure 28-14. Spraying is preferred over solvents, and the metal is flushed with warm
immersion or splashing because it offers a water and dried. Visual inspection of each
higher etching rate and better tolerance con- chem-blanked unit assures strict adherence to
trol. Figure 28-15 shows one type of horizontal specifications, Figure 28-16.

Wash chamber

'-..
'Etchant pumps

Figure 28-15. This continuous spray etching machine was developed for a conveyorized operation. It also includes a rinsing
compartment at the exit end. (Chemcut)
 M,.u:hlrun Fvr1dar111!11t.Js

disposing of expended etchant and rinse

water to prevent environmental damage.
• Good photographic facilities are required.
• The maximum thickness of metal that can be
worked is limited. For production purposes,
the practical limit is 0.09" (2.3 mm).
• Tolerances increase with metal thickness.

28.2 HYDRODYNAMIC
MACHINING (HDM)
Hydrodynamic machining (HD1\tl) or water-jet
cutting, Figure 28-17, is a relatively ne,,· cutting
process. It was developed to shape composites-
layers of a tough fabric-like material bonded
Figure 28-16. An inspector visually checks a microchip section together into three-dimensional shapes called
that was chem-blanked. It wil! become part of the electronic con- layups. The texture of composites quickly dulls
trol module of an automotive emission/fuel control system.
(Defeo Electronics Div. of General Motors Corp.)
conventional cutting tools.

Advantages of chemical blanking

Like all nontraditional machining techniques,
chemical blanking offers certain adYantages over
conventional machining techniques:
• Tooling costs are lo-wer. The technique utilizes
an inked drawing on dimensionally stable
plastic film, so almost any pattern that can be
dra"Yn can be produced. Small parts can be
drawn oversized. A good drafter can render
these large drawings within + /-0.003"
(0.13 mm) on :Mylar$ film. Any appreciable
error diminishes when the drawing is
reduced to actual size.
• There are no burrs on the milled part.
• lnitiai quantities of newly designed parts Figure 28-17. How hydrodynamic machining or abrasive water-
often can be produced within hours. Jet cutting operates. (Flow International Corp.)
• Design changes are made easily by revising
the existing arhvork. Hydrodynamic machining can be accomplished
• C1trathin metal foils can be worked without ,vith or ·w ithout abrasives. The addition of abrasives
fear of distorUon. to the ,\·ater jet is preferred when shaping metals
• Accuracy increases as the metal thickness and harder nonmetallic materials, Figure 28-18.
decreases. The computer-controlled technique uses a
• Metal characteristics (brittleness, hardness, 53,000 psi (379 000 kPa) water jet to cut complex
etc.) have no significant effect on the process. shapes with minimal waste, Figure 28-19. Depen-
ding upon the material being cut, tolerances can be
Disadvantages of chemical blanking held to +/-0.004" (0.1 mm). No heat is generated to
Chemical blanking has some disadYantages: damage the material, being cut, nor is airborne dust
• The process is relatively slm,·. Metal removal produced; particulates (fragments) are carried
seldom exceeds 0.001" (0.02 mm) per minute. away by the ,rnter jet.
• Highly skilled 1,,·orkers are required. Since the speed of the water jet leaving the noz-
• Chemicals are extremely corrosive, so etching zle is approximately three times the speed of sound,
equipment must be isolated from other plant it can cause serious injury. Hands must be kept clear
equipment. Care must be employed ·when of the work area.
Figure 28-18. A CNC hydrodynamic machine programmed to
cut circular saw blades. Abrasives were added to the water jet
because the blades are cut from heat-treated, high-spe9d steel
(HSS). The process is powerful enough to cut through two
inches of tool steel at the rate of 1.5° per minute. (Ingersol/-
Rand Co., Waterjet Systems)

28.3 ULTRASONIC MACHINING

Figure 28-19. Water-jet machines. A-A two-axis (X-Y), abra-
The science of ultrasonics (sound waves at sive water-jet machine with a built-in CAD/CAM system. It has a
frequencies higher than the human ear can detect) work envelope of 39.3u x 19.tr (1 m x 0.5 m) and can cut vir-
has found applications in many areas---machining, tually any material up to 4". (100 mm) thick. Note that the
welding, quality control, and cleaning, to name a machine is enclosed to protect the operator. (Flow International
Corp.) B-This CNC abrasive water-jet cutting system has two
few. Considerable research is being done to develop
separate cutting heads that travel over the cutting area. It is also
new uses and to improve existing techniques. fitted with an automatic drill to pre-drill a piercing hole. The drill
The average person can hear sounds that vibrate is useful when cutting stacked material because the water jet,
between 20 to 20,000 cycles (times) per second. which is normally used to pierce, could separate laminated
Below 20 cycles per second, sound waves are called materials of varying hardness. Parts are programmable on the
infrasonic. Above 20,000 cycles per second, sound built-in computer. (Bystronic, Inc.)
waves are known as ultrasonic. Industrial applica-
tions make use of energy up to 100,000 cycles per fitted to a standard machine tool to make the tool
second. vibrate at a high frequency. The ultrasonic assist
Ultrasonic waves are created by passing an makes possible a 10% to 50% reduction in tool forces
electric current (usually 60-cycle ac) into a suitable with almost complete elimination of tool chatter.
generator (transducer) to produce the desired Chatter reduction is a distinct advantage when the
frequency. The sound waves may be used in con- boring operations require the use of long, slender
junction with a fluid (as in quality control and clean- boring tools. Tool wear is reduced and more cutting
ing applications) or applied directly to the cutting can be done between sharpenings. Surface finishes
tool or metal as it is being machined, welded, or are also improved.
formed. See Figure 28-20. Similar applications have been made in grind-
ing. Ultrasonic waves are passed through the grind-
28.3. I Ultrasonic-assist Machining ing wheel. Particles and chips that normally become
Ultrasonic machining applies SOWld waves to embedded in the wheel are vibrated loose and
the tool or metal as it is cutting or being cut. A fairly washed away by the coolant. Grinding tempera-
recent development is an ultrasonic assist for con- tures are reduced, and wheel life is extended.
ventional metalcutting processes. The transducer is Material can be removed more rapidly and surface
rm
i
0
Frequency converter
changes 230V/60 Hz/1 phase
to ultrasonic frequency

Transducer converts
,.I
32 (0.79 mm)

electrical energy to
.,.__ _~ mechanical energy

Figure 28-21. Tool motion in ultrasonic (impact) machining is

slight, only 0.003" (0.076 mm). The 1132n (0.79 mm) measure-
ment is used to indicate scale.

A solid funnel-shaped horn must be employed

to amplify and transmit the Yibrations. Ultrasonic
Work Yibrations directly from the transducer do not pro-
duce enough motion to produce the required tool
Figure 28-20. Ultrasonic machining setup. moYement. The tool does not touch the work, and
no heat is generated, thereby eliminating possible
distortion of the work. Microscopic portions of the
work are chipped a·w ay to produce the desired
finishes impro\·ed for the same expenditure of shape. The machined section is a mirror image of
power. illtrasonic vibrations imparted to grinder the cutting tool, Figure 28-22.
coolant have been found to produce similar results. Industrial applications of impact machining
Drilling, reaming, honing, milling, and EDM include:
(electrical discharge machining) techniques all • Slicing and cutting germanium and silicon
employ ultrasonic assist. wafers into tiny chips for transistors, diodes,
and rectifiers for the electronics industry.
28.3.2 Impact Machining • Machining complex shapes in nonconductive
Impact or slurry machining uses ultrasonics and and semiconductive materials that cannot be
a special tool to force an abrasiYe against the work. satisfactorily handled by EDl\,1 and ECM.
With the exception of diamond tools, it is the only • Shaping virtually unmachinable space-age
commercially feasible way to machine extremely materials.
hard, brittle, and frangible (breakable) materials. Impact machining is slow and the surface fil'ish
The technique works best on hard, brittle materials is dependent on the size of the abrasive grit used.
(glass, quartz, silicon, and carbides); it is ineffective One inch (25 mm) is about the deepest cut possible
on soft materials, such as aluminum and copper. with existing equipment. On the other hand, toler-
Machining is done by a shaped cutting tool ances of 0.001" (0.023 mm) can be maintained on
oscillating about 23,000 times per second. This rapid hole size and geometry in most materials.
oscillation pounds a slurry of fine, abrasive particles Equipment cost is moderate. The training period for
against the work. The tool stroke, at the ,ibrating machine operators is short and does not require
end, is only 0.003" (0.076 mm), Figure 28-21. special skills.
Chapter 28 N ontradkioria! "'ad,ining·rechn!rwes

28.4 ELECTRON BEAM

j MACHINING (EBM)
'Amplifier The electron beam microcutter-welder uses a
high-energy, highly focused beam of electrons to
weld or cut materials. Electron beam machining
(EBM) is the direct result of the special needs of the
atomic energy, electronics, and aerospace industries.
Tool In some aspects, it is the most precise and versatile
of the new machining techniques. See Figure 28-23.

Machined
cavity

Figure 28-22. The machined section is a mirror image of the

tool.

28.3.3 Other Ultrasonic Applications

Industrial applications for ultrasonics vary. A
principal use is to improve the cleaning power of
chemical solvents. As the waves pass through the
cleaning solution, microscopic vapor pockets are
created in the fluid. These "bubbles" (high vacuum
\
areas) form and collapse about 20,000 times per sec-
Vacuum pump /
ond. This creates local pressure as much as 10,000 Hatch
psi, as well as heat. The bubbles smash against the
28'vacuum
work and literally tear away the dirt, oil, grease, chamber
chips, flux, and other contaminants on the surface.
The cleaning action is so thorough that the tech-
nique is employed to decontaminate work that has
been exposed to radioactive solutions and gases.
Nondestructive testing using ultrasonics has
been developed to the point where the testing
procedure is fully automated. Flaws as small as Figure 2~23. Electron beam machines. A-An electron beam
0.001" X 0.250" (0.025 mm X 6.25 mm) can be microcutter-welder. (Hamilton Standard Div., United Tech-
detected on a continuous basis. nologies) B-A partial view of a 28' (8.5 m) electron beam cut-
ting and welding machine. Lead shielding is required to protect
Sound waves are also used to weld metals to the operator from X-rays produced by the electron beam.
nonmetals. Precision welding of dissimilar materi- (Westinghouse Electric Corp.)
als to form a solid bond has been developed suc-
cessfully. For example, ultrasonic waves can weld Because the electron beam will cut any known
aluminum wires to special glass on some electronic metal or nonmetal that can exist in a high vacuum,
circuits. its microcutting capabilities are almost unlimited.
fm __________________________________ M_a_c_il:_r._in_g_F_u_n_d_a_n_e
, _n_ta_!s

The development ot refined focusing systems has The electron beam machine is basically a source
made it possible to control the cutting action ,dth a of thermal energy, Figure 28-26. The beam of elec-
high degree of precision. trons can be focused to a very sharp point. Cutting
Electron beam cutting action can be controlled is achieved by alternately heating and cooling the
so precisely that it is possible to drill holes as small area to be cut.
as 0.0002" (0.005 mm) in diameter and mill slots
having widths of 0.0005" (0.0125 mm). The finish of
the completed work is similar to a very fine
machined edge. See Figure 28-24.

Electron beam
gun

~
0.00S"Slo~
(0.013 mm)
Human hair
0.003" Dia.
(0.075 mm) Optical
Figure 28-24. Note the size of the work done using the electron
beam technique. The parts and the shaft of human hair are
drawn to the same scale.

The electron beam machine is similar in some

respects to a television set. In the television set, a
heated tungsten filament emits a stream of elec-
trons. The electron stream is concentrated into a
small-diameter beam by an electro-optical system. Work
The beam is moved by a deflection system so f"'
Worktable
Vacuum (movable on
rapidly that a glm,ving picture is produced on a flu- chamber-,. ~==~~ 2 axes)
orescent screen (television picture tube).
The electron beam machine tool also makes use
Figure 28-26. Cross-sectional view of an electron beam
of a beam of electrons. However, the resulting elec- microcutter-welder.
tron beam is several times more intense than the one
used to produce a television picture. Control dials
are used to focus and adjust the electron beam for
cutting or welding, Figure 28-25. The heating and cooling must be controlled
carefully so the material at the point of focus is
heated to a temperature high enough to vaporize it,
yet not enough to cause the surrounding area to
melt. This is accomplished by employing a pulsing
technique. The beam is on for only a few milli-
seconds and is off for a considerably longer period
of time. A temperature of 12,ooo~F (6649°C) can be
achieved at the focal point of the electron beam.
Cut geometry (the shape of the cut) is controlled
bv
., movement of the worktable in the Yacuum cham-
ber and by employing the deflection coil to bend the
Figure 28-25. Adjustment and position of the electron beam
beam of electrons to the desired cutting path. Initial
are controlled by dials similar in function to those found on hole diameter or cut width is controlled by the
some audio equipment. amount of power applied and the duration of the
(Hamilton Standard Div., United Technologies) cutting time. See Figure 28-27.
Chapter 1.8 Nonznuiitional tfachinlng Techniques

Electron beam Depending upon the initial energy source used

to activate the laser, it is possible to instantaneously
create temperatures up to 75;000°F (41650°C) at the
point of focus. This is almost seven times the aver-
age temperature of the sun. No known material can
Deflection coil withstand such heat, Figure 28-29.
(X & Y movements)
There has been a dramatic increase in the use of
lasers in parts manufacturing, Figure 28-30. Lasers

~, '- /
/<
'- ,..,,,,,/ /

Figure 28-21. The path of the cut is controlled by a deflecting

electron beam or by movement of the worktable. Cutting must
be done in a vacuum.

28.5 LASER BEAM MACHINING

The term laser is an acronym for Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
The laser produces a narrow and intense beam of
light that can be focused optically onto an area only
a few microns in diameter. See Figure 28-28.

Laser beam

Process Figure 28-29. At its focal point, the laser beam is almost sewn
gas times the average temperature of the sun.

Focal
length

Work
movement
~,S>

W0tk
Figure 28-30. A muftiaxls laser system that can handle parts up
Figure 28-28. A laser produces a narrow and intense beam of to 13' (4 m) wide. Its design permits multiple setups. Parts can
light. The beam can be concentrated to a point as small as be loaded and unloaded while other parts are being machined.
0.0002". (0.05 mm) diameter. (Lumonics Corp.)
are used for cutting, drilling, slotting, scribing, heat-
treating, and welding. See Figures 28-31.
The energy output of a laser is usually not con-
tinuous. It lasts only a fraction of a second. When
employed for machining and cutting, it operates at
1 to 3 cycles per second. The cycle can be controlled
manually or electronically. The laser operates on the
principle described in Figure 28-32.

Figure 28-31. Laser cutting. A-When used with CNC, a laser is capable of cutting 3-D workpieces. (Lumonics Corp.) 8-A CNC CO2
laser cutting specially shaped slots in a stainless steel plate. The high velocity gas jet aids in material removal by blowing out molten
metal through the backside of the work. It also protects the lens from spatter ejected from the cut zone, especially during the piercing
operation. (Rofin-Sinar, Inc.)

End po!ished Waves !eaving system

and silvered

End polished Stimulation

and partially (Xenon
Laser
-r- •··
J'
silvered
material flash-
lamp)

A-The ends of a ruby rod are flattened so they are parallel and
silvered to form mirrors. A mirror at one end is made to reflect Monochromatic Partially
only part of the light so the beam can escape when there is (singie wavelength) "--- reflecting end
a buildup in energy between the two mirrors. coherent light

~-1
~ Lens
..•---
I -
.,.___
---

8-Soon after chromium atoms in the ruby crystal are pumped

by a flashlamp to a higher energy level, they drop to another
Aa(fjat
1oss

Work t'
Focused beam

I Metal
vaportzed

A flashlamp capable of producing an intense light is

level, and stimulated emission takes place. Waves moving at
employed to "pump" a laser into a high level of excitement.
angles to the crystal's axis leave the system, but those traveling
along the axis grow by stimulated emission of photons. Lens
Work
_ -_ -_ -_ -_ =
. ...-~ - - -_ -_ -_ = _ -_ -_ - - - - - -_ -_ -_ -_ -_ -_ - - -_ -~ -- - - - - - - -

1~============~ B
C-Parallel waves are reflected back and forth between the mirrors
and the wave system grows in intensity. A pale red glow indicates
a certain amount of light being lost at the mirror, but beyond a critical
point, the waves intensify enough to overcome this loss. An intense
red beam flashes out of the partially silvered end of the crystal.

Figure 28-32. Operation of a laser.

~haptei- 18 Nontraditional M.tchlnir.g Techniques

The laser unit in Figure 28-33 can operate in 2. Chemical milling is also knuwn as _ _ or
either continuous or pulsed modes. With most
materials, the edge quality of the cut is better with a 3. List the six major steps in chemical milling.
continuous beam. Cutting speed is also much
greater. The disadvantage of pulsing is that starting, 4. A mask protects the portion of a chemically-
stopping, and turning corners concentrates heat in milled job that is:
localized areas on the work. This overheating causes a. Not to be etched.
the part to burn away from the programmed path, b. To be etched.
affecting cut quality and dimensional accuracy. c. To be cleaned.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
5. List the five major steps in chemical blanking.
6. Briefly describe water-jet machining.
7. What machining processes use ultrasonics?
8. Sound waves below 20 cycles per second are
called
9. Sound waves above 20,000 cycles per second
are called
10. Impact machining makes use of a _ _ tool
that forces _ _ against the work to do the
cutting.
Figure 28-33. A fully automatic CNC laser cutting cell. It is 11. Impact machining is one of the very few com-
designed to process flat material up to son x 160H (2032 mm x mercially feasible methods for machining
4064 mm). (Bystronic, Inc.) which types of materials?
a. Hard.
b. Brittle.
c. Frangible.
d. All of the above.
Aluminum, stainless steel, and titanium parts e. None of the above.
that were cut to shape by a laser used to require a
time-consuming secondary operation to remove the 12. What are three disadvantages of impact
oxide and dross that formed on the edge and sur- machining?
face of the cut. Titanium had a tendency to become 13. With impact machining, tolerances of _ _
embrittled by the oxygen that was absorbed during can be maintained on hole size and geometry
the cutting operation. in most materials.
A recently developed process eliminates these
problems by flooding the work surface with argon 14. List five areas where the science of ultrasonics
or nitrogen during the cutting operation. Since no has found industrial applications.
oxygen can contaminate the metal, there is no oxide 15. The development of the electron beam
formation or embrittlement. Parts can be welded machine was the direct result of the special
immediately after cutting because they require no needs of what industry?
cleaning. a. Electronics.
b. Atomic energy.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE c. Aerospace.
Please do not write in the text. Write your d. All of the above.
answers on a separate sheet of paper. e. None of the above.
1. Chemical machining falls into two categories. 16. Holes as small as in diameter can be
Briefly describe each of them. drilled using the electron beam technique.
~ M::cdI'!tirtg 1:~·r.tdr: ,il ~l'ltz.::;,
~"---------------
17. The electron beam machine is basically a 19. List two methods employed to control the
source of ·what type of energy? shape of the cut ,dth EBM.
a. Thermal.
20. What does LASER stand for?
b. Sonic.
C. fluid. 21. Describe how a laser operates.
d. All of the aboYe.
e. None of the above.
18. The electron beam technique cuts material by:
a. Alternately heating and cooling the area
to be cut.
b. Vaporizing the material.
c. Making use of a pulsing technique.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
 Chapter 29

0 her Pr ,ss s

29.1 MACHINING PLASTICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Plastics are no longer rarities in the machine
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: shop and are being machined in increasingly larger
0 Discuss the general machining characteris- quantities each year, Figure 29-1. For this reason, it
tics of various plastics. is important that the machinist be familiar with the
0 Describe the hazards associated with machining characteristics of the common plastics,
machining plastics. such as nylon, Teflon®, Delrin®, acrylics, and lami-
0 Sharpen cutting tools to machine plastics. nated plastics.
0 Describe the five basic operations of chip-
less machining and their variations.
0 Explain how the Intraform process differs
from other chipless machining techniques.
0 Describe how powder metallurgy parts are
produced.
0 Relate how powder metallurgy parts can be
machined.
l Compare the advantages and disadvan-
tages of various HERF techniques.
0 Explain how the science of cryogenics
is used in industry, and list some
applications.

IMPORTANT TERMS
briquetting explosive forming Figure 29-1. More and more plastics are being machined.
These fixtures hold both plastic and metal parts for machining.
chipless machining high-energy-rate forming
With CNC, machine tools automatically change cutting speeds
cold heading magnetic forming and feeds when different materials come into position for
cryogenic powder metallurgy machining. (Chick Machine Tool, Inc.)
electrohydraulic forming sintering
New materials and new processes are continu-
ally being introduced to the field of machining and
its related areas. In addition to the nontraditional
machining processes described in Chapter 28, such Special care must be taken when working with
processes as chipless machining, high-energy-rate plastics. The dust and fumes given off by some
forming, and cryogenic treatment are being used plastics may be irritating to the skin, eyes, and
today. The machining of various types of plastics respiratory system. Other plastics have fillers such
and the fabrication of parts from powdered metals as asbestos or glass fibers that can be harmful to
have become important. This chapter will provide your health. Be sure you are aware of the safety pre-
you with a basic introduction to these emerging cautions that must be observed before you attempt
technologies. to machine any plastic.
PD H acnining Fundamentals

29. I. I Nylon Milling nylon

Nylon is the name for a group of polyamide Conventional milling cutters, providing they are
resins. Nylon is tough and exhibits high tensile kept very sharp, can be used for milling nylon,
(pull), impact, and flexural (bending) strengths. Figure 29-3. Climb milling v,,m minimize the forma-
This material is highly resistant to abrasion and is tion of burrs. Surface speeds in excess of 100 fpm
not affected by most common chemicals, greases, (30 mpm) can be employed.
and solvents. Vertical milling is practical using fly cutters or
This plastic is excellent for bearings, gears, two-lip end mills. Cutters must be kept very sharp
cams, and rollers. Ano~~er application for parts to prevent plastic from Ir..elting or becoming
machined from nylon is in the preparation of exper- gummy. Feeds of 10" (25 mm) per minute or higher
imental components. Research and development have proven satisfactory. Smoother surface finishes
projects also make considerable use of machined can be achieved using lighter feeds.
nylon.

General machining precautions for nylon

Most types of nylon can be machined using the
same techniques employed for machining soft
brass. Coolants will permit higher cutting speeds,
but are not necessary to produce good-quality
machined surfaces. 'When used, coolants should be
of the soluble-oil type.
Since nylon is not as rigid as metal, it must be
well supported during machining operations.
Othenvise, deflection of the unsupported stock ·will
result in inaccurate dimensions and distortions. To Figure 29-3. Nylon and most other plastics can be readily milled
assure accuracy, bring parts machined from nylon to with ve,y sharp cutters.
room temperature before checking dimensions.

Turning nylon Drilling nylon

Nvlon can be turned on a standard metalwork- Since drilling produces considerable heat, it
ing lathe. While tool bits sharpened to machine soft requires extra care. Standard hdst drills, when
brass will prove satisfactory, best results are sharpened as shown in Figure 29-4, will produce
obtained using the tool bit shapes shown in acceptable results. Hm·vever, best results are
Figure 29-2. Tools must be kept very sharp! The best obtained by using drills designed specifically for
finish on nylon is obtained with a high speed and plastics. Drills for plastics haYe t1utes that are higrJy
fine feed. polished and have a long lead.

Turning tool Cutoff tool

Section A-A Section B-B

Figure 29-2. Typical cutting tools for machining nylon on the lathe. (DuPont Co.)
Chzpter 29
FP
Sawing nylon
For sawing nylon and other plastics, good
results can be obtained by employing a band saw. A
band saw blade quickly dissipates the heat. Dry cut-
ting is best accomplished with a skip tooth metal-
cutting blade that has 4 to 6 teeth per inch.
However, the blade must be sharp to prevent gum-
ming of the nylon. If gumming occurs, it will usu-
ally freeze the blade in the cut. Hollow-ground
circular saw blades are also used extensively in cut-
Figure 29-4. Drm point recommended for drilling nylon.
ting plastics. Blades with a slight set a~ availab~e
(DuPont Co.)
for sawing quantities of both extra-thick or thin
plastics.
To prevent the excessive heat that res1:11ts _when
the drill scrapes the plastic rather than cutting 1t, u~e Annealing nylon
heavy feeds. If a coolant is not employed, the drill
Like metat machined nylon parts require
must be withdrawn from the hole frequently to
annealing to prevent dimensional changes.
clean out chips and prevent overheating. If the drill
Annealing of plastics should be carried out in the
is kept cool, holes will be drilled to size. .
absence of air, preferably by immersion in a suitable
Nylon can be reamed using an expansion
liquid. High-temperature boiling hydrocarbons,
reamer that is adjusted to a few thousandths over-
such as waxes and oils, are recommended for
size. Holes that are finished with solid reamers tend
annealing nylon. A temperature of 300°F (148°C) is
to be undersize.
often employed for general annealing.
Threading and tapping nylon An annealing time of 15 minutes per 0.125"
(3.175 mm) of cross section is normally required.
Nylon can be threaded and tapped with con- Allow the part to cool slowly in a clraft-fre~ are~.
ventional equipment. But before tapping, the hole Placing the heated piece in a cardboard contamer IS
should be chamfered to reduce the chance of the a simple way to ensure slow, even cooling.
first few threads tearing. Production tapping
requires a tap that is 0.005" (0.125 mm) oversize 29.l.2 Delrin
unless a self-locking thread is desired. The tap can
be made oversize by chrome plating. Parts manufactured from Delrin (the DuPont
Threading can be done in nylon with a regular trade name for acetal resin) have an unusual combi-
single point cutting tool, Figure 29-5. Use the same nation of physical properties that bridge the g_ap
procedure as with metal. However, because of between metals and plastics. These properties
nylon's resilience, the finish cut should not be less include excellent dimensional stability, high
than 0.005" (0.125 mm). Support long work with a strength, and rigidity. The plastic is used extensively
ballbearing follower rest. for parts in business· machines (gears, cams, bear-
ings, and printing wheels). Delrin is also replacing
brass and zinc for many applications in the automo-
tive and plumbing industries. The material has lo':"'
friction, and thus requires a minimum use of lubri-
cants. It is very quiet in operation.
In machining characteristics, Delrin is very sim-
ilar to nylon. Recommended machining, cutting,
and finishing operations are shown in Figure 29-6.

29. 1.3 Teflon

Teflon (the DuPont trade name for its fluo~ocar-
bon resins) is filling a wide range of needs m the
electronic, electrical, chemical, and processing
Figure 29-5. Plastics can be threaded on a lathe using same industries. It has a very low friction coefficient: rub-
procedures recommended for metal. However, the cutting tool bing two flat pieces of Teflon together genera!es
must be kept very sharp and have plenty of clearance. about the same friction as rubbing together two ice
a Machining, Cutting, and Finishing
t-!achh1i~g r-~!!r:ci2r:f't·~rT:t~Us

with Delrin Acetal Resin

Equipment Cutting Speed

Operation Machines Tools RPM/FPM Feed Coolant use Remarks

Sawing Std. Std. 14 T.P.I. 100- Med. Coolant improves

Slight set 300 FPM finish of cut
(30.5-91.5
M/min)

Driiling Std. Std. twist drills 118" 1500 RPM Med. At med. and On-size holes drilled
for 0.500" high speeds without coolant
{1.27 cm)
drill

Turning Std. Std. 690-840 .002"-.005" At high speeds Depth of cut-

FPM (0.051- .016"-.200"
(210-256 0.13 mm) (0.41-5.0Bmm);
M/min) support long lengths

Mllling Std. Std. cutters; single Similar to Similar to Not required

fluted end mills brass brass

Shaping Std. Std. Max. Slmilarto Not required

brass

Reaming Std. Expansion type Simllarto Med. At med. and

preferred brass high speeds

Threading Std. Std. Similar to Similar to At med. and Coolant facilitates

and tapping brass brass high speeds cutting to dimensions

Blanking and Std. Std. Not required Primarily for 1/16"

punching (0.16 cm} thick stock

Filing Std. Std. file, std. abrasive Wet sanding Finish will vary with
and sanding paper and discs type of file

Finishing Std. 6"-12" (15.2-30.4 cm) 1000-2000 Not required Use light pressure
dia. muslin pumice and RPM and rotate part
water polishing
compound

Figure 29-6. Recommended machining, cutting, and finishing operations tor Delrin acetal resins. (DuPont Co.)

cubes. This makes Teflon ideal for use as bearings temperature of 74°F (21 °C) or higher for at least 48
and seals in food processing equipment, where hours before the machining operations.
lubricating oil would contaminate the food. Teflon has a tendency to pick up metal shavings
Teflon works well in both high-temperature and and chips. For this reason, no machining should be
very-low-temperature (cryogenic) applications. It is attempted until the equipment has been thoroughly
an expensive material, but will do things that no cleaned of all metal particles.
other material can do as well.
Turning Teflon
Teflon general machining characteristics Teflon is more flexible than many other machin-
Teflon has a high thermal expansion rate. It able plastics. To preYent deflection of the material
expands at a rate about 10 times that of steel. When away from the cutting tool, take care to support the
tolerances are critical, measurements should be work properly.
made at room temperature, or (where applicable) Tools must be sharp and haYe generous clear-
at the temperature at which the part will be used. ances so that the cutting edge of the tool will not
It is recommended that the plastic be stored at a rub, Figure 29-7. Chips must not be allowed to
 Chapter 29 Other Processes

accumulate around the work because they prevent Drilling Teflon

the heat from dissipating. See Figure 29-8. Drills sharpened as shown in Figure 29-9 will
Cutting fluids are needed when tolerances are provide satisfactory cutting action in Teflon. Teflon
critical. Large amounts of water-based coolant will tends to swell slightly during the drilling operation,
deter thermal expansion in Teflon. Best surface which results in a hole smaller than the drill. To
finishes are achieved at cutting speeds of 200- compensate for this swelling, the machinist must
500 fpm (60-150 mpm) with feeds of 0.0002" to use a drill that is slightly oversize. You should test
0.010" (0.005 mm to 0.25 mm). drill a piece of scrap material to determine the
exact drill size needed. For close-tolerance drilling
in Teflon, feeds of 0.004" to 0.006" (0.10 mm to
Turning tool 0.15 mm) are suggested.

Figure 29-9. Drill point is recommended for Teflon. (DuPont

Section A-A
Cutoff tool
B Milling Teflon
Teflon is milled in much the same manner as the
other plastics. Only newly sharpened and honed
cutters should be employed. The work must be
8 solidly supported.
With shell mills, the milling head of the machine
should be tilted slightly into the cut, as shown in
Figure 29-10. This will eliminate cutter drag marks
on the material.

Reaming Teflon
Section B-B
Reaming of Teflon is not advised. If close toler-
Figure 29-7. Typical lathe cutting tools for machining Teflon.
(DuPont Co.)
ances are specified, holes should be bored with a
single-point tool.

Threading and tapping Teflon

Teflon is threaded and tapped with the same
general techniques as those suggested for nylon.

Sawing Teflon
If a square cut is to be made in Teflon, a rigid
machine with first-class saw guides is essential no
coolant is needed. Maximum machine speeds can be
used with a skip tooth blade having 4 to 6 teeth per
inch.

Annealing Teflon
Figure 29--8. When turning plastics, do not allow chips to accu-
mulate around work. Chips prevent heat from being dissipated To maintain dimensional stability, Teflon should
and work may become distorted. be annealed. Normally, the plastic is heated to a
Fm Mn.chlnlnl Fundamentals

General machining characteristics for acrylics

t.(2:= 1 Acrylics are machined in much the same man-
ner as other plastics, Figure 29-11. Generally, little
Milling difficulty will be encountered if sharp tools ,vith
.---head adequate clearance are used. Drills should be sharp-
ened as shown in Figure 29-12.

Work
Work travel

Figure 29-10. When shell milling, it is recommended that the

cutter be tilted slightly (112= to 1=) into the cut to perform
Figure 29-11. Transparent acrylics present a unique machining
machining with the periphery of the cutter. This will eliminate
experience. You can see the tool cutting inside the work. Poor
cutter marks on machined surface.
cutting action can be spotted immediately and corrections
made.
temperature aboYe that to which the finished part
,vill be exposed, but below 621 =f (333"C). Above
621 °F, Teflon turns to a gel. One hour of annealing Dubbed off
for each 1" (25 mm) of thickness is adequate. Allow
the part to cool slowly. Heating is usually done in an
oven.
The following oven annealing procedure for
t
12°-15°
Teflon is recommended:
1. Anneal the rod or tubing.
l--i~ · I
I
~
2. Rough machine the part to within 0.06"
(1.5 mm) of finished size.
3. Anneal again, but at temperatures slightly Figure 29-12. Drill point recommended for making through
lower than that of the initial annealing. holes in acrylics. The tip angle should be increased to 118" tor
blind holes. Smoothly finished holes can be produced by first
4. Finish machine after the Teflon has returned to drilling a pilot hole and filling it with wax. Wax will allow chips to
room temperature. move up flutes without sticking to drill. (Rohm and Haas)

29. I .4 Acrylics
The acrylic plastics Lucite® tthe DuPont trade 29. I .5 Laminated Plastics
name) and Plexiglas® (the Rohm & Haas Co. trade Laminated plastics consist of layers of reinforc-
name) ha,·e an unusual combination of desirable ing materials (cotton fabric, paper, asbestos, glass
characteristics. They have good dimensional fiber, etc.) that haYe been impregnated with syn-
stability and high impact strength to temperatures thetic resins. The resins are cured under heat and
as high as 200"F (94"C). Acrylics are easy to pressure.
machine, form, and polish. Machining of laminated plastics can be accom-
Because of their unusual "light piping" capa- plished with conventional machine tools. Some lam-
bility (they transmit light as a hose carries water) inated plastics, like those containing glass fiber and
and edge lighting qualities, acrylics find consider- asbestos, are highly abrasive. Carbide tools are
able use in light control and optical applications. recommended.
Chapter 29 Other Proc~ses

A dust collector system and filtered dust mask Threading and tapping laminated plastics
or respirator must be used for operator safety when Hand threading of laminated plastics can be
machining plastics containing glass fiber or done with standard taps and dies. It is normally
asbestos. done dry. High-speed steel taps that are oversize by
0.002" to 0.005" (0.05 to 0.13 mm) should be used if
Turning laminated plastics available.
A round-nose lathe tool produces the best sur- A slight chamfer on the hole to be tapped, or rod
face finish. Speeds up to 4000 £pm (1220 mpm) can to be threaded, will improve the work quality by
be used. Lathe work is usually done dry. However, preventing the first few threads from tearing.
internal threading may sometimes require use of a
lubricant. 29.2 CHIPLESS MACHINING
Chipless machining forms a metal wire or rod
Drilling laminated plastics into the desired shape using a series of dies. This
Drilling operations are similar to those used metalworking technique will not replace conven-
with nylon. However, drilling parallel with the lam- tional machining, but it does make substantial cost
inations should be avoided whenever possible, savings possible for some jobs. It can reduce the
because the material may split along the lamina- amount of scrap metal that results and can increase
tions. See Figure 29-13. production speed. The process is sometimes called
cold heading or cold forming.
In chipless machining, a series of dies replaces
the usual cutting tools on the lathe, drill press, or
milling machine. See Figure 29-14. Material used in
chipless machining is u sually in coil form and
is referred to as wire. This material is turned
into needed, and often complex, shapes. See
Figure 29-15.
Preferred

Figure 29-13. Whenever possible, holes should be drilled at a

right angle to the laminations. Holes drilled parallel to lamina-
tions tend to split some types of material.

Milling laminated plastics

Speeds up to 1000 £pm (305 mpm) are possible
with good results. Feeds up to 20" (500 mm) per
minute have been used. For cotton fabric-base lami-
nates, best results are obtained by using the highest
spindle speed the cutter will stand, with the maxi-
mum feed that will produce an acceptable surface
finish.
Climb milling is recommended to keep the work
held tightly in the holding device and to prevent an
edge from being raised. Figure 29-14. A series of dies is used in chipless machining to
replace the usual cutting tools. Work is transferred from station-
to-station where various forming operations are carried out.
Sawing laminated plastics
(National Machinery Co.)
Band sawing is advised for curved or straight
cuts in laminated plastics when smooth edges and
close tolerances are not specified. Accuracy typically can be held to tolerances of
Blades with 5 to 8 teeth per inch and medium to 0.002" (0.05 mm), and closer tolerances can be
high set can be operated at speeds up to 8000 £pm achieved, if required. However, costs increase in
(2400 mpm). Feed the work as fast as it will cut proportion to the precision wanted. In most cases,
without forcing the blade. waste is totally eliminated.
 29.2. I lntraform Machining
Intrafonn® is a development of chipless
machining that makes it possible to form profiles on
the inside diameter of a cylindrical workpiece. See
Figure 29-19. Forming inside profiles would be
extremely difficult and expensive to do by conven-
tional machining techniques.
In this process, a section of hollow cylindrical
stock is placed over a steel mandrel, Figure 29-20. It
is them squeezed by rapidly pulsating dies, Figure
29-21. At the completion of the operation, the man-
drel's profile is produced on the inside diameter of
the part, Figure 29-22.
Figure 29-23 shows how fixed rolls cause the
four dies to pulsate rapidly around the outside
diameter of the work. The tops of the cams are
Figure 29-15. Parts can be manufactured quickly and inexpen-
sively using chipless machining techniques. No scrap was pro- shaped to permit a smooth continuous squeezing
duced in making this part, and tolerances were held to within action of the dies. Even though the ,vork is being
0.002" (0.05 mm). (National Machinery Co.) squeezed by the dies more than 1000 times per
minute, noise and vibration are not a problem.
There are five basic operations done bv The technique has proYen to be a practical way
machines using this process, Figure 29-16. to produce rifle barrels for example, Figure 29-24.
Combinations and variations of these operations Predrilled steel blanks are fed into the machine
make possible a wide range of applications. ,vhich forms the chamber and rifling. In addition to
impro,·ing the surface finish of the bore, the opera-
tion also improves the physical characteristics of the
metal.
+I
29.3 POWDER METALLURGY
Powder metallurgy, abbreviated P/M, is a tech-
nique used to shape parts from metal pmvders.
These parts can be quite complex, Figure 29-25.
Forward Backward Upsetting Trimming Piercing Sometimes called sintering, the process "\'Vas devel-
extrusion extrusion
oped in the late 1920s to make self-lubricating elec-
Figure 29~16. The five basic operations performed by machines tric motor bearings for the automotive industry. The
designed for cold forming (chipless machining). steps involved in fabricating powder metallurgy
products are shown in Figure 29-26.
The cold heading technique is an economical
and efficient ·way to make bolts, nuts, scre,vs, and
other fasteners, Figure 29-17. Another example is 29.3. I Powder Metallurgy Applications
spark plug bases, almost all of which are made bv The P /M process is widely employed by indus-
chipless machining, Figure 29-18. , try for such applications as:
Metals ranging from aluminum alloys to • Self-lubricating bearings and bearing
medium-carbon steel can be shaped using this tech- materials.
nique. Stainless steel, copper, and nickel alloys can • Precision finished machine parts, such as
be cold formed, but the ease with which thev are gears, cams, or ratchets, ·with tolerances as
shaped depends upon the part design. Materi~l up close as ± 0.0005" (0.0127 mm).
to 1.5" (37.5 mm) in diameter can be formed on • Permanent metal .fiJters (sintered bronze fuel
some machines. filters, for example).
Chaptel" 29 0th,?!' Processes
nn

1 2 3 4 5 6
Shear First upset Second Trim Point Roll
to length and extrude upset thread

Figure 29-17. Arrows and numbers indicate sequence involved in producing bolts by chipless machining. Trace part flow through the
sequence of operations.

'-......
Finished
Figure 29-19. An auto starter clutch housing produced by the
lntraform process. The cutaway view shows details. The hous-
Figura 29-18. Almost all spark plug bases are made by chipless ing was formed in one operation at the rate of 220 parts per
machining. Resufflng scrap was less than 2%. hour. (Cincinnati Milacron)
 Machir,:ng f-undameritais

Cam

Rollers-----1

Die
ft'il-----1-~-frrscrew
bolt

Cam cover
plate

Figure 29-20. A part ready to be shaped by the lntratorm

Figure 29-23. The lntraform machine die head in open position.
process.
Interaction of the cams and rollers squeezes each die more
than 1000 times per minute.

I
~ . - . --- - - - --,.

Figure 29-24. A predrilfed steel rifle barrel blank (top) and one
that has had the chamber and rifling finished by the lntraform
process. Approximately 80% of all barrels produced by the
process are of target riffe quafity, compared to only 10% shaped
by conventional methods. (Cincinnati Milacron)

Work and mandrel

fed into pulsating dies

Figure 29-21. Work and mandrel are placed in the dies. Contact
with the rotating dies causes the work and mandrel to rotate at
about 80% of die rpm. Work feeds over the mandrel.

Formed
piece
1
ejected

New work fed

automatically

Figure 29-22. When the operation is completed, the mandrel is

retracted. The next piece feeds automatically into position while Figure 29-25. An assortment of products made by the powder
the formed part is ejected. metallurgy process. (Metal Powder Industries Federation)
 Other ?rocesses m,
u u
• I Upper
..._..... plunger
Die cavity
I '
Die cavity
filled
Pressure
applied
DD Ejection Sintering
of slug furnace
E F
A B C D
Figure 29-26. Steps in fabricating a part, using the powder metallurgy process. A-Note cross section of die and die cavity. Depth of
the cavity is determined by thickness of the required part, and the amount of pressure that will be applied. B-Die cavity is filled with
proper metal powder mixture. C--Pressure as high as 50 tons per square inch is applied. D-Briquette or "slug" is pushed from die
cavity E-Pieces are then passed through a sintering furnace to convert them into a strong, useful product. F-Some pieces can be
used as they come from the furnace. Others may require a coining or sizing operation to bring them to exact size and to improve their
surface finish.

• Fabricating materials that are difficult to

work:
• Tough cutting tools (tungsten carbide),
Figure 29-27.
• Supermagnets (aluminum-nickel alloys or
Alnico).
• Mixtures of metals and ceramics for jet and
rocket applications that require the heat
resistance of ceramics as well as the heat
transfer qualities of metals. This process is
also used to make special cutting tools
(cermets).
• High-density counterweights for aerospace
instruments that require maximum weight
concentration in a minimum space.
• Storage battery (nickel-cadmium or NiCad)
elements.
• Wrought powder metallurgy tool steels are
now available in mill forms (bars, rods, flats,
wire, and plate). They offer improved Figure 29-27. Technician examines a tray of tungsten carbide
cutting tool inserts following application of a wear-resistant coat-
machinability, wear resistance, increased ing that extends tool life. Inserts were made using the powder
toughness, and better dimensional stability metallurgy process. (Kennametal, Inc.)
than conventional cast/wrought tool steels.
P /M tool steels are primarily used for metal-
cutting and metalforming operations. Combinations of these metals and nonmetals can
also be used.
29.3.2 Powder Metallurgy Process
The first phase in the manufacture of powder Briquetting
metal products is the careful mixing of high-purity The powder blend is then fed into a precision
metal powders. The powders are carefully weighed die. The die cavity has the shape of the desired part,
and thoroughly mixed into a blend of correct pro- but it is several times deeper than the thickness of
portions. Many materials can be used: iron, steel, the part. The powder is compressed by an upper
stainless steel, brass, bronze, nickel, chromium, etc. and lower punch. Pressures applied range from 15
119'
M .__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
!"'fach:.,Jng _
c=t1:--..:fa..men'.:c.!s

to 50 tons per square inch. This portion of the oper-

ation is known as briquetting. See Figure 29-28.
The piece, as ejected from the die, appears to be
solid metal. However, this "green compact" is quite
brittle and fragile. It will crumble if not handled
carefully.

Figure 29-29. Atmosphere within the sintering furnace is care-

fully controlled to prevent oxidation or contamination of the parts
being processed. These finished pieces emerging from furnace
may be used "as is," or may require additional operations
before use.

Figure 29-28. In this closeup view of briquetting press, green

compacts are shown moving out of the press. (Delco Moraine
Div. ofGMC) Figure 29-30. Hot forging takes place in closed dies with com-
pact at red heat. After forging, part is ready for additional
machining, if needed. (Burgess-Norton Mfg. Co.)
Sintering
To transform the green compact into a strong,
useful unit, it must be heated to a temperature of
1500°F to 2300°F (815"C to 1260°C) for 30 minutes to
2 hours, depending upon the powder mixture. This
process, known as sintering, is done in a controlled
atmosphere furnace, Figure 29-29.

Forging
Many parts can be utilized as they come from
the furnace. Because of shrinkage and distortion
caused by the heating operation, the pieces may
have to go through a sizing, coining, or forging
operation, Figure 29-30. The part must be reheated
just prior to the forging operation, which consists of
pressing the sintered pieces into accurate size dies to
obtain precise finished dimensions, higher densi-
ties, and smoother surface finishes, Figure 29-31.
Figure 29-31. This quality control manager is gaging finished
Puwder metal parts can be drilled, tapped, plated, PIM parts to determine whether they meet design specifica-
heat treated, machined, and ground, Figure 29-32. tions. (Burgess-Norton Mfg. Co.)
Chapter lt> ~~hei- !r'rocesses g
A

B When pressure is
released metal
springs back
Figure 29-32. Lapping is a grinding operation that generates a
flat, smooth finish. This machine is capable of lapping both
sides of a workpiece simultaneously to produce perfectly paral-
lel surfaces. (SpeedFam-Spitfire)

29.3.3 Powder Metallurgy Costs

The tool cost is moderate and the process is best C
suited to quantity production. If production quanti-
ties exceed several thousand units, the finished Figure 29-33. Many metals tend to spring back to near their
original shape after being formed by conventional means.
piece can be produced by the P /M method at less A-Rat sheet metal blank ready for forming. B-Metal is formed
than the cost of rough sand castings. betw88n dies. C-Matal tries to return to its original shape when
male die is removed or pressure released.
29.4 HIGH-ENERGY-RATE
FORMING (HERF) HERF offers many advantages. Tool costs are
The introduction of super-tough alloys for aero- reduced, and there is usually no need for expensive
space vehicles and the need for shaping thin, brittle machinery. There appears to be no limitation to the
metal has been responsible for the development of size of the sections that can be formed.
new ways to do the work. One of these new tech-
niques is known as high-energy-rate forming or 29.4. I Explosive Forming
HERF. There is little similarity between it and con- Explosive forming uses the high-pressure wave
ventional metalworking processes like turning, of an explosive charge to form the metal. It is an
drilling, milling, etc. older technique - it originated in the late 1800s to
Shaping metals by the use of conventional shape ornate door knobs and similar products -
presses and drop hammers parallels HERF. that has been adapted to the space age. See Figure
However, problems develop when attempting to 29-34.
shape the super-tough alloys by conventional The sheer size of many aerospace and marine
means. They exhibit "springback, 11 where the metal components, up to 144" x 230" x 1" thick (3657 mm
tends to try to regain its original shape, Figure X 5842 mm X 25 mm), makes it impossible to form
29-33. It is difficult and costly to shape these metals them in existing presses, Figure 29-35. The presses
to acceptable tolerances by conventional means. are either too small or are not powerful enough to
In HERF, the metal is shaped in microseconds develop the pressure required to shape the high-
with pressures generated by the sudden application strength alloys.
of large amounts of energy. The metal, in most cases, Explosive forming makes use of the pressure
is slammed against the die and shaped so rapidly wave generated by an explosion in a fluid to
that there is no tendency for the material to try to force the material against the walls of the die,
return to its original shape. Figures 29-36 to 29-37. The fluid has the effect of
The great pressures are generated by detonating rounding off the pressure pulse generated by
explosives, releasing compressed gases, discharging the detonation. This helps to assure that forces will
powerful electrical sparks, or electromagnetic be equally distributed across the surface of
energy. the material.
DD Machiring r-~nclz.mentials

Figure 29-34. High-energy-rate forming (HERF) shaped end

sections of the external fuel tanks of Space Shuttle. (NASA)

/
,,/---,
--------"" \

I \
( . 230" (5 842 mm) ) Figure 29-37. A few of many aircraft and missile parts shaped
by explosive forming. Water is used to round off the pressure
\ ,, pulse generated by the explosive, equalizing forces across
entire surface of material being formed. (The Ryan Company)
_/
--- To prepare for explosive forming, the metal is
cut or fabricated to a shape determined by the con-
Figure 2!J..35. Explosive forming was used to shape segments tours of the finished part. This preform is placed in
for top and bottom domes of giant aerospace vehicle fuel tanks. the die, the die is filled with water, and an explosive
Segments were welded after forming. charge suspended in the ·water.

-
To vacuum pump

~
I /
Metal __/
preform \~Vacuum

Figure 29-36. This diagram shows the principle of explosive forming process. In some applications, a few doflars worth of explosives
will do work of a press that may cost a million dollars or more.
 Cna~t~r 29

A large holding ring, clamped over the outer 4" (100 mm) thick. For example, the heavy steel mis-
edge of the work, assures the necessary seal for sile hatches on the Navy's submarines, Figure 29-39,
drawing a vacuum in the die. A vacuum is necessary are formed by this technique. Many forms of explo-
between the work and the die; otherwise, an air sives are utilized: rod, sheet, granules, liquid, stick,
cushion would develop, preventing the metal from cord, and plastic.
seating in the die and assuming its proper shape. Depending upon placement of the explosive,
When the explosive is detonated, the resulting HERF operations fall into two categories: stand-off
pressure slams the material against the die walls. and contact.
The forming work is accomplished in microseconds.
See Figure 29-38.
Placement and quantity of the high explosive is
critical. The charge can range from a few ounces to
form small parts, to the many pounds needed to
form large sections of aluminum and steel up to

Figure 29-39. Many parts used on nuclear submarines are

shaped by HERF. (U.S. Navy)

Stand-off operations
During stand-off HERF, the charge is located
some distance from the work. Its energy is transmit-
ted through a fluid medium, such as water. This
technique is used to form and size parts.

Contact operations
During contact HERF, the charge is touching the
work and the explosive energy acts directly on the
metal Welding, hardening, compacting powdered
metals, and controlled cutting are done with this
technique.

Explosive forming-advantages and disadvantages

While explosive forming offers many advan-
tages, there are some drawbacks associated with the
process:
• The technique has not been developed to the
stage where a part can always be formed
Figure 29-38. Explosive forming. A- This worker is welding the properly on the first shot.
preform for a fuel tank for explosive forming. This is first step in • Since the operation utilizes the "big-bang''
the process. Formed conventionally, the tank would require forty principle (an explosion) to do forming, the
sections rather than twelve and would require 60% more weld-
noise can be a problem. Also, strict laws
ing footage. B-Once resembling a cake pan, exploded metal
now is a torus, or donut shape. Engineers examine inner con- prohibit the use of explosives in populated
tour of the formed part, which has been removed from die areas. These factors usually make it necessary
underneath. to locate the facility in an isolated site.
 This increases transportation and handling permits the unit to be employed in conventional
costs. Personnel must be highly skilled in the industrial facilities.
safe handling of high explosives. Insurance
rates are high. 29.4.3 Magnetic Forming
Magnetic forming, also termed electromagnetic
29.4.2 Electrohydraulic Forming forming or magnetic pulse forming, uses an insulated
Electrohydraulic forming, also called capacitor induction coil wrapped around or placed within the
discharge forming or spark forming, is a variation work, Figure 29-41. As very high momentary cur-
of explosive forming, Figure 29-40. High voltage rents are passed through the coil, an intense mag-
electrical energy is discharged from a capacitor netic field is developed. This causes the '\-Vork to
bank (an arrav _. of devices used to store electrical collapse, compress, shrink, or expand depending on
energy) into a thin wire or foil suspended between the design of the coil. Coil location depends upon
two electrodes. The unit is immersed in water, as is ·whether the metal is to be squeezed inward or bulge
done with explosin forming. Many of the parts on outward, The coil is shaped to produce the desired
aerospace vehicles made from titanium (tough, light shape in the work. See Figure 29-42.
metal that is difficult to work) are formed using this
technique. Conductive
cylindrical
work _ _ _ _
Switch Power ,,,,......
supply ;'
I --,
/ I /' '
\ I \

I, ~'- 1111 Compression ,

- • ,_.. coil
I - 1I I
1
· : H
II
,
I
l\ I
, ' ,,...._...- I I\ ' ,_,..., ,
Capacitor ,,, ,
_...,...,. . .-""'"-.. ,-,,..,,..........
- - Magnetic field - -

Figure 29-41. How magnetic pulse metal forming works. A

strong magnetic field is produced by discharging a capacitor
through a coil. During the brief impulse, eddy currents in the
Vacuum
line work restrict the magnetic field to surface of the workpiece. This
f creates a uniform force to form metal. The process can be
employed directly on highly conductive metals. Low conductiv-
ity metals can be shaped by using a fayer of highly conductive
aluminum between work and coifs.
Figure 29-40. Diagram shows setup for electrohydraulic form-
ing, which uses electrical energy as a source of power for HERF The power source is basically the same as that
operations. (NASA) used for electrohydraulic forming - a capacitor
bank. The spark gap, however, is replaced by a coil.
As the vdre or foil is vaporized by the electric Energy is obtained by capacitor discharge through
current discharge, the ,·apor products expand, con- the coil. In fact, properly designed equipment can
verting the electrical energy to hydraulic energy. be used to perform either electrohydraulic or mag-
The shock ,vave forms the metal against the die. netic pulse operations.
Since the energy produced is less than that associ- Energy storage capacity and the ability to uti-
ated with explosives, it is usually necessary to lize that energy determines the size of the work
repeat the operation several times to achieve the that can be formed. Highly conductive metals can
desired results. be formed easily by this process. Nonconductive or
A ·well designed electrohydraulic forming low-conductivitv _. materials can be formed if thev
,
facility can be adapted to automation. The capa- are wrapped or coated with a high-conductivity
bility of generating high pressures without a "bang" auxiliary material.
 Chapter 29 Other Processes

29.4.4 Pneumatic-Mechanical Forming

Pneumatic-mechanical forming uses a punch
and die operated by high-pressure gas. It was the
first of the HERF techniques to become a standard
production tool, Figure 29-43. The operation has
much in common with conventional forging, since a
punch and die are employed. However, the forces
developed are many times more powerful and
are sufficient to shape hard-to-work materials.
The metal blank is heated prior to the forming
operation. The machine requires less space than the
A conventional forging press.

Circular Figure 2943. A pneumatic-mechanical press. Because of a

work blank unique self-reacting framework system, machine imparts no
~ shock load to floor. This makes it possible to use it in close
proximity to conventional chip-making machines.
(General Dynamics Corp.)

In pneumatic-mechanical forming, a high-

pressure gas is used to accelerate a punch into a die.
The punch and die are mounted on opposed rams
that meet with equal force, thus taking most of the
Pancake
/ strain off the frame of the machine. Some machines
make use of a recoil mechanism similar to that used
coil
C on an artillery piece.
Pneumatic-mechanical forming can be accom-
Figure 29-42. Magnetic pulse forming applications. A- plished by several means. One makes use of a blank
Magnetic pulse being used to expand a bearing sleeve into a
connecting rod. 8-A magnetic field being employed to shrink
carbidge to power the ram for shaping small parts.
or squeeze parts together. C-Flat forming applications, which However, the most widely employed method uti-
involve forcing sheet metal into a die, require a pancake coil to lizes a two-part cylinder, Figure 29-44. Gas is stored
provide uniform magnetic pressure. in one part of the cylinder at approximately 2000 psi
 with a special seal, closes off the orifice. In this ·way;.
the high-pressure gas acts only on a small section
A of the piston (area of the orifice) while the low-
pressure acts on the entire area of the piston. This
maintains a stable balance between the two sections.
To make the machine operate, the pressure is
2000 psi acting
over 1 sq. in. of ] =[ 200 psi acting
over 10 sq. in. increased slightly in the high-pressure section. This
orifice of piston upsets the balance and the piston starts to move.
(Chamber A) (Chamber B)
When the seal is disengaged, the high pressure acts
Figure 29-44. High-pressure gas acts on only a smalf area of on the entire surface area of the piston driving it for-
piston (area of the orifice) while low-pressure gas acts on entire ward at tremendous speed, Figure 29-45.
area of the piston. This maintains a balanced situation between
Hard to shape metals are usually formed with
the two.
one blow, Figure 29-46. Some space-age materials
(13 800 kPa). Gas is also stored in the second section can best be shaped by this technique.
of the cylinder, but at a much lower pressure, about \Vith the pneumatic-hydraulic method of forg-
200 psi (1380 kPa). A plate with an orifice separates ing, precise control is possible. Fewer operations are
the two sections of the cylinder. The piston (ram), necessary (most parts can be formed with one stroke

Cylinder A Cylinder A

Cylinder B

Metal Punch

Hydraulic
jack

Hydraulic
-(retracted)

jack
retracted - --Guide

Reooll
rnecrlianism

A B

Figure 29-45. Pneumatic-mechanical forming. A-Cross-sectional view of a pneumatic-mechanical forming press. The hydraulic jacks
extend at the end of each operating cycle to lift ram column back into position for tne next cycle. B-Operation of the press is
triggered when pressure in Cylinder A is increased enough to break seal. This slight movement alfows high-pressure gas to
act instantaneously over entire area of the piston. The ram is driven downward at great speed. At the same time, frame moves upward
by reaction of gas pressure over the driven piston. The frame and ram, are acted upon with equal thrust; so each has equal
momentum but in opposite directions. To reset for the next cycle, the jacks lift ram column upward until it seats against the seal.
(General Dynamics Corp.)
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~
Chapter 29 other Processes [~

Cryogenics deals with temperatures beginning

at the point where oxygen liquefies (approximately
-300°F or -184°C), and goes down to just about
absolute zero (-460°F or -293°C). At this point,
every element but helium freezes. Oxygen and
nitrogen look something like white beach sand or
table salt. Metal also acts strangely. Lead coils act
like steel springs, some metals increase tremen-
dously in strength, and others become superconduc-
tors of electricity.
Cryogenics is widely used iri annealing and heat
treating metals. The characteristics of a number of
aluminum alloys and some space-age metals are
greatly improved by first heating them, and then
quenching them in liquid nitrogen.
Figure 29-46. This front-wneet spindle for an automobile was
formed from alloy steel in one blow on a pneumatic-hydraulic Another application of cryogenics is shrink-
press. (General Dynamics Corp.) fitting metal parts together. Since most metals
shrink in size as they become cold, one part of the
assembly is made slightly oversize, then immersed
of the press), so production is rapid The parts are in liquid nitrogen. The exact amount of oversize is
produced to close tolerances with smoothly finished determined by part size and type of metal. The
surfaces that require a minimum of machining, diameter is reduced (shrunk) by the extreme tem-
Figure 29-47. Because less material is used, fewer perature drop until it fits easily into its mating part.
operations must be performed to finish the part, and As it returns to room temperature, the cooled part
higher production rates are obtained, substantial expands and is thus locked in place. The parts
savings are possible. do not become distorted as they would if they
were mechanically pressed together or heated
(expanded) until they could be fitted together. See
Figure 29-48.
29.5. I Cryogenic Treatment of Cutting Tools
Research has shown that cryogenic treatment of
cutting tools has produced considerable improve-
ment in their operating life. Such supercold treat-
Figure 29-47. Compare the finish of the wneet hub formed on a ment produces carbide inserts that last two to eight
conventional press (cutaway at center) and the hub formed on times longer than untreated inserts. Similar treat-
a HERF machine (right). The better finish producscJ by HERF part ment of copper spotwelding electrodes increases
means lower costs, since little or no additional machining must their useful life by 300%. Other types of cutting tools
be done. The blank from which the wheel hub is formed is at left. have shown increases of up to 400% in tool life.
(General Dynamics Corp.)
Liquid nitrogen enters the cooling chamber as a
gas, at a carefully controlled rate. The cutting tools
are not immersed in liquid nitrogen. Cooling occurs
29.5 CRYOGENIC APPLICATIONS at a slow rate to avoid a sudden change in tempera-
The science of cryogenics is one of the more ture that would cause damaging thermal shock.
recent additions to the technology of machining or The full cooling cycle takes about 40 hours. Four
metalworking. Cryogenics is not a new or different to six hours are required to lower the temperature to
way to work metal; rather, it is employed to about-320°F (-160°C). The tools "soak" at this tem-
improve or reinforce other metalworking tech- perature for 24 hours or more. It requires another
niques. The term Cryogenic means, literally, "to four to six hours to return to room temperature. See
make icy cold;" it combines the Greek word kryos, Figure 29-49. For larger or more massive items the
meaning "icy cold," and the Latin generatus, which time required to lower and raise temperature in the
means "to make or create." cooling chamber must be increased.
Figure 29-48. An example of cryogenic shrink-fitting: mating a wing pivot for a prototype Super Sonic Transport (SST) aircraft to the
wing clevis joint. The pivot has been cooled to -30D"F (-184'C) to shrink it. Note the special protective gloves wom by the techni-
cians. (Boeing Company)

Cryogenic treatment cycle TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Temperature (°F) Please do not write in the text. \\Trite vour
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
100
1. Give a common trade name for each of the fol-
0
lowing types of plastics:
-100 a. Polyamide resins.
-200 b. Acetal resins.
-300 c. Fluorocarbon resins.
-400 d. Acrylic resins.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 2. If plastics are to be machined with any degree
Hours of accuracy, the cutting tools must be _ _.
Figure 29-49. Maximum benefit in the cryogenic treatment of 3. When hand-threading plastics, why is it rec-
cutting tools requires a gradual lowering of temperature, an ommended that the hole or rod be chamfered?
extended soak period, and a slow return to room temperature.
_c _hap
_ te
_ r_ 2_9_ _o_t_he_ r_P_r_o_ce_s_s e_s_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___,~

4. Like metal, many plastics require to 18. The powder metallurgy process is used to
ensure against dimensional changes. make:
a. Self-lubricating bearings.
5. When turning many plastics on a lathe, care
b. Precision machine parts.
must be taken to prevent the _ _ from accu-
c. Permanent metal filters.
mulating around the work. If this is not done,
d . All of the above.
heat will build up and cause the plastic to
become _ _ e. None of the above.
19. List the steps in making a part by the powder
6. What is unique about Teflon?
metallurgy technique.
7. Machining plastics can create health problems
20. Parts made from metal powder can be:
for the machinist if precautions are not taken.
a. Drilled.
What are these problems and how can they
b. Heat treated.
best be handled?
c. Turned on a lathe.
8. What are laminated plastics? d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
9. When drilling laminated plastics, what should
be avoided? 21. What is a briquette or "green compact?"
10. Chipless machining is also known as _ _ or 22. Why is it often necessary to size, coin, or forge
parts made from metal powders after they
have been sintered?
11. How does chipless machining make substan-
tial savings possible? 23. What do the above operations do to the sin-
tered piece?
12. In chipless machining a series of _ _ replaces
the usual cutting tools of the lathe, drill press, 24. The abbreviation HERF means _ _
and milling machine.
25. In HERF, metal is shaped:
13. Chipless machining is still the most economical a. By the slow application of great pressure.
way to make - - 1 ---.J --.J and other b. In microseconds, with pressure generated
types of~- · by the sudden application of large
amounts of energy.
14. List the five basic operations performed by
c. By conventional forging methods.
machines making use of the chipless machin-
d. All of the above.
ing process.
e. None of the above.
15. Intraform is a chipless machining technique
that can form profiles on the _ _ of _ _ 26. The pressures needed in HERF are generated
by:
pieces.
a. Detonating explosives.
16. The lntraform technique has proven to be a b. Releasing compressed gases.
practical way to produce: c. Electromagnetic energy.
a. Socket wrenches. d. All of the above.
b. Rifle barrels. e. None of the above.
c. Automotive starter clutch housings.
27. Many metals tend to to their original
d . All of the above.
shape after being formed by conventional
e. None of the above.
means. This problem is greatly reduced or
17. Powder metallurgy, abbreviated _ __, is the entirely eliminated when is used to
technique of shaping parts from _ __ shape the metal.
 M. chlr11nr. Fu11d mt!nCi:11

28. What is explosive forming? 35. In pneumatic-mechanical forming, _ _ is

used to accelerate the into the _ _
29. What are some of the disadvantages of explo-
sive forming? 36. What does the term "cryogenic" mean?
30. Why must a vacuum be pulled in the die when 37. The science of cryogenics deals with tempera-
explosive forming? ture starting at _ _ (__J and goes down to
temperatures near _ _ (_).
31. Depending upon the placement of the explo-
sive, most explosive forming operations fall 38. What does shrink-fitting mean?
into two categories. List them. 39. Why is it better to use the super-low tempera-
32. _ _ is a variation of explosive forming. tures of cryogenics, rather than heat, to shrink-
However, _ _ is used in place of the explo- fit parts together?
sive charge to generate the required energy. 40. Why must the cooling of treated cutting tools
33. What HERF technique employs a very high be done at a slow rate?
electric current passing through an induction
coil shaped to produce the required configura-
tion in the work?
34. The technique in question 33 can be used to
_ _ or _ _ the work to produce the desired
shape, depending upon placement of the coil.
 Chapter 30
• •
ons 1n
ol gy
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
0 List the requirements tor the various
machining technology occupations.
0 Explain where to obtain information on
occupations in machining technology.
0 State what industry expects of an
employee.
0 Describe what an employee should expect
from industry.
0 Summarize the information given on a
resume.

Figure 30-1. The field of metal machining offers many opportu-

IMPORTANT TERMS nities, for semiskilled and skilled workers, technicians, and pro-
fessional personnel. These machinists and engineers are
all-around machinist part programmer discussing the best method for machining a part with CNC
apprentice programs resume equipment. (Giddings & Lewis, Inc.)
career semiskilled workers
engineering skilled workers
job shops technician
JO. I MACHINING JOB
CATEGORIES
Many people want a career that is both chal-
lenging and interesting. Their philosophy is that a Jobs in material machining fall into four general
career is enjoyable; you only "work" when you dis- categories:
like a job. Others are satisfied with whatever job • Semiskilled.
comes along. In which of these categories are you? • Skilled.
If you are looking for a career that is challeng- • Technical.
ing, interesting, and rewarding, the field of machin- • Professional.
ing offers many opportunities. See Figure 30-1.
Whether you choose one of the machine shop areas 30. I. I Semiskilled Workers
or select a career in a related field, you will find that Semiskilled workers are those who perform
the study of Machining Fundamentals is basic to all of basic, routine operations that do not require a high
them. degree of skill or training. Semiskilled workers may
No matter which occupational choice you make, be classified into the following general groups:
you should realize that you will have to keep up • Those who are helpers for skilled workers.
with technical progress. To be successful and • Those who operate machines and equipment
advance in your career, a continuing program of used in making things. The machines are set
education is usually necessary. up by skilled workers.
L M chu\mg Fund:lt1tt:nL:1t:s.

•· Those ,-\-ho assemble the various manufac-

tured parts into final products, Figure 30-2.
There is little chance for advancement out of
semiskilled jobs ,dthout additional study and train-
ing. Most semiskilled ·work is found in production
shops where there are great numbers of repetitive
operations. In general, semiskilled workers are told
what to do and how the work is to be done. They are
often the first to lose their jobs when there is a
dmvnturn in the economy.

Figure 3D-3. The apprentice studies under an experienced

machinist for a period of four or more years. The training pro-
gram also includes the study of related subjects like math,
English, science, etc. (William Schotta, Millersville University)

In recent years, the number of apprentice pro-

grams being offered has declined. Most workers
entering the field receive their training in the armed
forces, Figure 30-4, or in vocational/ technical

Figure 30-2. Many semiskilled workers are employed in assem-

bly industries, where they assemble manufactured parts into
complete units. Training periods to learn these job skills are rel-
atively short. (Saturn)

30. l.2 Skilled Workers

Skilled workers have been trained to do more
complex tasks. They are found in all areas of mater-
ial machining. Many skilled workers receive their
training in apprentice programs (on-the-job training
while working ,dth skilled machinist), Figure 30-3.
Four or more years of instruction under an expe-
rienced machinist is generally required. In addition
to working in the shop, an apprentice usually stud-
ies related subjects, such as: math, science, English,
print reading, metallurgy, safety, and production
techniques. Upon completion of an apprentice pro-
Figure 30-4. The Army, and other branches of the Armed
gram, the worker is capable of performing the pre- Forces, offer excellent opportunities for learning a trade. As a
cise ,,,.-ork essential to the trade. bonus, you get paid while you learn. (U.S. Army)
Ch:tpt JO

programs offered in high schools and community and mathematics than most other skilled workers
colleges. Many community college programs are in the trade. See Figure 30-6.
offered in conjunction with local industry. A diemaker is a toolmaker who specializes in
making the punches and dies needed to stamp out
Specialized machinists such parts as auto body panels, electrical compo-
There are several areas in which the machinist nents, and similar products. He or she will also pro-
duce the dies for making extrusions (metal shaped
may specialize:
The all-around machinist is a competent person by being pushed through an opening in a metal disc
who can set up and operate most types of machine of proper configuration) and die castings (parts
tools. He or she must be familiar with both manual made by forcing molten metal into a mold). Like the
and computer-controlled machine tools and how toolmaker, a die maker is a highly skilled machinist.
they are programmed, Figure 30-5. An all-around
machinist is expected to plan and carry out all of the
operations needed to machine a job.

Figure 3o-6. A tool-and-die maker checking the dies used for

molding a plastic pattern used to cast a jet engine component.
Master tooling assures that other sections of the engine, made
elsewhere in the United States, Israel, and Europe, will fit
Figure 30-S. The all-around machinist can set up and operate together perfectly. (Precision Castparts Corp.)
most types of machine tools, whether manual or CNC.
(Giddings & Lewis, Inc.)
The layout specialist is a machinist who inter-
prets the drawings and uses precision measuring
Many all-around machinists work in job shops tools to mark off where metal must be removed by
(shops where special and experimental work is machining from castings, forgings, and metal stock.
machined, or where production runs are very This person must be very familiar with the opera-
small). tion and capabilities of machine tools. He or she is
A toolmaker is a highly skilled person who spe- well-trained in mathematics and print reading.
cializes in producing the tools needed for machin- A setup specialist is a person who locates and
ing operations. These include: positions ("sets up") tooling and work-holding
• Dies (special tools for shaping, forming, devices on a machine tool for use by a machine tool
stamping, or cutting metal or other materials). operator. This worker may also show the machine
• Jigs (devices that position work and guide tool operator how to do the job, and often checks the
cutting tools). accuracy of the machined part. See Figure 30-7.
• Fixtures (devices to hold work while it is A part programmer inputs data into a computer-
machined). controlled (CNC) machine tool for machining a
These tools are necessary for modern mass pro- product. CNC machine tools are revolutionizing the
duction techniques. Toolmakers must have a field of material machining. However, computers
broader background in machining operations have no inherent intelligence and cannot think or
 Macii!:\ing Fund«menta!s

exercise judgment. They must be programmed To perform this task, a part programmer must
(instructed) by a highly skilled part programmer have a background that includes the follo~Ning:
who studies the drawings and determines the • Formal training in computer technology as it
sequences, tools, and motions the machine tool relates to machine tool operation.
must carry out to machine the part, Figure 30-8. • Experience at reading and interpreting
drawings.
• A thorough grounding in machining technol-
ogy and procedures.
• A working knowledge of cutting speeds and
feeds for various tools and materials.
• An extensive training in mathematics.
Many community colleges and vo-tech centers
offer programs in machine tool CNC program-
ming to qualified persons, generally skilled
machinists or other persons with extensive
machine tool experience.
A supervisor or manager is usually a skilled
machinist who has been promoted to a position of
greater responsibility. This person ,,ill direct other
workers in the shop and is responsible for meeting
production deadlines and keeping ·work quality
high. In many shops, the manager may also be
responsible for training and other tasks, Figure 30-9.

Figure 30-7. A setup specialist is a master machinist who pre-

pares machine tools for operation by less highly trained person-
nel. After thoroughly checking the machined part to be sure it
will meet specifications, the setup specialist will turn the
machine toof over to a machine operator. (Hydromat, Inc.)

Figure 30-9. The supervisor or manager of the production

department works very closely with machinists, engineers, met-
allurgists, and other staff. He or she may also conduct training
sessions, like this one, when new equipment or procedures are
introduced. (LeBlond Makino Machine Tool Co.)

30. I.3 Technicians

The technician is a member of the production
team who operates in the realm between the shop
and engineering departments, Figure 30-10. The
Figure 30-S. The programmer prepares rne mrormation (tools, position is an outgrowth of today's highly techno-
tool paths, machining sequence, etc.) for a computer-controlled logical and scientific world. The job usually requires
machine tool. This information or computer data is called a pro-
gram and will direct the entire machining of a specific part. The
at least two years of college, with a program of
programmer must thoroughly understand machining technology. study centered on math, science, English, com-
{Tri-Tool, Inc.) puter science, quality control, manufacturing, and
Chapter 30 Occup~tions in Macllinmg i echnology

-
-·----
Figure 30-10. These technicians are checking out and adjust-
ing newly manufactured CNC machining centers to be sure that
they meet engineering specifications before being shipped to
customers. (Giddings & Lewis, Inc.)

production processes. Many state and community

Figure 30-11. Technicians are responsible for the repair and
colleges offer two year programs devoted to prepar-
maintenance of such computer-controlled devices as welding
ing students for such technical positions. robots. This robot is welding automotive components. (Fanuc
The technician assists the engineer by testing Robotics North America, Inc.)
various experimental devices and machines, com-
piling statistics, making cost estimates, and prepar-
ing technical reports. Many inspection and quality
control programs are managed by technicians.
Technicians also repair and maintain computer con-
trolled machine tools and robots, Figure 30-11.

30. l.4 The Professions

The professions offer many excellent opportuni-
ties in the field of metalworking.
Teaching is one of the most satisfying of the pro-
fessions; it is a field that students too often overlook,
Figure 30-12. Teachers of industrial arts, industrial
technology, industrial education, and vocational/
technical education are in a fortunate position.
Teaching is a challenging profession that offers a free-
dom not found in most other professions. It is not an
overcrowded profession and it appears there will be
a demand for teachers for many years to come. Figure 30-12. The teaching profession is a challenging ona.
To teach machining, four years of college training Many skilled educators will be needed in machining technology
are usually needed, Figure 30-13. While industrial if the United States is to maintain its position as a world leader
in that industry.
 Machining Fundament a!s

A bachelor's degree is usually the minimum

requirement for entering the engineering profes-
sion. Hmvever, some men and women have been
able to enter the profession without a degree after a
number of years experience as machinists, drafters,
or engineering technicians. They are usually
required, however, to take additional college-level
training.
The industrial engineer is primarily concerned
with the safest and most efficient use of machines,
materials, and personnel, Figure 30-15. In some
instances, he or she may be responsible for the
design of special machinery and equipment to be
utilized in manufacturing operations.

Figure 30-13. This college student may someday teach

machine technology. During four or more years of training, she
will learn all phases of machine tool operation and computer
programming as it relates to machining.

experience is ordinarily not required, it will prove

very helpful.
Engineering is a fast growing and challenging
profession. Engineers use mathematics, science, and
a knm,dedge oi manufacturing to develop new Figure 30-15. Industrial engineers have many duties. In this
products and processes for industry, Figure 30-14. case, an engineer is explaining and demonstrating the capabil-
ities of a CNC vertical machining center (VMC) for a new job
shop customer. (Giddings & Lewis, Inc.)

A mechanical engineer is normally responsible

for the design and development of new machines,
devices, and ideas. This engineering specialty is also
involved with the redesign and improvements of
existing equipment. Some mechanical engineers
specialize in various areas of transportation (ships,
transit ,·ehicles, robotics, etc.), Figure 30-16.
The tool and manufacturing engineer often
works lvith the other engineers. A principal concern
of the mechanical engineer is the design and devel-
opment of the original or prototype model. When
this model has been thoroughly tested and has met
Figure 30-14. This engineer checks out an experimental jet
engine capable of sustaining flight at more than 4500 miles per design requirements, the product is turned over to
hour. The liquid hydrogen used as fuel also cools the engine's the tool and manufacturing engineer to devise
combustion chamber components to keep them from melting. methods and means required to manufacture and
(NASA) assemble the item, Figure 30-17.
Chapt8r 30 Occupations in MachiningTed,nology fffl
- - - - - - - - - - - - - --
A metallurgical engineer, Figure 30-18, is 30.2 PREPARING TO FIND A JOB
involved in the development and testing of IN MACHINING TECHNOLOGY
metals that are used in products and manufacturing
Machining technology is a technical area with
processes.
constantly developing new ideas, materials,
processes, and manufacturing techniques. This
means that occupational opportunities are created
that were not previously available. One study
reported that the average graduate will be
employed in at least five different jobs in his or her
lifetime, and three of them do not even exist yet!

30.2. I Obtaining Information on Machining

Occupations
There are many sources of occupational infor-
mation. The most accessible for the student usually
are the school's career center and industrial/techni-
cal education instructors.
State employment services are also excellent
sources for getting information on local and state
Figure 30-16. Mechanical engineers are responsible for the employment opportunities, as are the various trade
design and development of new machines, devices, and ideas.
(Nachi Robotics)
unions concerned with the metalworking trades.
The field and regional offices of the Bureau of
Apprenticeship, United States Department of Labor,
may also be contacted for information on appren-
ticeship programs in your area. The Occupational
Outlook Handbook, available at most libraries,
describes many specific job categories and estimates
the future demand for workers in each occupation.
See Figure 30-19.
Information on technical occupations is also
available from community colleges. Many of them
offer Associate Degrees in technical areas.
Figure 30-11. Tool and manufacturing engineers devise new
methods to manufacture complex products like the Venture
Star, which will eventually replace the present Space Shuttle.
{Lockheed Martin Skunk Works)

Figure 30-18. Metallurgical engineers are responsible for devel-

oping and testing metals that will eventually be used in manu-
facturing products. This engineer is using an electron probe to Figure 30-19. Your school or public library has many sources
check for possible defects in a casting made from a new alloy. of career Information, such as the Occupational Outlook
(Central Foundry Div. of GMC) Handbook.
p H.u:hluing Ft.1ndiam nt~,

Keeping Your Skills Current • Lack of interest or enthusiasm for the job
You \c\'ill be ,·ery disappointed if you think the being sought.
completion of your formal schooling means the end • Knowing little or nothing about the company
of training and study. To keep a job and advance in where employment is sought.
it, you will have to keep up-to-date with the knowl- • Too much interest in security and benefits.
edge and new skills that advanced technology • Unrealistic salary demands.
demands. High manufacturing costs and keen com- • Lack of ability to express himself or herself.
petition with foreign-made products make this a
real necessity. 30.3 HOW TO GET A JOB
Securing your first job after graduation will be a
30.2.2 Traits Employers Look for in an
Yery important task. To be successful, you will have
Employee to spend as much time looking for this position as
Industry is always on the lookout for bright you would working at a regular job. There are sev-
young people who are not afraid to work and eral other things that you can do to make this task
assume responsibility. Employers also look for the easier.
following traits in an employee, often referring to You will have to decide what type of work you
scholastic records, references, and/ or to preYious would like to do. Most schools and state employ-
employers to obtain the necessary information. ment sen;ces administer tests that will help you
• Skills and knowledge. Has the technical skills determine the areas of employment where you will
and knowledge necessary for an entry posi- have a good chance of succeeding.
tion. Does work neatly and accurately. Pays Answering the following questions will give
attention to details. you additional help:
• Integrity and honesty. This trait is on the same • What can I do with some degree of success?
level of importance as technical skills and • What have I done that others have com-
knov,·ledge. mended me for doing well?
• Comprehension. Is able to understand oral and • What are the things I really like to do?
written instructions and to read and interpret • lVhat are the things I do not like to do?
prints • What jobs have I held? Why did I leave them?
• Dependability. Has a good attendance and • \Vhat skills have I acquired while in school?
punctuality record in class. You ·will probably haYe two or more areas of
• Teamwork. Show the ability to work ,,·ell with interest. After listing them, start gathering informa-
peers and supervisors. tion on these areas of interest. Use as many different
• Communication. Is able to communicate ideas sources as time permits. This may include reading,
and suggestions orally and in writing. talking with persons doing this type of ·work, and
• Self-confidence. Takes pride in work and will visiting industry.
not knowingly turn out inferior or substan- If time permits, plan your educational program
dard material. to prepare for entry into a specific job, or for
• Accountability. Is able to assume responsibility advanced schooling if you are near graduation.
and be accountable for his/ her actions. The next problem is, how do you go about get-
• Initiative. Volunteers ideas. Demonstrates ting that job? Jobs are always available. vVorkers get
leadership. promoted, they retire, some quit, die, or get fired.
• Grooming and dress. Presents a positive per- Technological progress also creates new jobs.
sonal appearance. However, you must "track down" these jobs. There
is no easy ~,·ay to get a challenging job.
30.2.3 Factors for Rejection for Employment Concentrate on getting the job. Make your initial
There are manv factors and/ or traits that can request for a job in person. Ahvays be specific on the
cause a person to be rejected for employment. They type of job you are seeking. Make sure you are qual-
include: ified for that job. Never ask for "just any job" or
• Poor personal appearance. inquire, ''What openings do you have?"
• Poor scholastic performance. Dress appropriately. Job hunting is not the time
• Poor attendance record. to wear old clothes or torn and beat-up shoes. Be
• Lack of maturity. clean and well-groomed.
:;hapter 30 Occupations in HachiningTechnology

When filling out a job application, avoid leav- • Education and any special training. Include
ing any spaces blank. The employer may think there dates of all educational attendance.
is something you do not want to answer. If the ques- • The types of equipment that you can safely
tion is not applicable to you, write in "Not applica- operate.
ble," "Does not apply," or "NA." For example, there • Names and addresses of references. Do not
might be a question on the application that asks, include relatives unless you have worked for
"What was your highest rank in the armed forces?" them. Make sure you secure permission
If you were not in the armed forces, you would before using a person for a reference. (Today,
write in, "Does not apply," or "NA," rather than many job seekers note "References available
leaving the answer space blank. on request," instead of listing the names and
Last, but not least, know where to look for a job. addresses on the resume.)
Check the classified advertising section of local
newspapers each day. Talk with friends and rela- 30.3.2 What an Employee Should Expect from
tives who are employed. They may be aware of job Industry
openings at their places of employment before the From the preceding sections, you have some
jobs are advertised. idea of what industry expects from an employee.
A new office or factory building may indicate However, are you aware of what an employee
potential job openings. It would also be to your should expect from industry? Over and above
advantage to prepare a list of desirable employers in salary and fringe benefits, what should you expect
your community and visit their personnel offices. from an employer?
Plan these visits on a routine basis when jobs are not Following are a few questions to which you
readily available. The personnel office will then might seek answers when selecting a place of
know you are interested in working for their firm employment:
and may give you preference. Is a relatively safe and clean work area pro-
One thing you must remember: The job will not vided? Obviously, some areas can never be made as
come to you, You must search for it! safe as others. For example, tapping a blast furnace
is inherently more dangerous than working on a
30.3. I Pre-pare a Resume small lathe or drill press.
To speed the tedious task of filling out job appli- Are work areas adequately lighted, heated, and
cations, prepare a job resume in advance. A resume ventilated? Are noxious fumes and dust particles fil-
is a summary of your educational and employment tered from the air?
background. It will assure uniform information Is proper safety clothing and equipment avail-
with little chance for confusing responses. The able for all dangerous work? Safety items such as
resume is submitted when applying for a job. Your goggles, hearing protectors, and steel-tipped safety
resume should include: shoes may be provided free or at minimum cost.
• Your full name. Are all necessary precautions observed when
• Your full address, and telephone number. Do not hazardous materials are involved?
forget area and zip codes. Is there a preventative safety program, and are
• Place of birth and date of birth. For some jobs, it safety regulations and precautions rigorously
may be necessary to include a certified copy enforced?
of your birth certificate. Have a copy available
in advance. 30.3.3 Factors That Can Lead to Job
• Your Social Security Number. Termination
• Names of previous employers. List the places The following factors can lead to failure to get a
you have worked, starting with the most promotion, or possibly being terminated (fired)
recent. Include the items that follow (for each from a job. They include:
previous employer). • Alcohol and/ or illegal drug abuse on the job.
• Company name and address. • Inability or refusal to perform the work
• Dates employed. required.
• Immediate supervisor's name. • Being habitually tardy or missing work
• Salary or pay rate. repeatedly without adequate reasons.
• Reason for leaving. • Inability to work with supervisors or peers.
FD.________________________________ H_a--_.h_!:-_.c:i_g_.=_u_n_ci_::.._·n_2_rrt2i_,_1:.

• Fighting with or making threats to fellow 6. What does a layout specialist do?
workers or supervisors.
7. To perform his or her job properly, a part pro-
• Inability to work as a team member.
grammer should have the following back-
ground: (List fi.Ye items.)
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
8. v\'hat are some of the duties of a technician?
Please do not write in the text. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper. .
9. List the areas of studv usuallv_,,

technician' s educational program.

included in a
1. List the four general categories into which
metalworking occupations fall. 10. List three sources of information on metal-
working occupations.
2. _ _ workers are those who perform opera-
tions that do NOT require a high degree of skill 11 . What does industry expect from you when you
or training. are on the job?
3. The _ _ worker usually starts his or her 12. What is a job resume?
career as an apprentice. 13. Why should a resume be prepared in advance?
4. Since the number of apprentice programs is on 14. Explain why you think that references are
the decline, where can this training now be important.
obtained?
15. List five traits an employer wants in a prospec-
5. Describe what an all-around machinist is
tive employee.
expected to do.
16. What are three factors that can lead to job ter-
mination?
 Reference S cti n

The following pages contain a number of tables, charts, and other materials that will be useful as refer-
ence in a variety of machining-related areas. To make locating information easier, the material in this section
is listed below, along with the page number.
Common Shapes of Metals ...............................................................................................................558
Color Codes for Marking Steels ......................................................................................................558
Metal Sheet Materials Chart.............................................................................................................559
Order of Ductility of Metals .............................................................................................................559
Physical Properties of Metals ...........................................................................................................560
Wire Gages in Decimal Inches .........................................................................................................561
Cutting Speeds for Round Stock .....................................................................................................562
Rules for Determining Feeds and Speeds ......................................................................................563
Recommended Turning Rates for Stainless Steels Using High-speed Tools ............................ 563
Feeds and Speeds for HSS Drills, Reamers, and Taps .................................................................564
Feeds and Speeds for HSS Drills in Various Metals .....................................................................565
Formulas for Machining Bar Stock .................................................................................................566
Standard Dimensional Tolerances for Bar Stock...................................................................567-569
Standard Dimensional Tolerances for Wrre ...................................................................................569
Rules and Formulas for Bevel Gear Calculations .................................................................570, 571
Decimal Equivalents: Number-size Drills .....................................................................................571
Decimal Equivalents: Letter-size Drills ..........................................................................................571
60° V-type Thread Dimensions - Fractional Sizes ......................................................................572
60° V-type Thread Dimensions - International Standard (Metric) ..........................................573
Tap Drill Sizes ............................................................................................................................574, 575
Taper Pin and Reamer Sizes .............................................................................................................576
Hardness Conversions ......................................................................................................................577
Conversion Table: US Conventional to SI Metric .........................................................................578
Conversion Table: SI Metric to US Conventional .........................................................................579
Decimal Conversion Chart ...............................................................................................................580
Grade Marking for Bolts ...................................................................................................................581
Machine Screw and Cap Screw Heads ...........................................................................................582
Standard System of Marking for Threading Tools .......................................................................583
Screw Tiuead Elements for Unified and National Thread Form ...............................................584
Bolt Torquing Chart...........................................................................................................................585
Cutting Fluids for Various Metals ...................................................................................................585
EIA and AIA National Codes for CNC Programming......................................................... 586-588
Powder Metallurgy Processes ..........................................................................................................589
Master Chart of Welding and Allied Processes .............................................................................590
Grinding Wheel Markings ...............................................................................................................591
Standard Symbols Used in Dimensioning ..................................................................................... 591
11 Machining Funda.ment:i!s

Common Shapes of Metals

Shapes Length How Measured How Purchased
Sheet less than Up to 144" Thickness x width, I Weight, foot, or piece
1/4" thick widths to 72"
I
vzzza Plate more than
1/4" thick
Up to 20' Thickness x width Weight, toot, or piece

~ Band Up to 20' T hickness x width Weight, or piece

@ Rod 12' to 20' Diameter Weight , foot , or piece

I j

I ~ Square 12' to 20' Width Weight, foot, or piece

~ Flats Hot rolled 20'-22'

Cold finished
I
I
Thickness x width Weight, foot, or piece

@
I

I
I Hexagon 12' to 20' Distance across flats Weight, foot, or piece
I I I

© Octagon 12' to 20' Distance across flats Weight, foot, or piece

L Angle Up to 40' Leg length x leg length

x th ickness of legs
Weight, foot, or piece

LJ Channel Up to 60' Depth x web thickness

x flange width
Weight, foot, or piece

I I-beam Up to 60'

Color Codes for Marking Steels

Height x web thickness
x flange width
Weight, foot, or piece

S.A.E. S.A.E. S.A.E. S.A.E.

Code Color Code Color Code Color Code Color
Number Number Number Number
C.art.icn atee:1. 2115 Red and bronze T1 340 Orange and green 3450 Black and bronze
1010 White 2315 Red and blue T1345 Orange and red 4820 Green and purple
101 5 White 2320 Red and blue T1350 Orange and red Chromlt.tm st. .ls
X101 5 White 2330 Red and white Nic!<el-ci'.~ rruum steels 5120 Black
1020
X1020
I Brown
Brown
2335
2340
Red and white
Red and green
31 15
3120
Blue and black
Blue and black
5140
5150
Black and white
Black and white
1025 Red 2345 Red and green 3125 Pink 52100 Black and brown
X1025
1030
Red
Bl:,e
I 2350
2515
Red and aluminum
Red and black
3130
3135
Blue and green
Blue and green 611 5
Chromium-vanadium steels
White and brow'l
1035 Bh.:e Mol>ytdetium ste:ols 31 40 Blue and white 612::J White and brown
1040 Green 4130 Green and white X3140 Blue and white 61 25 White and aluMinurn
X1040 G•een X4130 Green and bronze 3145 Blue and white 6130 White and yellow
1045 o~ange 4135 Green and yellow 3150 Blue and brown 6135 White and yellow
X1045 Orange 414C Green and brown 3215 Blue and purple 6140 White and bronze
1050 Bronze 4150 Green and brown 3220 Blue and purple 6145 White and orange
1095 Aluminum 4340 Green and a!urninum 3230 Blue and purple 6150 White and orange
Freo cu~iing s4cal3 . 4345 3240 6195 White and purple
1112 Yel!ow I
461 5
Green and alumint.:m
Green and black 3245
Blue and aluminum
Blue and aluminum , Tungsten stea1s
X1112
1120
Yellow
Yellow and brown
4620
4640
Green and black
Green and pink I 3250
3312
Blue and bronze
Orange and black
71360
71660
Brown and orange
Brown and bronze
X1314 Yellow and blue 4815 Green and pu rple 3325 Orange and black 7260 Brown and aluminum
X1315 Yellow and red X1340 Yellow and black 3335 Blue and orange • S1hcon-manganese steels
X1335 YeHow and black Mang tr!ilso ste1=:5 3340 Blue and orange 9255 Bronze and aluminum
. NiclUil Sli!OI!: T1330 Orange and green 3415 Blue and pink 9260 Bronze and aluminum
I
2015 Red and brown T1335 Orange and green 3435 Orange and aiuminur,,
Reference Section
RD
Metal Sheet Materials Chart

Material How How

(Sheet less than Measured Purchased Characteristics
1/4"thick)

Gage number 24" x 96" sheet

Copper (Brown & Sharpe or 12" or 18" by Pure metal
and Amer. Std.) lineal feet on roll

Gage number 24" x 76" sheet

Brass {Brown & Sharpe or 12" or 18"' by Alloy of copper and zinc
and Amer. Std.) lineal feet on roll

24" x 72" sheet Available as commercially pure

Aluminum Decimal or 12" or 18" by metal or alloyed for strength,
lineal feet on roll hardness, and ductility

Mild steel sheet with zinc

Galvanized steel Gage number 24" x 96" sheet plating, also available with
(Amer. Std.) zinc coating that is part
I of sheet

Black annealed Gage number 24" x 96" sheet Mild steel with oxide
steel sheet {Amer. Std.) coating, hot-rolled

Cold-rolled Gage number 24" x 96"' sheet Oxide removed and cold-
steel sheet {Amer. Std.) rolled to final thickness

Tin plate Gage number 20" x 28" sheet Mild steel with tin coating
(Amer. Std.) 56 or 112 to pkg.

Nickel silver Gage number 6" or 12"wide by Copper 50%, zinc 30%,
(Brown & Sharpe} lineal feet on roll nickel 20%

Metal is pierced and expanded

Expanded Gage number 36" x 96"' sheet (stretched) to diamond shape; also
(Amer. Std.) available rolled to thickness
after it has been expanded

Perforated Gage number 30" x 36" sheet Design ts cut in sheet; many
{Amer. Std.) 36" x 48" sheet designs available

Order of Ductility of Metals

1. Gold 6. Aluminum
2. Platinum 7. Nickel
3. Silver 8. Zinc
4. Iron 9. Tin
5. Copper 10. Lead
 Physical Properties of Metals

I I
'I Specific
I I Melting Point* Lbs. lI
I
! Metal Symbol I Gravity I Specific
Heat
cc
per
Cubic
II "F Inch

Aluminum
(cast)
Aluminum
Al 2.56 .2185 I 658 1217 .0924
{rolled)
Antimony
I
I
Al
Sb
2.71
6.71
I
I .051
- 658
630
1217
1166
I
i
.0978
.2424
II
I I I
I Bismuth Bi 9.80 ! .031 271 520 I .3540
I Boron I B
-
2.30 .3091 2300
-
4172
- I .0831
I Brass 8.51 .094
I iI .3075
Cadmium Cd 8.60 .057 I 321 610 I .3107
Calcium
Chromium
Ca
Cr
1.57
6.80
.170
.120
810 1490 I .0567
1510 2750 I .2457
I
Cobalt
Copper
Co
Cu
8.50
8.89
I .110
.094
1490
1083
2714
1982
.3071
.3212 I
Columblum Cb 8.57 I - 1950 3542 .3096 l
I i
Gold Au I 19.32 I .032 I 1063 1945 .6979 I
Iridium Ir 22.42 .033
I 2300 4170 .8099
Iron Fe 7.86 .no 1520 2768 .2634
Iron (cast) Fe 7.218 .1298 1375 2507 .2605
Iron (wrought) Fe 7.70 .1138 1500-1600 2732-2912 .2779
Lead Pb 11.37 I .031 327 621 .4108
Lithium LI ! .057 I .941 186 I 367 .0213
I
i I
Magnesium
Manganese
Mg
Mn
I 1.74 .250 651 I 1204 I .0629 II
Mercury Hg I 8.00
13.59
.120
.032
1225
-39
2237
-38
I .2890
.4909
I

I
I I
Molybdenum
Monel metal I
Mo
- I
10.2
8.87
.0647
.127
2620
1360
47.48
2480 I .368
.320
Nickel NI 8.80 .130 1452 I
I
2646 I .319
Phosphorus p I
Platinum Pt
1.82
21.50
.177
.033 I 43
1755 I
111 .4
3191
.0657
.7767 I
Potassium K 0.87 .170 62 144 .0314 I
Selenium Se 4.81 .084 220 I 428
I
I .174
l
Silicon
Silver
Si
Ag
2.40
10.53
.1762
.056
1427
961 I 2600
1761 I
I
.087
.3805 II
Sodium Na 0.97 .290 97 207 I .0350
Steel
Strontium
-
Sr
7.858
2.54
.1175
.074
1330-1378
769
II 2372-2532
1416
I

I
.2839
.0918
I
I
Tantalum
Tin
Ta
Sn
10.80
7.29
I
I .056
- 2850
232
5160
450
I .3902
.2634
I
Titanium
Tungsten I T1
w
5.3
19.10 I
.130
.033
1900
3000
3450
5432 II .1915
.6900
Uranium u 18.70 - 1132

Vanadium V 5.50 - 1730

2070

3146
I .6755

.1987
I
Zinc Zn
I 7.19 .094 419 786 .2598 II
'Circular of !he Bureau of Standards No.35, Department of Commerce and LabOr
R.efoi'"em:e Section

Wire Gages in Decimal Inches

Washburn
&Moen
Number American Mfg.Co., Imperial Stubs' Birmingham
ofWire or Brown A.S.&W. Wire Steel or Stubs'
Gage & Sharpe Roebling Gage Wire Iron Wire

0000000 ... .4900 .5000 ... . ..

000000 .5800 .4615 .4640 ... ...
00000 .5165 .4305 .4320 ... .500
0000 .460 .3938 .4000 ... .454
000 .40964 .3625 .3720 ... .425
00 .3648 .3310 .3480 ... .380
0 .32486 .3065 .3240 ... .340

1 .2893 .2830 .3000 .227 .300

2 .25763 .2625 .2760 .219 .284
3 .22942 .2437 .2520 .212 .259
4 .20431 .2253 .2320 .207 .238
5 .18194 .2070 .2120 .204 .220
6 .16202 .1920 .1920 .201 .203
7 .14428 .1770 .1760 .199 .180

8 .12849 .1620 .1600 .197 .165

9 .11443 .1483 .1440 .194 .148
10 .10189 .1350 .1280 .191 .134
11 .090742 .1205 .1160 .188 .120
12 .080808 .1055 .1040 .185 .109
13 .071961 .0915 .0920 .182 .095
14 .064084 .0800 .0800 .180 .083

15 .057068 .0720 .0720 .178 .072

16 .05082 .0625 .0640 .175 .065
17 .045257 .0540 .0560 .172 .058
18 .040303 .0475 .0480 .168 .049
19 .03589 .0410 .0400 .164 .042
20 .031961 .0348 .0360 .161 .035
21 .028462 .0317 .0320 .157 .032

22 .025347 .0286 .0280 .155 .028

23 .022571 .0258 .0240 .153 .025
24 .0201 .0230 .0220 .151 .022
25 .0179 .0204 .0200 .148 .020
26 .01594 .0181 .0180 .146 .018
27 .014195 .0173 .0164 .143 .016
28 .012641 .0162 .0148 .139 .014

29 .011257 .0150 .0136 .134 .013

30 .010025 .0140 .0124 .127 .012
31 .008928 .0132 .0116 .120 .010
32 .00795 .0128 .0108 .115 .009
33 .00708 .0118 .0100 .112 .008
34 .006304 .0104 .0092 .110 .007

35 .005614 .0095 .0084 .108 .005

36 .005 .0090 .0076 .106 .004
37 .004453 .0085 .0068 .103 ...
38 .003965 .0080 .0060 .101 ...
39 .003531 .0075 .0052 .099 ...
40 .003144 .0070 .0048 .097 ...
 M achining Furtdame., t:a.s

Cutting Speeds for Round Stock

I

i Roughing Finishing !Threading !Roughing Finishing !Threading:

Diameter Material Cut (rpm) Cut (rpm) (rpm) Diameter Material Cut (rpm) Cut (rpm) (rpm)

1/8"
Machine steel/bronze
Cast iron
2880
1920
3200
2560
1020
800 1
iMachine steel/bronze ,
1/2" Tool steel
240
134
270
200
67
53
I I
I Tool steel (annealed) 1600 2400 640 [ Brass I 400 534 134
Brass 4800 6400 1600 Aluminum 1 534 800 134
II Aluminum 6400 9600 1600 I
i
I
; I

Machine steel/bronze 2880 3200 1120 I

205 230 80
I 3/16" Teo! steel 1600 2400 640 1 3/4"
Machine steel/bronze
Tool steel 115 170 II 50
I Brass 4800 6400 1600 Brass 340 450 i
115
i jAluminum 6400 9600 1600
I
Aluminum 456 680 115 i
I
I
i Machine steel/bronze 1440 1600 560 i Machine steel 180 200 50 j
i 1/4" Tool steel 800 1200 320 2" i Tool steel 100 150 40 !I
i Brass 2400 3200 800 J Brass 300 400 100 !
i; j Aluminum 3200 4800 800 !Aluminum 400 600 100
I I'
1 I I
j Machine steel/bronze 960 1066 270 iMachine steel 141 160 56 i
3/8" ,Tool steel 540 800 220 21/2" ITool steel 80 120 32 '
I'
i Brass 1700 2100 530 Brass 240 320 80
I !Aluminum 2130 3200 540 Aluminum 320 480 80
I i
i
Machine steel/bronze 720 800 280 Machine steel 120 140 40
1/2" Tool steel 400 600 160 3" Tool steel 65 100 40
Brass 1200 1600 400 I Brass 200 270 65
Aluminum 1600 2400 400 Aluminum 270 400 65
Machine steel/bronze 576 640 160 Machine steel 103 115 40
5/8" Tool steel 320 480 200 31/2" Tool steel 60 85 23
Brass 960 1280 320 Brass 171 228 57
Aluminum 1280 1920 320 Aluminum 228 342 57
Machine steel/bronze 500 550 176 Machine steel 90 100 35
3/4" Tool steel 266 400 106 4" Tool steel 50 75 20
Brass 800 1066 266 Brass 150 200 50
Aluminum 1066 1600 266 Aluminum 200 300 50
Machine steel/bronze 360 400 140 Machine steel 80 90 31
1" Tool steel 200 300 80 41/2" Tool steel 45 67 18
I Brass 600 800 200 Brass 133 178 45
! Aluminum 800 1200 200 '' Aluminum 178 267 45
I
i I
i 1 1/4" Machine steel
Tool steel
288 320
240
112 ! Machine steel 72 80
I

i 28
160 64 5" Tool steel 40 58 j 16
I! Brass
,Aluminum i
480
640
640
960
160
160
Brass
Aluminum
120
160
160
240 I:
40
40 I
' '
I i I :'
Reference Section

Rules for Determining Speeds and Feeds

To Find Having Rule Formula

Speed of cutter in feet Diameter of cutter and Diameter of cutter ( in inches)

per minute (FPM) revolutions per minute multiplied by 3.1416 (1t) multi- FPM =1tD X RPM
plied by revolutions per minute, 12
divided by 12

Speed of cutter in meters Diameter of cutter and Diameter of cutter multiplied

per minute (MPM} revolutions per minute by 3.1416 (n) multiplied by MPM = D(mm} x 1t x RPM
revolutions per minute, divided 1000
by 1000

Revolutions per minute Feet per minute and diameter Feet per minute, multiplied by
(RPM) of cutter 12, divided by circumference RPM =FPM x 12
of cutter (1tD} 1tD

Revolutions per minute Meters per minute and diameter Meters per minute, multiplied by
(RPM) of cutter in millimeters (mm} 1000, divided by the RPM = MPM X 1000
circumference of cutter {1tD) 1tD

Feed per revolution (FR) Feed per minute and revolutions Feed per minute, divided by
per minute revolutions per minute FR= R~M

Feed per tooth per revolution Feed per minute and number of Feed per minute (in inches or
(FTR) teeth in cutter millimeters) divided by number
of teeth in cutter x revolutions FTR = T /RPM
per minute

Feed per minute (F) Feed per tooth per revolution, Feed per tooth per revolutions
number of teeth in cutter, and multiplied by number of teeth in
F = FTR x T x RPM
RPM cutter, multiplied by revolutions
per minute

Feed per minute (F) Feed per revolution and revolu- Feed per revolution multiplied
F= FR X RPM
tions per minute by revolutions per minute

Number of teeth per minute Number of teeth in cutter and Number of teeth in cutter multi-
TM =T x RPM
(TM) revolutions per minute plied by revolutions per minute

RPM = Revolutions per minute TM = Teeth per minute

T = Teeth in cutter F = Feed per minute
D = Diameter of cutter FR = Feed per revolution
1t =3.1416 (pi) FTR = Feed per tooth per revolution
FPM = Speed of cutter in feet per minute MPM = Speed of cutter in meters per minute

Recommended Turning Rates for Stainless Steels

Using High-speed Tools
Feed
Nature of Stock Type No. Speed (sfpm) (inches per revolution}

Free machining grades 430 F 100-140 0.003-0.005

416 90-135 for finish cuts and up to
303 80-120 0.015 for roughing cuts

High-carbon grades that 410 75-115 0. 003--0.008

are slowed down due to 430 75-115 0. 003--0.008
their abrasive action on tools 420 45-85 0.003--0.008
431 45-85 0. 003--0.008
440 30-60 0. 003--0.008
302
304
316 45-80 0. 004--0.008
m, _
Feeds and Speeds for
HSS Drills, Reamers, and Taps

! I Drills ! Reamers i Taps (sfm) l'

I
I I Threads per Inch
Material ! Brinell (sfm) Point Feed (sfm) Feed i
(
i 3-71/2 8-15 !16-24 125--up
!
Aluminum 99-101 200-250 118° M 150-160 j M 50 100 I 150 200
Aluminum bronze
I Bakelite
170-187 60 118° M I 40-45 ' M 12 25 ! 45 60
I
... 80 60°-90° M ; 50--60 M 50 100 ! 150 200
Brass 192-202 200-250 118° H 1150-160 H 50 100 150 200
Bronze, common 166-183 200-250 118° H 150-160 H 40 80 I
100 150
Bronze, phosphor, 1/2 hard
Bronze, phosphor, soft
187-202 175-180
i 149-163 200-250
I
118°
118c
M
H
130-140 M
150-160 H
25
40
40
80 I
50
100
80
150
Cast iron, soft i 126 140-150 90° H 100-110 H 30 60 L 90 140
Cast iron, medium soft I 196 80-110 118° M 50--65 M 25 40 Ir 50 80
Cast iron, hard
Cast iron, chilled·
j 293-302
402
45-50
15
118°
150°
L
L
67-75
8-10
L
L
10
5
I 20
5
30
10
40
10
Cast steel 286-302 40-50* 118° L 70-75 L 20
II 30 40 50
Celluloid ... 100 goo M 75-80 M 50 I 100 150 I 200
Copper 8D-85 70 100° L 45-55 L 40 i 80 100 I 150
Drop forgings (steel) 170-196 60 118° M 40-45 M 12 25 45 ! 60
Duralumin 90-104 200 118° M I 150-160 M 50 !
100 150 1 200
Everdur
Machinery steel
179-207
170-196
60
110
118°
118°
L
H
II 40-45 L
67-75 H
20
35 Ii
30
50
40 i 50
60 ! 85
Magnet steei, soft : 241-302 35-40 118° M I 20-25 M 20 I 40 50 i 75
Magnet steel, hard* 1321-512 15 150° L l 10 L 5 10 15 iI 25
Manganese steel, 7% -13% , 187-217 15 150° L 10
l 10-12 LL 15 'j 20 25 i 30
Manganese copper, 30% Mn.* I 134 15 150° L ... ... ... ...
Malleable iron
Mild steel, .20 -.30 C
112-126 I 85-90 118° H li ... H 20 I 30 40 50
Molybdenum steel
170-202 i 110-120
196-235 55
118°
125°
H
M !
75-85
35-45
H
M
40
20
! 55
30
70
35
90
45
Monel meta! 149-170 50 118° M ! 35--38 M 8 I 10 15 20
Nickel, pure*
i
187-202 75 118° L 40 L 25 i 40 I 50 80
Nickel steel, 3 1/2% 196-241 60 118° L 40-45 L 8 I
10 I 15 20
Rubber, hard ... 100 60°-90° L 7D-80 L 50 ii 100 !\ 150 200
Screw stock, C.R. 170-196 110 118° H 75 H 20 30 40 50
Spring steel 402 20 150° L 12-15 L 10 I 10 I 15 15
Stainless steel 146-149 50 118" M I 30 M 8 10
i
15 20
:'
Stainless steel, C.R.·
Steel, .40 to .50 C
Tool, SAE., and forging steel
460-477
170-196
149
20
80
75
118°
118°
11 a 0
L
M
H
I 15
8-10
L
M
H
8
20
25
10
30
I 15
' 40
20 I
50
Tool, S.A.E., and forging steel 241 50 125° M i 35-4012 M 15
35
15
45
25
55
25
Tool, S.A.E., and forging steel* 402 15 150° L : 10' L 8 10 15 20
Zinc alloy 112-126 200-250 118° M ! 150-175 l M 50 100 150 i 200
·use specially constructed heavy-duty drills.
Nole: Carbon steel tools should be run at speeds 40% to 50% of those recommended for high speed steel.
Spiral point taps may be run at speeds 15% to 20% faster than regular 1aps.
Reference Section

Feeds and Speeds for HSS Drills in Various Metals

Drop forgings
Bronze Alloy steel
Drop forgings
Drill Alloy steel
Cast iron or Tool steel
Steel castings Mild steel
diameter Heat-treated
Brass
Annealed
Feed Speed Feed Speed Feed Speed Feed Speed Feed Speed Feed Speed
1/16" .002 4550 .002 9150 .002 3650 .002 2750 .002 3650 .002 4250
.004 6700 .004 12,000 .003 4550 .003 3650 .003 4550 .003 5600

1/8" .002 2550 .002 4550 .002 1800 .002 1225 .002 1800 .002 2100
.004 3350 .004 5600 .003 2250 .003 1800 .003 2250 .003 2800

3/16" .004 1500 .004 3100 .003 1200 .003 900 .003 1200 .003 1400
.006 2200 .007 5600 .004 1500 .004 1200 .005 1500 .005 1900

1/4" .004 1150 .004 2300 .003 925 .003 750 .003 925 .003 1050
.006 1650 .007 2750 .004 1150 .004 925 .005 1150 .005 1500

5/16" .006 925 .007 1825 .004 725 .004 500 .004 725 .005 850
.009 1325 .010 2200 .006 925 .005 725 .006 925 .007 1200

3/8" .006 750 .007 1525 .004 600 .004 400 .004 600 .005 700
.009 1100 .010 1850 .006 750 .005 600 .006 750 .007 925

7/16" .009 650 .010 1300 .006 525 .005 350 .006 525 .006 600
.012 950 .014 1525 .009 650 .006 525 .010 650 .010 800

1/2" .008 575 .010 1150 .006 375 .005 300 .006 375 .006 525
.012 850 .014 1375 .009 575 .006 375 .010 575 .010 700

9/16" .012 500 .014 1000 .008 350 .007 275 .010 350 .010 575
.016 750 .018 1200 .012 500 .010 350 .014 500 .014 625

5/8" .012 450 .014 900 .008 300 .007 250 .010 300 .010 425
.016 675 .018 1100 .012 450 .010 300 .014 450 .014 565

11/16" .012 410 .014 800 .008 275 .007 225 .010 275 .010 375
.016 625 .018 1000 .012 410 .010 275 .014 410 .014 525

3/4" .012 375 .014 750 .008 250 .007 200 .010 250 .010 350
.016 550 .018 900 .012 375 .010 250 .014 375 .014 475

13/16" .014 350 .016 700 .010 240 .009 190 .014 240 .014 325
.020 525 .022 850 .014 350 .012 240 .016 350 .016 450

7/8" .014 325 .016 650 .010 225 .009 175 .0·14 225 .014 300
.020 475 .022 800 .014 325 .012 225 .016 325 .016 400

15/16" .014 300 .016 625 .010 200 .009 160 .014 200 .014 275
.020 450 .022 725 .014 300 .012 200 .016 300 .016 375

1" .014 280 .016 575 .010 185 .009 150 .014 185 .014 265
.020 425 .022 675 .014 280 .012 185 .016 280 .016 350
(Chicago-Latrobe)
Speeds and feeds shown apply to average working conditions and materials. They are recommended with regard to conserving drills and avoiding
excessive machine tool wear. Under many conditions, these speeds and feeds may be considerably increased; under others they must be decreased. This
Is dependent on Judgment of operator, and performance obtained. Excessive speeds and feeds will show up by action of machine and drill. Same applies to
lower speeds and feeds. Operator wfll notice whether he/she is getting proper performance by experience, and will advance or retard as case may justify.
Feeds and speeds should be changed In proper proportions and a liberal use of cooling compound will increase life of tools.
Never dip a drill into waler to cool it while grinding. This will cause tiny checks, or cracks at the cutting edge, which will cause the drill to dull quickly.
Do not leave a drill in after it shows signs of dulling or laboring; then is the time to regrind. Proper grinding is essential.
To determine feed and speed according to the above chart, proceed as follows:
You are going to drill heat-treated drop forgings. We suppose you will use a 1/2" drill. Follow column down to where the 1/2" drill meets it; there you will
find that a feed from .005 to .006 and a speed of from 300 to 375 rpm are recommended. Start by using .005 feed and 300 rpm. If drill and machine seem to
turn smoothly without strain, then both feed and speed can be advanced. Operator will soon find which Is best.
~,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __:__M_::":=:·:::::_~'.'._'. ;.-'. :'.J:r~~g_.'.:F:_:u:·•~~~c;.~:..-t~~~ri.:.:,!~a~[s

Formulas for Machining Bar Stock

Surface speed-feet/minute

Round bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . • • . . . • Diameter x 3.1416 x rpm

12
Hexagon bars (distance across corners). . . . . . . . Size x 3 .1416 x rpm x 1.155
12
Distance x 3.1416 x rpm
12
Square bars (distance across corners) . •.• .. .. • . Size x 3.1416 x rpm x 1.414
12
Distance x 3.1416 x rpm
12

Revolutions-number/minute

Round bars ...... •• .... • .• , •. .. . .•• .••. . . .,,...,.._S_F_M_x_1-=2'-----

Diameter x 3.1416
Hexagon bars • . . . .. _ . . .. _. ___ . .. _. _.• .. _. SFM x 12
Size X 3.1416 x 1.155
SFM x 12
Distance x 3.1416
Square bars •.. .... •... , . . . . . • • . . • • • • • . . . SFM x 12
Size X 3.1416 x 1.414
SFM X 12
Distance x 3.1416

Feed-inches/revolution . . . • . . . • . • . . • • • . • . . . , Feed inches per minute

rpm
Diameter x 3.1416 x Feed
SFM x 12
Feed-inches/tooth Feed
··· ···· ··· · ··-· ··· ·· ···· · - ---
Number of - -
teeth
Time for actual machining-seconds • .... •.. .. . Revolutions required x 60 seconds
rpm
Machine time ................... • .. . ...• .. . Time for machining + idle time

Tapping or threading time-seconds .... . . ..• .. . Number of threads x 60 seconds

Actual threading speed in rpm
!!eferem:e Sectior,

Standard Dimensional Tolerances for Bar Stock

Hot-rolled Bars: Rounds and Squal'a!I
Variations from Size Out--of-round (1)
(Inches) or Square (2)
Specified Size
(Inches) Inches
Over Under

1/4 to 5/16 inclusive (3) (4) (4) (4)

Over 5/16 to 7/16 inclusive (3) 0.006 0.006 0.009
Over 7/16 to 5/8 inclusive (3) 0.007 0.007 0.010
Over 5/8 to 7/8 inclusive 0.008 0.008 0.012
Over 7/8 to 1 inclusive 0.009 0.009 0.013
Over 1 to 1 1/8 inclusive 0.010 0.010 0.015
Over 1 1/8 to 1 1/4 inclusive 0.011 0.Q11 0.016
Over 1 1/4 to 1 3/8 inclusive 0.012 0.012 0.018
Over 1 3/8 to 1 1/2 inclusive 0.014 0.014 0.021
Over 1 1/2 to 2 inclusive 1/64 1/64 0.023
Over 2 to 2 1/2 inclusive 1/32 0 0.023
Over 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 inclusive 3/64 0 0.035
Over 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 inclusive 1/16 0 0.046
Over 4 1/2 to 5 1/2 inclusive 5/64 0 0.058
Over 5 1/2 to 6 1/2 inclusive 1/8 0 0.070
Over 6 1/2 to 8 inclusive 5/32 0 0.085
(1) Out-of-round Is difference between maximum and minimum diameters of bar, measured at same cross section.
(2) Out-<>f-square is difference in two dimensions at same cross section of a square bar, each dimension being distance
between opposite faces.
(3) Round sections in size range of 1/4K to approximately 5/8" diameter are commonly produced on rod mills in coils.
Tolerances on product made this w~ have not been established;Jor such tolerances producer should be consulted.
Variations in size of coiled product made on rod mills are greater than size tolerances for product made on bar mills.
(4) Squares in this size are not commonly produced as hot-rolled product.

Hot-rolled Bars: Hexagons and Octagons

Maximum
Variations from Size
Specified Sizes Between Difference 3
(Inches) Measurements
Opposite Sides
(Inches) for Hexagons Only
Under Over (Inches)

1/4 to 1/2 inclusive 0.007 0.007 0.011

Over 1/2 to 1 inclusive 0.010 0.010 0.015
Over 1 to 1 1/2 inclusive 0.021 0.021 0.025
Over 1 1/2 to 2 inclusive 1/32 1/32 1/32
Over 2 to 2 1/2 inclusive 3/64 3/64 3/64
Over 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 inclusive 1/16 1/16 1/16

Cold-finished Bars: Flats

Variations from Width
Over or Under (Inches)*

For Variations
Specified Width Thicknesses For from Thicknesses
Size or Thickness 1/4" and Thicknesses Over or Under
(Inches) Under Over 1/4 ° (Inch)

Over 1/8 to 1 inclusive - - 0.002

Over 3/8 to 1 inclusive 0.004 0.002 0.002
Over 1 to 2 inclusive 0.006 0.003 0.003
Over 2 to 3 inclusive 0.008 0.004 0.004
Over 3 to 41/2 inclusive 0.010 0.005 0.005
"When it is necessary to heat treat, or heat treat and pickle after cold finishing, because of special hardness or mechanical
property requirements, tolerances are double those shown In the table.
Hot-rolled Bars: Flats
Variations from Thickness for Variations
Thicknesses Given Over or Under from Width
(Inches) (Inches)
Specified Widths 1/8 to 1/2 I Over 1/2 to Over 1 to i
(Inches) Inclusive i 1 Inclusive 2 Inclusive i Over Under
' To 1 inclusive 0.008 0.010 1/64 1/64
Over 1 to 2 inclusive 0.012 0.015 1/32 1i32 1i32
Over 2 to 4 inclusive O.Q15 0.020 1/32 1/16 1/32
Over 4 to 6 inclusive 0.015 0.020 1/32 3/32 1/16
Over 6 to 8 inclusive 0.016 0.025 1/32 1/8 5/32
Over 8 to 1O inclusive 0.021 0.031 1/32 5/32 3/16

Cold-finished Bars: Hexagons, Octagons, and Squares

Variations from Size
Specified Size (Inches)*
(Inches)
Over I Under
i
Over 1/2 to 1 inclusive 0 0.004
Over 1 to 2 inclusive 0 0.006
Over 2 to 3 inclusive 0 0.008
Over3 0
! 0.010
•when it is necessary to heat treat, or heat !real and pickle after coid finishing, because of speciai hardness or mechanical
property requirements, tolerances are double those shown in the table.

Cold-finished Bars: Rounds

! Variations from Size
i Specified Size (Inches)*
! (Inches)
'
Over ! Under
:
Over 1/2 to 1 exclusive I 0.002 1
0.002
1 to 1 1/2 exclusive I 0.0025 !' 0.0025
1 1/2 to 4 inclusive 'I
;
0.003 II 0.003
'
·when it is necessary to heat treat, or hea! treat and pickle after cold finishing, because of special hardness or mechanicai
property requirements, tolerances are double those shown in table.

Machine-cut Bars (Cut after Machine Straightening)

Variations from Specified

Lengths (Inches)
Specified Sizes as They Apply
to Rounds, Squares, Over 12'to
Hexagons, Octagons, and To 12' Inclusive
Width of Flats
I I 25' Inclusive I
!
I
(Inches) II Over Under
i
Over Under

To 3 inclusive
I Over : 1/8 0 1 3/16 0
''I 3 to 6 inclusive ! 3/16
'
' 0 i 1/4 0
I Over 6 to 9 inclusive i' 1/4 j 0
I
5/16 0
!
Over 9 to 12 inclusive 1/2 0 1/2 0
! I I i
Allowances for Turning Machine-straightened Bars

When ordering bars that are to be turned, lt is recommended that allowances be made for
finishing from hot-rolled diameters not less than amounts shown in following table, and specify
hot-rolled sizes accordingly:

Nominal Diameter of Minimum Allowance

Hot-rolled Bar (Inches) on Diameter for
Turning (Inches)

1 1/2 to 3 inclusive 1/8

Over 3 to 6 inclusive 1/4
Over 6 to 8 inclusive 3/8
Reference S: ection

Hot or Cold Cutting Length Tolerances

Variations from Specified

Lengths (Inches)
Specified Sizes as They Apply
to Rounds, Squares, To 12' Inclusive Over 12'to
Hexagons, Octagons, 25' Inclusive
and Width of Flats
(Inches) Over Under Over Under

To 2 inclusive 1/2 0 3/4 0

Over 2 to 4 inclusive 3/4 0 1 0
Over 4 to 6 inclusive 1 0 11/4 0
Over 6 to 9 inclusive 1 1/4 0 11/2 0
Over 9 to 12 inclusive 1 1/2 0 2 0

Hot-finished and Cold-finished Bars for Machining

Camber is greatest deviation of a side from a straight line. Measurement is taken on concave
side of bar with a straightedge. Unless otherwise specified, hot-finished and cold-finished
bars for machining purposes are furnished machine-straightened to following tolerances:

Hot-finished: 1/8" in any 5 feet; but may Cold-finished: 1/16" in any 5 feet; but may
not exceed 1/8" x No. of feet in length not exceed 1/16" x No. of feet in length
5 5

Standard Dimensional Tolerances for Wire

Drawn, Centerless Ground, Centerless Ground and Polished Round and Square Wire

Tolerance (Inches)
Specified Size
(Inches)
Over Under

1/2 0.002 0.002

Under 1/2 to 5/16 inclusive 0.0015 0.0015
Under 5/16 to 0.050 inclusive 0.001 0.001
The maximum out-<>f-round tolerance for round wire is one-half of total size tolerance shown ln above table.

Tolerance for wire for which final operation is a surface treatment for purpose of
removing scale or drawing lubricant

Tolerance (Inches)
Specified Size
(Inches)
Over Under

1/2 0.004 0.004

Under 1/2 to 5/16 inclusive 0.003 0.003
Under 5/16 to 0.050 inclusive 0.002 0.002

Drawn Wire In Hexagons and Octagons

Tolerance (Inches)
Specified Size*
(Inches)
Over Under

1/2 0 0.004
Under 1/2 to 5/16 inclusive 0 0.003
Under 5/16 to 1/8 inclusive 0 0.002
•rnstance across flats (Carpenter Steel Co.)
 M ad1b ing Fundam er-t a k

Rules and Formulas for Bevel Gear Calculations

(Use with drawing on page 571)

To Find Rule Formula

Diametral pitch N
Divide the number of teeth by the pitch diameter. P=-
(P) pd
i
Circular pitch 3.1416 I
Divide 3. 1416 by the diametral pitch. Pc=
(Pc) p
Pitch diameter N
Divide the number of teeth by the diametral pitch. Pd= -
(Pd) p
Pitch angle of pinion
tan (b;)
Divide the number of teeth in the pinion by the number
of teeth in the gear to obtain the tangent.
tan bP = NP
Ng I
I
I
Pitch angle of gear Divide the number of teeth in the gear by the number of tan bg= Ng
tan (b,;) teeth in the pinion to obtain the tangent. N;, I
I

Pitch cone distance Divide the pitch diameter by twice the sine of the pitch pd
(C,) C,=
angle. 2 (sin b)
Addendum Divide 1.0 by the diametral pitch. a= 1.0
(a) p
Addendum ang!e Divide the addendum by the pitch cone distance to obtain tan A,= i!__
tan (A 1) the tangent. C, I

Angular addendum (A8 ) Multiply the addendum by the cosine of the pitch angle.
I A 8 =acosb

Outside diameter (D0 j Add twice the angular addendum to the pitch diameter.
l D0 = P!i+ 2Aa !

iI Dedendum angle Divide the dedendum by the pitch cone distance to obtain l tanc1 = a+ c
i tan (C1) the tangent. ! C,

Addendum of sma!I Subtract the width of face from the pitch cone distance,
end of tooth (a5 ) divide the remainder by the pitch cone distance and a8 =a (C-W)
~
multiply by the addendum.
I
Thickness of tooth P~
T,-=~~ '
at pitch line (h)
Divide the circular pitch by 2.
L 2 I
I
Thickness of tooth Subtract the width of face from the pitch cone distance, !:
at pitch line at small
end of gear (Ts)
divide the remainder by the pitch cone distance and Ts= TL (Cr-W)
C,
multiply by the thickness of the tooth at the pitch line.

Face angle (F8 ) Face cone of blank turned parallel to root cone of mating gear. F 8 =b+ c 1

Whole depth of hi= 2.157

Divide 2.157 by the diametral pitch.
tooth space (h 1) p
Apex distance at large
end of tooth (V)
l
I
Multipiy one-half the outside diameter by the tangent of
the face angle.

Subtract the width of face from the pitch cone distance,

V= ( ~0 ) tan F8

Apex distance at small

end of tooth (v) divide the remainder by the pitch cone distance and
multiply by the apex distance.
v= v(c';,w)
Gear ratio Divide the number of teeth in the gear by the number of mg = N
- g
(mg) teeth in the pinion. N,
'
Number of teeth in gear Ng=PdP
Multiply the pitch diameter by the diametral pitch.
and/or pinion (Ng, Np)
Np=PdP
I
Cutting angle (d) Subtract the addendum plus clearance angle from the ;
pitch angle.
d=b-c 1

II Number of teeth of
imaginary spur gear for
Divide the number of teeth in actual gear by the cosine N
I which cutter is selected (N0 )
of the pitch angle. Ne=--
cosb
;
Reference Section

Note: Use with table on page 570 PITCH CONE

DISTANCE

TOOTH
ANGLE
--------Do-------
THICKNESS _ __
OF TOOTH

Decimal Equivalents: Numner-size Drills

Size of Size of Size of Size of

Drill in Drill in Drill in Drill in
Drill Inches Drlll Inches Drlll Inches Drlll Inches

1 .2280 21 .1590 41 .0960 61 .0390

2 .2210 22 .1570 42 .0935 62 .0380
3 .2130 23 .1540 43 .0890 63 .0370
4 .2090 24 .1520 44 .0860 64 .0360
5 .2055 25 .1495 45 .0820 65 .0350
6 .2040 26 .1470 46 .0810 66 .0330
7 .2010 27 .1440 47 .0785 67 .0320
8 .1990 28 .1405 48 .0760 68 .0310
9 .1960 29 .1360 49 .0730 69 .0292
10 .1935 30 .1285 50 .0700 70 .0280
11 .1910 31 .1200 51 .0670 71 .0260
12 .1890 32 .1160 52 .0635 72 .0250
13 .1850 33 .1130 53 .0595 73 .0240
14 .1820 34 .1110 54 .0550 74 .0225
15 .1800 35 .1100 55 .0520 75 .0210
16 .1770 36 .1065 56 .0465 76 .0200
17 .1730 37 .1040 57 .0430 77 .0180
18 .1695 38 .1015 58 .0420 78 .0160
19 .1660 39 .0995 59 .0410 79 .0145
20 .1610 40 .0980 60 .0400 80 .0135

Decimal Equivalents: Letter-size Drills

Size of Size of Size of Size of

Drill in Drill In Drill in Drill in
Drlll Inches Drlll Inches Drill Inches Drlll Inches

A 0.234 H 0.266 0 0.316 V 0.377

B 0.238 I 0.272 p 0.323 w 0.386
C 0.242 J 0.277 a 0.332 X 0.397
D 0.246 K 0.281 R 0.339 y 0.404
E 0.250 L 0.290 s 0.348 z 0.413
F 0.257 M 0.295 T 0.358
G 0.261 N 0.302 u 0.368
m,
60° V-Type Thread Dimensions
with Sizes of Tap Drill and Clearance Drill
Fractional Sizes
(National Special Thread Series)

Nominal
Size
Threads
per Inch
Major
Diameter
Inches
I Minor
Diameter
Inches
Pitch
Diameter
Inches
Tap Drill
for75%
Thread t
Clearance
Drill
Size*

1/16" 64 .0625 .0422 .0524 3/64" 51

5/64" 60 .0781 .0563 .0673 1/16" 45
3/32" 48 .0938 .0667 .0803 49 40
7/64" 48 .1094 .0823 .0959 43 32
1/8" 32 .1250 .0844 .1047 3/32" 29
9/64" 40 .1406 .1081 .1244 32 24
5/32" 32 .1563 .1157 .1360 1/8" 19
5/32" 36 .1563 .1202 .1382 30 19
11/64" 32 .1719 .1313 .1516 9/64" 14
3/16" 24 .1875 .1334 .1604 26 8
3/16" 32 .1875 .1469 .1672 22 8
13/64" 24 .2031 .1490 .1760 20 3
7/32" 24 .2188 .1646 .1917 16 1
7/32" 32 .2188 .1782 .1985 12 1
15/64" 24 .2344 .1806 .2073 10 1/4"
1/4" 24 .2500 .1959 .2229 4 17/64"
1/4" 27 .2500 .2019 .2260 3 17/64"
1/4" 32 .2500 .2094 .2297 7/32" 17/64"
5/16" 20 .3125 .2476 .2800 17/64" 21/64"
5/16" 27 .3125 .2644 .2884 J 21/64"
5/16" 32 .3125 .2719 .2922 9/32" 21/64"
3/8" 20 .3750 .3100 .3425 21/64" 25/64"
3/8" 27 .3750 .3269 .3509 R 25/64"
7/16" 24 .4375 .3834 .4104 X 29/64"
7/16" 27 .4375 .3894 .4134 y 29/64"
1/2" 12 .5000 .3918 .4459 27/64" 33/64"
1/2" 24 .5000 .4459 .4729 29/64" 33/64"
1/2" 27 .5000 .4519 .4759 15/32" 33/64"
9/16" 27 .5625 .5144 .5384 17/32" 37/64"
5/8" 12 .6250 .5168 .5709 35/64" 41/64"
5/8" 27 .6250 .5769 .6009 19/32" 41/64"
11/16" 11 .6875 .5694 .6285 19/32" 45/64"
11/16" 16 .6875 .6063 .6469 5/8" 45/64"
3/4" 12 .7500 .6418 .6959 43/64" 49/64"
3/4" 27 .7500 .7019 .7259 23/32" 49/64"
13/16" 10 .8125 .6826 .7476 23/32" 53/64"
7/8" 12 .8750 .7668 .8209 51/64" 57/64"
7/8" 18** .8750 .8028 .8389 53/64" 57/64"
7/8" 27 .8750 .8269 .8509 27/32" 57/64"
15/16" 9 .9375 .7932 .8654 53/64" 61/64"
1" 12 1.0000 .8918 .9459 59/64" 1 1/64"
1" 27 1.0000 .9519 .9759 31/32" 1 1/64"
1 5/8" 51/2 I 1.6250 1.3888 1.5069 1 29/64H 1 41/64"
1 7/8" 5 1.8750 1.6152 1.7451 I
1 11/16H 1 57/64"
21/8" 41/2 2.1250 1.8363 1.9807 1 29/32" 2 5/32"
2 3/8" 4 2.3750 2.0502 2.2126 I 2 1/8" 2 13/32"
l
t Refer to tables "Decimal Equivalents: Number-size Drills" and "Decimal Equivalents: Letter-size Drills.'
• Clearance drill makes hole with standard clearance for diameter of nominal size.
•• Standard spark plug size.
Reference Section

60° V-Type Thread Dimensions

wit:; Sizes onap Drill and Clearance Orm
International Standard (Metric)

Major Minor Pitch Top Drill tor Tap Drlllfor Clearance

Diameter Pitch Diameter Diameter 75%Thread 75%Thread t Drill
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (No. or Inches) Size*

2.0 .40 1.48 ·1.740 1.6 1/16" 41

2.3 .40 1.78 2.040 1.9 48 36
2.6 .45 2.02 2.308 2.1 45 31
3.0 .50 2.35 2.675 2.5 40 29

3.5 .60 2.72 3.110 2.9 33 23

4.0 .70 3.09 3.545 3.3 30 16
4.5 .75 3.53 4.013 3.75 26 10
5.0 .80 3.96 4.480 4.2 19 3

5.5 .90 4.33 4.915 4.6 14 15/64..

6.0 1.00 4.70 5.350 5.0 9 1/4..
7.0 1.00 5.70 6.350 6.0 15/64" 19/64"
8.0 1.25 6.38 7.188 6.8 H 11/32"

9.0 1.25 7.38 8.188 7.8 5/16" 318"

10.0 1.50 8.05 9.026 8.6 R 27/64"
11.0 1.50 9.05 10.026 9.6 V 29/64"
12.0 1.75 9.73 10.863 10.5 z 1/2"

14.0** 1.25 12.38 13.188 13.0 33/64" 9/16..

14.0 2.00 11.40 12.701 12.0 15/32"' 9/16"
16.0 2.00 13.40 14.701 14.0 35/64" 21/32"
18.0 1.50 16.05 17.026 16.5 41/64" 47/64"

18.0 2.50 14.75 16.376 15.5 39/64" 47/64"

20.0 2.50 16.75 18.376 17.5 11/16" 13/16"
22.0 2.50 18.75 20.376 19.5 49/64... 57/64"
24.0 3.00 20.10 22.051 21.0 53/64" 31/32"

27.0 3.00 23.10 25.051 24.0 15/16" 1 3/32"

30.0 3.50 25.45 27.727 26.5 1 3/64" 1 13/64"
33.0 3.50 28.45 30.727 29.5 1 11/64" 1 21/64"
36.0 4.00 30.80 33.402 32.0 1 17/64" 1 7/16"

39.0 4.00 33.80 36.402 35.0 1 3/8" 1 9/16"

42.0 4.50 36.15 39.077 37.0 1 29/64" 1 43/64"
45.0 4.50 39.15 42.077 40.0 1 37/64" 1 13/16"
48.0 5.00 41.50 44.752 43.0 111/16" 1 29/32"'
t Refer to tables "Decimal Equivalents: Number-size Drills" and "Decimal Equivalents: Letter-size Drills."
• Clearance drill makes hole with standard clearance for diameter of nominal size.
•• Standard spark plug size.
 1-bchinini: Fundamentals

Tap Drill Sizes

Probable Percentage of Full Thread Produced in Tapped Hole
Using Stock Sizes of Drill

-"C GI -mm "C GI

mm I
~e
-.c
Ol"C
Sm .2 e
c,"C
.um
Tap Decimal f I- Probable Probable
C GI
GI ._ Tap Decimal
.... .c
e.... Probable Probable Ee
o- fG) I-
.c GI .C
Tap Drill Equivalent CD 0 Oversize Hole Tap Drill Equivalent io Oversize Hole I:! I-
of Tap Drill 'f=.~ (Mean) Size 0. 0 of Tap Drill 'f=.~ (Mean) Size to
0-SO 56 .0465 83 .0015 .0480 74 8-32 29 .1360 69 .0029 .1389 62
3/64 .0469 81 .0015 .0484 71 28 .1405 58 .0029 .1434 51
1-64 54 .0550 89 .0015 .0565 81 8-36 29 .1360 78 .0029 .1389 70
53 .0595 67 .0015 .0610 59 28 .1405 68 .0029 .1434 57
1-72 53 .0595 75 I .0015 .0610 67 9/64 .1406 68 .0029 .1435
1/16 .0625 58 .0015 .0640 50 10--24 27 .1440 85 .0032
I 57
.1472 79
2--56 51 .0670 82 .0017 .0687 74 26 .1470 79 .0032 .1502 74
50 .0700 69 .0017 .0717 62 25 .1495 75 .0032 .1527 69
49 .0730 56 .0017 .0747 49 24 .1520 70 .0032 .1552 64
2-64 50 .0700 79 .0017 .0717 70 23 .1540 67 .0032 .1572 61
49 .0730 64 .0017 .0747 56 5/32 .1563 62 .0032 .1595 56
3-481 48 .0760 85 .0019 .0779 78 22 .1570 61 .0032 .1602 55
I 5/64 .0781 77 .0019 .0800 70 10--32 5/32 .1563 83 .0032 .1595 75
47 .0785 76 .0019 .0804 69 22 .1570 81 .0032 .1602 73
46 .0810 67 .0019 .0829 60 21 .1590 76 .0032 .1622 68
45 .0820 63 .0019 .0839 56 20 .1610 71 .0032 .1642 64
3--56 46 .0810 78 i .0019 .0829 69 19 .1660 59 .0032 .1692 51
45 .0820 73 .0019 .0839 65 12-24 11/64 .1719 82 .0035 .1754 75
44 .0860 56 .0019 .0879 48 I 17 .1730 79 .0035 .1765 73
4-40 44 .0860 80 .0020 I .0880 74 I 16 .1770 72 .0035 .1805 66
43 .0890 111 .0020 I .0910 65 15 .1800 67 .0035 .1835 60
I 42 .0935 57 .0020 .0955 51 I 14 .1820 63 .0035 .1855 56
3/32 .0938 56 .0020 .0958 50 12-28 16 .1770 84 .0035 .1805 77
4-48 I 42 .0935 68 l .0020 .0955 61 15 .1800 78 .0035 .1835 70
3/32 I .0938 68 .0020i .0958 60 14 .1820 73 .0035 .1855 66
41 I .0960 59 ! .0020 .0980 I 52 13 .1850 67 .0035 .1885 59
5-40 40 ; .0980 83 ! .0023 .1003 I 76 3/16 I .1875 61 .0035 .1910 54
39
38
.0995
.1015
79
72
.0023
.0023
.1018
.1038
iI 71
65
1/4-20 9
8
I
I
.1960
.1990
83
79 i
I .0038
.0038 I
.1998
.2028
77
73
i I I
37 .1040 ! 65 .0023 .1063 58 7 .2010 75 ! .0038 .2048 70
5-44 38 .1015 79 .0023 .1038 72 : 13/64 .2031 72 .0038 .2069 66
I
37 .1040 71 .0023 .1063 63 1 6 .2040 71 .0038 .2078 65
36 .1065 63 .0023 .1088 55 5 .2055 69 .0038 .2093 63
6-32 37
36 :
.1040
.1065
84
78
.0023
.0026
.1063
.1091
78
71 1/4-28
4
3
.2090
.2130
I
I
63
80
.0038
.0038
.2128
.2168
57
72
I 1164
35
.1094
.1100
I 10 .0026
.0026
.1120
.1126
64
63
7/32 .2188 67 .0038 .2226 59
I 69 2 .2210 63 .0038 .2248 55
34 .1110 i 67 .0026 .1136 60 5/16-18 F .2570 77 I .0038 .2608 72
33 .1130 62 .0026 .1156 55 G i .2610 71 .0041 .2651 66
6-40 34 .1110 83 .0026 .1136 75 ; 17/64 .2656 65 .0041 .2697 59
33 I .1130 77 .0026 .1156 69
I .2660 64 .0041 .2701 59
32 I
I
.1160 68 .0026I .1186 60 H
I
Reference Section

Tap Drill Sizes

(continued)

_"C CD

Tap Decimal
-"C
ca
~
m
1ii
..
.c
... I- Probable Probable
CD
Dl-c
i! ,c~
CD Tap Decimal
cu ca
-~ I!!
......
1ii ,c Probable Probable
Dl-g
J!IIIIS
Cf
CD .C
Tap Drill Equlvalent io Oversize Hole e1- Tap Drill Equivalent io Oversize Hole et-
of Tap Drill ~~ (Mean) Size lo of Tap Drlll ~#- (Mean) Size la
5/16-24 H .2660 86 .0041 .2701 78 1"-14 59/64 .9219 84 .0060 .9279 78
I .2720 75 .0041 .2761 67 15/16 .9375 67 .0060 .9435 61
J .2770 66 .0041 .2811 58 1 1/8-7 31/32 .9688 84 .0062 .9750 81
3/8-16 5/16 .3125 77 .0044 .3169 72 63/64 .9844 76 .0067 .9911 72
0 .3160 73 .0044 .3204 68 1" 1.0000 67 .0070 1.0070 64
p .3230 64 .0044 .3274 59 1 1/64 1.0156 59 .0070 1.0226 55
3/8-24 21/64 .3281 87 .0044 .3325 79 1 1/8-12 1 1/32 1.0313 87 .0071 1.0384 80
Q .3320 79 .0044 .3364 71 1 3/64 1.0469 72 .0072 1.0541 66
R .3390 67 .0044 .3434 58 1 1/4-7 1 3/32 1.0938 84
7/16-14 T .3580 86 .0046 .3626 81 1 7/64 1.1094 76
23/64 .3594 84 .0046 .3640 79 11/8 1.1250 67
u .3680 75 .0046 .3726 70 1 1/4-12 1 5/32 1.1563 87
3/8 .3750 67 .0046 .3796 62 1 11/64 1.1719 72
V .3770 65 .0046 .3816 60 1 3/8-6 1 3/16 1.1875 87 No
7/16-20 w .3860 79 .0046 .3906 72 1 13/64 1.2031 79 test results
25/64 .3906 72 .0046 .3952 65 1 7/32 1.2188 72 available
X .3970 62 .0046 .4016 55 1 15/64 1.2344 65
1/2-13 27/64 .4219 78 .0047 .4266 73 1 3/8-12 1 9/32 1.2813 87 Reaming
7/16 .4375 63 .0047 .4422 58 1 19/64 1.2969 72 recommended
1/2-20 29/64 .4531 72 .0047 .4578 65 1 1/2-6 1 5/16 1.3125 87
9/16-12 15/32 .4688 87 .0048 .4736 82 1 21/64 1.3281 79
31/64 .4844 72 .0048 .4892 68 1 11/32 1.3438 72
9/16-18 1/2 .5000 87 .0048 .5048 80 1 23/64 1.3594 65
33/64 .5156 65 .0048 .5204 58 1 1/2-12 1 13/32 1.4063 87
5/8-11 17/32 .5313 79 .0049 .5362 75 1 27/64 1.4219 72
35/64 .5469 66 .0049 .5518 62
.5674 BO Taper Pipe Straight Pipe
5/8-18 9/16 .5625 87 .0049

3/4-10
37/64
41/64
.5781
.6406
65
84
.0049
.0050
.5831
.6456
58
80
Thread I Drlll Thread l Drill
21/32 .6563 72 .0050 .6613 68 1/8-27 R 1/8-27 s
3/4-16 11/16 .6875 77 .0050 .6925 71 1/4-18 7/16 1/4-18 29/64
7/8-9 49/64 .7656 76 .0052 .7708 72 3/8-18 37/64 3/8-18 19/32
25/32 .7812 65 .0052 .7864 61 1/2-14 23/32 1/2-14 47/64
7/8-14 51/64 .7969 84 .0052 .8021 79 3/4-14 59/64 3/4-14 15/16
13/16 .8125 67 .0052 .8177 62 1-111/2 1 5/32 1-111/2 1 3/16
1"-8 55/64 .8594 87 .0059 .8653 83 1 1/4-11 1/2 1 1/2 1 1/4-11 1/2 1 33/64
7/8 .8750 77 .0059 .8809 73 1 1/2-11 1/2 1 47/64 1 1/2-11 1/2 1 3/4
57/64 .8906 67 .0059 .8965 64 2-111/2 2 7/32 2-111/2 2 7/32
29/32 .9063 58 .0059 .9122 54 21/2-8 25/8 21/2-8 2 21/32
1"-12 29/32 .9063 87 .0060 .9123 81 3-8 31/4 3-8 3 9/32
59/64 .9219 72 .0060 .9279 67 · 31/2-8 33/4 31/2-8 3 25/32
15/16 .9375 58 .0060 .9435 52 4-8 41/4 4-8 4 9/32
(Standard Tool Co.)
 M a~hini11g Fur.clrunenta!:.

Taper Pin and Reamer Sizes

Length
I - - - - - ~ - - ~ - ~ - ~ ------r-,Reamer
i-' ----~--~-----r-----,--~----,--------1
of Pin j 6/0 5/0 ' 4/0 I 3/0 2/0 ! 0 1 2 3 l 4 5 l 6 7 8 9 10
i I
3/8 50 44 38 i, 32 29
1/2 51 45 39 I 33 30 27
5/8 52 46 41 I 34 30 27 21
3/4 1/16 47 42 i 7/64 1/8 9/64 5/32 16 13/64 15/64 I p
1 49 44 37 31 29 25 11/64 9 1 H 0 w
1 1/4 32 30 26 19 10 2 G 5/16 V 29/64 i
1 1/2
1 3/4
·11a
*31
·9/64 20
·29 i •5/32
3/16 I 7/32
14 i 3
F
E
N
N
V 29/64
u 29/64
35/64 43/64
35/64 21 /32 i
i
2 •33 *30 i ·25 "16 I 4 D M u 7/16 35/64 21 /32 I
21/4 ·7/64 *1/8 I *26 *11/641 ·13/64 C M 23/64 7/16 17/32 21/32
21/2 •37 ·31 I·28 ·19 ·a *B L T 7/16 17/32 41/64
2 3/4 *40 *33 ·29 *21 ·11 ·1 9/32 s 27/64 17/32 41/64
3 *42 *35 *30 ·5/32 ·Ji16 ·2 J 11/32 27/64 33/64 41/64
31/4 "24 *14 ·2 *I R 27/64 33/64 5/8
31/2 *26 *16 •3 ·H Q z 33/64 5/8
3 3/4 *17 *4 *G ·a z 1/2 5/8 ,
4 *19 •5 *F •p 13/32 1/2 39/64 ;
41/4 *1/4 *O y 1/2 39/64 ;
41/2 *D *O X 31/32 39/64 I
4 3/4 ·c *5/16 "25/64 31/64 19/32
5 ·s *N ·w 31/64 19/32
51/4 15/32 19/32
51/2 *15/32 137/64
5 3/4 *15/32 37/64
6 !
·2s/64 37/64 1
• Ho;e sizes too smail to admit taper piri reamers of standa~a length. Special, extra-length reamers are required for these oases.
Reference Section

Hardness Conversions
Brlnell Brinell Hardness Rockwall Hardness Rockwall Superflclal Hardness Num- Tenslle
Indentation Number Number ber (Superficial Diamond Penetrator) Strength
Diameter, (Approximate)
(mm) Standard Tungsten- B Scale C Scale 15 N Scale 30 N Scale 45 N Scale 1000 psi
Ball carbide Ball

--- -
2.45 627 58.7 89.6 76.3 65.1 347
2.50
2.55
601
578
--- 57.3
56.0
89.0
88.4
75.1
73.9
63.5
62.1
328
313
2.60
2.65
-
-
555
534
-
-
54.7
53.5
87.8
87.2
72.7
71.6
60.6
59.2
298
288
2.70 - 514 - 52.1 86.5 70.3 57.6 274
2.75 - 495 - 51.0 85.9 69.4 56.1 264
2.80 - 477 - 49.6 85.3 68.2 54.5 252
2.85 - 461 - · 48.5 84.7 67.2 53.2 242
2.90 - 444 - 47.1 84.0 65.8 51.5 230
2.95 429 429 - 45.7 83.4 64.6 49.9 219
3.00 415 415 - 44.5 82.8 63.5 48.4 212
3.05
3.10
401
388
401
388
-- 43.1
41.8
82.0
81.4
62.3
61.1
46.9
45.3
202
193
3.15 375 375 - 40.4 80.6 59.9 43.6 184
3.20 363 363 - 39.1 80.0 58.7 42.0 177
3.25 352 352 - 37.9 79.3 57.6 40.5 170
3.30 341 341 - 36.6 78.6 56.4 39.1 163
3.35 331 331 - 35.5 78.0 55.4 37.8 158
3.40 321 321 - 34.3 77.3 54.3 36.4 152

---
3.45 311 311 33.1 76.7 53.3 34.4 147
3.50 302 302 32.1 76.1 52.2 33.8 143
3.55 293 293 30.9 75.5 51.2 32.4 139
3.60
3.65
285
277
285
277
-- 29.9
28.8
75.0
74.4
50.3
49.3
31.2
29.9
136
131
3.70 269 269 - 27.6 73.7 48.3 28.5 128
3.75 262 262 - 26.6 73.1 47.3 27.3 125
3.80 255 255 - 25.4 72.5 46.2 26.0 121
3.85 248 248 - 24.2 71.7 45.1 24.5 118
3.90 241 241 100.0 22.8 70.9 43.9 22.8 114
3.95 235 235 99.0 21.7 70.3 42.9 21.5 111
4.00 229 229 98.2 20.5 69.7 41.9 20.1 109
4.05 223 223 97.3 - - - - 104

--
4.10 217 217 96.4 - - - 103
4.15 212 212 95.5 - - - 100
4.20 207 207 94.6 - - - - 99
4.25
4.30
201
197
201
197
93.8
92.8
-- -- -- -
-
97
94
4.35 192 192 91.9 - - - - 92
4.40 187 187 90.7 - - - - 90
4.45 183 183 90.0 - - - - 89
4.50 179 179 89.0 - - - - 88
4.55
4.60
174
170
174
170
87.8
86.8
-
-
-
-
-- -- 86
84
4.65 167 167 86.0 - - - - 83
4.70 163 163 85.0 - - - - 82
4.80 156 156 82.9 - - · - - 80
4.90 149 149 80.8 - - - - 73
5.00
5.10
143
137
143
137
78.7
76.4
-- -- -
-
-
-
71
67
5.20 131 131 74.0 - - - - 65
5.30 126 126 72.0 - - - - 63
5.40 121 121 69.0 - - - - 60
5.50 116 116 67.6 - - - - 58
5.60 111 111 65.7 - - - - 56
(Carpenter Steel Co.)
p Machining f:ur.damentals

Conversion Table: US Conventional to SI Metric

When You Know To Find

• •
Multiply By:

Very Accurate Approximate

Length

inches * 25.4 millimeters

inches * 2.54 centimeters
feet * 0.3048 meters
feet * 30.48 centimeters
yards * 0.9144 0.9 meters
miles * 1.609344 1.6 kilometers

Weight

grains 15.43236 15.4 grams

ounces * 28.349523125 28.0 grams
ounces * 0.028349523125 .028 kilograms
pounds - 0.45359237 0.45 kilograms
short ton * 0.90718474 0.9 tonnes

Volume

teaspoons 5.0 milliliters

tablespoons 15.0 milliliters
fluid ounces 29.57353 30.0 milliliters
i cups I
0.24 liters
pints * 0.473176473 0.47 liters
quarts
gallons
. - 0.946352946
* 3 .785411 784
0.95
3.8
liters
liters
cubic inches
cubic feet
- 0.016387064
* 0.028316846592
0.02
0.03
liters
cubic meters
cubic yards * 0. 764554857984 0.76 cubic meters
'
!
Area

square inches * 6.4516 6.5 square centimeters

! square feet * 0.09290304 0.09 square meters
square yards * 0.83612736 0.8 square meters
square .miles 2.6 square kilometers
acres * 0.40468564224 0.4 hectares

Temperature

Fahrenheit • 5/9 (after subt racting 32) Celsius

I

*=Exact
Reference Section
DD
Conversion Table: SI Metric to US Conventional

•-
When You Know To Find

•
Multiply By:

Very Accurate Approximate

Length
millimeters 0.0393701 0.04 inches
centimeters 0.3937008 0.4 inches
meters 3.280840 3.3 feet
meters 1.093613 1.1 yards
kilometers 0.621371 0.6 miles

Weight
grains 0.00228571 0.0023 ounces
grams 0.03527396 0.035 ounces
kilograms 2.204623 2.2 pounds
tonnes 1.1023113 1.1 short tons

Volume
milliliters 0.2 teaspoons
milliliters 0.06667 0.067 tablespoons
milliliters 0.03381402 0.03 fluid ounces
liters 61.02374 61.024 cubic inches
liters 2.113376 2.1 pints
liters 1.056688 1.06 quarts
liters 0.26417205 0.26 gallons
liters 0.03531467 0.035 cubic feet
cubic meters 61023.74 61023.7 cubic inches
cubic meters 35.31467 35.0 cubic feet
cubic meters 1.3079506 1.3 cubic yards
cubic meters 264.17205 264.0 gallons

Area
square centimeters 0.1550003 0.16 square inches
square centimeters 0.00107639 0.001 square feet
square meters 10.76391 10.8 square feet
square meters 1.195990 1.2 square yards
square kilometers 0.4 square miles
hectares 2.471054 2.5 acres

Temperature
Celsius * 9/5 (then add 32) Fahrenheit

*=Exact
ll,,) Mn chining Fundamenta!s

DECIMAL CONVERSION CHART

•lilrtiit•U ...1HH=l#-. .M1*itM~

' 1164 I .01563 .397
1/32 .03125 .794 I .53125
3/64 .04688 1.191 .54688 13.891
1/16 .0625 1.588 9/16 14.288
5/64 .07813 1.984 37/64 I 14.684
3/32 .09375 2.381 19/32 15.081
' .10938 39/64 I 15.478

I 41/64 I 16.212
3.969 21/32 I i 16.669
11/64 4.366 43/64 r 17.066
4.763 11/16 17.463
45/64 17.859
7/32 I 23/32 I 18.256
47/64 18.653

.26563 49/64 .76563 19.447

.28125 25/32 .78125 19.844
19/64 I .29688 7.541 51/64 .79688 20.241
.31250 7.938 13/16 .81250 20.638
21/64 I .32813 8.334 53/64 .82813 21.034
11/32 .34375 8.731 27/32 .84375 21.431
2a,e4 I .35938 9.128 1. 55/64 .85938 21.828

13/32
25/64 .39063 i %~tt~
.40625 110.319
.89063
.90625
22.622
23.019
27/64 .42188 10.716 I 59/64 .92188 23.416
.43750 11.113
I 15/16 .93750 23.813
29/64 .45313 111.509 .95313 24.209
I 15/32 .46875 11.906 I .96875 24.606
31/64 .48438 .98438 25.003
 _____________________________ fl
.:..::.::..:..::.:_....:....:.....:..._
R.efer-ence Section

Grade Marking for Bolts

SAE = Society of
Automotive
Minimum Tensile
Bolt Head Marking Engineers
Bolt Material Strength in Pounds
ASTM = American Society
per Square Inch (psi)
for Testing and
Materials

SAE Grade 1
No Marks
0 SAE Grade 2
Indeterminate
quality
Low-carbon steel
Low-carbon steel
65,000 psi

2 Marks
Q SAE Grade 3 Medium-carbon steel,
cold worked
110,000 psi

(8
SAE Grade5 Medium-carbon steel,
ASTM-A325 120,000 psi
3 Marks quenched and tempered
Common commercial
quality

Letters BB
0 ASTM-A354
Low-alloy steel or
medium-carbon steel,
quenched and tempered
105,000 psi

Letters BC
0 ASTM-A354 Low-alloy steel or
medium-carbon steel,
quenched and tempered
125,000 psi

4 Marks
@ SAE Grade 6
Better commercial
quality
Medium-carbon steel,
quenched and tempered 140,000 psi

5 Marks
@\
SAE Grade 7
Medium-carbon alloy
steel, quenched and
tempered, roll-threaded
after heat treatment
133,000 psi

6 Marks
@\
SAE Grade 8
ASTM-A345
Best commercial
quality
Medium-carbon alloy
steel, quenched and
tempered
150,000 psi
m, Machining i=undamentals

Machine Screw and Cap Screw Heads

I
l Size A 8 I C D

#8 .260 .141 .042 .060

~~
I

#10 i .302 .164 .048 .072

1/4 3/8 ''' .205 .064 .087
~~,T 5/16 7/16 '
.242 .077 .102
f I
.125
o...J ....... LJ 3/8 9/16 .300 .086
I t 1/2 3i4 .394 .102 .168
I I
Fillister I I 5/8 7/8 .500 .128 .215
I 1
Head 3/4 1 .590 .144 .258
....I : 1 1 5/16 .774 .182 .352

·.),0:q
..1....::_
#8
#10
1/4
5/16
I
.320
.372
1/2
5/8
.092
.107
.146
.183
.043
.048
.064
.072
.037
.044 i
.063
.078
lo ::: 1 3/8 3/4 .220 .081 .095
I' I!
1/2 7/8 .220 .102 .090
F!at Head I I
I I 5/8 1 1/8 .293 I .128 .125
I I
I I 3/4 1 3/8 .366 [ .144 .153
t:d ' I
c~(?Il
~
,--
.
)t.
#8
#10
1/4
.297
.346
7/16
.113
.130
.183
.044
.048
.064
.067
.073
.107
I
i

Round
0
,-. I I
5/16
3/8
1/2
9/16
5/8
13/16
.236
.262
.340
.072
.081
.102
.150
.160
.200
Head II 5/8
3/4
1
1 1/4
.422
.526
.128
.144
.255
.320
=
,,.....,,~
-<a] 1/4
5/16
.494
.564
.170
.215
7/16
1/2
'
1 a----1. 3/8
1/2
.635
.846
.246
.333
9/16
3/4
Hexagon
Head
;-
II
la 5/8
3/4
1.058
1.270
.411
.490 I
15/16
1 1/8
I I 7/8 ! 1.482 .566 1 5/16
L...J
1 ' 1.693 .640 1 1/2 !
'
#8 .265 .164 1/8
#10 5/16 .190 5/32
c~ 'I 1/4 3/8 1/4 3/16
I
J-t. 5/16 7/16 5/16 7/32
I~ 3/8 9/16 3/8 5/16
Socket ....., 7/16 5/8 7116 5/16
Head I I
I 1/2 3/4 1/2 3/8
I I
1 5/8 7/8 5/8 1/2
L
b:j
I 3/4 1 3/4 9/16
7/8 11/8 7/8 9/16
1 1 5/16 1 5/8
I
Reference Section
11
Standard System of Marking
1orThreading Tools

Taps, dies, and other threading tools will be marked with the nominal size, number of threads per inch, and the proper symbol
to identify the thread form. These symbols are in agreement with the AS.A. B 1-7-1949 Standard on Nomenclature, Definitions,
and Letter Symbols for Screw Threads.

The markings for the British Threads are the fully abbreviated form based on the data in the British Standard Institute
Specification No. 84-1940.

Symbols Used for American Threads

Symbol Reference Symbol Reference

NC American National Coarse Thread Series NPSI Dryseal American {National) Intermediate Internal
NF American National Fine Thread Series Straight Pipe Thread
NEF American National Extra Fine Thread Series NPSL American (National) Internal Straight Pipe Thread
N American National 8, 12, and 16Thread Series for Locknut Connections (Loose Fitting
(8N, 12N, 16N) Mechanical Joints)
NH American (National) Hose Coupling and Fire NPSM American (National) Internal Straight Pipe Thread
Hose Coupling Threads for Mechanical Joints (Free Fitting)
NM National Miniature Screw Thread NPTR American (National) Internal Taper Pipe Thread for
NGO American (National} Gas Outlet Thread Railing Joints (Mechanical Joints)
NS American Special Thread (60° Thread Form) AMO American Standard Microscope Objective Thread
NPT American (National) Taper Pipe Thread ACMEC Acme Screw Thread-Centralizing Type
NPTF Dryseal American (National) Taper Pipe Thread ACMEG Acme Screw Thread-General Purpose Type
PTF Dryseal SAE Short Internal Taper Pipe Thread STUB Stub Acme Threads
ANPT Military Aeronautical Pipe Thread Specification ACME
MIL-P-7105 N.BUTT National Buttress Screw Thread
NPS American {National) Straight Pipe Thread V A 60° "V"Thread with Truncated Crests and Roots.
NPSC American {National) Straight Pipe Thread in The Theoretical "V" Form is usually flatted
Pipe Couplings several thousandths of an inch to the users
NPSF Dryseal American (National) Fuel Internal specifications.
Straight Pipe Thread SB Manufacturers Stovebolt Standard Thread
NPSH American (Standard) Straight Pipe Thread for STI Special Threads for Helical Coil Wire Screw
Hose Couplings and Nipples Thread Inserts

Symbols Used for British Threads

Symbol Reference Symbol Reference

BSW British Standard Whitworth Coarse Thread Series BSPP British Standard Pipe (Parallel) Thread
BSF British Standard Fine Thread Series WHIT Whitworth Standard Special Thread
BSP British Standard Taper Pipe Thread BA British Association Standard Thread

BentShankTaperTaps
In addition to the regular marking, bent shank taper taps will be marked with the table number to which they are made.

Ground Thread Taps (Limit Numbers)

All standard Ground Thread Taps made to Tables 327 and 329 will be marked with the letter G to designate Ground Thread.
The letter G will be followed by the letter H to designate above basic (L below basic) and a numeral to designate the Pitch
Diameter limits.

Example: G H3 Indicates a Ground Thread Tap with Pitch Diameter limits .001 O to .0015 in. over basic.

Pitch Diameter limits for Taps to 1" diameter inclusive:

L1 = Basic to Basic minus .0005 H4 = Basic plus .0015 to Basic plus .0020
H1 = Basic to Basic plus .0005 H5 = Basic plus .0020 to Basic plus .0025
H2 = Basic plus .0005 to Basic plus .0010 H6 = Basic plus .0025 to Basic plus .0030
H3 = Basic plus .0010 to Basic plus .0015

(Morse Twist Drill & Machine Co.)

 Machining Fundamentals

Screw Thread Elements for Unified and National Thread Form

I
831/3%
Single Height Double Height Double Height Basic Width Constant for
Threads Pitch ' of Crest Best Size Wire Diameter
per (p) Subtract from Subtract from Subtract from and Root Also of
Inch basic major basic major basic major Flat Single Height Best Size
(n) 1 diameter to diameter to diameter to get of soc Wire
P= -n p
get basic get basic minor diameter V-Thread
pitch diameter minor diameter of ring gage 8

3 .333333 .216506 .43301 .36084 .041 7 .28868 .19245

31/4 .307692 .199852 .39970 ,33309 .0385 .26647 .17765
3 1/2 .285714 .185577 .37115 .30929 .0357 .24744 .16496
4 .250000 .162379 .32476 .27063 .0312 .21651 .14434
41/2 .222222 .144337 .28867 .24056 .0278 .19245 .12830

5 .200000 .129903 .25981 .21650 .0250 .17321 .11547

5 1/2 .18rn18 .118093 .23619 .19682 .0227 -~5746 .10497
6 .166666 .108253 .21651 .18042 .0208 .14434 .09623
7 .142857 .092788 .18558 .15465 .0179 .12372 .08248
8 .125000 I
.081189 .16238 .13531 .0156 .10825 .07217

9 .111111 .072168
II .14434 .12028 .0139 .09623 .06415
10 .100000 .064952 .12990 I .10825 .0125 .08660 .05774
I
11 .090909 .059046 .11809 .09841 .0114 .07873 .05249
11 1/2 .086956 .056480 .11296 .09413 .0109 .07531 .05020
12 .083333 .054127 .10826 .09021 .0104 .07217 .04811
I
13 .076923 .049963 .09993 .08327 .0096 .06662 .04441
14 .071428 .046394 .09279 .07732 .0089 .06186 .04124 I
I
16 .062500 .040595 .08119 .06766 .0078 .05413 .03608 i
18 .055555 .036086 .07217 .06014 .0069 .04811 .03208 I
20 .050000 .032475 .06495 .05412 .0062 .04330 .02887 I
i
i
22 .045454 .029523 .05905 .04920 .0057 .03936 .02624
24 .041666 .027063 .05413 .04510 .0052 .03608 .02406
27 .037037 .024056 .04811 .04009 .0046 .03208 .02138
28 .035714 .023197 .04639 .03866 .0045 .03093 .02062
30 .033333 .021651 .04330 .03608 .0042 .02887 .01925

32 .031250 .020297 .04059 .03383 .0039 .02706 .01804

36 .027777 .018042 .03608 .03007 .0035 .02406 .01604
40 .025000 .016237 .03247 .02706 .0031 .02165 .01443
44 .022727 .014761 .02952 .02460 .0028 .01968 I .01312
48 .020833 .013531 .02706 .02255 .0026 .01804 I .01203
:
50 .020000 .012990 .02598 .02165 .0025 .01732 ii .01155
56 .017857 .011598 .02320 .01933 .0022 .01546 .01031
60 .016666 .010825 .02165 .01804 .0021 .01443 .00962
64 .015625 .010148 .02030 .01691 .0020 .01353 .00902
72 .013888 .009021 .01804 .01503 .0017 .01203 .00802
I
I
i

'j 80 .012500 .008118 .01624 .01353 .0016 .01083 .00722

I 90 .011111 .007217 .01443 .01202 .0014 .00962 .00642
96 .010417 .006766 .01353 .01127 .0013 .00902 .00601
100 .010000 .006495 .01299 .01082 .0012 .00866 .00577
120 .008333 .005413 .01083 .00902 .0010 .00722 .00481

Note: Using the Best Size Wires, measurement over three wires minus Constant for Best Size Wire equals Pitch Diameter.
Reierence Sectlor.

BOLT TORQUING CHART

METRIC STANDARD SAE STANDARD/FOOT POUNDS
Grade of Bolt SD .BG 10K 12K Grade of SAE SAE SAE SAE
Min.Tensile 71,1 60 113,800 142,200 170,679 Bolt 1&2 5 6 8

•-• -
Strength P.S.I. P.S.I. P.S.I. P.S.I. Min.Tensile 64,000 105,000 133,000 150,000

•• Strength ·P.S.I. P.S.I. P.S.I. P.S.I.

Grade Mar1<ings
on Head
Metric
Ci) e Size of Socket
orWranch
Openlna
Markings
on Head
Metric U.S. Standard
Size of Socket or
Wrench Ooenlna
U.S. Standard
Bolt U.S. Dec. Foot Pounds Bolt Bolt Foot Pounds Bolt
Dia. Eauiv. Head Dia. Head Nut
6mm .2362 5 6 8 10 10mm 1/4 5 7 10 10.5 318 7/16
8mm .3150 10 18 22 27 14mm 5116 9 14 19 22 1/2 9/16
10mm .3937 19 31 40 49 17mm 3/8 15 25 34 37 9116 518
12mm .4720 34 54 70 86 19mm 7N6 24 40 55 60 518 3/4
14mm .5512 55 89 117 137 22mm 1/2 37 60 85 92 3/4 13/16
16mm .6299 83 132 175 208 24mm 9116 53 88 120 132 7/8 7/8
18mm .709 111 182 236 283 27mm 518 74 120 187 180 15/16 1.
22mm .8861 182 284 394 464 32mm 3/4 120 200 280 298 1-1/8 1-1/8

Cutting Fluids for Various Metals

Alumlnum and Its Kerosene, kerosene and lard oil,
Alloys soluble oil

Plastics Dry

Brass, Soft Dry, soluble oil, kerosene and

lard oil

Bronze, High Tensile Soluble oil, lard oil, mineral oil, dry

Cast Iron Dry, air jet, soluble oil

Copper Soluble oil, dry, mineral lard oil,

kerosene

Magnesium Low viscosity neutral oils

Malleable Iron Dry, soda water

Monel Metal Lard oil, soluble oil

Slate Dry

Steel, Forging Soluble oil, sulfurized oil, mineral

lard oil

Steel, Manganese Soluble oil, sulfurized oil, mineral

lard oil

Steel,Soft Soluble oil, mineral lard oil,

sulfurized oil, lard oil

Steel, Stainless Sulfurized mineral oil, soluble oil

Steal,Tool Soluble oil, mineral lard oil,

sulfurized oil

Wrought Iron Soluble oil, mineral lard oil,

sulfurized oil
"
1"1,1rninlt1g Fundam entals

EIA and AIA National Codes for CNC Programming

Preparatory (G) Functions
Gword Explanation
GOO Denotes a rapid traverse rate for point-to-point positioning.
G01 Describes linear interpolation blocks; reserved for contouring.
G02, G03 Used with circular interpolation.
G04 Sets a calculated time delay during which there is no machine motion (dwell).
GOS, GO? Unassigned by the EIA. May be used at the discretion of the machine tool or system builder. Could also be
standardized at a future date.
G06 Used with parabolic interpolation.
GOB Acceleration code. Causes the machine, assuming it is capable, to accelerate at a smooth exponential rate.
G09 Deceleration code. Causes the machine, assuming it is capable, to decelerate at a smooth exponential rate.
G10-G12 Normaliy unassigned for CNC systems. Used with some hard-wired systems to express blocks of abnormal
dimensions.
G13-G16 Direct the control system to operate on a particular set of axes.
G17-G19 Identify or select a coordinate plane for such functions as circular Interpolation or cutter compensatio n.
G20-G32 Unassigned according to EIA standards. May be assigned by the control system or machine tool builder.
G33-G35 Selected for machines equipped with thread-cutting capabilities (generally referring to lathes). G33 is used
when a constant lead is sought, G34 Is used when a constantly increasing lead is required, and G35 is used
to designate a constantly decreasing lead.
G36-G39 Unassigned.
G40 Terminates any cutter compensation.
G41 Activates cutter compensation in which the cutter is on the left side of the work surface (relative to the direction
of the cutter motion).
G42 Activates cutter compensation in which the cutter is on the right side of the work surface.
G43, G44 Used with cutter offset to adjust for the difference between the actual and programmed cutter radii or diameters.
G43 refers to an inside corner, and G44 refers to an outslde corner.
G45-G49 Unassigned.
G50-G59 Reserved for adaptive control.
G60-G69 Unassigned.
G70 Selects Inch programming.
G71 Se lects metric programming.
G72 Selects three-dimensional CW circular interpolation.
G73 Selects three-dimensional CCW circular interpolation.
G74 Cancels multiquadrant circular interpolation.
G75 Activates multiquadrant circular interpolation.
G76-G79 Unassigned.
GBO Cancel cycle.
G81 Activates drm, or spotdrill, cycle.
G82 Activates drill with a dwell.
G83 Activates intermittent, or deep-hole, drilling.
G84 Activates tapping cycle.
G85-G89 Activates boring cycles.
G90 Selects absolute input. Input data is to be in absolute dimensional form.
--------------------------------------------II
Reference Section

EIA and AIA National Codes for CNC Programming (continued)

Preparatory (G) Functions

Gword Explanation
G91 Selects incremental input. Input data is to be in incremental form.
G92 Preloads registers to desired values (for example, preloads axis position registers).
G93 Sets inverse time feed rate.
G94 Sets inches (or millimeters) per minute feed rate.
695 Sets inches (or millimeters) per revolution feed rate.
G97 Sets spindle speed in revolutions per minute.
G98, G99 Unassigned.

Mlscellsneous (M} Funciioris

M word Explanation
MOO Program stop. Operator must cycle start in order to continue with the remainder of the program.
M01 Optional stop. Acted upon only when the operator has previously signaled for this command by pushing a button.
When the control system senses the M01 code, machine will automatically stop.
M02 End of program. Stops the machine after completion of all commands in the block. May include rewinding of tape.
M03 Starts spindle rotation in a clockwise direction.
M04 Starts spindle rotation in a counterclockwise direction.
M05 Spindle stop.
M06 Executes the change of a tool (or tools) manually or automatically.
M07 Turns coolant on (flood) .
MOS Turns coolant on (mist).
M09 Tums coolant off.
M10 Activates automatic clamping of the machine slides, workpiece, fixture, spindle, etc.
M11 Deactivates automatic clamping.
M12 Inhibiting code used to synchronize multiple set of axes, such as a four-axis lathe that has two independently
operated heads or slides.
M13 Combines simultaneous clockwise spindle motion and coolant on.
M14 Combines simultaneous counterclockwise spindle motion and coolant on.
M15 Sets rapid traverse or feed motion in the + direction.
M16 Sets rapid traverse or feed motion in the - direction.
M17, M18 Unassigned.
M19 Oriented spindle stop. Stops spindle at a predetermined angular position.
M20-M29 Unassigned.
M30 End of data. Used to reset control and/or machine.
M31 Interlock bypass. Temporarily circumvents a normally provided interlock.
M32-M39 Unassigned.
M40-M46 Signals gear changes if required at the machine; otherwise, unassigned.
M47 Continues program execution from the start of the program, unless inhibited by an interlock signal.
M48 Cancels M49.
M49 Deactivates a manual spindle or feed-override and returns to the programmed value.
...
IJ t ,aci1ining F,.Jr._·.,_~enta!:.

EIA and AJA National Codes for CNC Programming (continued)

Miscellaneous (M) Functions
Mword Explanation
M50-M57 Unassigned.
M58 Cancels M59.
M59 Holds the rpm constant at its value.
M60-M99 Unassigned.

Other Address Characters

Address
character Explanation l
A Angular dimension about the X-axis. l
i3 Angular dimension about the Y-axis.
C Angular dimension about the Z-axis.
D Can be used for an angular dimension around a special axis, for a third feed function, or for tool offset.
I E Used for angular dimension around a special axis or for a second feed function.
H Fixture offset.
I, J , K Centerpoint coordinates for circular interpolation.
L Not used.
0 Used on some N/C controls in place of the customary sequence number word address N.
P Third rapid traverse code-tertiary motion dimension parallel to the X-axis.
Q Second rapid traverse code-tertiary motion dimension parallel to the Y-axis.
R First rapid traverse code-tertiary motion dimension parallel to the 2-axis (or to the radius) for constant
surface speed calculation.
U Secondary motion dimension parallel to the X-axis.
V Secondary motion dimension parallel to the Y-axis.
W Secondary motion dimension parallel to the Z-axis.
Referance Section

Powder Metallurgy Processes

Blendlng Die lubricants

Metal Powder Alloy additions

Conventional Other compacting

compacting methods

Slnterlng
Isostatic Roll
press compact

Additional High energy or high

or optional velocity forming
steps

Pressureless mold
Repress Repress- or gravity sinter
or size resinter

Slip cast I/ Extrude

Hot or cold forge

or reform

Sintering

Secondary operations (If desired):

Heat treat, plate, grind, machine, Reroll,
oil or plastic impregnate, tumble, reform,
drill, tap, rust proof, steam treat or forge

Flni•hed PIM parts

Slntering Sintering is a solid-state phenomenon in which powdered metal particles

become metallurgically bonded below the melting point of the metal.
No adhesives or cements are used.

Infiltration Pores of PIM parts are filled with a lower-melting-point metal such as
copper-based alloy. When the part is sintered, the infiltrant material melts
and penetrates into the P/M part by capillary action.

Coining and sizing Basically, this operation Involves repressing sintered parts in a die
similar to the original compacting die.

Impregnation The pores of the P/M part are filled with a lubricant or other nonmetallic
such as plastic resin. This may be done by means of a vacuum or by
soaking. The part then becomes self-lubricating (or pressure-tight if
resin is used).
Fl Machining rumfa.mentals

Master Chart of Welding and Allied Processes

Atomic hydrogen welding....... AHW Gas metal arc welding................ GMAW

Bare metal arc welding............BMAW -pulsed arc ........................... GMAW-P
Carbon arc welding ...... ,.......... CAW -short circuiting arc.............. GMAW-S
-gas.................................. CAW-G Gas tungsten arc welding........... GTAW I
-shielded .......................... CAW-S 1----------1 -pulsed arc ......... .................. GTAW-P
-twin................................. CAW-T Plasma arc welding ..................... PAW
Electrogas we:ding ................ .. EGW Shielded metal arc welding......... SMAW
F!ux co•eci arc welding ............ FCAW Arc stud welding......................... SW
Submerged arc welding.............. SAW
Coextn.1sion welding ...... ........ CEW -series.................................. SAW-S
Cold welding ......................... CW
Diffusion welding ................... DFW Block brazing ............................ BB
Explosion welding ................. EXW Diffusion brazing ....................... CAB
Forge welding.................... ... FOW Dip brazing ............................... DB
I Fnc~on welding ..................... FAW I
Exothermic brazing................... EXB
Hot pressure welding ............ HPW Flow brazing .............................. FLOW
I Roll welding ........................... ROW !
Furnace brazing........................ FB
I Ultrasonic welding ................. USW !Induction brazing....................... IB
llnf~red brazing._. ....................... IRS
Dip soldering ......................... DS , IRes1Stance brazing.. .................. RB
Furnace soldering................. FS \ !To~ch brazing ............................. TB
Induction soldering................ IS \ iTwin carbon arc brazing............ TCAB
Infrared soldering.................. .IRS

\
\
Iron soldering .................. ...... INS
\ , Electron beam welding..... EBW
Resistance soldering............. RS
Torch soldering ..................... TS \I -high vacuum ............. EBW-HV
\ -medium vacuum ....... EBW-MV
Ultrasonic soldering .............. USS
Wave soldering ..................... WS I
I ,,,,.-----..
\J -nonvacuu~···· ........... EBW-NV
· Electroslag welding........... ESW
Flash welding........................ FW \ Flow welding ..................... FLOW
/ Tr,orrnut \
Projection weiding................. PW \ Induction welding.............. IW
;I sprvy:f!'J ,'
Resistance seam welding..... RSEW \ Laser beam welding .......... LBW
\ ("1 HS!~)
-high frequency.............. RSEW-HF \ Percussion welding........... PEW
-Induction ....................... RSEW-1 \ Thermite welding.. ............ TW
Resistance spot welding....... RSW
Upset welding....................... UW
\\ ~-------------.
Air acetylene welding ......AAW
-high frequency... ........ ... UW-HF Oxyacetylene welding.....OAW
-induction ....................... UW-1 / -~ Oxyhydrogen welding ..... OHW
I A10 '
Pressure gas welding..... PGW
Arc spraying .......................... ASP c.jllfrn{I
Flame spraying ..................... FLSP \ , t~C)
Plasma spraying................... PSP Air carbori arc cutting ........ CAC-A
Carbon arc cutting. ........... CAC
Flux cutting ........................... FOC
Metal powder cutting ............. POC
Oxyfuel gas cutting......... ...... OFC
-oxyacetylene cutting .... . OFC-A
(
I
- I
01tter
wttlng )
Gas metal arc cutting ........ GMAC
Gas tungsten arc cutting ... GTAC
Plasma arc cutting............ PAC
Shielded metal arc cutting. SMAC
-oxyhydrogen cutting ..... OFC-H \
-oxynatural gas cutting .. OFC-N
....__ Eiectron beam cuttlng........ EBC
-oxypropane cutting....... OFC-P Laser beam cutt:ng... ......... LBC
Oxygen arc cutting ................ AOC -air.............................. LBC-A
Oxygen lance cutting ............ LOC -evaporative................ LBC-EV
-Inert gas.................... LBC-IG
-oxygen............. .......... LBC-O

(American Welding Society)

Reference Section
ffll
Grinding Wheel Markings

32A46-H8VBE

Abrasive Norton
Symbol
Alundum= A
19 Alundum = 19A Letter or numeral
or both to desig-
23 Alundum = 23A
Grit Size Grade Structure Bond Type nate a variation
32 Alundum = 32A or modification
Vr,;y
38 Alundum = 38A Coar.le Medium Flll9 Fine Soft Medium Hald The structure V = Vitrified of bond or other
number of a wheel characteristic of
44 Alundum = 44A 10 30 70 220 AE IM QV S = Silicate
refers to the rela- the wheel. Typical
57 Alundum = 57A
12 36 80 240 BF JN RW B = Resinoid symbols are "P,"
14 90 280 tive spacing of the
75 Alundum = 75A 46 100 320
CG KO sx grains of abrasive; A= Rubber
"Gt.BE:'
16
20 54 120 400 DH LP TY the larger the
37 Crystolon= 37C E =Shellac
24 60 150 500 uz number, the wider
39 Crystolon:ac 39C 180 600 the grain spacing.

(Norton Co.)

kB.,,.
STANDARD SYMBOLS USED IN DIMENSIONING

N- Old

~R.62
$'"0"'
72\"R

~.50THRU ~. 12 SPOTFACE
.50DRILL
L..-J,/11.12 19 +. x . 19 DEEP
LCOUNTERBORE
' - DEPTH OR
(OR SPOTFACEI SYMBOL
.60 DIA.

-
SYMBOL

~!~
1. 12 S'FACE x .19 DP

~~ ...,,,..
,/,50+.56

/COUNTERSINK
~
j 81
,50 DRILL, .68 DEEP
DIA, x 90~RCOUNTERSINK
SYMBOL

.50 DIA x .56 0 .P.

~ ~
.81 DIA, x 90° C'SINK

@r. •
50THRU
•.75 C'DRLU.
+.3 7
~ .50 D<A. THAU
5 C'ORILL x .37 D.P.

~,~ ~
 M.:ic.hlnlnc Fun<f,'ln, nt~h

Quality control is a vital part of producing most machined products. This technician is using sophisticated spin testing equipment to
check superprecision bearings for use in machine tools. (The Torrington Co.)
 Glossary of Terms

A however, the sides have a 29° included angle. It

A-axis: An angle that specifies the rotary motion of is used for feed and adjusting screws on
a machine tool or slide around the X axis, such machine tools.
that a right-handed screw advanced in the posi- Acquisition: A function that obtains information
tive (+) A direction would be advanced in the from memory locations or data files for use in
positive (+) X direction. data manipulation or handling.
Abrasive: A material that penetrates and cuts a Active storage: Data storage locations that hold data
material that is softer than itself. It may be nat- being transformed into motion.
ural (emery, corundum, diamond) or artificial Actual size: The measured size of a part after it is
(silicon carbide, aluminum oxide). manufactured.
Abrasive machining: A process that uses an abra- Actuator: A device that responds to a signal from a
sive, in wheel or belt form, to remove material controller and performs an action.
from a workpiece. Acute angle: An angle of less than 90°.
Absolute coordinates: Values of X, Y, and Z coordi- Adaptive control: A system that automatically and
nates used in designating a point in space in the continuously monitors on-line performance of a
absolute system (a system in which all coordi- manufacturing operation by measuring one or
nate locations are measured from a fixed loca- more variables of activity, comparing measured
tion on a machine table or from an absolute zero quantities with other measured quantities, and
point established by a programmer or machine adjusting or modifying activity to meet produc-
designer). tion standards.
Absolute dimension: A dimension expressed with Addendum: That portion of a gear tooth that projects
regard to the origin of a coordinate axis, but not above or outside the pitch circle.
necessarily coinciding with an absolute zero Address: The means of identifying information or
point.
location in a control system.
Absolute positioning: Measures all tool movement
Adhesion: The process of joining materials by using
from a fixed point of origin, or zero point.
an agent that sticks to both workpieces.
Compare with Incremental positioning.
Adhesion process: Metal-joining method, such as
Absolute zero: A temperature equal to --459.69°F or
-273.l6°C. soldering or brazing, that forms a bond between
Accandec: A means of accelerating and decelerating parts by filling joints with material that has a
feed rates to smooth starts and stops when an melting point lower than the base metal. Also,
operation is under numerical control and when any method used to join materials with a glue or
feed rate values are changed. other bonding agent.
Acceptance test: A test to determine performance, Adhesives: Materials that provide one of the newer
capability, and conformity of software or hard- ways to join metals and keep threaded fasteners
ware to design specifications. from vibrating loose. In some applications, the
Accuracy: Conformity of an indicated value to a resulting joints are stronger than the metal itself.
value accepted as a standard. Adhesive-bonded joints do not require costly
Accurate: Made within the tolerances allowed. and time-consuming operations such as drilling,
Acme thread: Similar in form to a square thread in countersinking, and riveting.
that the top and bottom of the thread is flat; Align: To adjust to given points.
 H achining Fumfarnentals

All-hard blade: One of two types of power hacksaw harder and nonporous coating for protection
blade (the other is a flexible-back blade). It is against corrosion.
best for straight, accurate cutting under a vari- Apron: A covering plate or casting that encloses and
ety of conditions. protects a mechanism. Also, a portion of the
Allowance: The limits permitted for satisfactory lathe carriage that contains gears, clutches, and
performance of machined parts. levers for moving the carriage by hand and
Alloy: A mixture of two or more metals fused or power feed.
melted together to form a new metal. Arbor: A shaft or spindle for holding cutting tools.
Alphanumeric code: A system of instructions that Arc: A discharge of electricity through a gas. In a
consists of numbers, letters of the alphabet, and gasoline engine, arcing (or sparking) takes place
other symbols. at the spark plug gap when the ignition coil fires
Aluminum Association Designation System: Every to ignite the fuel mixture. After prolonged oper-
alloy is given an identifying number that con- ation, the spark plug electrodes ·will be eroded
sists of a four-digit code, followed by a dash and by the action of the electric arcs. It is the basis of
a temper designation, such as 7075-T6. The tem- EDM.
per designation indicates the degree of hardness Assembly: A unit fitted together from manufactured
of the allov. parts. A machine tool may comprise several
assemblies.
American National Standards Institute (ANSI): An
Automated control: A control svstem that simulta-
association that serves as a clearinghouse for
neously monitors the quality of the product. It is
nationally coordinated voluntary standards for
able to start, stop, and sequence production.
fields ranging from information technology to
Automatic feed: The capability of a machine tool to
building construction. Standards are established
advance a tool into the workpiece mechanically.
for such areas as definitions, terminology, sym-
Automatic screw machine: A variation of the lathe
bols, materials, performance characteristics, pro- that was developed for high-speed production
cedures, and testing methods. of large numbers of small parts. The machine
American National Thread System: The common performs a maximum number of operations,
thread form used in the Gnited States, charac- either simultaneously, or in a Yery rapid
terized by the 60G angle formed by the sides of sequence.
the thread. Automatic System for Positioning of Tools
Amplifier: A device or system that provides an (AUTOSPOT): A general-purpose computer
output different in magnitude from the control program used in preparing instructions for
output. numerical control positioning and straight-cut
Analog: Related to data presented in variable systems.
physical quantities, such as a dial indication Automatically Programmed Tools (API): A com-
of pressure. puter programming system describing parts
Angle plate: A precisely made tool of cast iron, steel, illustrated on a design, in a sequence of state-
or granite used to hold work in a vertical posi- ments, part geometry, cutter operations, and
tion for layout or machining. Faces are at right machine tool capabilities. It is used for turning,
angles and may have slotted openings for easier point-to-point, and multiaxis milling.
mounting or clamping of the ·work to the Automation: An industrial technique in ,vhich
machine tool table. mechanical labor and mechanical control are
Annealing: The process of heating metal to a given substituted for human labor and human control.
temperature and cooling it slowly to remove It is an extension and refinement of mass pro-
stresses and induce softness. duction.
Anode: A positive electrode. Axis: A real or imaginary line that is equally distant
Anodizing: A process for applying an oxide coating from the surface or sides of something. Also, a
to aluminum. It is done electrolytically in an point of reference.
acid solution with equipment similar to that
used for electroplating. The technique can be B
varied to produce a light-colored, porous coat- B-axis: An angle that specifies the rotary motion of
ing that can be dyed in a variety of colors to a a machine tool or slide around the Y axis.
Glossary of Terms

Back gears: Gears fitted to belt-driven machine tools Blanking: A stamping operation in which a die is
to increase the number of spindle speeds. T'ney used to shear or cut a desired shape from flat
are used to slow the spindle speed of a lathe for sheets or strips of metal.
cutting threads, knurling, and making heavy Blind hole: A hole that does not go completely
roughing cuts. through the workpiece.
Backlash: Lost motion (play) in moving parts, such Block: In programming, binary words grouped
as a thread in a nut, caused by looseness. together as a unit to provide complete informa-
Band machining: A widely employed technique that tion for a cutting operation. Aiso, one or more
makes use of a continuous saw blade. Chip rows of punched holes in a tape separated from
removal is rapid, and accuracy can be held to other words by an end-of-block character.
close tolerances, eliminating or minimizing Blowhole: A hole produced in a casting when gases
many secondary machining operations. are entrapped during the pouring operation.
Base metal: A pure metallic element; the principal Bomb out: Complete failure of a computer routine,
metal of an alloy. resulting in the need to restart or reprogram the
Batch processing: A manufacturing operation in computer. Also referred to as a "crash."
which a designated quantity of material is man- Boring: An internal machining operation in which a
ufactured. Also, a method of processing jobs so single-point cutting tool is used to enlarge a
that each job is completed before the next one is hole.
started. Boring mill: A huge machine capable of turning and
Bed: One of the principal parts of a machine tool. It boring work with diameters as large as 40'
contains V-ways or bearing surfaces that sup- (12 m). Work that is too large or too heavy to be
port and guide the work of the cutting tool. turned in a horizontal position is machined on a
Bench grinder: A grinding machine that has been vertical boring mill.
mounted on a bench or table. The grinding Box jig: See Jig.
wheels mount directly onto the motor shaft. Brazing: Joining metals by fusion of nonferrous
Normally, one wheel is coarse, for roughing, and alloys that have melting temperatures above
the other is fine, for finish grinding. Compare 800°F (427°C) but lower than the metals being
with Pedestal grinder. joined.
Beryllium: A metal that weighs almost 80% less than Brinell hardness: A measure of the resistance of a
steel, yet offers virtually equal strength. material to being indented. The Brinell test is an
Although brittle, it is easy to machine and is index of such factors as body hardness of the
used when weight is a critical factor, such as in
metal, machinability, uniformity of grade, and
missiles and aircraft. It is also used in nuclear
temper after heat treatment.
reactors. Beryllium is considered an "exotic"
Briquetting: The process of compressing powdered
metal.
metal into the final shape before sintering.
Bevel: An angle formed by a line or surface that is
Brittleness: Characteristics that cause metal to break
not at a right angle to another line or surface.
easily. In some respects, it is the opposite of
Bevel gear: A toothed wheel employed to change the
angular direction of power between shafts. The toughness.
Broach: A long, multi-tooth cutting tool with three
teeth are either straight or curved.
Bill of materials: A listing of the numbers, names, kinds of teeth shaped to give a desired surface:
materials, and quantities of the parts specified rough, semifinished, and finished.
on a set of working drawings. Broaching: A manufacturing process for machining
Binary code: A code in which each allowable posi- flat, round, and contoured surfaces, both inter-
tion has one of two possible states. For example, nal and external. A broach is pushed or pulled
it can be expressed as 1 (one) or O (zero), on or across the work, with each tooth removing only
off, etc. a small portion of the material. Cutting a key-
Bistable: Elements that have two output possibili- way is typically a broaching process.
ties and will hold a given condition until Buffing: The process of bringing out the luster in
switched. metal using cloth wheels (usually cotton or
BIT: An abbreviation for "binary digit." It is a single muslin disks sewn together) and a polishing
character of a language employing exactly two compound. Proper wheel speed depends upon
distinct characters. the size of the wheel.
"
Bug: A flaw or defect in program code, or in the
design of a computer, that renders the program
incapable of performing the objectives for which
it was written.
Machinir.g Fundamer.ta.ls

or case is made substantially harder than the

interior or core. Typical case hardening
processes are carburizing, cyaniding, and
nitriding.
Burnishing: The process of fotishing a metal surface Casting: An object made by pouring molten metal
by compressing the surface. It is often done by into a mold.
tumbling the work with steel balls. Cathead: A sleeve or collar that fits over out-of-
Burr: A sharp edge remaining on metal after cut- round or irregular-shaped work, permitting it to
ting, stamping, or machining. A burr can be be supported in a steady rest. The work is cen-
dangerous if not removed. tered by using adjusting screws located around
Bushing: A bearing for a revolving shaft. Also, a
the circumference of the collar.
hardened steel tube used on jigs to guide drills
Cathode: A negative electrode.
and reamers.
Cathode-ray tube (CRT): A vacuum tube in which a
Byte: A sequence of binary digits operated upon as
stream of electrons is projected onto a fluores-
a single unit. A byte is composed of 8 bits, or
binary digits. cent screen to produce a luminous spot. The
cathode-ray output in a computer displays
C information in graphic form or by character
C-axis: An angle that specifies the rotary motion of representation.
a machine tool or slide around the Z axis. Cell: A manufacturing unit, usually comprised of
Calibration: The adjustment of a device so that out- one or two machines ,,i,ith computer-controlled
put is within a designated tolerance for specific and automated work-handling equipment.
input values. Center finder: A device used in a drilling machine to
Cam: A rotating or sliding element that, because of locate the center of round stock. Also known as
the curvature of its drfring surface, imparts a "wiggler."
complicated motions to followers or driven ele- Center line: A line used to indicate an axis of a sym-
ments of the machine tool. metrical part. It consists of a series of long and
Canned cycle: In numerical control, a set of opera- short dashes.
tions preset in hardware or software and initi- Centerless grinding: A technique in ·which a ,vork-
ated by a single command. Several operations piece is not supported between centers; rather, it
are performed in a predetermined sequence; the is positioned on a work support blade and fed
function ends with a return to the beginning automatically between a regulating or feed
condition.
wheel and a grinding wheel.
Carbon content: Refers to the amount of carbon con- Central processing unit (CPU): The heart of a com-
tained in steel. Carbon content is measured in
puter; it handles memory and computational
points or percentage (100 points equal 1 %).
functions.
Carburizing: A process that introduces carbon to the
Centrifugal casting: A method for casting metals in
surface of steel by heating the metal to just
below its melting temperature in contact with which a mold is rotated during pouring and
carbonaceous solids, liquids, or gases. The piece solidification of the metal.
is held at that temperature for a predetermined Cermets: Composites of ceramic and metal that are
time and then quenched. l\ridely used for high-temperature applications.
Cartesian Coordinate System: The basis of numeri- Their resistance to high temperatures and wear
cal control programming, it is a system that make them ideal for use in super high-speed
defines the direction and distance the ,rnrk cutting tools.
and/or tool must move. The position of any Channel: A longitudinal row of holes punched along
point can be defined ·with reference to a set of the length of paper tape. Standard numerical
axes (X, Y, and Z) that are at right angles to each control tape has eight channels. Also known as
other. "tracks" or "le,Tels."
Case hardening: A process of surface-hardening Character: An elementary mark, such as a letter or
iron-based alloys so that the surface layer digit, used to represent data.
Glossary of Terms gp
Chaser: A thread-cutting tool that fits into a die head Circular pitch: The distance from the center of one
used on a turret lathe or screw machine. It is gear tooth to the center of the next tooth, mea-
usually a hardened steel plate with several cor- sured along the pitch circle.
rectly pitched teeth cut into it. Three or four Classes of fits: Standard working tolerances for
chasers are used in a die head. thread accuracy, indicated by the last number on
Chasing threads: Cutting threads on a machine tool. a thread description. Fits for inch-based threads
Chatter: Vibration caused by a cutting tool spring- are: Class 1, loose fit; Class 2, free fit; Class 3,
ing away from the work Chatter produces small medium fit; and Class 4, close fit.
ridges on machined surfaces. Clearance: Distance by which one object is sepa-
Chemical blanking: Total removal of metal from cer- rated from another object.
tain areas by chemical action. It is used to pro- Climb milling: A milling technique in which the
duce small, intricate, ultrathin parts. teeth of a cutting tool advance into the work in
Chemical cutting fluids: Cooling and lubricating the same direction as the feed. Also known as
liquids that contain no oil. Because they are not "climb cutting."
actually fluids (graphite, mica, and white lead Clockwise: From left to right in a circular motion;
are examples), a wetting agent is often added to the direction in which hands on a clock rotate.
provide lubricating qualities. See Cutting fluid. Closed jig: See Jig.
Chemical machining: A technique in which chemi- Closed loop system: A numerical control system in
cals, usually in an aqueous solution, are which a reference signal is compared with a
employed to etch away selected portions of position signal generated by a monitoring (feed-
metal to produce accurately contoured parts. back) unit on a machine tool. The comparison is
Chemical machining falls into two categories: used to adjust the machine tool to reduce the
chemical milling and chemical blanking. difference to zero. An imaginary loop is formed
Chemical milling: A technique for machining metal by data flow. Also known as "feedback control
to exacting tolerances by chemical action. It is system."
used to remove metal from large surface areas, CNC: See Computer numerical control.
such as reducing the weight of sheet metal parts. CO2 laser: A device that produces a narrow beam of
Chip: A small piece of semiconductor material on light that can be used to cut, weld, or heat-treat
which electronic components, such as integrated materials.
circuits, are formed. Also, a section of metal that Coated abrasive: A finishing material consisting of
is removed as a workpiece is being machined. an abrasive adhered to a backing such as paper
Chip breaker: A small groove cut into the face of a or cloth.
lathe tool near the cutting edge to break chips Code: A system of organized symbols (bits) repre-
into small pieces. senting information in a language that can be
Chipless machining: A metalworking technique in understood and handled by a control system.
which a series of dies replaces the usual cutting Coining: A metal-forming process that creates two-
tools on the lathe, drill press, or milling sided parts by squeezing the metal between a
machine. Material is usually in coil form and is pair of dies.
referred to as "wire." The process is sometimes Cold circular saw: A tool that uses a circular,
called cold heading or cold forming. toothed blade capable of producing very accu-
Chuck: A device to hold work or cutting tools on a rate cuts. Large cold circular saws can be used to
machine tool. sever round metal stock up to 27" (675 mm) in
Circular interpolation: A mode that reduces the diameter.
number of calculations required on a numerical Cold heading: See Chipless machining.
control machine to program a curved surface. Color harden: A hardening technique usually done
The circular interpolator in the machine control for appearance only.
unit will automatically compute the necessary Color temper: Reheating hardened steel and observ-
number of intermediate points to describe the ing color changes to determine a quenching
circular cut. It also generates the electronic sig- temperature to obtain the desired hardness.
nals that will run the servos and guide the cut- Column: A vertical shaft designed to bear axial loads
ting tool in making the cut. in compression.
 Machli1ing Fundamentals

Column and knee milling machine: So named so the machine travels through a designated
because of the parts that provide movement to path at a specified rate without pausing.
the ,·rnrkpiece. It consists of a column that sup- Contour: The outline of an object.
ports and guides the knee in vertical (up and Contouring control system: A numerical control
down/Z-axis) movement, and a knee that sup- system that generates a contour by guiding a
ports the mechanism for obtaining table move- machine or cutting tool along a path resulting
ments. These movements are transverse (in and from coordinated, simultaneous motion along
out/Y-axis) and longitudinal (back and forth/ two or more axes.
X-axis). Control: A signal received at a system input and
Combustible materials: Solids, liquids, or gases that used as intelligence to produce a modification in
are capable of burning. Combustible materials output.
are classified into four categories: Class A fires Controlle1·: A device through which commands are
involve ordinary combustible materials (paper, introduced and manipulated to compute,
wood, textiles); Class B fires involve flammable encode, and store data; produce readouts; and
liquids and grease; Class C fires involve electri- process computation and output. In computer
cal components; and Class D fires invoh·e flam- numerical control, it is also known as the
mable metals, such as magnesium and lithium. machine control unit (~CU).
Command: A signal from a machine control unit Convex surface: A surface of an object that curves
(MCU) initiating one step in a complete com- outward.
puter program. Coolant: A fluid or gas used to cool the cutting edge
Composites: A family of materials that consists of of a tool to prevent it from burning up during
two or more different but complementary sub- machining operations.
stances that are physically combined. Coordinate measuring machine (CMVI): Csed in
Compound rest: A slide in the lathe located above a
quality control testing, it was devised to make
base cross-slide. The upper slide can be revolved
measurements electronically. It can be pro-
to any required angular position.
grammed to check thousands of individual ref-
Computer graphics: Graphs, charts, and/ or draw-
erence points on an object against specifications.
ings generated by a computer. They are dis-
Core: A bodv of sand or other material that is
played on a video screen or printed by a plotter
formed to a desired shape and placed in a mold
or printer.
to produce a cavity or opening in a casting.
Computer numerical control (CNC): A system in
which a program is used to precisely position
Counterbore: Enlarging a hole to a given depth and
diameter.
tools and/ or the ,rnrkpiece and to carry out the
sequence of operations needed to produce a Counterclockwise: From right to left in a circular
part. motion; the opposite of the direction in v,hich
Computer-aided design (CAD): Use of computers to hands on a clock rotate.
aid in designing a product. Countersink: Chamfering a hole to receive a flat-
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM): A com- head screw.
puter system that controls a sequence of manu- Creep grinding: A surface grinding operation that is
facturing operations involving several often performed in a single pass v\ith an unusu-
machines. ally large depth of cut.
Concave surface: A curved depression in the surface Cross slide: A part of a machine tool that permits the
of an object. carriage to make transverse tool movements.
Concentric: Having a common center. Cryogenics: The study and development of
Cone pulley: A one-piece pulley having two or more extremely lmv temperature processes, tech-
diameters. niques, and equipment.
Continuous casting: A casting technique in which Cursor: The movable pointer used by a CRT opera-
ingot is continuously solidified and withdrawn tor to indicate where entries or actions are to
while it is being poured, so its length is not take place.
determined by mold dimensions. Cutter compensation: The process of taking into
Continuous path system: An operation in which the account the difference in radius between a cut-
rate and direction of the relative movement of ting tool and a programmed numerical control
machine members are und er continuous control, operation, in order to achieve accuracy.
__ __________________________________
G~~~~....,;_ ~
__,

Cutter offset: The difference between a part surface Depth of cut: Refers to the distance the cutter is fed
and the axial center of a cutter or cutter path into the work surface. The depth of cut varies
during a machining operation. Also, a numerical greatly with lathe condition, material hardness,
control feature that enables a machine operator speed, feed, amount of material to be removed,
to use an oversized or undersized cutter. and whether it is to be a roughing or finishing
Cutting fluid: A liquid used to cool and lubricate a cut.
cutting tool to improve the quality of the surface Dial indicators: An instrument used for centering
finish. There are four basic types of cutting flu- and aligning work on machine tools, checking
ids: mineral oils, emulsifiable (water-based) oils, for eccentricity, and inspecting. There are two
chemical and semichemical fluids, and gaseous types of indicators: balanced indicators take
fluids. measurements on either side of a zero line, while
Cyaniding: The introduction of carbon and nitrogen continuous indicators read from zero in a clock-
simultaneously into a ferrous alloy by heating wise direction.
while in contact with molten cyanide; usually Diametral pitch: The ratio of the number of gear
followed by quenching to produce a hardened teeth to the number of inches of pitch diameter.
case. Diamond dressing tool: A device used to evenly
Cyanoacrylate quick setting adhesive: A bonding wear away a grinding wheel face and keep it
agent known by such names as Eastman 910™, from becoming so loaded or glazed it cannot cut
Super Glue™, and Crazy Glue™. It is used to freely.
hold matching metal sections together while Diamond-edge band: A specially designed band
they are being machined. machining tool for cutting material that is diffi-
Cycle: A sequence of operations repeated regularly. cult or impossible to cut with a conventional
Also, the time necessary for one sequence of toothed blade. The diamonds are only on the
operations to occur. front edge of the band, where the cutting is
D accomplished.
Data: Information that is input to a computer sys- Die: A tool used to cut external threads. Also, a tool
tem and then processed so it can be output in a used to impart a desired shape to a piece of
sensible form. It usually consists of numbers, metal.
letters, or symbols that refer to or describe an Die casting: A casting process in which molten
object, idea, condition, situation, or other type of metal is forced under pressure into a permanent
information. mold.
Dead band: Range through which an input can be Die cavity: A hollow space inside a die where metal
varied without initiating a response. solidifies to form a casting.
Dead center: A stationary center used to hold work Die chaser: See Chaser.
on a lathe. Die stock: A handle used to hold and rotate a
Debug: In numerical control, a process of detecting, threading die over the workpiece.
locating, and removing software errors and Dielectric fluid: A liquid (usually a light mineral oil)
hardware problems that cause malfunctions in a used to form a nonconductive barrier between
computer. the electrode and the work at the arc gap in
Deburr: The process of removing, through various EDM.
finishing techniques, sharp, raised edges pro- Digi.tizing: The process of converting a scaled, but
duced by the machining process.
nonmathematical, drawing into coordinate
Decarburizing: The process of removing carbon
numerical control locations for programming
from metals.
purposes.
Deceleration distance: The calculated distance for
decreasing the speed of movement along an axis
Dip coating: Applying a finishing material by com-
pletely immersing the part or product.
to avoid overshooting a position.
Dedendum: The portion of a gear tooth between Direct numerical control (DNC): Use of a shared
pitch circle and root circle; it is equal to adden- computer to program, service, and log a process
dum plus clearance. such as a machine tool cutting operation. Part
Demagnetizing: The process of removing the mag- program data are distributed via data lines
netism from a piece that had been held in a mag- to machine tools. Compare with Distributed
netic chuck. numerical control.
_i_________________________________
Disk: A random access storage component of a com-
i a_c::_h_in_in
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Fl_11_
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Dwell: A timed delay of programmed duration; for

puter to store numerical control programs or example, a hydraulic cushion at the end of each
other data. stroke in a grinding operation.
Distributed numerical control (DNC): A control svs-
tem in which individual numerical cont~ol E
machine tools are connected to a central com-
mand computer. Compare with Direct numerical Eccentric: Not on a common center. Also, a device
control. that converts rotary motion into a reciprocating
Dividing head: A machine tool attachment for accu- (back-and-forth) motion.
rate spacing of holes, slots, gear teeth, and Eddy-current test: A nondestructive test in which
flutes. When geared to a table lead screw, it can impedance (resistance) changes in a coil brought
be used to machine spirals. near a metal product indicate the presence of
Dog: A device on tb,e side of a machine tool work- t1mvs.
table used to turn off the automatic feed mecha- Edit: To modify the format of a program or to alter
nism or to reverse travel. data input or output by inserting or deleting
Draft: Clearance on a pattern that allows easy with- characters.
drawal of the pattern from the mold. Electrical discharge machining (EDM): A process by
Drift: A tapered piece of flat steel used to separate l\·hich an electric spark is used to erode away
tapered shank tools from sleeves, sockets, or small amounts of material from a workpiece.
machine tool spindles. EDM is used to machine soft or extremelv hard
-·
materials that are difficult to work by conven-
Drill point gage: An instrument used to ensure a
drill is correctly sharpened. tional machining.
Drill press: A machine that rotates a drill against sta- Electrical discharge wire cutting (EDWC): A metal-
tionary material with sufficient pressure to removing process in which a small-diameter
cause the drill to penetrate the material. It is pri- ,vire electrode is fed through a workpiece, caus-
marily used for cutting round holes. ing the material to be removed by spark erosion.
Drill rod: A carbon steel rod accurately and Electrochemical machining (ECM): A process in
smoothly ground to size. It is available in a large which a stream of electrolyte (typically salt
range of sizes. water) is pumped at high pressure through a
Drill template: The simplest form of an open jig, it gap between the positively charged work and
consists of a plate with holes to guide the drill. the negatively charged tool (electrode). The cur-
Also known as a ''plate jig." rent passing through the gap removes material
Drilling: Cutting or enlarging a hole by use of a cut- from the work by electrolysis, duplicating the
ting tool sharpened on its point. shape of the electrode tool as it advances into
Drive fit: Using force or pressure to fit two pieces the metal.
together. Electrode: A metal rod through 1-vhich electricity
Drop forging: A forming operation, usually done flows. In EDM, it is comparable to the cutting
under impact, that compresses metal in dies. tool on a conventional machine tool.
Dry abrasive cutting: Employs a rotary abrasive Electrohydraulic forming: A process in ,,vhich high-
wheel, ·without the use of a liquid coolant, for voltage electrical energy is discharged from a
rapid, less-critical cutting. Compare with Wet capacitor bank into a thin wire or foil suspended
abrasive cutting. between two electrodes immersed in water. As
Dual dimensioning: A system that employs both the the wire or foil is vaporized by the electric cur-
U.S. Conventional svstem of fraction or decimal rent discharge, the vapor products expand, con-
dimensions and SI Metric dimensions on the verting the electrical energy to hydraulic energy.
same drawing. The shock ·wave forms the metal against the die.
Ductility: A property of metal that permits perma- It is a variation of explosiYe forming.
nent deformation by hammering, rolling, and Electrolysis: Producing chemical reactions by pass-
drawing without breaking or fracturing. ing an electric current through an electrolyte.
Dump: To remove all or part of the contents of a The method is used in ECM.
computer storage device. Also, printed copy Electrolyte: An electrically conductive fluid. It is
resulting from an operation. used in ECM.
Glossary ;,f lerms rm
Electromachining: Processes in which electrical Ferrous: An alloy containing a significant amount of
energy is applied directly to remove metal by iron.
erosion. Mechanical forces have no influence on File band: A band machine accessory used to obtain
the processes, as they do in conventional a smooth, uniformly finished surface. A series of
machining techniques. EDM and ECM are elec- small file segments make up the file band; the
tromachining processes. individual units interlock and form a continu-
Electronic beam machining (EBM): A metal-remov- ous file.
ing process in which heat is produced by a Fillet: Curved surface that connects two surfaces
sharply focused electron beam. that form an angle.
Electroplating: A plating process accomplished by Finishing teeth: The teeth on a broach that provide
passing an electric current from an anode (usu- the smoothest finish on the surface.
ally made of plating material) through an elec- Fit: Clearance or interference between two mating
trolyte to the workpiece (the cathode). parts. There are several classes of fits.
Emery: A natural (not manufactured) abrasive for Fixture: A device for holding work rigidly while
grinding and polishing. machining operations are performed. It does not
End of block (EB): A character that represents the guide the cutting tool.
end of a line or block of information in a numer- Flame hardening: A method of surface hardening
ical control program. steel by rapidly heating the surface with the
Erosion: In EDM, the wearing away of small flame of an oxyacetylene torch, then quenching.
amounts of material from a metal by an electric Flash: A fin of excess metal along the mold joint line
of a casting, occurring between mating die faces.
spark.
Etchant: A strong alkaline solution used in the Flask: In foundry work, a wooden or metal form
chemical milling process. A prepared part is consisting of a cope (top portion) and a drag
immersed in the solution, and the resulting (bottom portion) used to hold molding sand.
chemical action removes the desired metal. Flexible manufacturing system (FMS): An arrange-
Expansion fit: A process in which a part is placed in ment of machines and a connecting transport
liquid nitrogen or dry ice until it shrinks enough system under the control of a central computer
to fit into its mating part. Interference develops that allows processing of several workpieces
between the fitted pieces as the cooled piece simultaneously.
expands. It is the reverse of shrink fit. Flexible shaft grinder: A small, portable, hand-held
Explosive forming: Shaping metal parts in dies unit that performs many grinding jobs, from
using a controlled explosion to generate forming light deburring to die-polishing, and is powered
by electricity or air.
pressure.
External thread: A screw thread cut on an outside Flexible-back blade: A blade used on metal cutting
saws when safety requirements demand a shat-
surface.
terproof tool. These blades are also used for cut-
F ting odd-shaped work if there is a possibility of
Fabricate: To assemble or make from component the work coming loose in the vise.
parts. Floppy disk: A flexible plastic disk coated with mag-
Face milling: Machining large, flat surfaces parallel netic oxide and used to store computer data.
to the cutter face. Also known as a diskette.
Faceplate: A disk fixed to the spindle of a lathe, used Flow:Quantity of a fluid passing a point per unit of
to attach the workpiece. time. In pneumatics, this is commonly repre-
Facing: In lathe work, cutting across the end of a sented in cubic feet per minute (cfm).
workpiece to create a flat surface. Fluorescent penetrant inspection: A nondestructive
Fastener: Any device used to hold two objects or testing technique in which an oil-based pene-
parts together, such as bolts, nuts, screws, pins, trant is sprayed onto the work and drawn into
keys, rivets, and chemical bonding agents or every crack and flaw. The surface is rinsed with
adhesives. a solvent to remove the excess penetrant. After
Fatigue: The tendency for metal to break or fracture developing, the surface is viewed under ultravi-
under repeated or fluctuating stresses. olet light where defects appear fluorescent.
Feedback: Information returned from the output of Flute: A groove machined in a cutting tool to facili-
a machine or process for use as input in subse- tate easy chip removal and to permit cutting
quent operations. fluid to reach the cutting point.
rm
Flux: Fusible material used in brazing and welding Gaging: To check parts v.'ith various gages to deter-
to dissolve and aid in removal of oxides and mine whether the pieces are made vdthin speci-
other undesirable substances. fied tolerances.
Fly cutter: A single-point tool fitted in a lathe arbor; Gang milling: Csing two or more milling cutters to
it is inexpensive to make but relatively ineffi- machine se,·eral surfaces at one time.
cient because only one point does the cutting. Garbage: Erroneous, faulty, unwanted, or extrane-
Follower rest: Similar to a steady rest except it pro- ous data in a computer or numerical control
vides support directly in back of the cutting tool program.
and follows along during the cut. Compare with Gaseous fluid: A type of cutting fluid; compressed
Steady rest. air is the most commonly used.
Foot-pound: The US Conventional measurement Gate: The point where molten metal enters a mold
unit for torque. cavity.
Force fit: \\'hen interference between two mating Gears: Toothed wheels that transmit rotary motion
parts is sufficient to require force to press the from one shaft to another shaft without slip-
pieces together, and the parts are considered page.
permanently assembled. Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GDI):
Forge: To form metal with heat and/ or pressure. The control of the size of the features of a part
Form grinding: A cutting operation in which the and the allowances (either oYersize or under-
grinding wheel is shaped to produce the size) to achieve interchangeable manufacturing.
required contour on the ,..,•ork. Gib: A wedge-shaped strip that can be adjusted to
Forming: A method of "·orking sheet metal into use- maintain a proper fit of the movable surface of a
ful shapes by pressing or bending. machine tool.
Free fit: A fit that is used ·when tolerances are liberal. Graduate: To divide into equal parts by engraving
Clearance is sufficient to permit a shaft to run or cutting lines or graduations into metal.
freely without binding or overheating when Graduations: Lines that indicate measurement
properly lubricated. points on tools and machine dials.
Friction saw: A metal-cutting tool with a blade that Gravity feed: Moving materials from one location to
may or may not have teeth. The saw operates at another using the force of gravity.
very high speeds (20,000 surface feet or 6000 Grinding: An operation that removes material by
meters per minute) and actually melts its way rotating an abrasive wheel or belt against the
through the metal. ·work.
Fused disposition modeling (FDMY:'1: A rapid mod- Gun drilling: A process used to drill deep, accu-
eling technique that produces fully functioning rately sized holes.
prototypes. When made of acrylonitrile butadi-
ene styrene, the parts can be installed and run H
for proof that a design works. The FDM process H code: A code that calls out a specific fixture offset
forms three-dimensional objects from CAD-gen- value that may be stated for one, two, or three
erated solid or surface models. A temperature- axes. It is designated by the letter h and followed
controlled head extrudes thermoplastic material by h,·o digits.
layer by layer. The designed object emerges as a Half nut: A mechanism used to lock the lathe car-
three-dimensional part without tooling. riage to the lead screw to cut threads.
Hardened steel square: A square ,vith true right
angles, inside and outside. It is accurately
G ground and lapped for straightness and paral-
G function: A preparatory code on a program tape lelism and comes in sizes up to 36" (910 mm). It
to indicate a special function. The letter g is lm,·- is recommended " ·hen extreme accuracy is
ercase when shov,n on a printout. For example, required.
g90 indicates that all the following coordinate Hardening: Heating and quenching certain iron-
locations are expressed in absolute dimensions. based alloys to produce a hardness superior to
Gage: A tool used for checking metal parts to deter- that of untreated material. Hardening causes
mine whether they are ,dthin specified limits. metals to have a higher resistance to penetration
Gage blocks: See Jo-block. and abrasion.
Hardness testing: Techniques to determine the Hydroabrasive process: A water-jet process that
degree of hardness of heat-treated material. indudes abrasive particles in the water.
Headstock: On a lathe, the structure that contains Hydrodynamic machining (HDM): A computer-
the spindle to which various work-holding controlled cutting process that was developed
attachments are fitted. to shape composites. The technique uses a
Heat treatment: Careful application of a combina- 55,000 psi (379 000 kPa) water jet to cut complex
tion of heating and cooling cycles to a metal or shapes with minimal waste. Depending upon
alloy in a soiid state to bring about certain desir- the material, tolerances can be held to ±0.004"
able properties, such as hardness or toughness. (0.1 mm). Also known as water-jet cutting.
Helical gears: Gears with teeth cut at some angle
other than a right angle to the gear face, permit-
ting two or more teeth to be engaged at all times. ID: Abbreviation for inside diameter.
Operation is smoother and less noisy than that Idler gear: A gear situated between a driving gear
of spur gears. and a driven gear to transfer motion, without
Helix: A path generated by a point as it advances at any change of direction or of gear ratio.
a fixed rate on the surface of a cylinder, such as Impact machining: An ultrasonic technique using a
screw threads or flutes on a twist drill. shaped cutting tool that oscillates about 25,000
High-energy-rate forming (HERF): A metal-forming times per second to pound a slurry of fine, abra-
technique involving the release of a high-energy sive particles against the work. The technique
works best on hard, brittle materials (glass,
source, such as electrical, pneumatic-mechani-
quartz, silicon, and carbides) and is ineffective
cal, or explosives.
on soft materials, such as aluminum and copper.
Hob: A special gear cutter designed to cut gear teeth
Also known as "slurry machining."
on a continuous basis.
Impedance: The total opposition to alternating
Hobbing: Cutting gear teeth with a hob. The gear
current, including resistance, capacitance,
blank and hob rotate together in mesh during and inductance. Also known as "electrical
the cutting operation. impedance."
Home position: A fixed location in the basic coordi- In-line transfer system: A chain or belt conveyor
nate axes of a machine tool. It is usually the that moves a pallet containing a parts-holding
point in the process when tools are fully device or fixture between operations.
retracted, permitting any necessary changes. Incremental positioning: Measuring each tool
Honeycomb: Sections of thin material bonded movement with reference to the prior (last) tool
together to form a structure that is similar in position. Compare with Absolute positioning.
appearance to the wax comb that bees create to Independent chuck: A chuck in which each jaw can
store honey. The structure gives existing metals be moved independently of the other jaws.
greater strength and rigidity while reducing Indexable insert cutting tools: Widely used for turn-
weight. ing and milling operations, the inserts are man-
Honing: The process of removing a relatively small ufactured in a number of shapes and sizes for
amount of material from a surface by means of different turning geometries. As an edge dulls,
abrasive stones to obtain a desired finish or an the next edge is rotated into position until all
extremely close dimensional tolerance. edges are dulled; the inserts are then discarded.
Horizontal band saw: Frequently referred to as a Indexing: The process of providing equal spacing of
cutoff machine, it is a tool with a long, continu- holes and slots on the periphery of a cylindrical
ous blade that moves in only one direction. piece using a dividing or indexing head.
Cutting is continuous, and the blade can run at Indicator: A sensitive instrument capable of mea-
very high speeds because it rapidly dissipates suring slight variations when testing the true-
the cutting heat. ness of the work, machines, or machine
Horizontal spindle milling machine: A category of attachments.
milling machine where the cutter is fitted onto Induction hardening: The rapid heating of a part
an arbor mounted in the machine on an axis par- surrounded by a high-frequency electric coil to
allel with the worktable. Multiple cutters may above its critical temperature for a few seconds,
be mounted on the spindle for some operations. followed by rapid cooling.
., ',~ Machining Fundamentals
- -- ···- -- -- -· ·-- - - ··- - ·- -- ----.-- -· ~ ·-· - -- ··--
Input: Transfer of information by an appropriate Jig: A device that guides a cutting tool and aligns it
medium into a computer or machine control to the ivorkpiece so that all parts produced are
unit. uniform and ·w ithin specifications. An open
Inserted tooth cutter: A milling cutter ·with replace- (plate) jig consists of a plate with holes to guide
able teeth. the drill. It fits over the work. A box (closed) jig
Inspection: Measuring and checking of finished encloses the work and is used when holes must
parts to determine whether they meet specifica- be drilled in several directions.
tions. Jo-block (Johansson block): Precisely made steel
Integrated circuit (IC): A tiny single-structure blocks used by industry as a standard of mea-
assembly of electronic components containing surement. They are made in a range of sizes and
many circuits and functions. with a dimensional accuracy of ± 0.000002 (hvo
Interchangeable: Refers to a part that has been made millionths) inch, ,.._·ith a flatness and parallelism
to specific dimensions and tolerances and is of ±0.000003 (three millionths) inch. Also called
capable of being fitted in place of an identically "gage blocks."
made part. Just-in-time manufacturing (JIT): A system in
Interface: A functioning connection between two which materials are delivered at the time they
elements or components within a system. are needed for production, rather than being
Internal cut: A precision sawing operation on a ver- held in inventory. Its purpose is to expend the
tical band machine in which the band is fewest resources to produce the final product.
threaded through a hole drilled in the piece,
welded, and the work maneuvered along the K
prescribed line.
Internal grinding: A cutting operation done to Key: A small piece of metal embedded partially in
secure a fine surface finish and accuracy on the shaft and partially in the hub to prevent rota-
inside diameters. Work is mounted in a chuck tion of the gear or pulley on the shaft.
and rotated. During the grinding operation, the Keyway: The slot or recess in a shaft that holds the
revolving grinding wheel moves in and out of key.
the hole. Knee: The structure that supports the saddle and
Internal threads: Screw threads cut on the inside table of a column and knee-type milling
surface of piece. Internal threads are made on machine.
the lathe with a conventional boring bar and a Knife-edge blade: A vertical band machine tool
cutting tool sharpened to the proper shape. employed to cut material that would tear or fray
International Standards Organization (ISO): The if machined bv a conventional blade. Such mate-
agency responsible for establishing and publish- rials include sponge rubber, cork, cloth, corru-
ing manufacturing standards worldwide. gated cardboard, and rubber.
Intemational System of Units (SI): The metric sys- Knurling: The process of impressing diamond or
tem of weights and measures. Abbreviated SI straight-line patterns onto a metal surface by
(Systeme International). See SI Metric. rolling with pressure to impro,·e the appearance
Interpolation: A method of determining machine and provide better grip. The rolls are called
movements between two or three coordinate knurls.
points.
Investment casting: A casting method that involves L
making a wax, plastic, or frozen mercury pat- Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)™: A ne"·
tern, surrounding it with a wet refractory mate- technology for the rapid generation of models,
rial, then melting or burning out the pattern prototypes, accurate patterns, and molds. This
after the material has dried and set. Molten state-of-the-art, three-dimensional modeling
metal is then poured into the resulting mold method uses inexpensh·e solid sheet material,
cavity. such as paper, plastic, and composites, to form
the desired designs. Molds made from the com-
J posite materials can be used in direct tooling
Jamo taper: A standard taper of 0.600 inches per applications for such processes as injection
foot used on machine tools. molding, vacuum forming, and sand casting.
t;lossary of Terms

Land: The metal left between flutes or grooves in has a machinability index of 500 to 2000 and is
drills, reamers, taps, and other cutting tools. relatively easy to machine. In contrast, tool steel
Lapping: The process of finishing surfaces with a has a machinability index of 34 and is difficult to
very fine abrasive, like diamond dust or abra- machine.
sive flours. Machine bolt: A type of fastener employed to
Lard oil: A cutting oil made from animal fat, often assemble parts that do not require close toler-
mixed with mineral oil to improve lubrication. ances. Bolts are manufactured with square and
Laser-beam machining: A process that uses an hexagonal heads, in diameters ranging from
intense source of coherent light energy as a cut- 1/2" to 3". The nuts are similar in shape to the
ting tool. bolt head and are usually furnished with the
Lathe: A machine in which a workpiece in a work- machine bolts. Tightening the nut produces a
holding device is rotated while a stationary cut- clamping action to hold the parts together.
ting tool is forced against it. Some operations Machine control unit (MCU): A system of hardware
performed on a lathe include turning, boring, and software used to control the operation of a
facing, thread cutting, drilling, and reaming. computer numerical control machine.
Lathe dog: A device for clamping work so that it can Machine reamer: See Reamer.
be machined between centers. Machine tools: That class of machines which, taken
Lay: Describes the direction of the predominant tool as a group, can reproduce themselves.
marks, grain, or pattern of surface roughness. Machinist: A person who is skilled in the use of
Lay out: To locate and scribe points for machining machine tools and is capable of making complex
and forming operations. machine setups.
Layout dye: A coating applied to metal to make lay- MagnafluxTM: See Magnetic particle inspection.
out lines more visible. Magnetic chuck: A device that uses a magnetic field
Lead: The distance a nut will advance on a screw in to hold work for grinding.
one revolution. Magnetic forming: A metal-shaping process that
Lead screw: A long precision screw on the front of uses an insulated induction coil wrapped
the lathe bed that moves the tool carriage when around or placed within the work. As very high
cutting threads. momentary currents are passed through the coil,
Lip clearance: The amount that the surface of the an intense magnetic field is developed. This
point of a twist drill is relieved back from the causes the work to collapse, compress, shrink, or
lips (the cutting edges of the drill). expand depending on the design of the coil. Coil
Live center: A center used to hold and rotate work location depends upon whether the metal is to
on a lathe. be squeezed inward or bulged outward. The coil
Longitudinal: Lengthwise. is shaped to produce the desired shape in the
Lubricating: Having the quality of reducing friction work. Also known as "electromagnetic forming"
and cutting forces. or "magnetic pulse forming."
Magnetic particle inspection: A nondestructive
inspection technique that makes use of a mag-
M netic field and magnetic particles to detect and
M -function: A miscellaneous function in a numerical locate flaws on or near the surface of ferromag-
control program, designated by the letter m, fol- netic (iron-based) materials.
lowed by a two-digit number. It indicates such Major diameter: The largest diameter of a thread
functions as coolant on/ off or spindle rotation measured perpendicular to the axis.
direction. Malleability: A property of metal that determines
Machinability: The ease or difficulty of machining its ease in being shaped when subjected to
as it relates to the hardness of the material to be mechanical working such as forging or rolling.
cut. Mandrel: A slightly tapered, hardened steel shaft
Machinability index: A reference that indicates the that supports work machined between centers.
degree of ease or difficulty of machining a par- Manipulator: In automated manufacturing, the
ticular material. The index is based on the articulated "arm" of the robot. The end of the
machining characteristics of a common steel, arm is fitted with a "wrist" capable of angular
which is given an index of 100. Magnesium alloy and/ or rotational motion.
"Manual data input (MDI): A feature of a machine
control unit that allows a programmer or opera-
tor to enter data directly to the unit rather than
through an outside storage medium such as
for high-speed sawing of free machining
nonferrous metals. It is also employed when
tough, hard-to-machine materials are cut.
Miter gears: Right angle bevel gears having the
punch tape, disk, or computer memory. same number of teeth. They are used to transmit
Manufacturing: The use of machines, tools, and po\.ver through shafts at right angles to each
processes to convert raw materials into ne,v other.
products. Morse taper: A standard taper of approximately 3/8
1Warform: A drav,ing process that forms metal sheet inch per foot, used on lathe centers and drill
by using a movable steel punch and a rubber- shanks.
headed ram. 1\-fultiple-spindle drilling machine: A power-driven
Match plate: A plate on which matching patterns machine with multiple drilling heads, allmving
for metal casting are mounted or integrated. It is several operations to be performed v.ithout
used to facilitate molding. changing drills.
Megahertz (MHz): A unit of frequency equal to one 1"1usic wire: A carbon steel wire used to manufac-
million hertz (cycles per second). ture springs.
Menu: A list of functions appearing on a Yideo dis-
play terminal that indicates the possible opera-
tions that design or controlling equipment can N
perform.
Nanosecond: One billionth of a second.
Mesh: To engage gears to form a ,vorking contact.
NC: Abbreviation for National Coarse series of
Metal spraying: A metal-coating technique in which
screw threads. Also the abbreviation for
a metal wire or powder is heated to its melting
numerical control.
point and droplets are sprayed by air pressure
to produce the desired coating on the work Necking: :Machining a groove around a cylindrical
surface. shaft.
Metrology: The science that deals with systems of Newton meter (N-m): The SI Metric measurement
measurement. unit for torque.
Microinches: Millionths of an inch, shmYn as NF: Abbreviation for the National Fine series of
XXµin. screw threads.
Micrometer caliper: A precision tool capable of mea- Nitriding: A case-hardening technique in ·which a
suring to 0.001" (0.01 mm). When fitted with a ferrous alloy is heated in an atmosphere of
Vernier scale, it will read to 0.0001" (0.002 mm). ammonia or in contact with a nitrogenous mate-
Also known as a "mike." rial to produce surface hardness by absorption
Micrometers: Millionths of a meter, shown as of nitrogen. Quenching is not necessary.
XXµm. Noncorrosive: ·wm not ,;\·ear away material gradu-
Microsecond: One millionth of a second. ally by chemical action. Mineral cutting oils, for
.Milling: Remo,;,ing metal with a rotating cutter on a instance, are noncorrosive cutting fluids .
milling machine. Nonferrous: Not containing iron.
Milling machine: A machine that remo,;,es metal Normalizing: A process in which ferrous alloys are
from work by means of a rotary cutter. heated to approximately 100°F above a critical
Millisecond: One thousandth of a second. temperature range and cooled slowly in still air
Mineral oils: Cutting fluids best suited for light- at room temperature to relie,;,e stresses that may
duty (low speed, light feed) operations where haYe developed during machining, welding, or
high leYels of cooling and lubrication are not forming operations.
required. Numerical control (NC): A system (composed of a
1\-finor diameter: The smallest diameter of a screw control program, a control unit, and a machine
thread, measured across roots and perpendicu- tool) that controls the actions of the machine
lar to axis. Also known as "root diameter." through coded command instructions.
Mist coolant: Cutting fiuid applied on a band Numerical data: Information expressed by a set of
machine by flooding in mist form. It is used numbers or symbols.
G~ry~~ ~
------------------------------------------
0 out or checked to extreme accuracy. The head is
Obtuse angle: An angle of more than 90° and less graduated from 0° to 180° in both directions for
than 180°. easy reading.
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA): A law Plain turning: Turning in which the entire length of
passed by Congress in 1970 to establish stan- the piece is machined to a specified diameter.
dards for occupational safety and health. Planer-type surface grinder: A machine tool that
Employers and employees have the duty to makes use of a reciprocating motion to move the
comply with all rules and regulations estab- worktable back and forth under the grinding
lished by OSHA. wheel.
OD: Abbreviation for outside diameter. Plaster mold casting: A casting process, used pri-
Off-center: Eccentric, not accurate. marily with aluminum in which plaster molds
1

Offset tailstock method: A method for machining are used in place of sand molds for a better sur-
external tapers on a lathe. Jobs that can be face finish.
turned between centers may be taper-turned by Plate jig: See Jig.
this technique. Plunge grinding: Grinding method in which work is
Oil hardening: Using a mineral oil as a quenching mounted between centers and rotated while in
medium in heat-treatment or surface hardening contact with the grinding wheel. The area being
of certain alloys. ground is no wider than the wheel face.
Open jig: See Jig. Point-to-point system: See Position control system.
Open-loop system: A control system that has no Polishing: A process that uses a fine abrasive and a
means for comparing output with input for wax or oil compound to improve the surface fin-
machine control purposes. ish on a workpiece.
Optical comparator: A gaging system for inspection Position control system: A positioning system in
and precise measurement of small parts and sec- which controlled motion is required only to
tions of larger parts. reach a given end point, with no path control
Out-of-true: Term meaning not on center, eccentric, during the transition from one point to the next.
out of alignment. Also known as a "point-to-point system".
Position sensor: A device for measuring a position
p and converting this measurement into a form
Pallet: The support base, frame, or tray used on an convenient for transmission. Also known as a
in-line material transfer system. "position transducer.'
1

Pedestal grinder: Similar to a bench grinder, except Pot broaching: A manufacturing process used for
the grinding machine is on a pedestal (base) fas- machining flat, round1 and contoured surfaces,
tened to the floor. It is larger than a bench both intern.al and external, in which the tool is
grinder. stationary, and the work is pulled through it.
Peening: The mechanical working of metal by use of Powder metallurgy (PIM): A technique used to
hammer-like blows. shape parts from metal powders.
Peripheral milling: A milling operation that is done Precision: The degree of refinement with which an
when the surface being machined is parallel operation is performed or measured; held to
with the periphery of the cutter. close tolerances.
Permanent mold: A mold, usually made of metal, Precision grinding: A finishing operation in which a
used for repeated production of similar castings. minute amount of material is removed with
Pickling: Removing stains and oxide scales from each pass of the grinding wheel to generate a
metal surfaces by immersion in acid baths. smooth, accurate surface.
Pinion: The smaller of two mating gears. Precision microgrinder: A small, portable hand
Pitch: The distance from a point on one thread or grinder that performs many grinding jobs, from
gear tooth to the corresponding point on the light deburring to die-polishing, and is powered
next thread or tooth. by electricity or air.
Pitch diameter: The diameter of the pitch circle of a Preparatory function: In CNC programming, a
gear. command-changing mode of operation or con-
Plain protractor: An angle-measuring tool used in trol, such as from positioning to contouring or
layout work when angles do not need to be laid calling for a repeat cycle of machine.
 !-tachirti11g :'=undamentz.1s

Press fit: A class of fit where interference between Raker set: A three-tooth saw set in ·which one tooth
mating parts is sufficient to require force to is angled toward the left, another one straight,
press the pieces together. and the next one angled toward the right, alter-
Printout: A printed sheet containing computer pro- nating continuously along the length of the
gram data. blade. Raker set is recommended for cutting
Profilometer: An electronic instrument for measur- large solids or thick plate and bar stock.
ing surface roughness. Ram: Part of a machine that moves back and forth
Programmer: In CNC, there are two important types and carries a cutting tool.
of programmers: A parts programmer is a per- Rapid traverse: A machine tool mechanism that
son who writes instructions for a computer to rapidly repositions the workpiece for the next
act upon to develop a specific program of oper- cut.
ation (for example, turning a shaft to the desired Rate of feed: The table movement speed on a milling
diameter). A computer programmer is a person machine.
who develops routines that give a computer Readout: A ,·isual display of data.
basic intelligence to act upon instructions that Ream: To finish a drilled hole with a reamer.
have been prepared by a parts programmer. Reamer: A cutting tool used to enlarge, smooth, and
Protective clothing: Clothing that is worn in a size a drilled hole by removing a small amount
machine shop to protect the body. Safety glasses of metal.
and hearing protectors are two of the most Reciprocating hand grinder: A tool used to finish
important articles because shop areas produce dies ..
both noise and flying chips. Other protective Red hardness: In metals, the quality of remaining
clothing includes steel-toed shoes, lead aprons, hard ,vhen red hot.
caps or hairnets, and respirators. Reference line: A layout line from which all mea-
Pull broach: See Broach. surements are made. Also known as a baseline.
Pyrometer: A temperature-measuring device, origi- Relief: Clearance prodded around a cutting edge by
nally designed to measure high temperatures;
removal of tool material.
however, some are nm\· used in any temperature
Rework: The process of repairing defective parts,
range.
assemblies, or entire products. Rework adds no
value to the product and is a form of waste.
Q Right angle: An angle of 90° .
Quenching: A rapid cooling of heated metal by con- Riser: A reservoir of molten metal provided to com-
tact with fluids or gases to impart hardness to pensate for contraction of cast metals as they
the material. solidify.
Quick return: A mechanism on some machine tools Robot: A programmable, multifunctional manipula-
that can be engaged to rapidly move the work- tor designed to move materials, parts, tools, or
table to its starting point during a noncutting specialized devices through variable pro-
cvcle. grammed motions to perform a variety of tasks.
Quill: A steel tube in the head of some machine Rockwell hardness: A measure of the hardness of a
tools that encloses the bearings and rotating material. The depth of the indentation of either
spindle on ·which are mounted cutting tools. It is a steel ball or a specially designed diamond cone
geared to a hand·wheel and/or le,·er that is used penetrator under a prescribed load is the basis
to raise or lower the rotating cutting tool on the for the test.
work surface. A quill can be locked in position. Roller burnishing: A cold-working, metal-finishing
operation that, rather than removing metal,
R compresses or "irons out" the peaks of the sur-
Rack: A flat strip of metal with teeth designed to face into the vallevs.
mesh with those of a gear wheel, as in "rack and Rolling: A process of forming and shaping metal by
pinion." It is used to change rotary motion to passing it through a series of driven rollers.
reciprocating motion. Root diameter: The smallest diameter of a thread.
 "
Glossary of "{erms

Rotary table: A milling machine attachment con- Scribe: To draw a line on a metal workpiece with a
sisting of a round table with T-shaped slots, sharp pointed tool (a scriber).
rotated by means of a handwheel actuating a Semichemical cutting fluids: Cooling and lubricat-
worm and worm gear. ing liquids that may have a small amount of
Roughing: Rapid removal of surplus stock when the mineral oil added to improve the fluids' lubri-
quality of the surface finish is not important. cating qualities. Semichemical cutting fluids
Roughing teeth: The teeth on a multi.toothed broach incorporate the best qualities of both chemical
that remove the largest amount of material, pro- and emulsifiable (water-based) cutting fluids.
ducing a roughly finished surface. Subsequent Sensors: Electrical devices that receive varied types
teeth will produce a semi-finished and finished of information and transmit feedback to a com-
surface. puter or other control device.
Row: In numerical control, a path perpendicular to Sequence number: Identifies the relative location of
the edge of a paper or plastic tape, along which blocks or groups of blocks in a program.
information may be stored by presence or Servomechanism: In EDM, the drive unit that accu-
absence of holes or magnetized areas. rately controls electrode movement and main-
Runner: A channel through which molten metal tains the correct distance between the work and
flows from the sprue to the casting and risers. the electrode as machining progresses.
Set up: The positioning of a workpiece, attachments,
s and cutting tools on a machine tool.
Safe edge: A file edge without teeth. Setover: The distance a lathe tailstock is offset from
Safety equipment: Tools or equipment that help the normal centerline of the machine. It is a
prevent or mitigate accidents in the potentially method of taper-turning.
dangerous environment of a machine shop. Setscrews: Semipermanent fasteners that are used
Machine guards, fire extinguishers, eye wash for such applications as preventing pulleys from
stations, vacuum dust collectors, power slipping on shafts, holding collars in place on
switches (for locking off equipment), and assemblies, and positioning shafts.
brushes (for removing machine chips) are a few Shim: A thin piece of sheet metal used to provide
examples. proper clearance between mating parts.
Sand-mold casting: A process that involves pouring Shrink fit: A type of fit in which an outer member is
molten metal into a cavity that has been formed expanded by heating to permit insertion of an
in a sand mold. The resulting parts usually must inner member, in turn, obtaining a tight fit as the
be machined to final dimensions and finish. outer member cools and shrinks. The fit is tight
Sandblasting: A method used to clean castings and and considered permanent.
metals by blowing sand against them under SI Metric: The metric system of weights and mea-
very high pressure. sures. (SJ stands for the French words Systeme
Scale: Surface oxidation on metals caused by burn- International.)
ing, oxidizing, or cooling. The oxides usually Side milling cutter: A type of milling cutter with cut-
form as loose scale. ting edges on the circumference and on one or
Scale drawings: Drawings made other than actual both sides. The cutters are made in solid form or
size (1:1). A drawing made one-half size would with inserted teeth.
have a scale of 1:2. A scale of 2:1 would mean Single-point cutting tool: A cutting tool with one
that the drawing is twice the size of the actual face and one cutting edge.
part. Sintering: Forming a coherent bonded mass by heat-
Scleroscope: A testing device that drops a hammer ing metal powders without melting; it is used
onto the test piece; a measurement of the result- mostly in powder metallurgy.
ing bounce or rebound of the hammer is used to Skills standards: Developed by the National
determine hardness. Tooling and Machining Association, with the aid
Scrap: Excess material generated during machining. of the metalworking industry, these are the
Scraping: Removing minute portions of a wearing industry's requirements for skilled workers and
surface to achieve a precision fit and finish not the basis for industry-recognized certification
attainable by ordinary filing techniques. obtained through performance testing.
 Machining Fundamentals

Slab broach: A broaching operation using a flat and lower production costs. Production is peri-
toothed strip that is usually held (singly or in odically measured and analyzed to determine if
groups) in a slotted fixture. adjustments should be made.
Slip bushings: Inserts used to guide the drills when Steady rest: A support for long, thin workpieces that
a combination of open and box jigs must be used keeps the work from springing or bending away
to perform several operations. The slip bushings from the cutting tool. The rest also reduces
are removed for subsequent operations such as "chatter" when long shafts are machined.
reaming, tapping, countersinking, counterbor- Compare ,dth Follower rest.
ing, or spot facing. Steel rule: A measuring tool, a,·ailable in at least
Slitting: An operation in which a thin cutter or three basic types of graduations: fractional inch,
rotary knife is used to cut sheet metal into nar- decimal inch, and metric.
row strips. Stellite: An alloy of cobalt, chromium, and tungsten
Slotting: Similar to slitting, except that the cut is used to make high-speed cutting tools.
made only part way through the work. The slot Stereolithography: A rapid prototyping technique
in a screw head is an example of slotting. that allows designers to quickly generate three-
Smart tooling: Involves the use of cutting tools and dimensional models or prototypes of parts with
work-holding devices that can be readily recon- relatively inexpensive materials. The stereolith-
figured to produce a variety of shapes and sizes ography process uses a computer-guided, low-
within a given part family. This makes it eco- po\ver laser beam to harden a liquid polymer
nomically feasible to manufacture products in plastic into the programmed shape. The three-
smaller lot sizes. dimensional hard plastic models can be studied
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE): The organi- to determine whether they are the best solution
zation that devised standards used to classify to a design problem.
steels. Stop: A device on a machine tool ,vorktable used to
Software: The entire set of programs, procedures, turn off the automatic feed mechanism or to
and related documentation associated with a reverse travel. Also known as a "dog."
computer system. Straddle milling: Using two or more milling cutters
Soldering: Joining metals with a nonferrous filler to perform seYeral milling operations simulta-
metal that has a melting point lower than the neously.
.
base metals. It is normallv carried out at tern-
peratures belo-w soo=f (427°C).
Straight set: A two-tooth saw set in which one tooth
is angled to the side and the other one straight,
Spline: A series of grooves cut lengthwise around a alternating continuously along the length of the
shaft or hole. blade. Straight set is recommended for materials
Spot facing: Machining a circular spot on the sur- like aluminum and magnesium.
face of a part to furnish a flat bearing surface for Straight-cut system: A system in which controlled
mounting a bolthead or nuthead. cutting action occurs only along a path parallel
Sprue hole: An opening in a mold into which molten to linear, circular, or other machine ways.
metal is poured. Straightedge: A precision tool for checking the accu-
Spur gear: A wheel v,ith teeth that run straight racy of flat surfaces.
across the gear face, perpendicular to the sides. Strain: A measure of change in the shape or size of
It is the most commonly used gear. a body, compared to the body's original shape or
Square: A tool used to check 90° (square) angles. It is size.
also used for laying out lines that must be at Stress: Intensity, at a point in a body, exerted by an
right angles to a given edge or parallel to external force.
another edge. Stress-relieving: A process for removing internal
Staking: Joining two parts by upsetting metal at stresses that have developed in parts that have
their junction. been cold worked, machined, or welded. Steel
Standard: An accepted base for a uniform system of parts are heated to lOOO"F to 1200°F (547°C to
measurement and quality. 660::C), held at this temperature one hour or
Statistical Process Control (SPC): A quality control more per inch of thickness, and then slowly air-
method used to reduce the number of rejects or furnace-cooled.
Clossary of Terms

Stretch forming: Shaping metals by applying ten- Tensile strength: The maximum stress and strain a
sion to stretch the heated sheet or part, wrap- material can bear.
ping it around a die, and then cooling it. Tension: A stretching or pulling force.
Super finish: A finish in which surface irregularities Thread: To cut a screw thread.
have been reduced to a few millionths of an inch Thread rolling: Applying a thread to a bolt or screw
to produce an exceptionally smooth and long- by rolling it between two grooved die plates,
wearing surface. only one of which is in motion, or between rotat-
Surface gage: A scribing tool used to check whether ing circular dies.
a part is parallel to a given surface. Thread-cutting stop: A device used to stop the
Surface plate: An iron or granite plate, ground or thread-cutting operation on a lathe so the tool
lapped to a smooth flat surface, and used for can be removed from the work after each cut
precision layout and inspection. and repositioned before the next cut is started.
Surface roughness standards: A series of small Threaded fastener: A bolt or similar device that uses
plates with varying degrees of surface rough- the wedging action of the screw thread to clamp
ness that allow a machinist or inspector to com- parts together. To achieve maximum strength, a
pare finishes by sight and touch. threaded fastener should screw into its mating
part at least a distance equal to one and one-half
T times the thread diameter.
Three-tooth rule: In a properly selected power
T function: A code identifying a tool select com-
hacksaw blade, at least three teeth must come in
mand in a program. As with m and g codes, the
contact with the work.
t also appears lowercase on a printout.
Tailstock: A movable lathe fixture that mounts on Three-wire method of measuring threads: To accu-
ways to support work between centers. It can be rately measure thread size, three wires of a spe-
fitted with tools for drilling, reaming, and cific diameter are fitted into screw threads, and
threading. a micrometer measurement is made over the
Tang: Flats or tongue machined on the end of wires. A mathematical formula provides the
tapered shanks. Tang fits into a slot in the mat- information necessary to calculate the correct
ing part and prevents the taper from rotating in measurement.
the mating part. Also, the part of a file that fits Titanium: A metal used for applications that require
into a handle. a material to be lightweight, high-strength,
Tantalum: A ductile metal capable of withstanding corrosion-resistant, and high-temperature resis-
temperatures ranging from 2500°F to 4000°F tant. It weighs only about half as much as steel,
(1372°C to 2206°C). It is used in making surgical yet is almost as strong.
tools, pen points, and electronic equipment, and Tolerance: A permissible deviation from a basic
is being used increasingly in space-age technol- dimension.
ogy applications. Tool crib: A room or area in a machine shop where
Tap: A tool used to cut internal threads. tools and supplies are stored and dispensed as
Taper: A piece that uniformly increases or decreases needed.
in diameter to assume a wedge or conical shape. Tool function: A command in a computer program
Taper attachment: A guide attached to a lathe and identifying a tool and calling for its selection.
used to accurately cut internal and external The actual tool change may be initiated by a sep-
tapers. arate tool-change command.
Tapping: Forming an internal screw thread in a hole Tool post-. Mounts the cutting tool on the carriage of
or other part by means of a tap. Also, opening the lathe.
the pouring hole of a melting furnace to remove Toolroom: An area or department where tools, jigs,
molten metal. fixtures, and dies are manufactured.
Temper: The hardness and strength of a rolled metal. Tooth form: The shape of the tooth on a band
Tempering: Heating hardened steel to just below its machine saw. There are three basic forms: stan-
critical temperature, then slowly cooling the dard, skip, and hook.
steel to reduce brittleness and toughness. Tooth rest: A device that quickly and accurately
Template: A pattern or guide used for layout design. positions the teeth of a gear cutter.
no
Torque: The amount of turning or twisting force Coarse). Fasteners using this thread series are
applied to a threaded fastener or part. It is mea- interchangeable with fasteners using the
sured in force units of foot-pounds (ft.-lbs.) or American National Thread System.
the SI Metric equivalent, newton meters (N •m). Universal chuck: A chuck on which all jaws move
Torque is the product of the force applied times simultaneouslv at a uniform rate to automati-
the length of the lever arm. cally center round or hexagonal stock
Track: See Row. Universal tool and cutter grinder: A grinding
Train: A series of meshed gears. machine designed to support cutters (primarily
Transducer: A dedce that converts an input signal milling cutters) while they are sharpened to
into an output signal of a different form. specified tolerances. Special attachments permit
Transverse: ::v.t:ovement at a right angle to the main straight, spiral, and helical cutters to be sharp-
direction of travel. An in and out movement ened accurately. Other attachments enable the
along the Y axis. machine to be adapted to all types of internal
True: On center. and external cylindrical grinding.
Tumbler gears: Idle gears in a gear train used to
reverse the rotation of the driven gear. V
Tungsten carbide: The hardest human-made metal V-block: A square or rectangular steel block with a
(almost as hard as diamond). The metal is 90:i V-groove through the center, provided with
shaped by molding tungsten, carbon, and cobalt a clamp for holding round stock for drilling,
pmvders under heat and pressure. milling, and laying out operations.
Turret lathe: A lathe equipped with a six-sided tool V-ways: Portions of machine tool beds that are
holder (turret) that holds multiple tools and can raised and shaped like an inverted V; they act as
be revolved to present the appropriate tool for a bearing surfaces, guiding and aligning the mov-
particular operation. able portion of the machine.
Twist drill: A common drill made by forging or Variability: Inconsistency that occurs in manufac-
milling rough flutes and then twisting them to a turing a product.
spiral shape. After twisting, the drills are milled Vents: Narrow openings in molds that permit gases
and ground to approximate size. Finally, they generated during metal pouring to escape.
are heat-treated and ground to exact size. Vernier caliper: A precision measuring instrument,
used for both inside and outside measure-
u ments, that is accurate to 1/1000" (0.001") and
US Conventional: The "English" system of weights 1/50 mm (0.02 mm).
and measures used in the United States. Vernier protractor: An angle-measuring tool used in
Compare ,vith SI Metric. layout work when angles must be extremely
Ultrasonic machining: A machining process in accurate. With this tool, angles of 1/12 of a
which sound waves above the audible range degree (5 minutes of arc) can be precisely mea-
propel an abrasive for use as a metal-cutting sured.
tool. Vertical milling attachment: A mechanism that can
Ultrasonic testing: Techniques that make use of be attached to a horizontal milling machine to
sound lvaves above the audible range to detect allow such operations as end and surface
cracks and fla,\·s in almost any kind of material milling, radius and cam milling, drilling, ream-
that is capable of conducting sound. Sound ing, boring, and cutting slots and key,vays.
,vaves may also be employed to measure the Vertical spindle milling machine: A type of milling
thickness of the same materials from one side. machine in which the cutter is normally perpen-
Ultraviolet light: Also known as "black light," it is dicular (at a right angle) to the ,,vorktable. On
employed in conjunction ,\ith a fluorescent dye many vertical spindle machines, the spindle can
for parts inspection. Any defects show because be tilted to perform angular cutting operations.
the dye flows into and remains in the fla,,·s. Vitreous enamel: A glass layer that has been fused to
Unified Thread System: A standard thread form. sheet or cast iron surfaces, forming an extremely
The threads are identified as UNF (Unified hard coating that is smooth and easy to clean.
~ational Fine) and UNC (Unified National Also knm,·n as porcelain.
Glossary or Tel"ms ""
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
w Wheel dresser: A tool for cleaning, resharpening,
Washer: A flat, ring-shaped piece used to improve and restoring the mechanical accuracy of the
the binding ability of a screw fastener. It also cutting faces of grinding wheels.
prevents surface marring. Wiggler: See Center finder.
Water-jet cutting: See Hydrodynamic machining Work envelope: The volume of space defined by the
(HDM). reach of a robot's arm in three dimensions.
Waviness: A quality of a machined surface that Work hardening: The increase in hardness that
takes the form of smoothly rounded peaks and develops in metal as a result of cold forming.
valleys. Waviness is of greater magnitude than Working drawing: A drawing or drawings that give
roughness. a machinist the necessary information to make
Wavy set: A saw tooth set in which several teeth are and assemble a mechanism.
angled to the right and several to the left, alter- Wringing fit: A fit that is practically metal to metal.
nating continuously along the blade. Wavy set is It is used with gage blocks and requires a twist-
recommended for work with varying thick- ing motion to assemble.
nesses, such as pipe, tubing, and structural
materials. X
Webster hardness tester: A portable device tor test- X axis: Machine movement to left or right, in rela-
ing the hardness of materials such as aluminum, tion to the opera tor.
brass, copper, and mild steel. It can be used on X-ray inspection: A nondestructive testing tech-
assemblies that cannot be brought into the labo- nique that has become a routine step in accep-
ratory, or to test a variety of shapes that other tance of parts and materials.
testers cannot check, such as extrusions, tubing,
or flat stock. The tester's dial indicator reading y
is converted to the Rockwell hardness scale by Y axis: Machine movement toward or away from
referring to a conversion chart furnished with the operator.
the tool Yield point: The point of stress or strain at which a
Wet abrasive cutting: Uses a rotary abrasive wheel material fractures.
with a liquid coolant to produce a fine surface
finish and permit cutting to close tolerances. The z
cuts are bum-free and have few or no burrs. Zero point: The point from which all dimensions are
Compare with Dry abrasive cutting. referenced in an absolute positioning system.
rm
.A c <nowl ments
The author expresses his sincere thanks to the many organizations and manufacturers who cooperated so
generously in supplying the technical information and many of the photographs used in this textbook. Any
omissions from the following list are purely accidental.
Adept Technology, Inc.; Alden Corp.; Aloris Tool Co., International, Inc.; Komet of America, Inc.; L.W. Chuck
Inc.; Aluminum Company of America; American Co.; LaPoint ~Iachine Tool Co.; K.O. Lee Co.; LeBlond
Foundrymen's Society; American l\:"ational Standards Makino Machine Tool Co.; Light Beam Technology, Inc.;
Institute; American Welding Society; Armstrong Bros. Light Machines Corp.; Lindberg Steel Treating Co.;
Tool Co.; Armstrong-Blum Mfg. Co.; Association for Lockheed-Martin; Lockwood Products, Inc.; Loctite
Manufacturing Technology; Autodesk, Inc.; AVCO Corp.; Lufkin Rule Co.; Lumonics Corp.; Magnaflux
Aerostructures Div., AVCO Corp.; Baldor; Bell Helicopter Corp.; Magnus Chemical; Maho :Machine Tool Corp.;
Textron/Boeing Helicopters; Bethlehem Steel Co.; Bird- Marposs Corp.; ~faster Lock Co.; Mazak Corp.; Metal
Johnson Company; Black and Decker; Boeing Co.; Boston Powder Industries Federation; Metco, Inc.; Microphoto,
Gear Co.; Bridgeport Machines, Inc.; Broaching Machine Inc.; :\ITFCO McEnglevan Industrial Furnace Co., Inc.;
Specialties; Brmrn & Sharpe :Mfg. Co.; Buick Div. of Millersville Uniwrsity; Minitool Inc.; Mitsubishi
GMC; Burgess-Norton Mfg. Co.; Bystronic, Inc.; Materials USA Corporation; Mitutoyo/MTI Corp.; l\.forse
Carboloy, Inc.; Central Foundry Div. Of GMC; Challenge Tool Co.; Motoman; MTS Systems Corp.; Nachi Robotics;
:\.1achinery Co.; Charmilles Technologies; Chicago- N ASA; National Broach & .Machine Co.; National
Latrobe; Chick Machine Tool, Inc.; Chrysler Corp.; Machinery Co.; National Machine Systems; National
Cincinnati Lathe & Tool Co.; Cincinnati Milacron; CITCO Machine Tool Builders' Assoc.; NEYIECH; Nicholson
Div., Western Atlas, Inc.; Clausing Industrial, Inc.; Coated File Co.; Northrop-Grumman Corp.; Norton Co.; NSK
AbrasiYe Manufacturers Institute; Cogsdill Tool America; 0.5. Walker Co., Inc.; Okuma America
Products, Inc.; Columbian Vise and Mfg. Co.; Corporation; Optica; Optical Gaging Products, Inc.;
Commander Die & Machine Co.; Compositek Osborn Mfg. Co.; Parker-Kalan; Parlee, Inc.; Peter
Corporation; Computervision; Cross Co.; Dapra Wolters of America, Inc.; Pfauter-.Maag Cutting Tools;
Corporation; Darex Corp.; Defiance Machine and Tool Philadelphia Gear Corp.; Polygon Company; Pontiac
Co.; Deka-Drill, South Bend Lathe; Delcam International; Di,,., General Motors Corp.; Precision Castparts Corp.;
Delco Moraine Div. of GMC; Deneb Robotics, Inc.; Procyon Machine Tools; Radyne; Reishauer Elgin;
DoALL Co.; Drh·-lok, Inc.; duMont Corp.; Dumore Co.; Renishaw, Inc.; Repubiic-lagun Machine Tool Co.;
DuPont Co.; Eijer Plumbing-ware; Emco-1.faier Corp.; Revolution Tool Company; Rofin-Sinar, Inc.; Rohm and
Emergency Vehicles, Inc.; ENCO Mfg. Co.; Engis Haas; Rush Machinery, Inc.; The Ryan Company ;
Corporation; EROWA Technology, Inc.; Euclid; E,·ans & Sandvik Coromant Co.; W.J. SaYage Co.; William L
Sutherland; Everett Industries, Inc.; Ex-Cell-O Corp.; Schotta, ~lillersville Uniwrsity; Sears, Roebuck and
EZFeatureMILL-Engineering Geometry Systems; Facit; Company-Orland Park Retail Store, Orland Park, Illinois;
Fanuc Robotics l\:"orth America, Inc.; Federal Products Shakeproof Div., Illinois Tool Works, Inc.; Sharnoa Corp.;
Co.; Flow International Corp.; Ford Motor Co.; French Sharp Industries, Inc.; Shore Instrument and
National Railroads; General Dynamics Corp.; General Manufacturing Co., Inc.; Simmons Machine Tool Corp.;
yfotors Corp.; Giddings & Le,ds, Inc.; Greenfield Tap & South Bend Lathe Corp.; South Shore Tool and
Die; Grumman Aerospace Corp.; Hamilton Standard DeYelopment Corp.; Speedfam; Standard Tool Co.; L S.
Div., United Technologies; Hamilton Watch Co.; Starrett Co., Athol, Massachusetts; Stratasys, Inc.;
Hammond Machinery Builders.; Bill Hannan; Hardinge, Sundstrand Corp.; Sunnen Products Company; Surf-
Inc.; Harig Div. of Bridgeport Machines Inc.; Chek; Surfware; 3D Systems; 3M Company; Taft-Pierce
Harrison/REM Sales, Inc.; Hartel Cutting Technologies, Co.; Thread"·ell Manufacturing Co.; Tinius Olsen Testing
Inc.; Heidenhain Corp.; Heli-Coil Corp.; Helisys, Inc.; Machine Co.; Tomas-Bechler S.A.; Toshiba Machine Co.,
Hewlett-Packard Marketing Communications; Hexcel America; Tri-Tool, Inc.; U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds; C.S.
Corp.; Hirata Corporation of America; Honeywell, Inc., Amada, Ltd.; L'-.S. Army; U.S. Navy; Union Carbide
Industrial Automation and Control; Hougen Corp.; Union Carbide Corp.; Unison Corp.; USM Corp.,
Manufacturing , Inc.; Hon-met Corp.; Hughes Electro- Fastener Group; Valenite, Inc.; Waldes Kohinoor, Inc.;
optical and Data Systems Group; Hurco Manufacturing Bob Walker; Warner & Swasev Co.; Webster Instrument,
Co.; Hydramat, Inc.; Ingersoll Rand; Ingersoll-Rand Co., Inc.; Weldon Machine Tool, · Inc.; W.F. Wells; Westech
Waterjet Systems; Interlen Products Corporation; Iscar Automation Systems; Westech Products Group/Gantrex
Metals, Inc.; Jacobs Mfg. Co.; Jergens, Inc.; Jet Equipment Machine Tool Loaders; Westinghouse Electric Corp.; J.H.
& Tools; C. E. Johannson Co.; Johnson Gas Appliance Co.; Williams and Co.; Willis ~fachinery and Tools Corp.; John
Jones & Lamson Machine Co.; Jones & Shipman, Inc.; Winter; Wilson Instruments/Instron Corp.; Wilson Mech.
Jorgensen Conveyors, Inc.; Justright ~Ianufacturing Inst. Div., American Chain and Cable Co., Inc.; Wilton
Company; Kaiser Tool Co., Inc.; Kearney & Trecker Corp.; Corp.; WMW Machinery Company, Inc.; Yukiwa Seiko
Kelsey-Hayes; Kennametal, Inc.; Kesel/JRM USA, Inc.; Carl Zeiss, Inc.
 Index

A Air, quenching medium, 474

Abrasive, AISI. See American Iron and Steel Institute
band machining polishing, 394 AU-around machinist, 549
hand polishing, 123 All-hard blades,
polishing on lathes, 267 hacksaws, 107
cutoff saw, reciprocating power hacksaw, 193
dry abrasive cutting, 197 Allen wrenches, 99
wet abrasive cutting, 197 Alloy metallic elements, 454-455
materials, 122 Alloy steels, 453--454
abrasive cloth, 123 chromium, 453
aluminum oxide, 122 properties of, 454
coated abrasives, 123 chromium-nickel, 454
comparative grading chart, 122 cobalt, properties of, 455
crocus, 122 ductility, 454
diamond dust polishing compound, 122 manganese, 453, 454
emery, 122
molybdenum, 453, 454
safety, 123
nickel, 453, 454
silicon carbide, 122
synthetic, 122 hlngsten, 453, 454
safety, hand polishing, 123 vanadium, 453, 454
Abrasive belt machining, 183, 378--379 Alloys, aluminum,
support, contact wheels, 379 abrasive constituents, 459
platens, 379 machining characteristics, 459-460
ABS. See Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene nonabrasive nature, 459
Absolute positioning, numeric:al control (NC), 403 Altemate set blades,
AC. See Adaptive control hacksaws, 107
Acme screw threads, Alumina,
cutting on lathe, 257 indexable insert cutting tools, lathe, 216
Acme screw thread gage, 257 Aluminum,
Acorn nuts, 133 abrasive constituents, 459
Acrylics, alloys,
charac~ristics, 530 cast, 459
Lucite , 530 heat-treatable metals, 458
Plexiglas®, 530 machining characteristics, 459--460
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), wrought, 459
rapid prototyping techniques, 431 Aluminum Association Designation System, 459
ADAPT (Adaptation of APT), anodizing, 496---497
computer languages, 412 carbide tools, 460
Adapters, ceramic tools, 460
holding milling cutters, 306 finishes, 495
Adaptive control (AC),
heat treahnent, 472
computer numerical control (CNC), 413
numerical control (NC), 413 age-harden, 472
Addendum (a), calculating, 343 ductile, 472
Adhesives, 138-140 high-speed cutting tools, 460
advantages, 138 increasing strength, 459
cyanoacrylate debonder, 139 machining,459--460
cyanoacrylate quick setting, 138--139 nonabrasive nature, 459
forms, 138 temper designation, 459
using, 139-140 tool geometry, 460
Adjustable damping pliers, 93--94 Aluminum Association Designation System, 459
Adjustable hand reamers, 112 Aluminum oxide,
Adjustable stops, precision grinding, 355 hand polishing, 122
Adjustable wrenches, 95-97 American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI),
Adjusting screws, lathe, 227 number code for identifying steel, 456-457
Age-hardening, aluminum, 472 American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
Air gage, 71-72 drawings, 30
applications, 71-72 grinding wheel marking system, 359
manometer, 72 surface values, 492

rm
 M achining Fundamenta!s

American Xational Thread System, 114 robotics, 424-428

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), safety, 427
geometric characteristic symbols, 41 Automatic Machining Program (AUTO MAP),
Angle cutter, arbor milling cutters, 299 computer languages, 412
double-angle, 301 Automatic Programmed Tools (AP1),
single-angle, 301 APT system dictionary, 413
Angle plate, auxiliary function statements, 4i3
precision grinding, 366 computer languages, 412-413
work-holding devices, 167 geometry, 413
Angular cuts, machining statements, 413
reciprocating power hacksaw, 193 Automatic screw machine, 275
Angular knurls, Automatic turret lathe, 275
knurling on lathes, 265 Awareness barriers, safeh· aids, 26
Angular sawing, Axis in,tersion, •
vertical band machine, 392 contour or continuous path, 407
Annealing, Axis of movement,
cryogenic applications, 543 positioning with numerical control (l\C), 402
heat treatment of steel, 468-469
Anodizing, metal finishing, B
aluminum oxide, 496-497 Back injuries, 2..l
electrobrightening, 4%, 497 Back reflection, ultrasonic inspection, 4-15
hard coat, 496 Backcounterbore, 178
ordinar)~ 496 spotfacing, 178
..\.:'ISi. See American Xational Standards Institute Hacksaw, 10-l
Appearance, reasons for metal finishing, 492, ..l93 Backspotface, spotfacing, 178
Apron, lathe, 206 Ball bearing center, 223
APT. See Automatic Programmed Tools Ball nose end mill, 297
APT III. See Computer languages Ball-peen hammer, 101
APT Multi-toolTM, spotfacing, 178 Band machining,
Arbor milling cutters, advantages, 353
angle cutter, 299. 301 basic operation, 16
double-angle, 301 blade characteristics, 384-386
single-angle, 301 gage, 386
formed milling cutters, 299, 3{11 pitch, 386
holding, 304 set, 386
draw-in bar, 305-306 tooth form, 386
keyway,305 width, 384-355
self-holding tapers. 304 blade forms,
spacing collars, 305 hook tooth, 386
stub, 306 skip tooth, 386
styles, 304-305 standard tooth, 386
A,304, 305 blade selection, 384-337
B, 304,305 blade types, 354
C,305 bimetal, 384
metal slitting saws, 299, 301 carbon steel flexible back, 384
plain, 301 hard edge with spring-tempered back, 384
side chip clearance, 301 high-speed steel (HSS), 384
plain milling cutter, 299-300 shock resistant high-speed steel (HSS), 384
heavy-dut)~ 300 tungsten carbide, 354
helical, 300 blades, welding. 387-385
light-duty, 300 an..-iealing, 388
slab cutters, 300 flash removal, 385
side milling cutter, 299,300 making the blade weld, 387-388
half side, 300 preparing for, 337
interlocking, 300 ready-to-use welded bands, 357
plain, 300 strip-out containers, 387
staggered-tooth, 300 computer numerical control {CSC), 396
ASME. See American Society of Mechanical Engineers diamond-edge band, 395
Assembly drawings, filing, 393
or subassembly drawings, 36-37 friable materials, 395
used in shop, 38 friction sa..,;ng, 394-395
Abnospheric control, heat treabnenl, furnaces, 474 knife-edge blade, 395
Auto bodv dies, polishing, 394
computer numerical control (C.'-iC) . applications, 418-421 band abrasive cloth, 394
numerical control (~C), applications, 418-421 preparation, 388-390
AUTO :MAP (Automatic Machining Program). b!ade guides, 3!18
See Computer languages blade tension, 390
Automated manufacturing, blade tracking, 388-390
flexible manufacturing system (F~·lS). 424 cutting fluids, 390
future of, 433 cutting speed, 390
processes, 423 lubrication, 388
assembling, 423 roller guides, 388
inspecting. 423 safety, 397
making, 423 troubleshooting, 396
packaging, 423 vertical, 390-392 ,
testing, 423 angular sawing, 392
rapid prototyping techniques, 428-432 contour sawing, 391
Index rm
feed, 393 retensioning, 194
internal cuts, 392 rule of thumb, 193
straight sawing, 390 tungsten, 193
wire band, 395 Blind holes,
with closed circuit TV, 396 drilling, 176
Base metaL 451 taps, 117, 119
Basic dimension, 41 Blind rivets,
Basic profile, 128 nonthreaded fasteners, 136
Bastard files. See Files Block,
Bench drill press, 153 numerical control (NC) programming, 408
Bench grinder, 183 Blueprints, 37
wheels, 184 Bolts, removing broken, 131
coarse, 184 Boring bar,
fine, 184 boring on lathes, 262
Bench radial drill press, 155 Boring mills,
Bent-tail safety lathe dogs, 223 early machine tools, 12
Bent-tail standard lathe dogs, 223 industrial lathe applications, 276
Beryllium, Boring,
copper, 461--462 horizontal milling machines, 339-340
heat-treatable metals, 468 boring head, 339
Bevel gear, horizontal milling machines, 346-349 dial indicator, 340
milling bevel gear, 346-347 Jacobs chuck, 339
preparing to cut, 347-349 wiggler, 340
Bilateral tolerance, 35 on lathes, 261-263
Bimetal blades, vertical milling machines, 325-326
band machining, 384 centering scope, 325
Binding lever, digital readout gaging system, 326
holding and rotating work on lathe, 205 edge finder, 326
Blades, locating first hole, 325-326
band machining, measuring rod and dial indicator attachment, 326
annealing, 388 wiggler, 325
bimetal, 364 Bottoming tap, 117
blade tracking, 388-390 Box annealing, 469
carbon steel flexible back, 384 Box jigs, 145
characteristics, 384-386 Box parallels, 84
flash removal, 388 Box wrenches, 97
gage, 386 Brale penetrator,
guides, 388 hardness testing, 482
hard edge with spring-tempered back, 364 Brass, 461
high-speed steel (HSS), 384 alloy of copper and zinc, 461
hook tooth, 386 heat treatment, 473
pitch, 386 Brazed-tip single-point cutting tool, 214-216
ready-to-use welded bands, 387 diamond-charged grinding wheel, 214
selection, 384--387 silicon carbide, 214
set, 386 tool blanks, 214
shock resistant high-speed steel (HSS), 364 Brine, quenching medium, 473
skip tooth, 386 Brinell hardness tester, using, 479
standard tooth, 386 Briquetting,
strip-out containers, 387 green compact, 536
tension, 390 powder metallurgy (P /M), 535-536
tooth form, 386 Broach,281 ·
tungsten carbide, 364 teeth,281-282
types, 384 finishing, 281
welding, 387""'388 roughing, 281
width, 384-385 semifinishing, 281
hacksaw, 106-107 Broaching, 281-284
all hard, 107 advantages of, 283
alternate set, 107 broach, 281
flexible back, 107 burnishing elements, 282
raker set, 107 external, slab broach, 281
set, 107 internal, 281
undulating set, 107 keyway, 283--284
horizontal band saw, machines, basic operation, 17
breaking, 196 pot,281
crooked cutting, 196 pull broach, 281
hook tooth blade, 196 slab broach, 281
installation, 1% teeth, 281-282
premature tooth wear, 197 Bronze,461
selection, 195--196 Buffing, 499-500
skip tooth blade, 196 Buffing lathe, 499-500
standard tooth blade, 196 Burning,
teeth strip off, 197 grinding, 187
reciprocating power hacksaw, 193 precision grinding problems, 367
all-hard, 193 Burnishing elements, broaching, 282
flexible-back, 193 Bushings,
molybdenum, 193 jigs, 143
mounting, 193-194 slip, 145
an straight drill, 225
M:\chln ng Fundamentals

C using drill press, 225

CAD. See Computer-aided design (drafting) Center punch, layout, 89
Calipe:rs, 75-76 Center rest, lathe, 269
d ial, 66 Centering scope, vertical milling machines,
: r.side. 75-76 locating first hole, 325
:nicrometer, 57-58 Centedes.s grinding, 376-377
Yernier,63 end feed grinding, 376
Cam-lock spindle, infeed grinding, 376
holding and ro tating work on lathe, 204 internal centerless, 3;"7
CAi'\l. See Compute:r-aided manufacturing throu gh feed, 3,6
Cap screws, Ce:rium,463
threaded fastenel"6, 129-130 Chamfer micrometer, 58-59
Capacitor bank, Chatter,
electrohvdraulic forming, 540 elimination, 263
Capacitor.discharge forming. See filectrohydraulic forming precision grindin g probleir.s, 367
Cubide cutting tools, Chem-blanking. See Chemical blanking
increasing cutting speed, 214 Chem-milling. See Chemical milling
Carbide inserts. See Inserts Chemical blackening, 497-498
Carbide-tipped tools, 21-i-216 advanta ges, 498
coating of titanium nitride (TL'\) and titanium carbide (TiC), 455 draw backs, 498
gri..,ding on wet-type grinder, 188 Chemical blanking, 513-516
st-aight tumi:lg, lathe, 216 advantages, 516
square nose, 216 basic operation, 17
threading tool, 216 disadvantages, 516
Carbon steel, 452 process, 513-5!4
adding lead, 453 step s. 514-5i5
adding sulfur, 453 Chemical cutting fluids. See Cutting fluids
carbor, content, 452 Chemical machining, 511-516
dells, 158 Chemical milling,
flexible back ::,lades, band machining. 384 ad\'antages, 5i.2-513
improving machinability, 453 bas:.: operation, 17
Carburizing. See Case hardening disa dYantages, 513
Carriage (lathe), 205-206 etchant, 511
compound rest, 206 masks, 511
cross-slide, 206 steps, 5!2
feed :nechanism, 206 cleaning, 512
feed change levers, 207 etching, 512
hali-nuts, 207 inspection, 512
index plate, 207 masking, 512
lead screw, 2(17 rinsing and stripping, 512
longitudinal moveC1ent, 206 scribing and stripping, 512
parts, apron, 206 Chipbreakers, 218-219
parts, saddle, 205 Chipless machining, 531-532
quick-change gearbox, 206 accuracv, 531
tool post, 206 applications, 532
transverse tool mo,·ement, 206 basic operations, 532
Cartesian Coordinate System, Intraform~, 532
positioning with numerical control (!"Cl, 402-403 metals,532
axis of m ovement, 402 principle of operation, 531
spindle motion, 402 Chisels, 102- 104
Case hardening, -171-472 applicat:ons, 102-103
carburizing, 472 cold cirise l, 102
cyaniding, 472 rivet buster. 102-103
gas m e~od, 472 safetv, 104
Kasenit , 478 Chuck, kev, 163
liquid sa1t m ethod, 472 Chucking· reamer, 180
low-carbon steel, 478-479 Chucks,
methods, 47s-479 dri!l-holding devices, 163
nitriding me thod, 472 electromag~etic precision gri.>tding. 357
Cast alloys, aluminum, 459 Jacobs, horizontal milling machines, 339
Cast irons, 452 lathe,
gray iron, 452 dra"--in collet, 232
malleable iron, 452 facing stock h eld in, 236-237
Castellated nuts, 133 4-jaw :ndependent, 232-234
Cathode rav tube (CRT), insta lli...>tg chuck jaws, 232
ultrasonic inspection, 445 Jacobs, 232
Cemented tungsten carbides, milling cutters, 29-l mounting, 235-236
Center alignment, lathe, reC1oving from other spindle noses, 236
adt.1sting screws, 227 removing irom threaded spindle, 236
approximate, 226 3-jaw universal, 232
checking, 225-227 u sing, 231-236
Center finder, drilling, 173 magnetic, milling machines, 311
Center gage, precision grinding. magnetic, 356-35:-
cutting 60° screw threads on lathe, 2-51-253 Cl~i. See Computer-integrated manufacturing
Center holes, drilling on lathe, 224-225 Circular interpolation,
combination drill and countersink, 224 numerical control (NC), contour or continuous path, 406-407
fntlr.,

Circular pitch (p), calculating, 34.3 machining statements, 413

Circular saw, metal-cutting, system dictionary, 413
abrasive cutoff, 197 COMPACT II, 412
cold circular saw, 197 syntax,412
friction saw, 197 Computer numerical control (CNC),
friction saw, billets, 197 adaptive control (AC), 413
Circularity geometric tolerances, 45 applications,418--421
Clamp bolt nut, automating machining processes, 19-20
holding and rotating work on lathe, 205 band machining, 396
Clamp-type lathe dogs, 223 computer-aided machining technology, 399--401
Clamping devices, 91-92 grinding, 380-381
clamps, 92 industrial lathe applications, 276-279
C-clamp, 92 introduction of, 19
parallel clamp, 92 machine tools, fixtures, 146
precision grinding, 357 microdrilling machine, 180
vises, 91-92 milling machine control, 290
bench,91 robotic systems, 20
jaws, 92 Computer-aided design (CAD), 400, 415
machinist's, 91 Computer-aided machining technology,
toolmaker's, 91 computer numerical control (CNC), 399---401
use of, 92 computer-aided design and drafting (CAD), 400
Ceaning methods, metal finishing, 495 direct numerical control (DNC), 400
Cearance (c), calculating, 343 distributed numerical control (DNC), 400
Climb milling, 304 machine control unit (MCU), 400
horizontal milling machines, slitting, 338 manual machining, 399
machining laminated plastics, 531 numerical control (NC), 399--400
Cosed circuit TY, band machining with, 396 program, 400
Oosed jigs, 145 servo motors, 400
Cosed loop system, Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), 38, 415
numerical control (NC), 401 Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), 38, 424
Cothing. protective, 23, 24 Concentricity,
CMM. See Coordinate measuring machine examining grinding wheels for, 185
Coated abrasives, hand polishing, 123 Contaminants, cutting fluids, 150
Coatings, indexable insert cutting tools, Contour etching. See Chemical milling
alumina, 216 Contour or continuous path, movement systems
titaniuro carbide me), 216 circular interpolation, 406-407
titanium nitride (TiN), 216 inversion, 407
Cold chisel, 102 mirror image part, 407
Cold finished steel, 453 Contour sawing. vertical band machine, 391
Cold forming. See Chipless machining Conventional inside micrometer, 58
Cold heading. See Chipless machining Conventional (up) milling, 304
Color coding, steel, 457-458 Coolants,
Column and knee milling machines, 286-289 precision grinding, 362-364
movement, 286 reciprocating power hacksaw, 193
parts, 286 Coordinate measuring machine (CMM), 438
plain (horizontal spindle), 288 Copper, 461
rotary head, 289 alloys, 461
sliding head, 289 base metal, 461
swivel head, 289 heat treatment, 473
universal, 288 heat-treatable metals, 468
vertical, 288--289 Cotter pins, 136
Combination drill and countersink, Counterboring, 177-178
drilling center holes, lathe, 224 baclccounterbore, 178
Combination drill and reamer, 159 counterbore, 177
Combination open-end and box wrenches, 97 indexable carbide inserts, 177-178
Combination pliers, 92 interchangeable cutters and pilots, 177
Combination set, pilot, 177
center head, 86 solid, 177
protractor head, 86 drilling machines, uses of, 157
Combustible materials, 27 drills, 177-178
COMPACT II. See Computer languages
Countersinking, 176-177
Comparative checking unit, countersinks, 176
quality control, 448
cutting edge angles, 176-177
Composites, 464-465
deburring holes, 177
Compound angles,
vertical milling machines, 321 indexable carbide inserts, 177
single cutting edge, 177
Compound rest.
lathe, 206 using, 177
method of turning tapers, 241-243 drilling machines, uses of, 157
drills, 176-177
setting, 253
Compressed air, safety, 24 Creep grinding, 366
Computer languages, numerical contml (NC), 412-413 Critical temperature, steel, 469
Adaptation of API (ADAPT), 412 Cross filing. See Straight filing
API III, 412 Cross-feed handwheel,
Automatic Machining Program (AUTO MAP), 412 precision grinding, 354
Automatic Programmed Tools (API), 412--413 Cross-slide,
auxiliary function statements, 413 lathe, 206
geometry, 413 turret lathe, industrial applications, 275
Crossing file. See Files Cylindrical grinding, 373-375
Cryogenic applications, 543-544 complete runoff, 375
annealing metals, 543 cutting speed, 375
heat treating metals, 543 feed, 375
shrink-fitting metal parts, 543 holding and driving the work, 375
temperatures, 543 insufficient runoff, 375
treatment of cutting tools, 543 machine operation, 375
Curved-tooth file. See Files overrun, 375
Cutoff machines. See Saws plunge grinding, 373
Cutters and pilots (interchangeable), tra.-erse grinding. 373
counterborir.g, 177 work rests. 375
Cutters, sharpening, 369 Cylindricity geometric tolerances, J6
Cutting compounds, drills, 168-170
application~ 168,170 D
cleanup, 170
Datum, geomeltic dimensioning and tolerancing, -U
Cutting fluids,
feah:.re, 42
application of, 150-151
identification symbol, 44
band machining, 390
reference letters, 44
flooding, 390
Dead center,
mist coolant, 390
lathe, turning work between centers, 223
solid lubricants, 390
parts of drill poir.t, 162
carbide inserts, 151
Dead smooth files. See Files
ceramic tooling, 151
Deburring holes, countersinking, 177
chemical. 149
Deburring techniques, metal finishing, 500-502
advantages, 15C'
Decarbonizing, 469
appearance, 150
Dedendum (b), calculating, 3J3
contaminants, 150
Deep grinding, 366
emulsifiable oils, 149 Delrin, machining, 527
advantages, 150 applications, 527
appearance, 150
replacing brass and zinc, 527
applications, 150 Demagnetizer, 357
soluble oi!s, 150 Depth gage, 176
evaluation, 151 Depth stop, 176
functions, 149 Destructive testing, quality control, 436--437
gaseous fluids, 149 Detail drawings, 38
compressed air, 150 Detonation gun (D-gun®) coating process, 499
high-speed steel, 151 Diagonal pliers, 93
milling machines, 31C Dial calipers, 66
mineral oils, 149 Dial indicators, 70-71
applications, 150 balanced indicators, 70
precision grinding, 362-364 continuous i.."1.dicators, 70
applications, 362 digital electronic indicators, 70
applying, 363 hor'.zontal milling machines, boring, 340
cleaning system, 363-364 hov-.r to use, 7!
flooding, 363 tailstock setover, 246
polymers, 362 vertical milling machines, aligning vise with, 315
water-soluble chemical fluids, 362 Diametral pitch (P), calculating, 343
water-soluble oil fluids, 363 Diamond cone penetrator, 481
semichemical, 149 Diamond dust polishing compound, 122
advantages, 150 Diamond wheel dresser, 271
appearance, 15() Diamond-charged grinding wheel,
types, 149-150 grinding carbide-tipped tools, 214
Cutting speed (CS), Diamond-edge band, band machining, 395
band machining, 390 Diamond-shaped serrations,
drills, 167-168 knurling on lathes, 265
table, 169 Diazo process prints, 37
lathe, 220-222 Dielectric fluid (ED~I), 50,l
calculating, 220-221 Diemaker, 549
depth of cut, 221-222 Dies,
finishing cuts, 221 adjustable, 121
peripheral speed, 220 blanks, electrical discharge machining, 5C3
roughing cuts, 221 diestocks. 121
milling machines. 291, 308 so~id, 120
adjusting, 291 threads, 115
calculating, 308-310 two-part adjustable, 121
Cutting tool (lathe), Digital readout gaging system,
carriage,205-206 vertical milling machines, 326
compound rest, 206 Dimensioning dral\ings, 31-32
cross-siide, 206 Direct measuring of tapers, 249-250
feed mechanism, 206 Direct numerical control (ONO,
holding, mo"ing, and guiding, 205-208 computer-aided machiring technology, 400
lead screw, 207 machine control unit (M CV), 400
longitudinal movement. 2:)6 mainframe cou-.puter, 400
shapes, high-speed steel, 211 Direct Shell Production Casting (DSPC), 431
tool holders, lathe, 211-219 Distance between centers of mating gears (C), calculating, 343
tool post, 206 Distributed numerical control (D:'.liC),
trar.sverse tool movement, 206 computer-aided machining technology, 400
Cyaniding, 472 machine control unit (?\ICC), 400
Cyanoacrylate adhesives, 138-139 mainframe computer, 400
~ ~
- - - - - - - - - - - -portable
- magnetic
-- - - - - - --
drills, 155
Divider, use of on metal, 81
Dividing head, milling machines, 311-312, 314 radial drill press, 153-154
DNC. See Direct numerical control; Distributed numerical control robotic, 156
Double square, 86 uses of, 157
Double-cut file. See Files counterboring, 157
Double-cut knurl, knurling on lathes, countersinking, 157
difficulties, 266 reaming, 157
Dovetail cutter mills, 301 spotfacing, 157
Dowel pins, 135--136 tapping, 157
Down-feed handwheel, Drilling,
precision grinding, 354 blind holes, 176
Down (climb) milling, 304 center finder, 173
Drag, reaming, 181 center holes on lathe, 224-225
Draw filing, 111 depth gage, 176
Draw-in collet chucks, 232 depth stop, 176
applications, 234-235 feed, 168
design,235 full hole diameter, 176
Drawing, heat treatment of steel, 472 hole depth, 176
Drawings, horizontal milling machines, 339-340
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 30 larger holes, 175
conversion charts, 32 nylon, 526-527
dimensions, 31-32 onlathes,263-264
dualdirnensioning,31 pilot hole, 175
US Conventional system, 31 procedures, 173-174
fractional dimensioning, 31 proof circles, 174
information included on, 32--37 pulling drill point to center, 175
assembly or subassembly, 36-37 round stock, 175
bilateral tolerance, 35 signs indicating poor cutting, 174
drawing scale, 36 Teflon™, 529
materials, 32 titanium, 461
name of object, 37 using a drill jig, 176
quantity of units, 36 using V-blocks, 175-176
revisions, 37 wiggler, 173
surface finishes, 32, 35 Drills,
tolerances, 35-36 carbon steel, 158
unilateral tolerance, 36 counterboring, 177-178
metric dimensioning, countersinking, 176-177
SI Metric system, 32 cutting compounds, 168-170
parts list, 38 applications, 168
scale, 36 cleanup, 170
sizes, 38-41 cutting speeds and feeds, 167-168
SI Metric, 42 table, 169
US Conventional, 41 drilling, 173-174
types of prints, 37-38 gage, 160
blueprints, 37 high-speed steel (HSS), 158
computer-generated, 37--38 holding devices, 163
diazo process, 37 chuck, 163
microfilm process, 37 chuck key, 163
xerographic {electrostatic) process, 37 drift, 163
types used in shop, 38 sleeve, 163
assembly, 38 socket, 163
detail, 38 tapered spindle, 163
exploded pictorial, 38 measurements, 160-161
subassembly, 38 parts of, 162-163
working,38 body clearance, 163
understanding, 29--54 dead center, 162
Drift, 163 flutes, 162
Drill gage, 160 heel, 162
Drill jig, lip clearance, 162
using a jig, 176 lips, 162
work-holding devices, 167 margin, 162
Drill press, 14-15, 153 point, 162
basic operation, 14-15 shank, 162
drilling center holes, lathe, 225 shank, tang, 162
safety, 157-158 web, 163
si7.e determination, 153 peripheral speed, 168
Drill rod, 75 reaming, 180-182
Drill template, open jigs, 144 removing from spindle, 164
Drill-out power extractor, 131 sharpening, 170-173
Drilling machines, checking with a drill point gage, 171
bench drill press, 153 coarse grinding wheel, 171
bench radial drill press, 155 cooling point, 170
drill press, 153 grinding attachments, 173
safety, 157-158 length and angle of lips, 170
size determination, 153 lip clearance, 170
electric hand drill, 153 procedures, 171-172
gang, 156 proper location of dead center, 171
machining center (CNC), 156 rake angle, 172
multiple spindle, 156 web thinning, 171
rm
size, 160 Electron beam machining (EBM),
M,tthl,unp. Ftrnc!amentals

expression of, 160 applications, 519-520

speed, basic operation, 17
control mechanisms, 168 control, 520
conversion, 168 cut geometry control. 520
spotfacing, liS electron beam microcutter-welder, 519
tapping, 178-180 heating and cooling of inaterial, 520
twist, 158 operation, 520
types of, 158-160 use of vacuum, 519
combination drill and reamer, 159 Electronic gage, 72
four-flute core, 156 Electroplating, 498
half-round straight-flute, 159 Emerv, 122
indexable-insert, 159 Empl~ymen~547--552
micro, 159 desirable emp1oyee traits, 554
oil-hole, 155 employee expectations of industry, 555
spade, 159 factors for rejection. 554
step, 159 factors for termination, 555-556
straight-flute gun, 158 finding, in machining technology, 553--554
taper shank twist, 158 how to get a job, 5.54--556
three-flute core, 158 obtaining information, 553-554
work-holding devices, 164-167 Occupational Outlook Handbook, 553
Drive screws, 135 preparing a resume, 555
Dry-type grindex, 187 professional ,-rnrkers, -551-553
pedestal, 185 engineering, 552
using, 187 industrial engineer, 552
Dual dimensioning, drawings, 31 mechanicalenginee4 552
Duplicating unit, lathe attachments, 272-274 metallurgical engineer, 553
Dwell control, 355 teacher, 551-552
tool and manufacturing engineer, 552
semiskilled workers, 547-548
f skilled workers, 548-550
Echo, ultrasonic inspection, 445 apprentice programs, 348
ECM. See Electrochemical machining specialized machinists, 549
Eddy-current inspection, 446-448 all-around machirjst, 549
eddy-current absolute system, 447 diemaker, 549
eddy-cutTent differential system, 447 layout specialist, 549
theory of operation, 446--447 manager, 550
Edge £index, vertical milling machines, part programmer, 549-550
locating first hole, 326 setup specialist, 549
EDM. See Electrical discharge machining supenisor, 550
EDWC. See Electrical discharge wire cutting toolmaker, 549
Electric hand drill, drilling machines, 153 technicians, 550-551
Electrical discharge machining (EDM), Emulsifiable oils, 149---150
applications, 505--506 advantages, 150
basic operation, 17 appearance, 150
components of, 504 applications, 150
die blanks, 503 soluble oils, 150
dielectric fluid, 504 End feed grinding. See Centedess grinding
electrode, 504 End mills,
finishing ruts, 505 grinding, 372
power suppl}~ 504 milling cutters, 296--297
principle of operation, 504--505 vertical milling machines, mounting, -319
roughing cuts, 505 End of block (EOB) codes, 409
servomechanism, 504 End of program code, 409
Electrical discharge wire cutting (EDWC), 506--507 End spanner wrenches, 98
c~c applications, 507 Engineering profession, 552
principle of operation, 506--507 EOB. See End of block codes
Electrobrightening, 496--497 Europium, 463
Electrochemical machining (EG\.f), Expansion mandrel, lathes, 270
advantages, 507--508 Expansion reamers,
basic operation, 17 chucking reamer, 160
electroh-te, 507 dra,vbacks, 180-181
principle of operation, 507 hand reamers, 112
requirements, 507 reaming, 180
Electrode (EDM), 504 Exploded pictorial drawings, 38
Electrohydraulic forming, Explosive forming, 537-540
capacitor bank, 540 app!ications, 537
high-energy-rate forming (HERF), 540 contact HERF, 539
operation, 540 disadvantages, 539-54e
Electrolytic grinding, high-energy-rate forming (HERF), 537-540
applications. 379 placement of explosives, 539
operation, 379--380 preparing metal for, 538
Electromachining, 503-510 stand-off HERF, 539
advantage of, 503 vacuum,539
electrical discharge machining (EDM), 503--506 Extension rods, 82
electrical discharge \\ire cutting (EDWC), 506-507 External broaching, slab broach, 281
electrochemical machining (ECM), 507-508 External threads,
Electromagnetic chuck, 357 adjustable dies, 121
Electromagnetic forming. See Magnetic forming close tolerance, 116
Index
RD
cutting, 115, 121 milling machines, 291, 308
cutting,problems, 121 adjusting, 291
die stocks, 121 calculating, 308-3i0
general-purpose, 116 vertical band machine,
ISO standards, 116 hand wheel, 393
ragged threads, 121 power,393
solid dies, 120 self-contained unit, 393
threading to a shoulder, 121 Ferrous metals, 451-458
two-part adjustable dies, 121 alloy steels, 453-454
Extrude-hone, deburring, 502 carbon steel, 452
cast irons, 452
cold finished steel, 453
F gray iron, 452
Face milling, heat treatment, 468
horizontal milling machines, 333--334 high-carbon steel, 453
milling cutters, 298 hot rolled steel, 453
milling machines, 293 machine steel, 452
shell end mills, 333 malleableiron,452
Facing tool, lathe, 212 medium-carbon steel, 453
Facing work held between centers, mild steel, 452
facing to length, 228 stainless steels, 456
half-center, 228 steel, 452--458
right-cut facing tool, 227 tool steel, 455
Fastenem, 127-142 tungsten carbide, 455--456
adhesives, 138--140 Files, 107-112
advantages, 138 applications, 107
cyanoacrylate debonder, 139 care, 107-108
cyanoacrylate quick setting, 138--139 brush, 108
forms, 138 file card, 108
using, 139-140 characteristics,
drive screws, 135 length, type, cut, 108
liquid thread lock, 134 classifications,
nonthreaded, 135--138 bastard, 107
cotter pins, 136 coarse, curved-tooth, 107-108
dowel pins, 135--136 dead smooth, 107
keys, 137-138 double-cut, 107-108
gib head key, 138 rasp, 107-108
keyseat, 137 rough,
keyway, 137 second-cut, 107
Pratt & Whitney key, 137 single-cut, 107
Woodruff, 138 smooth, 107
retaining rings, 136 cross filing, 111
rivets, 136-137 draw filing, 111
blind, 136 jeweler's, 111
permanent assemblies, 136 machinist's, 110
safety, 140 mill, 110-111
thread cutting screws, 135 pinning, 108
thread-forming screws, 135 rasp, 107-108, 111
threaded, 127-135 safe edges, 110
basic profile, 128 safety, 112
bolts, removing broken, 131-132 selecting, 108-110
cap screws, 129-130 shapes,
inserts, 133 3-square, 110
machine bolts, 128 crossing, 110
machine screws, 128 flat, 110
metric sizes, 127-128 half-round, 110
nuts, 132-133 knife, 110
setscrews, 130--131 pillar, 110
stud bolts, 131 round, 110
wedging action, 127 square, 110
washers, 134 straight filing, 111
lock, 134 special purpose, 111
preassembled, 134 Swiss pattern, 111
split-ring lock, 134 types, 110-111
standard, 134 using, 111
tooth-type lock, 134 Filing,
FDM, See Fused Disposition Modeling band machining, 393
Feature control frame, 44 on lathes, 267
Feed, change levers, Fillet and radius gage, 75
drills, 168 Finger clamp, 165
and cutting speeds, 167-168 Finish turning, 230
table, 169 Finishing,
lathe, 220-222 cuts, lathe, 221
depth of cut, 221-222 metal,489-502
setting with micrometer dials, 221 tools, lathe, 212
finishing cuts, 221 Fires,
roughing cuts, 221 classes of, 27
mechanism, 206 dealing with, 27
rmextinguishers, 27
M achining Fundameni.:als

safety, 27-28
G
Fishtail, 251 Gaging tools,
Fixed-bed milling machines, air gage, 71-72
c.~racteristics, 286 drill rod, 75
horizontal, 286 electronic gage, 72
movement, 256 fillet and radius gage, 75
planer, 386 gage blocks,
vertical, 386 Federal Accuracy Grades, 69
Fixtures, 145-146 handling, 69-70
C:\'C machine tools, 146 gage, 3S6 -
consrruc~on, 146-147 gaging, 67
holding devices, 146 Jo-blocks, 69-7G
tombstones, 147 !aser gaging, 72
Flake off (knurling), 267 mar.ometer. 72
Flame hardening, 470 measuring, 67
Flanged vise, 311 optical comparator, 72-73
flashpoint, 473 optical f:.ats, 73-74
Flat file. See Files plug gages, 67-69
Flat surfaces, milling, 330-332 ring gages. 68
Flatness, form geometric tolerances, 45 screw pitch gage, '.'4---75
Flexible manufacturinir; svstem (ThIS), 424 small r.ole gage, 76-,S
Just-In-Time (JID, 424 snapgages,68-69
:nac:hine tools used in, 424 sta~tical quality control, 67
robots,424 surface gage, used for layout, 82-83
smart toolir.g, 424 telescoping gage, 76
Flexible shaft grinders, 188 thickness ~feeler) gage, 74
Flexible-back blades, thtead gages, 69
hacksaws, 10: Gamma radiation, (X-rav), 439
reciprocating power hacksaw, 193 Gang drilling machines: 156
Fluorescent penetrant inspection, 442 Gang mandrel, lathe, 270
Flutes, drill, 162 Gang milling, 335
Fly cutter, 298 Gaseous fluids,
FMS. See Flexible manufacturing system cuttir.g fh:ids, 149
Follower rest, lathe, 268-270 compressed air, 150
Forging, powder metallurgy (P.'l\O, 536 Gear box adjustment, 252
Form cutters, grinding, 372 Gear cutting, 340-349
Form geometric tolerances, 45 bevel gear,
Fonn grinding, 377-378 milling, 346-347
diamond particle wheel, 378 preparing to cue, 347-349
thread grinding, 378 spur gear,
wheelshapes,377 cutting the gear, 344-345
Formulas, gear cutters, 343-344
calculating addendum (a), 343 gear nomenclature·, 341-343
calculating circular pitch (p), 343 measuring with Van Kuren wires, 345-346
calculating ciearance (c), 343 universal dividing head,. 346
caiculating deder.dum (b), 343 Gear nomenclature, 341-343
calculating diametral pitch (P), 343 Geometric dimensioning and tolerandng, -U-52
calculating distance between centers of two mating gears ~C), 343 actual size, 43
calculating lathe cutting speeds (inch-based), 220 application of, 44-45
calcuiating lathe cutting speeds (metric-based}. 221 basic dimension, 41
calculating number of teeth (K), 343 datum,41
calculating outside diameter (D0 ), 343 feature, 42
calculating pitch circle, 343 identification snnbol, 44
calculating pitch diameter (D), 343 reference letter~. 44
calculating pressure angle (0), 343 definitions, 41-43
calculating tailstock setover, 244-245 feature, 41
calculating tooth thickness (tc), 343 feature control frame, 44
calculating whole depth of tooth (ht), 343 form geometric tolerances,
calcu1atir•.g working depth (hk). 343 circularity, 45
determining feed setting for milling madtlne, 310 cylindricity. 46
determining rpm at any specified speed, 168 flatness. 45
determil'jng speed setting for mUling :naddr.e, 31C straightness, 45
th.'"ee wire method of measuring threads, 256 geometric characteristic symbols, 41
Four-flute core drills, 158 least material condition (LMC), 43
4-jaw independent chucks, 232-234 limits of size, 43
Fractional dimensioning, 31 location geometric tolerances,
Friable materials, 395 concentridtv, 49-50
Friction sawing, 394-395 positional t~!era..'1.ces, 49
Full hole diameter, drilling, 176 symmetry, 5Cl
Full-profile inserts, 255 maxim~m material condition (:\IMC), 42-43
Furnaces, orientation geometric tolerances, 46-49
atmospheric control, 474 angularity, 46
design, 474 parallelism,47--49
heattreatment, 474-475 parallelism geometric tolera.'!'\ce, 4;-
Fused Disposition Modeling (FDMT1t.), 431
perpendicularity, 47
lndM

profile geometric tolerances, plain milling rutters, 369-371

profile line geometric t<;>lerance, 46 concentricity, 371
profile surface geometric tolerance, 46 indexing disc, 371
reference dimension, 41 shapes, 368-369
regardless of feature size (RFS), 43 sharpening cutters, 369
runout geometric tolerances, 50--52 supporting bracket, 369
circular runout, 52 tooth rest, 369
full indicator movement (FIM), 52 ultrasonic-assist machining applications, 517-.518
total runout, 50 wet-type grinder,
true position, 41 applications, 188
Gib head key, 138 using, 188
Glass coating. See Vitreous enamel wheels, 185-186
Graphic capabilities, CAD, 412 Grinding wheels,
Green compact, powder metallurgy, 536 abrasive particles, 358
Grinders, bonding material, 358
planer-type surface, 354 diamond dressing tool, 359
rotary-type surface, 354 examining for concentricity, 185
surface, 353-356 hardness, 359
universal tool and cutter, 368 high-speed, 359
Grinding, loaded and glazed, 359
abrasive belt grinding machines, 183 manufactured abrasives, 359
abrasive belt machining, 378-379 marking system, 359-360 _
advantages, 379 American National Standards Institute (Al\:51), 359
contact wheels, 379 classifications, 359-360
platens, 379 abrasive-type, 359
support, 379 bond, 360
bench grinder, 183-184 grade, 359
burning work, 187 grain size, 359
structure, 359
carbide-tipped tools,
mounting, 362
diamond-charged grinding wheel, 214
automatic balancing, 362
silicon carbide, 214
checking for soundness, 362
centerless, 376-377 sensors, 362
computer numerical control (CNC), 380-381 unbalanced wheels, 362
cylindrical, 373-375 shapes, 360-362
dry-type grinder, 187 standard, 361
electrolytic, wheel dresser, 186
applications, 379 Grooving operations, lathe, 230-231
operation,379-380 Guides, band machining blades, 388
form, 377-378
diamond particle wheel, 378 H
thread grinding, 378
wheelshapes,377 Hacksaws,
high-speed cutter bits, 214 baclcsaw, 104
sequence, 215 blades, 106-107
internal grinding, 375-376 all hard, 107
machines, basic operation, alternate set, 107
offhand grinding, 15 flexible back, 107
precision grinding, 16 raker set, 107
offhand,184 set, 107
on lathes, 270--272 undulating set, 107
diamond wheel dresser, 271 rutting,
external, 271-272 narrow strip of thin metal, 107
internal, 272 soft metal, 107
preparing grinder, 271 thin metal, 107
preparing lathe, 271 unusual situations, 107
protective covering, 271 dulling or breaking blade, 106
tool post grinder, 270 finishing a cut, 106
holding work for sawing, 104-105
pedestal grinders, 183-185
making the cut, 105-106
dry-type, 185
wet-type, 185 reciprocating power, 191-194
portable hand grinders, 188-189 angular cuts, 193
flexible shaft grinders, 188 blade pin holes breaking out, 196
blades, 193
precision microgrinders, 188
mounting, 193-194
reciprocating hand grinder, 188 retensioning, 194
precision grinding, 353-382
rule of thumb, 193
rules, 186
coolant, 193
safety, 186-187
crooked cutting, 196
sharpening drills, 171
definite pressure feed, 191
attachments, 173 gravity feed, 191
tools and cutters, 368-373 high-speed cutting, 193
crowding the wheel, 369 positive feed, 191
grinding cutters, helical teeth, 371-372 premature blade tooth wear, 197
grinding end mills, 372 selecting, 193
grinding form cutters, 372 sizes, 191
grinding reamers, 372-373 stop gage, using, 194
grinding taps, 372 teeth strip off, 197
~ L _____________________________________________ M_a_c_I_1·m
__i_n_g_F_u_n_,d_a_r_ll_e_n_.t_a_I_s

three-toot.'\ rule, 193 potassium cyanide, 486

using. 196--197 procedure, steel. 452
safety, ~0/ quenching media, 473--474
starting a cut, 105 air, 474
Half-nuts, 207 brine, 473
Half-round file. See Files liquid nitrogen, 474
Half-rou~d straight-flute drills, 159 mineral oils, 473-474
Hand drill press, tapping, 178-179 u·ater. 473
Hand, milling cutters, 297 reactive metals, 473
Hand-held polishing units, 500 safeh·. 486
Hand polishing, 122---123 stee( 468-472
abrasive cloth, 12.3 an.~ealing,465--469
aluminum oxide, i.22 box annealing, 469
coated abrasives, 123 case hardening, 471--472
comparative grading chart, 122 decarbonizing, 469
crocus, 122 drawing, 472
diamond dust polishing compmi.."'ld, 122 fame hardening, 470
diamonds, 122 hardening,!~91?0
emery, 122 carbon, 4, 5---4, 1
materials, 122 measuring furnace temperature, 475
safet}~ :23 process,476--477
silicon carbide, 122 pyrometer. 475
synthetic abrasives, 122 induction hardening, 470
Hand reamers, 112---113 laser hardening, -±70-471
Hand threading, 11-1---122 normalizmg, 469
safety, 121 process annealing, 468
Hard copy, numerical control (NC), 415 stress-relieving, 468
Hardened steel square, 85 surface hardening, 470--471
Hardening, carbon steel, tempering,472,477--478
heat treatment of steel. 469--470, 475--47;- titanium, 473
measuring furnace temperate.re, 475 Heat-treatable metals, 468
process,476-47i Helper measuring tools, 75---78
pyrometer, 475 calipers, 75---76
Hardness number, 479 inside calipers, 75---76
Hardness testing, small hole gage, 76
Brine!! hard."less test. performing, 479 telescoping gage, 76
conversion ta:,le, 480 HERF. See High-energy-rate forming
hardness number, -179 Hermaphrodite caliper, 82
indention hardness testers, -179 Hertz (Hz), 442
Rock1,,·ell hardness tester, 451--455 Hexapods, basic operation, 17
brale penetrator, 482 High-carbon steel, 453
cleani.."lg-, 485 High-energy-rate forming (HERF),
diamo;d cone penetrator, 491 advantages, 537
operating, 453 contact HERF, 539
orecau~ons. 454-455 electrohydraulic forming, 540
procedures. 484 exploshie forming, 537---340
Rockweil B readings, 482 magnetic forming, 540
Rockwell C readir.gs, 482 pneumatic-mechanical forming, 541---543
round stoC:.,, 485 springback elimination, 537
scale designation, 482 stand-off HERF, 539
steel ball, 481 High-frequency sound, 443
using, 452--485 High-speed cutting tools, aluminum, 460
weights, 482-483 High-speed steel (HSS),
scleroscope harcb.ess tester, 485---486 blades, band machinL'1g. 384
basic opera:ion, 486 cutt:r.g fluids used with, 151
performing test.. 486 cuttir.g tool (lathe) shapes, 211
Webster hardness tester, 483 drills, 158
applications, 455 rr.illing cutters, 294
portable, 483 taos, 1l5
HDM. See Hydrodynamic machining High-temperature metals,
Headstock, dassif}ing, 451
holding and rotating \\·ork on !athe, 204 molybdenum, 463
Heat treatment, nickel-base allovs, 463
alumim,m. 472 ~ar.talum, 463 ·
age-harden, 472 tungste!l, 463
ductile, 472 Holding and rotating work, lathe, 204---205
anneal,468 Holes,
basic operation, 467 boring on lathes. 262---263
brass,473 drilling depth, 176
case harden, 465 vertical milling machir.es, locating first, 325---326
copper, 473 Holmium, 463
cryogenic applications, 543 Honeycomb, 464
equipment,473-475 Hook spanner wrenches, 98
ferrous metals, 468 Hook tooth, band machining blade forms, 386
fur.uices,474-475 Horizontal band su,~
atmospherk co:itrol, 474 advantages, 194---195
design, 474 blades,
hardness testing, 479--486 hook tooth, 196
nonferrous metals, 468 installation, 196
~ln:.:,:d:::_:e:::_x:__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___.~

selection, 195--196 Industrial engineer, 552

skip tooth, 196 Industrial Revolution, 13
standard tooth, 196 lnfeed grinding. See Centerless grinding
using, 196-197 Infrasonic sound waves, 517
blades breaking, 196 Inorganic coatings,
crooked cutting, 196 anodizing, 496
premature blade tooth wear, 197 aluminum oxide, 496-497
teeth strip off, 197 electrobrightening, 496
Horizontal milling machines, hard coat, 496
boring, ordinary, 496
boring head, 339 chemical blackening, 497-498
dial indicator, 340 advantages, 498
Jacobs chuck, 339 drawbacks, 498
drilling, 339---340 glass, 497
face milling, ~ 3 4 metal, 498-499
shell end mills, 333 applications, 498
gang milling, 335 detonation gun process (D-gun~, 499
gearcutting,340--349 electroplating, 498
locating side cutter for milling a slot, metal spraying, 498
square or rectangular work, 335-336 vitreous enamel or porcelain, 497
round stock, 336-337 Inside micrometers, 58, 62
milling flat surfaces, 330--332 Inspection by laser, 446
operations, 328--337
Internal broaching, 281
side milling, 334--335
Internal centerless grinding. See Centerless grinding
slitting, 337-339
Internal cuts, vertical band machine, 392
climb milling, 338
Internal grinding, 375-376
slitting saw, 338
slotting, 339 Internal openings, machining, 324-325
Internal threads,
squaring stock, 333
staggered-tooth side milling cutter, 335 classes of fits, 115-116
straddle milling, 334--335 cutting, 115
surfaces requiring additional machining, 332-333 cutting on lathe, 258-259
Host computer (CAD), 411 ISO standards, 116
Hot rolled steel, 453 right-hand threads, 258
Hydrodynamic machining (HOM), International System of Units (SD, 55
addition of abrasives, 516 lntraform® machining, 532
basic operation, 17 ISO standards, threads, 116
lay-ups, 516
particulate removal, 516 J
I Jacobs chuck,
applications, 234
Immersion-type testing, 443
headstock spindle, 234
Impact machining,
horizontal milling machines, boring, 339
industrialapplications,518 standard, 234
principles of operation, 518
Jam nuts, 132
use of ultrasonics, 518
Jaw-type inside micrometer, 58
Inch-based micrometer, reading, 59--60
Jeweler's file, 111
Inch-based Vernier scale, reading, 64-65
Incremental positioning, 403
Jiga,
box, 145
Indention hardness testers, 479
bushings, 143
Index crank, 312-314
closed, 145
Index plate, 207, 312-314
construction, 146-147
Index table, 311
open,
Indexable inserts,
drill template, 144
carbide, 177-178 plate jig, 144
counterboring, 177-178
slip bushings, 145
countersinking, 177 using a drill jig, 176
drills, 159
Jigs and fixtures, 143-148, 436
full-profile inserts, 255
JIT. See Just-In-Tmte
partial-profile inserts, 255
Jo-blocks, 69-70
lathe,
Jobber's reamer, 180
chipbreakers, 218-219
Jobs. See Employment
coatings,
Just-In-Time (JITI, 424
alumina, 216
titanium carbide (TiC), 216
titanium nitride (TiN), 216 K
Indexing head, precision grinding, 357 Kasenit™, 478
Induction hardening, 470 Keys,
Industrial machine tool applications, gib head key, 13B
lathes, keyseat, 137
automatic screw machine, 275 keyway,137
boring mills, 276 Pratt & Whitney key, 137
computer numerically controlled (CNC), 276-279 Woodruff, 138
limited production runs, 274 Keyseat or slot, milling, 322-324
portable turning equipment, 276 Keyway broaching, 283-284
turretlathe,274-275 Knife file. See Files
vertical boring machine, 276 Knife-edge blade, 395
milling machines, 349-351 Knockout bar, 204
.. M hm

Knurling, cutting tool,

angular knurls, 265 holding, moving, and guiding, 205--205
difficulties, 266-267 carriage, 205-206
double-cut knurl, 266 shapes, higr.-speed steel, 211
knurling tool, 265 tool holders, 211-219
procedure, 266 determining size,
serrations (diamond-shaped), 265 bed length, 201
straight ~nurls, 265 length of bed, 201
swing, 201
ways, 201
L dogs,
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM™), -129-430 bent-tail safety, 223
Laminated plastics, machining, 530-531 bent-tail standard, 2.23
drilling, 531 clamp-type, 223
milling, 531 drilling on, 263-264
turning, 531 driving,
Lanthanum, -163 engaging baci< gear, 203
Laser, varying spindie speed, 203
inspection by, 446 evolution of rr.achine tools, 12
machining with, 521-523 facing tool, 212
applications, 522 facing work held bet..-een centers, 22i-228
basic operation, l i feed, 220-222
contbuous mode, 523 depth of cut, 221-222
cutting alu:ninum, 523 finishing cuts, 221
cutting stainless steel, 523 roughir,g cuts, 221
;:utti.'lg titanium, 523 fi.:fag on, 267
eliminating oxide formation, 523 fin:sh twning, 230
gaging, 72 finishing tools, 212
hardening, follower rest, 268-270
heat treatment of steel, 470-471 grindim2: on,
overheating probiems, 523 - external grinding, 271-272
principle of operation, 521-522 internal grinding, 272
pulse mode, 523 preparing grinder, 271
Lathe, preparing lathe, 271
attachmer.ts, protective covering, 271
duplicating unit, 272-274 tooi post grinder, 270
tracing unit, 272 grooving operations, 230-23!
boring on, high-speed cutter bits, grinding. 214
allowa.'\ces. 261 holding and rotating work,
boring bar, 262 bi.'ldL'lg lever, 205
chatter elimination, 263 cam-lock spindle, 204
checking diameter, 263 clamp bolt nut, 205
holes, 262-263 headstock, 204
knockout bar, 204
brazed-tip si.~gle-poL'lt cutting tool, 214-216
carbide-tipped straight tu.ming tools, 216 long taper key spindle, 2C'4
mounting work-holding device, 204
square nose, 216
spindle, 204
threadir.g toot 216
tailstock, 205
center rest, 269
threaded spindle, 204
chucks,
indexable insert cutting tools, 216--219
draw-in coilet, 232
industrial applications,
applications, 234-235 automatic screw machine, 275
design, 235 boring mills, 276
facing stock held in, 236--237 computer numerically controlled (CNC), 276--279
round nose cutting tool, 236 limited production runs, 274
rounded nubbin, 237 portable twning equipment, 276
square-shoulder nubbin, 237 turretlatl1e,274--275
4-jaw independent, 232-234 vertical boring machine, 276
centering, 233,234 knurling on,
operation,232-234 angular krmrls. 265
installing .:::1Uck jaws, 232 difficul(ies, 266-26:-'
Jacobs,232 double-cut knurl, 266
applications, 234 flake off, 267
headstock spindle, 234 knurling tool, 265
standard, 234 procedure, 266
mounting, 235--236 serrations (diamond-shaped), 265
removing from other spindle noses, 236 straight knurls. 265
removing f:om threaded spindle, 236 mandrels,
3-jaw universal, 232 expansion, 27C
types of, 232-235 fundon, 270
using, 231-236 gang, 270
deaning, 209 installing, 27C
c..1ttL'lg speed (CS), solid, 270
calculating, 220--221 milling on,
depth of ci;.t, 221-222 horizontal attachment, 272
finishing cuts, 221 vertical attach1nent. 272
peripheral speed, 220 necking operations, 230-231
roughing cuts, 221 parting operations,
cutting tapers and screw threads on, 241-260 feed, 237
11 d •

preventing seizing, 237 V-blocks, supporting work, B4

spindle speed, 237 work,81-90
parts of, 202 Layout specialist, 549
plain turning, '237 Lead hole. See Pilot hole
polishing on, 267, 268 Lead screw, 207
preparing for operation, 20B-209 Lead, threads, 250
reaming on, Least material condition (LMC), 43
allowances, 265 Left-hand screw threads, cutting on lathe, 256
hand reamer, 265 Ups, drill,
removing reamer, 265 clearance, 170
rough turning between centers, 22B-229 length and angle of, 170
roughing tools, parts of drill point, 162
left.cut, 212 Liquid coupling, 444
right·cut, 212 Liquid nitrogen, 474
side relief, 212 Liquid thread lock, 134
tool shape, 211 LMC. See Least material condition
round nose tooL 212-214 Location geometric tolerances,
machining aluminum, 212 concentricity, 49-50
safety, 209-211 positional tolerances, 49
single·point cutting tool, 211 symmetry, 50
steady rest, 268-269 Lock washers, 134
setup, 269 LOM. See Laminated Object Manufacturing
toolholder, Long taper key spindle, 204
left-hand, 211 Longitudinal movement, 206
right-hand, 211 Low carbon steel, 452, 478-479
Lubrication, band machining, 388
turning on a shoulder, 230 Lucite®, 530
turning to a shoulder, 237
preventing springing, 237
turning work between centers, M
ball bearing center, 223 Machine bolts, 128
center alignment, Machine control unit (MCU), 40Cl-404
adjusting screws, 227 Machine reamer, 180-181
approximate, 226 Machine screws, 128
checking,225-227 Machining angular surfaces, 321-322
dead center, 223 Machining plastics. See Plastics
drilling center holes, 224-225 Machining processes, nontraditional,
combination drill and countersink, 224 chemical blanking, 17, 513-516
straight drill, 225 chemical milling, 17, 511-513
using drill press, 225 electrical discharge machining (EDM), 17, 503-506
lathe dogs, 2'23 electrical discharge wire cutting (EDWC), 506-507
locating center of round stock, 224 electrochemical machining (ECM), 17, 507-508
turret holder, 211 electron beam machining (EBM), 17, 519-521
work-holding attachments, hexapods, 17
methods, 222 hydrodynamic machining (HDM), 17, 516--517
between centers, 222 impact machining, 518
bolted to faceplate, 222 laser machining, 17, 521-523
held in chuck, 222 ultrasonic--assist machining, 517-518
held in collet, 222 ultrasonic machining, 17, 517-519
Lay, surface, 491 Machinist,
Layout, acquiring skills and knowledge, 21
center punch, 89 evolving role, 20-21
laying out, 81 skill standards, 21
making lines on metal, Machinist's file. See Files
beam, B2 Magnaflux, 436
box parallels, 84 Magnesium,
divider, 81 alloys, 460
extension rods, 82 advantages, 460
hermaphrodite caliper, 82 extinguishing agents, 460
layout dye, 81 flammability, 460
right angle plate, 84 radioactive qualities, 460
scriber, 81 heat-treatable metals, 468
straightedge, 85 Magnetic chuck,
surface gage, 82-83 milling machines, 311
surface plate, 83-84 precision grinding, 356-357
trammel, 82 Magnetic forming, 540-541
measuring angles, Magnetic particle inspection,
plain protractor, 87 quality control, 441-442
protractor depth gage, 87 theory of operation, 441-442
universal bevel, 87 Magnetic pulse forming. See Magnetic forming
Vernier protractor, 87 Mainframe computer, role in DNC, 400
prick punch, 89 Major diameter, threads, 250
reference line, 89 Mallet, 101
safety, 89 Mandrels, lathe,
simple steps, 87-89 expansion, 270
squares, 85-87 function, 270
combination set, 86 gang, 270
double square, B6 installing, 270
hardened steel square, 85 solid, 270
rm
Manual machining, 399 identification, 493
Margin, drill, 162 protection, 493
!\lassachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), -101 surface quality, 489--492
Maudslay, Henry, U measuring, 492
Maximum material condition (MMC), -12--43 profilometer, 492
MCU. See :\lachine control U!lit surface roughness gage, 492
Measurement, 55-80 ste"face roughr.ess,
Measuring rod and dial indicator attachment, 326 degrees of, 491-492
Measuring tools, lapping, 491
dial indicators, 70--71 sta."ldards, -189
gaging tools, 67-75 symbols, 490
helper, 75-78 ,;alues, ;.89----,i91
micrometer caliper, surface,
capabilities, 58 economics of machined surfaces, 492
Systeme Palmer, 57 lav; 491
values, American '.\Tational Standards Institute (A:\"SI), 492
micrometers, types of, 58-59
wa,iness. 491
rule, 55
techr.iques, 492-502
care of, 57 texture standards, 489
graduations, 56 :\Ietal slitting saws,
reading SI Metric, 56--57 arbor mi:ling cutters, 299-301
reading US Conventional, 56 plain. 301
scale, 55 side c.ti.ip clearance, 301
steel rule, 55 :\Ietalluxgical engineer, 553
Vernier 63-67 Metals,
Mechanical engineer, 552 allov metallic eiements, 454-455
Mechanical finishes, base metal, 451
buffing, 499-500 cast irons, 452
buffinglathe,499-500 characteristics, 451-466
deburring techniques, 500--502 classifying, 451
extrude-hone, 502 £e:rous, 451, 452-458
powerbrushing, 500 gray iron, 452
hand-held polishing units, 500 heat treatment of, 467-488
roller burnishing, 500 high-temperature, 462-463
roller-type burnishing tool, 500 malleable iron, 452
Medium-carbon steel, 453 nonferrous,451,458
:\legahertz (MHz), 4-12 rare,
:\Ierry-go-round xotation, cetium.463
jigs, 144 europium, 463
work-r.olding de\ices, 164 hoL'Ilium, 463
:Vletal finishing, lanthanum, 463
ak.minum finishes, 495 scandium, 463
anodizing aluminum, 496-497 yttrium, 463
cleaning methods, 495 steel, 452-458
:r.organic coa~bgs, Metric-based micrometer, reading, 60--iil
anodizing, Metric-based Vernier scale, reading, 65-66
alumin\L-n oxide, 496-497 Metric dimensioning, 32
electrobrightenir.g, 496 Metrology, 55
!lard coat. 496 Microddlling machines,
ordinan:, 496 computer :tu.-nerical co!ttrol (CXC), 180
pecki..'1.g technique, 18(:
chemical blackening,
adva.-.tages, 49S tapping, :so
:\licrodrills, 159
dra·wbacks, 498
Microfilm process, 37
glass coating, 49;
Micrometer calipex. See Micrometex
me:al coatLTJ.gs, Micrometer depth gage, 58
applicat::ons, 498 reading, 62
detonation gun coating process (D-gun:E), 499 Micrometer,,
electroplating, 498 capabilities, 58
metal spraying, 498 =eof, 62~63
\itreous ena.,nel or porcelain, 497 chamfer micrometer, 58-59
mechanical finishes, conve::i.tional inside micromerer, 58
buffing, 499-500 inch-based mic:ometer, reading, 59-60
buffing lathe, 499-500 inside, 58
deburring techniques, 500-502 reading, 62
extrude-hone, 502 jaw-type inside micrometer, 58
powerbrushing, 300 measuring 60 screv,· threads, 255-256
hand-held polishing units, 500 metric Vernier micrometer, reading, 61
roller burnishing, 500 metric-based micrometer. reading, 60
roller-type burnishing tool, 500 micrometer depth gage, 58
organic coatings, application, reading, 62
brushin.g,495 outside, 58
dipping, 496 scre,,·-t.1u'ead micrometer, 58
t1o~,- coating, 496 Svstrmie Palme,-, 57
roller coating, 496 t)l'es of, 58-59
spraying, 495-496 ..:sing, 61-62
reasons for application, \ernier micrometer, reading, 60
appearance, 492, 493 Mild steel, 452
cost reduction, 493 Mill file. See Files
~~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _liMI
_
Mill form, identifying steel, 456
Milling cutters,
side milling, 334--335
slitting, 337-339
slotting, 339
-
arbor, 294, 299
angle cutter, 299, 301 squaring stock, 333
double-angle, 301 staggered-tooth side milling cutter, 335
single-angle, 301 straddle milling, 334-335
formed, 299, 301 surfaces requiring additional machining, 332-333
metal slitting saws, 299-301 industrial applications, 349-351
plain, 301 methods of machine control, 289-291
side chip clearance, 301 milling cutters, 293-308
plain milling cutter, milling methods,
heavy-duty, 300 climb, 304
helical, 300 conventional, 304
light-duty, 300 down-milling, 304
slab cutters, 300 up-milling, 304
side milling cutter, milling operations, 285--286, 317-352
half side, 300 face milling, 293
interlocking, 300 peripheral milling, 293
plain, 300 rapid traverse feed, 291
staggered-tooth, 300 safety practices, 292-293, 349
ball nose end mill, 297 table movement, 291
care of, 301-304 types of,
care of holding and driving devices, 307-308 column and knee, 286--289
dovetail cutter mills, 301 Axed-bed, 286
driving, 304 planer, 386
vertical, 386
end milling, 296--297
face milling, 298 vertical,
facing,294 aligning vise with dial indicator, 318
aligning work, 322
fly cutter, 298
hand, boring, 325-326
digital readout gaging system, 326
left-hand, 297
right-hand, 297 locating first hole, 325--326
measuring rod and dial indicator attachment, 326
holding,
care of, 326--238
adapters, 306 checking work on parallels, 318
arbor, 304
compound angles, 321
draw-in bar, 305--306 cutters for, 317
keyway,305 locating end mill, round work, 323--324
self-holding tapers, 304 machining,
spacing collars, 305 angular surfaces, 321-322
styles, 304--305 internal openings, 324-325
shell end mill holders, 306 keyseat or slot, 322-323
spring collets, 306 multilevel surfaces, 325
stub arbors, 306 mounting end mills, 319
inserted-tooth, 294 mounting vise, 318
material, squaring stock, 320-321
cemented tungsten carbides, 294 work-holding attachments,
high-speed steels (HSS), 294 dividing head, 311-312, 314
multiflute end mill, 298 flanged vise, 311
shank, 294 index crank, 312-314
shell end mill, 298 index plate, 312-314
solid, 294 index table, 311
T-slot 301 magnetic chuck, 311
two-flute end mill, 298 rotary table, 311
types of, 294 swivel vise, 311
Woodruff key set cutter, 301 toolmaker's universal vise, 311
Milling machine, vises, 310-311
basic operation, 16 Milling on lathe, 272
cutting fluids, 310 Mineral oils,
cutting speeds, cutting fluids, 149
adjusting, 291 quenching medium, 473--474
calculating, 308-310 Minor diameter, threads, 250
feed, Minor image part, 407
adjusting, 291 MMC. See Maximum material condition
calculating, 308---310 Molybdenum, 463
gear nomenclature, calculating, 343 Morse taper spindle, 163
horizontal, Movement systems, numerical control (NC), 404-408
boring, 339-340 Multiflute end mill, 298
cutting bevel gear, 346--349 Multiple spindle drilling machines, 156
cutting spur gear, 340---346 Multilevel surfaces, machining,. 325
measuring with Van Kuren wires, 345--346
drilling, 339-340 N
face milling, 333-334
gang milling, 335 National Coarse (NC) Thread, 114
locating side cutter for milling a slot, National Fine (NF) Thread, 114
square or rectangular work, 335--336 National Pipe Thread (NPT), 117
round stock, 336-337 National Tooling and Machining Association, skill standards, 21
milling flat surfaces, 330---332 NC. See National Coarse Thread. Also see Numerical control
operations,328--337 Necking operations, lathe, 230--231
 t'1 rhrmn flfnd m, nr;it•

Needle-nose pliers, 93 future, 413--415

NF. See Xational Fine Thread hard copy, 415
Nickel-based alloys, 463 Laminated Object ~Ianufacturing. 415
~itriding, ,l,72 l\.Iassachusetts Institute of Technology (~rm, 401
Xondestructh-e testing, movement systems,
comparative checki..'l.g unit, 448 contour or continuous path,
eddy-currer.t inspection, axis inversion, 407
absolute system, 447 circular interpolation, 406-40;"
differential system. 447 mirror i."llage part. 407
theory of operation, 446--447 point-to-point, 404
fluorescer.: pene~an: inspec!ion. 442 straight-cut, 404--405
inspection by :aser, 446 open loop system, 402
magnetic particle i.'1Spection, 441--442 positioning,
measuring, Cartesian Coordinate Svstem, 402-403
coordinate measuring machine (CMM). 435 methods, ·
optical comparator, 438 absolute, 403
optical gaging systeCT, 438 incremental, 403
precision tool calibration laboratory, 437 machine control unit (~iCU), 4C3-4C4
statistical :,recess control (SPC), 439 zero point, 403
profilometer, 448 p:::ogram."lling,
quaiity control, 436, 437-448 block, 405
radiography inspection (X-ray), computer languages, 412-413
advantages. 441 computer-aided, 409-412
gamc-ta radiation, 439 macHning program, 408
omnidirectional raYs, 440 manual, 409
peripheral i::ispection, 440 sofhvare, 408
Spotchecl<;r,:, 442 stereolithographj~ 415
ultrasonic insoe;:tion, transducer, 401
back reflection, 445 :\'uts,
cafaode ray tube (CRT), 445 acorn, 133
echo, 445 castellated, 133
hertz (Hz), 442 iam, 132
high-frequer.cy sound. 443 regular, 132
immersion-type testing, 443 seif-locking, 133
liquid coupling, 444 slotted, 133
megahertz (~ffiz), 442 wing, 133
piezoe:ectric transducer, 443 Nylon, machining,
pulse echo technique, 445 applications, 526
througr. inspection technique, 445 characteristics, 526
use of sound waves, 442-446 coolants, 526
Nonferrous metals, d:::illing, 526-52;'
aluminum, 458--460 milling, 526
beryllium copper, 461--462 precautions, 526
brass, 461 reaming, 527
bronze, 461 sawing, 52'."
copper, 461 threading and tapping, 527
copper-based al!oys, 461 !urning, 526
heat treatment of, 465
:magnesium, 460-461 0
molybdenum, 463 Occupational Outlook Handbook, 553
nickel-based allovs, 463 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 25
superal!oys, 462-463 Occupations in machining technology, 547-555.
tantalum, 463 A.lso see Employment
titanium, 461 Offhand grinding, 183-190
tungsten, 463 Offset tailstock method, 243-244
Sonthreaded fasteners, Oil-hole drills, 158
cotter pins, 136 Open-end wrenches, 97
dowel pins, 135-136 Open jigs, 1-U
keys, 137-138 Open loop system, (NC), 402
retaining r:ngs, 136 Optical comparator, 72-73
rivets, 136-137 Optical flats, 73-74
Nontraditional machining processes. See Machining processes, Optical gaging system, 438
nontraditional Organic coatings, 495-496
Normalizing, 469 Orientation geometric tolerances, 46-49
KPT. See ~ational Pipe Thread OSHA. See Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Number of teeth (N), calculating, 343 Outside diameter (D 0 ), calculating, 343
Numerical control (NC), Outside micrometers, 58
adaptive control (AC), 4i3
advar.tages of, 415,415 p
applications, 418-421 PIM. See Powder metallurgy
applications, auto body dies, 418-421 Parallels, checking work on, 318
closed loop system, 401 Part programmer, 549-550
computer languages, 412-413 Partial-profile inserts, 255
computer-aided design (CAD). 415 Parting operations, lathe, 237-238
computer-aided machining technolois:~ 399-400 Parting tool, 231
computer-aided manufacturing (CA,.\ ,I), 415 Pedestal grinders, 183-185
development of, 16-20 Peripheral inspection, 440
disadvantages of, 418 Peripheral milling, 293
for training programs, 418 Peripheral speed, drills, 168
 Photoetching. See Chemical blanking Precision gage blocks, 249
Pickled steel, 453 Precision grinding,
Piezoelectric traIUlducer, 443 adjustable stops, 355
Pillar file, See Files angle plate, 366
Pilot hole, applications, ~ 6 6
oounterboring, 177 basic operation, 16
drilling larger holes, 175 control console, 355
Pin spanner wrenches, 98 coolants, 362-364
Pinning, 108 creep grinding, 366
Pipe tap, 117 cross-feed handwheel, 354
Pipe thread, 117 cutting fluids,
Pipe wrenches, 97 applications, 362
Pitch, applying, 363
band machining blade characteristics, 386 cleaning system, 363-364
threads, 250 flooding, 363
Pitch circle, calculating, 343 polymers, 362
Pitch diameter (D), water-soluble chemical fluids, 362
calculating, 343 water-soluble oil fluids, 363
threads, 250 deep grinding, 366
Plain milling cutters, 371 down-feed handwheel, 354
Plain protractor, 87 dwell control, 355
Plain taper attachments, 247 grinding wheels,
Plain turning, lathe, 237 abrasive particles, 358
Plastic matrix composites, 464 bonding material, 358
Plastics, machining, diamond dressing tool, 359
acrylics, 530 hardness, 359
Delrin, 527 high-speed, 359
laminated plastics, 530-531 loaded and glazed, 359
nylon, 526-527 manufactured abrasives, 359
safe ~dling, 525 marking system, 359-360
Teflon , 527-530 mounting,
Plate jig, 144 automatic balancing, 362
Plexiglas®, 530 checking for soundness, 362
Pliers, sensors, 362
adjustable clamping, 93-94 unbalanced wheels, 362
care of, 94 shapes, 360-362
combination, 92 manual operation, 354
diagonal, 93 operation, 353
needle-nose, 93 problems,
round-nose, 93 burning, 367
side-cutting, 93 chatter, 367
slip-joint, 92-93 deep, irregular marks, 367
tongue and groove, 93 irregular scratches, 366
Plug gage, irregular table movement, 366
double-end cylindrical, 67 no table movement, 366
progressive plug gage, 67 villration marks, 367
step plug gage, 67 wheel glazing, 367
Plug tap, 116 wheel loading, 367
Pneumatic-mechanical forming, 541-543 work surface checking, 367
Point, parts of drill, 162 work surface waviness, 367
dead center, 162 work that is not flat, 367
heel, 162 work that is not parallel, 367
lip clearance, 162 procedure for grinding flat surface, 364-365
lips, 162 safety, 367-368
Point-to-point, movement system, 404 square edges and parallel with face sides, 365-366
Polishing, traverse hand wheel, 354
band machining, 394 types of surface grinders, 353-356
onlathes,267-268 work-holding devices,
Portable hand grinders, 188-189 clamps, 357
Portable magnetic drills, 155 dernagnetizer, 357
Positioning methods, numerical control (NC), electromagnetic chuck, 357
absolute, 403 indexing head, 357
incremental, 403 magnetic chuck, 356-357
machine control unit (MCU), 403-404 precision vise, 358
zero point, 403 universal vise, 357
Pot broaching, 281 Precision instrument turret lathe, 275
Potassium cyanide, 486 Precision microgrinders, 188
Powder metallurgy (PIM), Precision tool calibration laboratory, 437
applications,532,535 Precision vise, 358
briquetting, 535--536 Pressure angle (8), calculating, 343
costs, 537 Prick punch, 89
forging, 536 Process annealing, 468
green compact, 536 Professional workers, 551-553
process,535-536 Profile geometric tolerances, 46
sintering, 536 Profilometer, 448, 492
Power saw safety, 197-198 Programming, numerical control (NC),
Power sources, early machine tools, 13-14 block, 408
Powerbrushing, 500 computer languages, 412-413
Pratt & Whitney key, 137 Adaptation of APT (ADAPT), 412
[I M achining Fundamentals

APTIII, 412 drag, 181

Automatic Machining Program (ACTO 1IAP), 412 drilling machines, uses of, 157
Automatic Programmed Tools (APT), 412--413 drills, 180-152
cm.IPACT II, 412 expansion chucking reamer, 180
svntax, 412 grinding, 372-373
cmii.puter-aided, 409---412 hand reamer,
computer numerical control (C~ C), 411 adjustabie, 112
graphic capabilities, -H2 expansion, E2
host computer, 411 roughing, 112
memory capacity, 412 safetv, 113-114
rnachini."lg program, 40S spiral-fluted, 112
manual, 409 straight-tluted, 112
end of block (EOB) codes, 4C9 taper, 112
end of program code, 4Q9 using, 112-113
part complexit)~ 409 jobber's reamer, 180
tape punch / reader unit, 409 machine reamer, 18C, 151
software, 408 nylon, 527
Proof circles, 174 on lathes, 264--265
Ptotractor depth gage, 87 reamers, ,12-114
Prussian blue, 248 regular expansion reamer, 150
Pull broach, 281 rose chucking reamer, 150
Pulse echo technique, 445 rule5, 151-182
Pyrometer, 475 shell reamer, 180
solid expansion reamer, 181
Q Tef.onn r, 529
Quality control, Reciprocating hand grinder, 188
classifications of, 436--437 Reciprocating power hacksaw,
destructive testing, 436-437 angular cuts, 193
history of, 435--436 blades, 193-194
nondestructive testing, coolant, 193
comparative checlli.g unit, 448 cutting, 194
eddy-current inspection, 446-44S definite pressure feed, 191
fluorescent penetrant inspection, 4-l:2 gra~ity feed, 191
inspection by laser, 446 high-speed C'.Itting, 193
magnetic particle inspection, 441-442 positive feed. 191
measuring,437-439 selecting, 193
profilometer, 448 sizes_. 191
radiography inspection (X-ray), 439-441 stop gage, 194
Spotcheclc, 4l:2 three-tooth !1.ll.e, 193
ultrasonic inspection, 442-4-¼6 using, 196--197
primary purpose, 435 Red hardness, 455
Quenching media, Reference dimension, 41
air, 474 Reference line, 89
bri.>"te, 473 Regardless of feature size (RFS), ,B
flashpob.t, 473 Respirator, approved-type, 25
liquid nitrogen, 474 Resume, preparing, 555
mineral oils, 473--474 Retaining rings, 136
water, 473 RFS. See Regardless of feature size
Quick-change gearbox, 206 RIA. See Robotic Industries Association
Right angle plate, 84
R Right-hand threads, 258
Ring gage, 68
Radial drill press, 153-154 Rivets,
Radiography inspection (X-ray), blind, 136
advantages, 441 buster, 102-103
gamma radiation, 439 oermanent assemblies, 136
omnidirectional ravs, 440 removal, 102-103
peripheral inspection, 440 Robotic drilling machines, 156
quality control, 439--441 Robotic Industries Association (RIA), 424
Rake angle, 172 Robots,
Rapid prototyping techniques, 428-432 app!ications, 426--428
Direct Sr.ell Production Casting (DSPC), 431 handEng hea,-y w.ateria1s, 426
Fused Disposition ~fodeling (FD?.F)!), 431 hazardous and harsh environmer.ts, 426
Laminated Object ~Ianufacturing (L01F"'), 429-43() precision operations, 426
stereolithography, 430-431 tedious operations, 426
Rapid traverse feed, 291 automated manufacturing, 424--428
Rare metals, definition, 424_. 426
cerium, 463 design,426
classifying, 451 arm,426
europium, 463 controller, 426
holmi:im, 463 end-of-anr. tooling, 426
lanthanum, 463 manipulator, 426
scandium, 463 power supply, 426
yttrium, 463 robotic s,·stems, 20
Rasp files. See Files robotics,-424
Reactive metal, 473 Rockwell hardness tester,
Reaming, brale penetrator, 4B2
chucking reamer, 180 cleaning, 485
diameter_. setting, 112 diamond cone penetrator, 451
lmJt-•

operating, 483 nylon, machining, 527

precautions, 484--485 power saw safety, 197-198
procedures, 484 reciprocating power hacksaw, 191-194
Rockwell B readings, 482 angular cuts, 193
Rockwell C readings, 482 blades, 193-194
round stock, 485 coolant, 193
scale designation, 482 cutting, 194
steel ball, 481 definite pressure feed, 191
using, 482--485 gravity feed, 191
weights, 482--483 high-speed cutting, 193
Roller bmni.sJ.Jng,, 500 positive feed, 191
Roller guides, 388 selecting, 193
Roller-type burnishing tool, 500 sizes, 191
Rose chucking reamer, 180 stop gage, 194
Rotary head, milling machine, 289 three-tooth rule, 193
Rotary table, milling machine, 311 using, 196-197
Rough turning between centers, 228-229 titanium, 461
Roughing cuts, 221 Teflon™, machining, 529
Roughing hand reamers, 112 vertical band machine, 391-392
Roughing tools, lathe, Saws,
left-cut, 212 abrasive cutoff, 197
right-cut, 212 circular metal-cutting, 197
side relief, 212 friction saw, 197
tool shape, 211 metal slitting, 299, 301
Round file. See Files metal-cutting, 191
Round nose cutting tool, 212-214, 236 reciprocating power hacksaw, 191-194
Round stock, Scandium, 463
drilling, 175-176 Scleroscope hardness tester, 485--486
hardness testing, 485 basic operation, 486
horizontal milling machines, 336--337 performing test, 486
lathe, locating center of, 224 Screw pitch gage, 74-75
vertical milling machines, 323-324 Screw threads,
Round-nose pliers, 93 cutting 60° threads on lathe,
Rounded nubbin, 237 center gage, 251, 253
Runout geometric tolerances, fishtail, 251
circular runout, 52 gear box adjustment, 252
full indicator movement (FIM), 52 making the cut, 254-255
total runout, 50 measuring threads, 255-256
thread micrometer, 255-256
s three-wire method, 256
Saddle,205 resetting tool in thread, 255
SAE. See Society of Automotive Engineers setting compound rest, 253
Safe edge, file, 110 setting up work, 252
Safety, thread cutting stop, 253
awareness barriers, 26 thread dial, 253-254
back injuries, 24 thread end groove, 252
band machining, 397 tool centering, 252
classes of fires, 27 with insert-type cutting tools, 255
cleanliness, 23 partial-profile inserts, 255
combustible materials, 27 full-profile inserts, 255
compressed air, 24 cutting Acme threads on lathe, 257
containers, 24 cutting internal threads on lathe, 258-259
electrocution, 24 cutting left-hand threads, on lathe, 256
equipment, 25 cutting on taper surface, 259
fire,27-28 cutting right-hand threads, on lathe, 258
hand tools, 24 cutting square threads on lathe, 256-257
heat treatment, 486 external, 250
lathe, 209-211 forms, 250-251
layout, 89 internal, 250
machine shields, 26 lead, 250
machines, 26-27 major diameter, 250
medication, 24 minor diameter, 250
milling machines, 292-293, 349 pitch, 250
OSHA. See Occupational Safety and Health Administration pitch diameter, 250
precision grinding, 367-368 Screw-thread micrometer, 58
protective clothing, 23, 24 Screwdrivers,
rag disposal, 24 close quarters, 100
shop, 23-28 clutch head, 100
signs, 26-27 double-end offset, 100
spontaneous combustion, 24 electrician's, 100
tools, 27 grounding tip, 100
ventilation, 24 heavy-duty, 100
Sawing, hex, 100
band machining, friction, 394-395 Phillips, 99
circular metal-cutting saw, 191 Pozidriv®, 99-100
contour, vertical band machine, 391 ratchet, 100
horizontal band saw, 194-197 Robertson, 100
metal-cutting saws, 191, 197 safety, 101
 M,1chrnlni: Furuhmc:nt:tl'l

star.dard, 10Cl Spanner wrenches, 98

straight shank, 100 Spark forming, See Electrohydraulic forming
stubb,·, l()Q Spark test, identifying steel, 458
TorxZ, 100 SPC. See Statistical process control
using, 100 Spindle. See Drill press, Lathe, Milling machine
Scriber, 81 Spiral-fluted hand reamers, 112
Second-cut files. See Files Split-ring lock washers, 134
Self-locking nuts, 133 Spontaneous combustion, 2-1
Semichemical cutting fluids, 1-19 Spokheck™, 442
Semiskilled workers, 5-17-548 Spotfacing,
Servo motors, 40C backcounterbore, 1:-s
Servomechanism, 504 backspotface, 178
Set, saw blades, 107 drillir.g ~a6bes, uses of, 13:-
Setscrews, 130-131 drills, 178
Setup specialist, 549 large diameter openings, 178
Shank, drill, 162 Spring collets, 306
Shell end mills, Spur gear,
holding milling cutters, 306 cutter range, 343
horizontal millhlg :nacr.ines, 333 cutting,340-346
millmg cutters, 29e gear cutters, 343--344
Shell reamer, 180 gear nomenclature, 341-343
Sr.ock resistant (HSS) blades, 384 measuring with Van Kuren wires, 345-346
Shop safety, 23-28 universal dividing head, 346
Shoulder types, 230 Square file. See Files
Shrink-fitting metal parts, 543 Square nose tool, 216,
SI :Metric system, Square threads, cutting on lathe, 256-257
drawing sizes, 42. Square-shoulder nubbin, 237
metric climensionbg on drawh1.gs, 32 Squares,
Side milling, 334-335 combination set, 86
Side-cutting pliers, 93 center head, 86
Sine bar, 249 protractor head, 86
Single cutting edge countersinks, 177 do:ible square, 56
Single-cut files. See Files hardened steel square, 55
Single-point cutting tool, 211 Squaring stock,
Sintering. See Powder Metallurgy horizontal miiiing machine, 333
Skill standards, X ational Tooling and ,1achining Association, 21 vertical milling machine, 320-321
Skilled workers, Staggered-tooth side milling cutter, 335
apprentice programs, 345 Stainless steels,
specialized maC:'lin::.sts, a'..lsten~c, 456
all-arot:nd machinist, 549 ferrite, 456
diemaker, 549 machining EJrecautions, 456
layout specialist, 549 martensitic, 456
manager, 350 Stand-off HERF, 539
part program.'I!er, 549-550 Standard tooth blade,
sett:p specialist, 549 ho:izonta~ bar.d saw, 196
supen'1sor, 550 ba."1.d machining blade forms, 356
toolrr.aker, 549 Standard washers, 13-l
Skip tooth blade, Statistical process control (SPC), 67, 439
horizontal bar.d saw, 196 Steadv rest, lathe, 268-269
band machining b1ade fo~:ns, 386 Steani engine, 13
Slab broach, 281 Steel,
Sleeve, drill-holding device, 163 alloy steels,
Sliding head milling machine, 289 chromium, 453
Slip bushings, 145 p:operties of, 4-."4
Slip-joint pliers, 92-93 c:iro:r.~um-nickel. 454
Slitting, 337-339 cobal~, properties of, 455
Slotted nuts, 133 ductility, 454
Slotting, 339 manganese, 453
Slurry machining. See Impact machining properties of, 454
Small hole gage, i6, 78 molvbdenurr., 453
Smart tooling, 424 piopenies of, 454
Smooth files. See Files nicke~, 453
Snap gage, properties oi, 454
adjustable, 68 tungsten, 453
dial indicator, 69 properties of, 455
nonadjustable, 68 vanadium, 453
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), properties of, 454
number code for ic!en:i.;ying stee:, 456-4.57 carbon steel,
Socket wrenches, 97-98 adding lead, 453
Socket, drill-holding de,ice, 163 adding sulfur, 453
Soft-face hammer, 101 carbon content, 452
Sofh,•are, programming, 408 improving machinability, 453
Solid counterbore, 177 cold finished steel, 453
Solid expansion reamer, 181 critical temoerature, 469
Solid mandrel, 270 heat treatrr:ent,
Soluble oils. See Emulsifiable oils a::mealing, 468-469
Sound waves, use of, 442-H6 box annealing, 469
Spacing collars, 305 case hardening, 471-472
Spade drills, 159 decarbonizing, 469
lndt I(

drawing, 472 T
flame hardening, 470
hardening, T-bolts, 165
carbon steel, 475--477 T-slot milling cutters, 301
measuring furnace temperature, 475 Tailstock setover,
process, 476--477 calculating, 244-245
pyrometer, 475 measuring,245--246
induction hardening, 470 using dial indicator, 246
laser hardening, 470--471 Tantalum, 463
normalizing, 469 Tap drill, 117-118
procedure, 452 Tap wrenches, 118, 1'79
process annealing, 468 Tape punch/reader unit, 409
stress-relieving, 468 Taper,
surface hardening, 470--471 cutting on lathe, 241-250
tempering, 472, 477--478 measuring, 248-250
heat-treatable metals, 468 by comparison, 248
high-carbon steel, 453 bluing, 248
hot rolled steel, 453 taper plug gages, 248
identifying, taper ring gages, 248
AISI/SAE four number code, 456--457 direct, 249-250
color coding, 457--458 cylindrical rods, 249
mill form, 456 precision gage blocks, 249
spark test, 458 sine bar, 249
low-carbon, 452 taper test gage, 249
machine steel, 452 plug gages,
medium-carbon steel, 453 measuring tapers by comparison, 248
mild steel, 452 surface, cutting threads on, 259
physical properties, 452 test gage, direct measuring tapers, 249
pickled, 453 tailstock setover,
red hardness, 455 calculating, 244-245
stainless steels, 456 measuring, 245--246
tool steel, 455 using dial indicator, 246
transformation range, 471 taper attachments,
tungsten carbide, plain, 247
carbide-tipped tools, 455 setting, 248
coating carbide tools, 455 telescopic, 247-248
sintering, 455 turning methods,
Step blocks, 166 offset tailstock, 243-244
Step drills, 159 tailstock setover, 243-244
Stereolithography, 415, 430-431 with compound rest, 241-243
Sti:addle milling, 334-335, square-nose tool, 248
Sti:aight filing, 111 Tape: shank twist drills, 158
Sti:aight knurls, 265 Taper taps, 116
Straight sawing, 390 Tapered spindle, 163
Straight-cut movement system, 404--405 Tapping,
Straight-flute gun drills, 158 broken taps, removing, 120
Sti:aight-fluted hand reamers, 112 care in, 120
Sti:aightedge, 85 drilling machines, uses of, 157
Sti:aightness, form geometric tolerances, 45 drills, 178-180
Strap clamps, 165, 166 microdrilling machines, 180
Stress-relieving, 468 pecking technique, 180
Striking tools, power tapper, 119
ball-peen hammer, 101 small-size holes, 180
mallet, 101 tap disintegrator, 120
safety, 101 tap extractor, 120
soft-face hammer, 101 tap wrench, 179
Stub arbors, 306 tapping attachment, 179
Stud bolts, 131 titanium, 461
Subassembly drawings, 38 using hand drill press, 178-179
Superalloys, 462--463 Taps,
Surface gage, 82--83 blind hole, 117, 119
Surface plate, 83-84 bottoming, 117
Surface quality, grinding, 372
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) values, 492 high-speed steel (HSS), 115
economics of machined surfaces, 492 pipe, 117
finishes, plug, 116
information included on drawings, 32, 35 taper,116
measuring, 492 Teacher, 551-552
profilometer, 492 Technicians,550-551
surface roughness gage, 492 Teflon™, machining,
roughness standards, annealing,529-530
metal finishing, 489 applications, 528
symbols, 490 characteristics, 528
values, 489--491 drilling,529
Swing, lathe, 201 milling,529
Swiss pattern file. See Files reaming,529
Swivel head milling machine, 289 sawing,529
Swivel vise, 311 threading and tapping, 529
Syntax, computel" languages, 412 tuming,528-529
rm
Telescopic taper attachments, 247-248 Through inspection technique, 445
Telescoping gage, 76 Thumbscrew, 131
Temper designation, aluminum, 459 Titanium,
Tempering, steel, 472, 477-478 applications, 461
Tension, band machining blades, 390 heat treatment, 473
Texture standards. See Surface quality heat-treatable rr.etals, 468
Thickness (feeler) gage, 74 machining,
Thread cutting screws, 135 conventio~ tools, 461
Thread cutting stop, 253 drilling, 461
Thread dial, lathe, 253-254 milling, 461
Thread end groove, 252 sawing, 46;.
Thread gage, 69 tapping, 461
Thread-forming screws, 135 tu..'"IUJ'.g, 461
Threaded fasteners, working temperatare, 461
basic profile, 128 Titanium carbide (TiC), 216
bolts, rr.achine, 128 Titanium nitride (TiN), 216
removi.'1.g broken or sheared, 131-132 Tolerances,
bo!ts, stt.d, ! 31 bilateral tolerance, 35
inserts, 133 information included DI'. drawings, 35-36
metric sizes, 127-128 unilateral tolerance, 36
nuts, 132-133 Tombstones, 147
screws, cap, :!.29-130 Tongue and groove pliers, 93
screws, machine, 125 Tool an<!. cutter grinding wheels, 368-373
setscrews, 130,.-.131 Tool and manufacturing engineer, 352
wedgbg action, 127 Tool blanks, 214
Threaded spindle, 204 Tool geometry, aluminum, 460
Threading tool, lathe, 216 Tool post, 206
Threads, Tool post grinder, 270
Acme screw, 257 Tool rest, grinding, 185
American National Thread Svstem, 114 Tool steel,
cutting, 115 · air-hardened. 455
dies, 115 applications, 435
external, 120-121 oil-hardened, 455
adjustable dies, 121 Toolholder, lathe, 211
close tolerance, 116 Toolmaker, 549
cutting prob!ems, 121 Toolmaker's unh-ersal vise, 311
cutting, 121 Tools, hand, 91-126
die stocks.. 121 chisels, 102-104
general-purpose, li6 files. 107-112
ISO standards, 116 hacksaws, 104-107
ragged threads, 121 p!iers, 92-94
solid dies, 120 reamers, 112-114
threading to a shoulder, 121 screwdrivers, 99-lQl
two-part adjustable dies, 121 striking, 101
forms, 250-251 taos. 116-121
inte=il, 115-116, 230 ....-i-enches, 95-99
lead,250 Tools, machine,
major diameter, 250 automated, 422-449
measuring 60° screw, 255-256 broaching, 280-284
metric unit, 115 basic operation, 14--17
minor diameter. 250 band machines, 16
~ational Coarse (~C) Thread, 114 broaching machines. 1;-
National FL1'\e (NF) Thread, 114 driil press, 14-15
number sizes, 115 grinding machlnes, 15--'!.6
pitch, 250 ::nilling madrines, 16
pitch diameter, 250 deYelopment of, 12-13
power tapper, 119 boring mill, 12
size, !15 Industrial Re,·olution, 13
tap drill, 117-118 power sources, 13-14
tap wrenches, steam engine, 13
hand tap, 118 drillmg, 153-182
T-ha::idle, 118 grinding, l83-19C, 353-381
tapping, 120 lathe. 200-279
taps, 115. 116-121 milling, 285-352
Unified System, nontraditional, 510-549
T:~fied N'atio:tal Coarse (UKC), 114 sa,\ing, 191-199, 382-398
Unified Xational 8 Series, 114 Tooth form, band machining blade, 386
Unified Xational Extra Fbe (liXEF), 114 Tooth thickness <tc>, calculating, 343
Unified Xational Fine (u'KF), 114 Tooth-type lock washers, 134:
Cnified Xa!ional 12 Series, 114 Torque-Hmiting v.Tenches, 95
Three-flute core drills, 158 · Tracing unit, lathe, 272
3-jaw universal chucks, 232 Tracking, band machining blades, 388--390
3-square file. See Files lraining programs, ,UB
Three-tooth rule, 193 lrammel, 82
Three-"i\ire method, 256 lransducer, 401
Through feed grinding, 376 lransformation range, steel, 471
 _
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_x_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _1rm
lransverse tool movement, 206 Ventilation, 24
lraverse handwheel, 354 Vernier measuring tools,
True position, U caliper, 63
Tungsten, 463 care of, 67
blades, dial calipers, 66
carbide, band machining, 384 SO-division Vernier plate, 65
reciprocating power hacksaw, 193 inch-based Vernier scale, reading, 64--65
carbide steel, 455--456 metric-based Vernier scale, reading, 65-66
carbide-tipped tools, 455 micrometer, reading, 60
coating carbide tools, 455 protractor, measuring angles, 87
sintering, 455 25-division Vernier plate, 64-65
Turning on a shoulder, 230 universal Vernier bevel protractor, reading, 66-67
Turning tape,:s, 241-244 Vernier, Pierre, 63
tailstock setover, 243-244 Vertical band machine,
with compound rest, 241- 243 angular sawing, 392
Turning to a shoulder, 237 contour sawing, 391
Turning. See Lathe feed,393
Turret holder, 211 internal cuts, 392
Turret lathe, 274-275 straight sawing, 390
Twist drills, 158 Vertical boring machine, 276
Two-flute end mill, 298 Vertical milling machine,
aligning vise with dial indicator, 318
u aligning work, 322
U-strap clamp, 165 boring, 325-326
US Conventional system, centering scope, 325
drawing sizes, 41 digital readout gagjng syste m, 326
dual dimensioning, 31 edge finder, 326
Ultrasonic cleaning, 518 locating first hole, 325-326
Ultrasonic inspection, locating first hole, wiggler, 325
back reflection, 445 measuring rod and dial indicator attachment, 326
cathode ray tube (CRT), 445 care of, 326-238
echo, 445 checking work on parallels, 318
high-frequency sound, 443 column and knee, 288-289
immersion-type testing, 443 compound angles, 321
liquid coupling, 444 cutters for, 317
piezoelectric transducer, 443 locating end mill, round work, 323-324
pulse echo technique, 445 machining angular surfaces, 321-322
through inspection technique, 445 machining internal openings, 324-325
use of sound waves, 442-446 machining multilevel surfaces, 325
mtrasonic machining, milling keyseat or slot, 322-323
basic operation, 17 locating end mill, 323-324
infrasonic sound waves, 517 milling, 325-326
sound waves, 517 centering scope, 325
ultrasonic sound waves, 517 digital r eadout gaging system, 326
ultrasonic-assist machining, 517-518 edge finder, 326
chatter reduction, 517 locating first hole, 325-326
grinding applications, 517-518 measuring rod and dial indicator attachmer.t, 326
improving surface finish, 517 wiggler, 325
use of fluid, 517 mounting end mills, 319
UJtraviolet light, 442 mounting vise, 318
UNC. See Unified National Couse operation, 317-328
UNEE See Unified National Extra Fine squaring stock, 320-321
UNE See Unified National Fine Vibration marks, 367
Unified System, threads, 114 V1Se11,
Unified National 8 Series, 114 angular, 164
Unified National 12 Series, 114 bench, 91
Unified National Coarse (UNC), 114 cross-slide, 164
Unified N ational Extra Fine (UNEF), 114 flanged, 311
Unified National Fme (UNF), 114 jaws, 92
Unilateral tolerance, 36 machinist's, 91
Universal bevel, 87 milling machine, 310-311
Universal dividing head, 346 parallels, use of, 164
Universal milling machines, 288 precision, 358
Universal tool and cutter grinder, 368 swivel, 311
Universal Vernier bevel protractor, 66-67 toolmaker's universal, 311
Universal vise, 357 universal, 357
Up-milling,~ use of, 92
vertical milling machines, mounting, 318
V work-holding devices, 164
Vitreous enamel or porcelain, 497
V-blocks,
drilling round stock, 175--176 w
supporting layout work, 84 Washers,
work-holding devices, 164 loclc, 134
Van Kuren wires, measuring with, 345-346 preassembled, 134
Vanadium, split-ring lock, 134
alloy steels, 453 standard, 134
properties of, 454 tooth-type lock, 134
. '
Water, quenching medium, 473 Work-holding de\ices,
Water-jet cutting. See Hydrodynamic machining drilling,
Watt, James, 12 angle plate, 167
l'\'aviness, angular vise, 164
precision grinding problems, 367 cross-slide. !64
surface iinish, 491 drill jig, 167
l\"eb, drill, 163 ringer clamp, 165
Web thinning, 171 parallels, 164
l\'ebster hardness tester, step blocks, 166
applications. 485 strap clamps, :65, 166
portable, 485 T-bolts, 163
Wedging action, threaded fasteners, 127 U-strap clamp, : 65
Welding, Y-blocks, 164
band machining blades, 357-388 vises, 164
use of ultrasonics, 519 precision grinding.
Wet-type grinder, clamps, 357
applications, 188 demagnetizer, 357
grinding carbide-tipped tools, 188 electromagnetic chuck, 33;-
pedestal, 185 indexing head, 35;-
usir.g, l!lS magnetic chuck, 356-357
Wheels, grinding, urecision vise, 358
exami..."li..'1.g for concentricity. ~55 universa! vise, 357
glazing, 367 l•forking depth (hk), calculat:.ng, 343
loading, 367 Working drawings, 38
wheel dresser, use of, 186 Wrenches,
'Whitney; Eli, 13 adjustable, 95-97
l\'hole depth of tooth <ht), calculating, 343 Allen, 99
l"liggler, box,97
drilling, 173 combination open-end and box, 97
horizontal milling machines, boring, 340 end spanner, 98
vertical milling machines, locating first hole_. 325 hook spanner, 98
Wilkinson, John, 12 open-end, 97
Wing nuts, 133 pin spanner, 98
Wire band, 395 pipe, 97
Woodruff key, 138, 301 safety, 99
Work-holding attachments, socket, 97-98
latr.e, spanner, 98
between centers, 222 torque-limiting, 95
bolted to faceplate, 222 Wrought alloys, aluminum, 4:59
held in chuck, 222
held in collet, 222 X
milling machines, 310-314
Xerographic (electrostatic) process, 37
dividing head, 311-312, 314
flanged ,,ise, 311 y
index crank, 312-314
!ndex plate, 312-314 Yttrium, 463
index table, 311
magnetic chuck, 311 z
rotarv table, 311 Zero point, 403
swiv~l vise, 311
toolmaker's universal ,ise, 31!