Transformer

Fundamentals

Prepared by:

ENGR. MICHAEL ERNIE F. RODRIGUEZ

Engr. Michael
ENGR. Ernie
ALFRED REYF.G.Rodriguez
VASQUEZ
Faculty, EE Department

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY

 Transformer Fundamentals

Lesson 1
Introduction to Transformers
 Transformer
• Transformer is a stationary machine of high efficiency by
means of which AC power maybe changed from one voltage
to another without changing its frequency.
• It is a simple and efficient machine that changes the level of
energy from high voltage to low voltage and vice versa.
• Unlike in rotating machines, there is no electrical to
mechanical energy conversion.
 Parts of a Transformer
Core

E1 N1 N2 E2

Primary Secondary

1. Core – made up of laminated sheets of iron which

interlinks two coils of insulated wire placed upon it.
2. Primary Winding – winding that is connected to an AC
power source of suitable voltage.
3. Secondary Winding – winding that is connected to the
load.
 Working Principle of a Transformer
• A transformer operates on the principle of mutual
inductance between two inductively coupled coils. It
consists of two windings in close proximity and are coupled
by magnetic induction.
• One of the windings called primary is energized by a
sinusoidal voltage. The second winding, called secondary,
feeds the load.
• The alternating current in the primary winding sets up an
alternating flux in the core.
• The secondary winding is linked by most of this flux and
emfs are induced in the two windings. The emf induced in
the secondary winding drives a current through the load
connected to the winding.
 Working Principle of a Transformer
• Energy is transferred from the primary circuit to the
secondary circuit through the medium of the magnetic field.
• In brief, a transformer is a device that:
1. transfers electric power from one circuit to another;
2. it does so without a change of frequency; and
3. it accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction
 Transformer Characteristics
• No rotating parts
• Maintenance is low
• The cost per kilowatt is low
• Higher efficiency
• The windings can be immersed in oil
• Not difficult to insulate transformer for very high voltage
 Transformer Fundamentals

Lesson 2
Classification of a Transformer
 Classification of a Transformer
According to Construction:
• Core Type Transformer
• Shell Type Transformer

According to Purpose or Application:

• Distribution Transformer
• Instrument Transformer
• Power Transformer

According to Voltage Transformation:

• Step-up Transformer
• Step-down Transformer
 According to Construction
Core Type Transformer
• The winding surrounds the bigger portion of the core and is
good for medium voltage and high capacity.
 According to Construction
Shell Type Transformer
• The core surrounds the bigger portion of the windings and is
good for low voltage and high capacity.
 According to Purpose or Application
Distribution Transformer
• It provides the
final voltage transformation in
the electric power
distribution system.
• It is a small transformer
mounted on poles to supply a
group of customers.
• It must be designed with high
all-day efficiency.
 According to Purpose or Application
Instrument Transformers
• Its most common usage is to operate instruments or
metering from high voltage or high current circuits.
• The primary winding of the transformer is connected to the
high voltage or high current circuit, and the meter or relay is
connected to the secondary circuit.
 According to Purpose or Application
Power Transformer
• It is very widely used for
stepping up and stepping down
the voltage at the electrical
power generating station and
distribution station (or
substation) respectively.
• It is a big transformer installed
in power plants and central
substations.
• It must be designed with high
efficiency at rated capacity.
 According to Voltage Transformation

Step-up Transformer
• A step-up transformer has more turns of wire on the
secondary coil, which makes a larger induced voltage in the
secondary coil.
 According to Voltage Transformation

Why is it called a step-up transformer?

• It is called a step-up transformer because the voltage output
is larger than the voltage input.
• If the secondary coil has twice as many turns of wire, then
the output voltage will be twice the input voltage.
 According to Voltage Transformation

Step-down Transformer
• A step-down transformer has less turns of wire on the
secondary coil, which makes a smaller induced voltage in
the secondary coil.
 According to Voltage Transformation

Why is it called a step-down transformer?

• It is called a step-down transformer because the voltage
output is smaller than the voltage input.
• If the secondary coil has half as many turns of wire, then
the output voltage will be half the input voltage.
Transformer Fundamentals

Lesson 3
Ideal Transformer
 Ideal Transformer
• An ideal transformer is a lossless transformer.
𝐸 = 4.44𝑁𝑓𝜙𝑚 ; 𝜙𝑚 = 𝐵𝑚 𝐴

where:
E = voltage induced in the windings, in volts (V)
N = number of turns in the windings
f = frequency of the voltage induced, in Hertz (Hz)
fm = maximum flux in the core, in weber (Wb)
Bm = maximum flux density in the core, in Tesla (T)
A = csa of the core, in sq. meters (m2)
 Example 1
A single-phase transformer has 300 primary turns and 750
secondary turns. The net cross sectional area of the core is 64
sq cm. If the primary voltage is 440 V, 60 Hz, find the
maximum flux density in the core.

Solution:
𝐸 = 4.44𝑁𝑓𝜙𝑚 ; 𝜙𝑚 = 𝐵𝑚 𝐴
𝐸
𝐸 = 4.44𝑁𝑓𝐵𝑚 𝐴 → 𝐵𝑚 =
4.44𝑁𝑓𝐴
2
2
1𝑚
𝐴 = 64 𝑐𝑚 × = 0.0064 𝑚2
100 𝑐𝑚
𝐸 440
𝐵𝑚 = = = 0.86 𝑇
4.44𝑁𝑓𝐴 4.44(300)(60)(0.0064)
 Ideal Transformation Ratios

𝐸1 𝑁1
Voltage Ratio: = =𝑎
𝐸2 𝑁2
𝐼2 𝑁1
Current Ratio: = =𝑎
𝐼1 𝑁2
2
𝑍1 𝑅1 𝑋1 𝑁1
Ohmic Ratio: = = = = 𝑎2
𝑍2 𝑅2 𝑋2 𝑁2

where: a = turns ratio

Note: Subscript 1 is for primary parameters while Subscript 2

is for secondary parameters
 Example 2
The secondary winding of a 4,600/230 V transformer has 36
turns. How many turns are there in the primary winding?

Solution:
𝐸1 𝑁1 𝐸1
= → 𝑁1 = 𝑁2
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝐸2
4600
𝑁1 = 36
230
𝑁1 = 720 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
 Example 3
The secondary load current of a 2,300/115 V transformer is
46 A. Calculate the primary current.

Solution:
𝐼2 𝐸1 𝐸2
= → 𝐼1 = 𝐼2
𝐼1 𝐸2 𝐸1
115
𝐼1 = 46
2300
𝐼1 = 2.3 𝐴
Transformer Fundamentals

Lesson 4
Equivalent Circuits
 Non-Ideal Transformer
• A non-ideal or a practical transformer has power losses and
voltage drops within its internal circuits.

Ip R1 X1 R2 X2
I0 I1 I2

LOA D
V1 RC XM E1 E2 V2

R1, X1 = R and X of primary windings V1 = supply voltage

R2, X2 = R and X of secondary windings V2 = load or terminal voltage
XM = magnetizing reactance of the core I0 = exciting current
RC = resistance representing the core loss Ip = total primary current
drawn from the supply
 Approximate Equivalent Circuit

R1 X1 R2 X2

I1 I2

LOA D
V1 E1 E2 V2

Approximate Equivalent Circuit

Note: At full load Ip is at least 20 times bigger than I0,

consequently I0 can be neglected and the corresponding
magnetizing branch. This equivalent circuit can be used even
if the loading is only 10% of the rated capacity of the
transformer without sacrificing the accuracy of the solution.
 Approximate Equivalent Circuit
Equivalent Circuit Referred to the Primary Side
R01 X01

I1 I2

LOA D
V1 E1 E2 V2

𝑅01 = 𝑅1 + 𝑎2 𝑅2 ; 𝑋01 = 𝑋1 + 𝑎2 𝑋2 ; 𝑍01 = 𝑅01 2 + 𝑋01 2

where: R01 = equiv. resistance ref. to the primary side

X01 = equiv. reactance ref. to the primary side
Z01 = equiv. impedance ref. to the primary side
 Approximate Equivalent Circuit
Equivalent Circuit Referred to the Secondary Side
R02 X02

I1 I2

LOA D
V1 E1 E2 V2

𝑅1 𝑋1
𝑅02 = 𝑅2 + 2 ; 𝑋02 = 𝑋2 + 2 ; 𝑍02 = 𝑅02 2 + 𝑋02 2
𝑎 𝑎

where: R02 = equiv. resistance ref. to the secondary side

X02 = equiv. reactance ref. to the secondary side
Z02 = equiv. impedance ref. to the secondary side
 Example
A single-phase, 2000/200 V, 50 Hz transformer has primary
resistance of 3.5 W and reactance of 4.5 W. The secondary
resistance and reactance are 0.015 W and 0.02 W respectively.
Calculate the equivalent values of resistance, reactance and
impedance (a) in primary terms and (b) in secondary terms.

Solution:
𝐸1 2000
𝑎 𝑎= = = 10
𝐸2 200
𝑅01 = 𝑅1 + 𝑎2 𝑅2 = 3.5 + 102 0.015 = 5 Ω
𝑋01 = 𝑋1 + 𝑎2 𝑋2 = 4.5 + 102 0.02 = 6.5 Ω

𝑍01 = 𝑅01 2 + 𝑋01 2 = 52 + 6.52 = 8.2 Ω

 Example
A single-phase, 2000/200 V, 50 Hz transformer has primary
resistance of 3.5 W and reactance of 4.5 W. The secondary
resistance and reactance are 0.015 W and 0.02 W respectively.
Calculate the equivalent values of resistance, reactance and
impedance (a) in primary terms and (b) in secondary terms.

Solution:
𝑅1 3.5
𝑏 𝑅02 = 𝑅2 + 2 = 0.015 + 2 = 0.05 Ω
𝑎 10
𝑋1 4.5
𝑋02 = 𝑋2 + 2 = 0.02 + 2 = 0.065 Ω
𝑎 10

𝑍02 = 𝑅02 2 + 𝑋02 2 = 0.052 + 0.0652 = 0.082 Ω

Transformer Fundamentals

Lesson 5
Voltage Regulation
 Per Unit Value in Transformer
Parameters
• The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of
the quantity to its base or reference value.

For a single-phase system:

𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = =
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = =
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2
 Per Unit Value in Transformer
Parameters
For a three-phase system:

𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
3𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒(𝐿𝐿) 2
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = =
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒(𝐿𝐿) 2

where: Ebase = line to line voltage rating, in V

Sbase = rated apparent power, in VA
Zactual = ohmic impedance, in ohms
 Example 1
A 50 kVA, 2400/240 V transformer has a per unit reactance of
5%. Solve the equivalent ohmic reactance of the transformer
referred to the (a) primary, (b) secondary.

Solution:
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑋𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑋𝑝𝑢 𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2
𝑋𝑝𝑢 = 2 → 𝑋𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 =
𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑋𝑝𝑢 𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 (0.05)(2400)2
𝑎) 𝑋𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 = = = 5.76 Ω
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 50,000
𝑋𝑝𝑢 𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 (0.05)(240)2
𝑏) 𝑋𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 = = = 0.0576 Ω
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 50,000
 Per Unit Value Based on a New Base
To change from per-unit impedance on a given base to per-
unit impedance on a new base, the following equation
applies:
2
𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝐸𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑤
 Example 2
The per unit impedance of a transformer is 2%, based on 50
MVA and 13.8 kV. Solve the new per unit impedance if the
base is changed to 100 MVA and 6.9 kV.

Solution:
2
𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝐸𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑜𝑙𝑑)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑤
2
100 13.8
𝑍𝑝𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 2% = 16%
50 6.9
 Voltage Regulation
• Voltage regulation is the percentage rise in voltage in the
secondary side after the load is switched-off.
R02 X02

I1 I2

LOA D
V1 E1 E2 V2

𝐸𝑁𝐿 − 𝐸𝐹𝐿 𝐸2 − 𝑉2
%𝑉𝑅 = × 100% = × 100%
𝐸𝐹𝐿 𝑉2

where: E2 = terminal voltage at no load

V2 = terminal voltage at rated load
 Voltage Regulation
• Alternate formula using per unit data:

%𝑉𝑅 = cos 𝜃 + %𝐼𝑅 2 + sin 𝜃 ± %𝐼𝑋 2 −1

+ sign for a lagging pf

– sign for a leading pf

Note: If the pf is lagging, the voltage regulation is a

positive value and if the pf is leading, the voltage
regulation is a negative value.
 Example 3
A 7.2 kVA, 1.2 kV/120 V, single-phase transformer has the
following winding parameters: R1 = 0.8 W, X1 = 1.2 W, R2 =
0.01 W, and X2 = 0.01 W. Determine the voltage regulation of
the transformer when it is delivering rated load at 0.8 pf
lagging.
 Example 3: Solution
Solve the equivalent impedance referred to the secondary
side:
1200
𝑎= = 10
120
𝑍1 𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑋1
𝑍02 = 𝑍2 + 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑋2 +
𝑎 𝑎2
0.8 + 𝑗1.2
𝑍02 = 0.01 + 𝑗0.01 +
102
𝑍02 = 0.018 + 𝑗0.022 Ω
Solving for the rated secondary current at 0.8 pf lagging,
𝜃 = cos −1 0.8 = 36.87°
𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 7200
𝐼2(𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) = = = 60∠ − 36.87° 𝐴
𝑉2(𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) 120
 Example 3: Solution
R02 X02

I1 I2

LOA D
V1 E1 E2 V2

Solving for E2,

𝐸2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 𝑍02
𝐸2 = 120 + (60∠ − 36.87°)(0.018 + 𝑗0.022)
𝐸2 = 121.656∠0.192°
Solving for %VR,
𝐸2 − 𝑉2 121.656 − 120
%𝑉𝑅 = × 100% = × 100%
𝑉2 120
%𝑉𝑅 = 1.38%
 Example 3: Alternate Solution
Solving for per-unit impedance,
𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑍02 7200(0.018 + 𝑗0.022)
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = 2 =
𝑉2 1202
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = 0.009 + 𝑗0.011 𝑝𝑢
From the given,
cos 𝜃 = 0.8
Solve for sin 𝜃,
sin 𝜃 = 1 − cos 2 𝜃 = 1 − 0.82 = 0.6
Solving for %VR,
%𝑉𝑅 = cos 𝜃 + %𝐼𝑅 2 + sin 𝜃 + %𝐼𝑋 2 − 1
%𝑉𝑅 = 0.8 + 0.009 2 + 0.6 + 0.011 2 − 1
%𝑉𝑅 = 1.38%
 Transformer Fundamentals

Lesson 6
Tests on Transformers
 Open Circuit Test
• During the test, the low side is supplied with rated voltage
while the high side is left open circuited.

Poc Ioc
W A
Eoc V Open

LV Side HV Side

Note: The wattmeter reading is equal to the core loss.

where: Ioc = ammeter reading during the test, in amperes (A)

Poc = wattmeter reading during the test, in watts (W)
Eoc = voltmeter reading during the test, in volts (V)
 Open Circuit Test
• Formulas:
𝑃𝑜𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜
𝐸𝑜𝑐 2 𝐸𝑜𝑐 2 Ioc
Soc
𝑅𝐶 = ; 𝑋𝑀 = Eoc RC XM Qoc
𝑃𝑜𝑐 𝑄𝑜𝑐
IM q
𝑆𝑜𝑐 = 𝐸𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑜𝑐 Poc
Equivalent Circuit
𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 𝑆𝑜𝑐 2 − 𝑃𝑜𝑐 2

where: Pco = core loss, in watts (W)

RC = resistance representing the core loss, in ohms (W)
XM = magnetizing reactance of the core, in ohms (W)
IM = magnetizing current, in amperes (A)
 Example 1
A 500 kVA, 11/2.3 kV, 60 Hz transformer has been tested and
gives the following open circuit test data: Eoc = 2.3 kV, Ioc =
2.3 A and Poc = 4 kW. Determine the
a) resistance representing the core loss,
b) magnetizing reactance of the core and
c) magnetizing current.
 Example 1: Solution

𝐸𝑜𝑐 2 23002
𝑎) 𝑅𝐶 = = = 1322.5 Ω
𝑃𝑜𝑐 4000

𝑏) 𝑆𝑜𝑐 = 𝐸𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑜𝑐 = 2300 2.3 = 5290 VA

𝑏) 𝑄𝑜𝑐 = 𝑆𝑜𝑐 2 − 𝑃𝑜𝑐 2 = 52902 − 40002 = 3461.805 VAr

𝐸𝑜𝑐 2 23002
𝑏) 𝑋𝑀 = = = 1528 Ω
𝑄𝑜𝑐 3461.805

𝐸𝑜𝑐 2300
𝑐) 𝐼𝑀 = = = 1.51 A
𝑋𝑀 1528
 Short Circuit Test
• During the test, the low side is short circuited while the high
side is supplied with voltage adjusted so that the high side
will draw rated high side current.

Psc Isc Shorted

W A
Esc V

HV Side LV Side

Note: The WM reading is equal to the full-load copper loss.

where: Isc = ammeter reading during the test, in amperes (A)

Psc = wattmeter reading during the test, in watts (W)
Esc = voltmeter reading during the test, in volts (V)
 Short Circuit Test
• Formulas:
𝑃𝑠𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢 𝐹𝐿
R0H X0H
𝑃𝑠𝑐
𝑅0𝐻 = 2 Isc
𝐼𝑠𝑐 Z0H
X0H
Esc
𝐸𝑠𝑐 q
𝑍0𝐻 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐 R0H
Equivalent Circuit

𝑋0𝐻 = 𝑍0𝐻 2 − 𝑅0𝐻 2

where: R0H = equiv. resistance referred to the high side, in ohms (W)
X0H = equiv. reactance referred to the high side, in ohms (W)
Z0H = equiv. impedance referred to the high side, in ohms (W)
 Example 2
A 1-kVA 230/115 V transformer has been tested for short
circuit test and the results are the following: Esc = 19.1 V, Isc
= 8.7 A, Psc = 42.3 W. Find the equivalent values of
resistance, reactance and impedance referred to the high
side.

Solution:
𝑃𝑠𝑐
42.3
𝑅0𝐻 = 2 = 2 = 0.559 Ω
𝐼𝑠𝑐 8.7
𝐸𝑠𝑐 19.1
𝑍0𝐻 = = = 2.2 Ω
𝐼𝑠𝑐 8.7

𝑋0𝐻 = 𝑍0𝐻 2 − 𝑅0𝐻 2 = 2.22 − 0.5592 = 2.127 Ω

 Polarity Test
• The polarity of a transformer refers to the relative directions
of the induced voltage in the primary and secondary
windings with respect to the manner in which the terminal
leads are brought out.
• Proper transformer polarity is needed when transformers are
connected in parallel or when transformers are banked.

Subtractive Polarity Additive Polarity

H2 X2 H2 X1

V1 V1

H1 X1 H1 X2

V V
V is less than V1 V is greater than V1
 Example 3
A 2300/230 V distribution transformer is tested for polarity in
accordance to the standard method. If 120 V is impressed
across the H1 and H2 terminals, what will be the voltmeter
reading if
a) the polarity is additive
b) the polarity is subtractive
 Example 3: Solution
Solving for the impressed voltage at the secondary,
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝑁2
= → 𝐸2 = 𝐸1
𝐸1 𝑁1 𝑁1
230
𝐸2 = 120 = 12 V
2300
If additive polarity,
Reading = 120 + 12 = 132 V
If subtractive polarity,
Reading = 120 – 12 = 108 V