Lab Reports Mechanics, Heat & Vibrations

A COMPLETE REPORT ON
“EXPERIMENTS IN MECHANICS, HEAT AND

VIBRATIONS LAB”
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERSITY, FAISALABAD
SUBMITTED TO
DR. TAQMEEM HUSSAIN
SUBMITTED BY
BS PHYSICS
SEMESTER
3RD (EVENING)
SESSION (2019-2023)
Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

GROUP-A
 MUHAMMAD ADNAN (13004)

 KHANSA NAHEED (13019)
 NOREEN QUDDUOS (13035)
 MUHAMMAD NABEEL (13042)
 ZAHID IMRAN (13050)
 BIRRA FIRDOUS (13052)
DATE OF SUBMISSION: 14 FEBRUARY 2021
EXPERIMENTS CONTENTS
 Determine the value of ‘g’ by compound pendulum (Katler’s
Pendulum).___________________________________________ (Page-3)
 Determination of Modulus of Rigidity of a wire by solid

cylindrical rod._________________________________________(Page-16)
 Determination of Modulus of rigidity of helical

spring._______________________________________________(Page-32)
 Determine the Modulus of rigidity of wire by Maxwell’s

Needle.______________________________________________(page-50)
 To determine the frequency of A.C supply by Melde’s

Experiment.___________________________________________(Page-67)

EXPERIMENT # 1
Determine The Value Of ‘g’ By Compound Pendulum
(Katler’s Pendulum).
Historical Background
The first person who discovered the gravity varied over the Earth's surface with the help of
Pendulum was French scientist Jean Richer in 1671. Later a reversible free swinging pendulum invented
by British physicist and army captain Henry Kater in 1817 for use as a gravimeter instrument to measure
the local acceleration of gravity. Its advantage is that, unlike previous pendulum gravimeters, the
pendulum's centre of gravity and center of oscillation do not have to be determined, allowing greater
accuracy. For about a century, until the 1930s, Kater's pendulum and its various refinements remained
the standard method for measuring the strength of the Earth's gravity during geodetic surveys. It is now
used only for demonstrating pendulum principles.
If we determine ‘g’with the help of Simple Pendulum the results will not be accurate because an
ideal simple pendulum cannot be realized under the laboratory conditions. Hence we use two kinds of
pendulum to find the value of g i.e., bar pendulum and Kater’s Pendulum.
INTRODUCTION
Compound Pendulum is also called a physical pendulum or a rigid pendulum, a compound

pendulum is just a rigid body, of whatever shape, capable of oscillating about a horizontal axis passing
through it. The point in which the vertical plane passing through the center of gravity of the pendulum
meets the axis of rotation is called its Point or Centre of Suspension and the distance between the point
of suspension and the C.G. of the pendulum measures the Length of the Pendulum. A typical physical
pendulum or compound pendulum is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: A diagram of Compound Pendulum
The compound pendulum consists of a uniform rectangular long metal bar having several holes
drilled along its length so that the line of holes passes through the centre of gravity. Any desired hole
may be slipped on to a fixed horizontal knife edge and the bar can be made to oscillate about it in a
vertical plane. The knife edge is a piece of hard steel grounded to have a sharp edge. The knife edge
rests on two glass plates one on each side placed on a rigid support. The knife edge is therefore
horizontal and the bar swings regularly without twisting.
If this compound pendulum oscillates with small amplitude and its motion is simple harmonic
then the time period will be equal to:
𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑚𝑔𝑙
Where “I” denotes the moment of inertia of the pendulum about the horizontal axis through its centre
of suspension and l is the distance between the centre of suspension and the C.G. of the pendulum.
According to the parallel axis theorem, if IG is the moment of inertia of pendulum about an axis
through C.G then the moment of inertia I about the parallel axis at a distance l from C.G. is given below;
𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝑀𝑙
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑘 + 𝑀𝑙
.Where k is the radius of gyration about the axis through C.G.

Now using Equations, we get,
𝑀𝑘 + 𝑀𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑀𝑔𝑙
𝑘 +𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑔𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋 .
Where”L” is the length of the equivalent simple pendulum.
𝐿= .
Therefore,
𝐿= .
.Where L can also be written as by the rules of quadratic equations:
𝐿 =𝑙 +𝑙
Apparatus
Compound Pendulum, small metal wedge; stop watch, spirit level, telescope and beam compass.
Procedure
i. The knife edges were fixed in outer most hole at both sides of compound pendulum.
The knife edges were horizontal and lie symmetrically with respect to center of gravity
of bar.
ii. The compound pendulum was suspended by resting the knife edge at end A of the bar
on the glass plate.
iii. The bar was displaced slightly to one side of the equilibrium position and let it oscillate
with the small amplitude.

iv. The stop watch was used to measure the time for 10 oscillations. The time was
measured after the compound pendulum had completed one oscillation and the
oscillations became regular.
v. The observation was recorded.
vi. The time was recorded for 10 vibrations again.
vii. Then the mean value was taken for 10 oscillations.
viii. The compound pendulum was suspended on the knife edges at end B and the steps
were repeated from third step to seventh step.
ix. The knife edge were fixed in various holes on each side of C.G and in each case the
time period was measured for 10 oscillations and the distance of the knife edges from
C.G.
Table 1 : Evaluation Of The Time Period Of A Compound Pendulum Side A
Side A
Sr. Distance Time for 10 Vibrations Time Period
from
No. T = t/10
C.G
t1 t2 Mean
Sec sec t=(t1+t2)/2 sec
1 45 16.14 16.57 16.35 1.635
2 40 15.13 15.99 15.56 1.556
3 35 15.22 15.40 15.31 1.531
4 30 15.02 15.34 15.18 1.518
5 25 15.36 15.42 15.40 1.54
6 20 15.59 15.57 15.6 1.56
7 15 17.04 16.58 16.81 1.681
8 10 19.85 19.86 19.86 1.986
9 5 26.72 27.21 26.96 2.696

Table 2 : Evaluation Of The Time Period Of A Compound Pendulum Side B
Side B
Sr. Distance Time for 10 Vibrations Time Period
from
No. T = t/10
C.G
t1 t2 Mean
Sec sec t=(t1+t2)/2 sec
1 45 15.98 15.69 15.82 1.582
2 40 15.13 15.99 15.56 1.556
3 35 15.42 15.56 15.49 1.549
4 30 15.2 15.13 15.16 1.516
5 25 15.35 15.34 15.35 1.535
6 20 15.80 15.78 15.79 1.579
7 15 17.10 15.23 17.16 1.716
8 10 19.98 19.97 19.97 1.997
9 5 27.69 27.68 27.7 2.77
Calculations
Plot a graph showing how the time period T depends on the distance from the center of the
suspension.On drawing horizontal lines on the graph we have:
𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐸 63 + 60
𝐿 = = = 61.5𝑚
2 2
At T1
𝑇 = 1.58 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Similarly
𝐴𝐵 +𝐶𝐷 60 + 57
𝐿 = = = 58.5𝑚
2 2
At T2
T2 = 1.54 sec

Table 3: For The Calculation Of The Value Of g
Effective Length Time Period

𝐿
Line No. 𝑔 = 4𝜋
(L) (T) 𝑇
1 61.5 1.58 971.58
2 58.5 1.54 972.32
Average 972.21 𝑐𝑚𝑠
Errors
The percentage error in this experiment is given as:
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
%𝑎𝑔𝑒𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
On putting the values, we get:
|980 − 972.21|
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = 0.8%
980

Reason of Errors
 Personal Error
 Faculty apparatus
Conclusion
The average value of ‘g’ for compound pendulum is 9.72 ms-2 with error 0.8%.

MCQ’s
1.The distance between the series of holes on bar pendulum is approximately:
(a) 2cm
(b) 3cm
(c) 5cm
(d) 7cm
2.To arrive the equation of simple harmonic motion, which quantity approaches to
zero?
(a) Mass of body

(b) Distance between center of mass and pivot point
(c) Gravitational force
(d) Angle formed between center of mass and pivot point
3. Mention the difference among periodic, oscillatory and simple harmonic motion
(a) A simple harmonic motion is the necessarily periodic and oscillatory

(b) Oscillatory motion is necessarily periodic
(c) A periodic motion is necessarily oscillatory
4.What is the effect of doubling the angular frequency of the pendulum on the inertia?
(a) Inertia is also double

(b) Inertia is half
(c) Increase 4 time
(d) Decreases 4 times
5. The distance moved by particle in SHM in half time period is
(a) L
(b) 2L
(c) 4L
(d) Zero

6.When distance of center of gravity from axis is zero, then L becomes
(a) Zero
(b) Double
(c) Infinite
(d) Half
7. The value of L depends on
(a) The value of g

(b) The no. of vibrations
(c) The value of h and k
(d) None of these
8.Acceleration due to gravity is rate of change of velocity
(a) Along vertical direction

(b) Towards center of earth
(c) Along equator
(d) Along horizontal direction
9. When L becomes infinite, frequency will be:
(a) Maximum
(b) Minimum
(c) Infinite
(d) Zero
10. The bar pendulum is made up of:
(a) Metallic bar

(b) Insulator bar
(c) Semiconductor
(d) Lattice material

11.Which one the following one is correct:
(a) Frequency of sound > Frequency of compound pendulum

(b) Frequency of sound < Frequency of compound pendulum
(c) Frequency of sound = Frequency of compound pendulum
12.A compound pendulum is
(a) A bar supported with knife edges

(b) A rigid body capable of oscillating in vertical plane
(c) A bob suspended by thread
(d) A vibrator
13. Any swinging rigid body free to rotate about a fixed horizontal axis is called?
(a) Simple pendulum

(b) compound pendulum
(c) Harmonic pendulum
(d) Vibrator
14.A rigid body is the one
(a) A solid body

(b) A body which has volume
(c) The body whose distance between two points remain constant
(d) The body which do not deform
15.The center of gravity is
(a) Point at the center of instrument

(b) End point of the body
(c) Point of suspension
(d) Point at which all mass of body lie

16.The appropriate equivalent length for calculating the period of any such pendulum
is the distance from pivot to?
(a) center of gravity

(b) center of oscillation
(c) center of moving object
(d) center of oscillator
17.The center of oscillation located under the center of mass at a distance from the
pivot traditionally called?
(a) radius of earth

(b) radius of gravity
(c) radius of oscillation
(d) center of vibrator
18.The value of 𝑔 is maximum at
(a) Poles
(b) Center
(c) Equator
(d) Same at all points
19. If most of the mass is concentrated in a relatively small bob compared to the
pendulum length the center of oscillation is close to the?
(a) center of gravity

(b) center of mass
(c) center of earth
(d) center of oscillation
20. Periodic time of compound pendulum is when the distance between the point of
suspension and the center of gravity is equal to the radius of gyration of the body
about its center of gravity.
(a) Zero
(b) Minimum
(c) Maximum
(d) not mentioned

21.When small amplitude is used then, we can use this equation
(a) T=2π √l/g

(b) T= 2π 𝑔/𝑙
(c) T=2𝜋√2k/g
(d) T=2π√g/k
22.When a rigid body suspend vertically and oscillates with small amplitude under the
action of force of gravity, the body is known as
(a) Simple pendulum

(b) torsional pendulum
(c) Compound pendulum
(d) Second’s pendulum
23. The periodic time of the compound pendulum will be ----when the axis of rotation
passing through C.G?
(a) Remain same

(b) Minimum
(c) Maximum
(d) None of these
24.The periodic time of compound pendulum will be----when the length of the
pendulum is equal to its radius of gyration about horizontal axis passing through its
center of gravity?
(a) Remain same

(b) Minimum
(c) Maximum
(d)None of these
25. There are ----point collinear with the center of gravity of compound pendulum
about which its time of oscillations are equal?
(a) 2

(b) 6
(c) 4
(d) 8
26.Which of the following is the speed of a wave traveling with a wavelength λ,
frequency f, and period T?
A. v = B. v = C. v = λ D. v = f·T E. v =
27.The frequency of a wave is doubled when the wavelength remains the same. What
happens to the speed of the wave?
A. It doubles B. It quadruples C. Remains

unchanged
D. It is cut to one-half E. It is cut to one-fourth
28.The frequency of a wave increases when the speed remains the same. What
happens to the distance between two consecutive crests?
A. It increases B. It decreases C. Stays

unchanged
D. It increases first and then decreases E. It decreases first and then
increases
29.Which of the following statements is true about transverse waves?
A. They always have the same frequencies

B. They always have the same velocities
C. They always have the same wavelengths
D. They always travel through a dense medium
E. The particles vibrate in perpendicular direction with respect to the wave
motion
30.Which of the following statements is true about longitudinal waves?
A. They always have the same frequencies

B. They always have the same velocities
C. They always have the same wavelengths
D. The particles vibrate along the same direction as the wave motion

EXPERIMENTS # 2
Determination Of Modulus Of Rigidity Of A Wire By Solid Cylindrical
Rod.
Introduction
The modulus of rigidity of material is the relation between shear stress and shear strain of a particular
substance and defined as the ratio of shear stress to displacement per unit of sample length (shear
strain) .It is also known as shear rigidity and it is valid in material only till it shows the elastic limit like it
return to its original position after unloading the load.
Similarly to the modulus of elasticity,modulus of rigidity is also generalized for Hook’s law . This property
of a specimen depends on the material. For example, cast steel posses a modulus of rigidity of 78Gpa,
while concrete and aluminum have modulus of rigidity of 21Gpa and 28Gpa respectively.
In this experiment, a metal wire fixed at one end with an attached mass rotates torisionally in SHM with
a period T dimensions, the rigidity of wire, moment of inertia I of an attached block , length L of wire.
The shear modulus describes the materials response to shear stress.
The central objective of this experiment is to determine the “Modulus of rigidity” of a material.
Store energy and subsequently release it.
The definitions and results in this section are taken from the 1913 t, plan and solid geometry by
George Wentworth and David Eugene Smith (Wentworth & Smith 1913).
Shear Stress
The stress that changes the shape of body is called shear stress.
It is denoted by σ.
𝐹
𝜎 =
𝐴

Unit of Shear Stress
The units of shear stress are Nm-2 or Pa.
Shear Strain
Shear strain is the ratio of the change in the deformation to its original length perpendicular to
the axis of its member due to the shear stress.
It is denoted by (ϵ).
𝛥𝐴
𝜖 =
𝐴
Unit of Shear strain

Shear strain is the units less quantity because it is ratio between two same quantities.
Rigidity
Rigidity is the ability of solid to withstand deformation when it undergoes mechanical stress. It is
mainly dependent on the geometry of the part and the elasticity of the material. The ability to resist
shearing in material is infect rigidity.
Modulus of Rigidity
When under application of an external force the shape of the body changes without change in
its volume, the body is said to be sheared. This happens when a tangential force is applied to one of the
faces of the solid.
Consider a rectangular solid ABCD abcd whose lower face DCcd is fixed and a tangential force F
is applied to its upper face. ABba as show in figure.
Figure: Tangential force acting on rigid body

The layers parallel to the lower face slip through distances proportional to their distance from the fixed
face such that finally face ABba shifts toA′B′b′a′ and solid takes the formA′B′CDa′b′cd its volume
remaining unchanged. Thus one face of solid remains fixed while the other is shifted laterally. The angle
ADA′= θ through which the edge AD which was initially perpendicular to the fixed face is turned, is called
the shearing strain or simply the shear. Due to this shearing of the solid, tangential restoring force is
developed in the solid which is equal and opposite of the external force.
The ratio of tangential stress and shearing strain is called modulus of rigidity.
It is denoted by η.
𝐹
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴
𝐴𝐴 𝑙
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =
𝐴𝐷 𝐿
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦𝜂 =
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦𝜂 = =
𝜃 𝐴𝜃
Where A is the area of upper face of the surface of solid.
Unit of Modulus of rigidity

The SI unit of the Modulus of rigidity is Pa (Pascal)
Dimensions
[𝑀𝐿 𝑇 ]

Cylindrical Surface
A cylindrical surface is a surface consisting of all the points on all the lines which are parallel to a
given line and which pass through a fixed plane curve in a plane not parallel to the given line.
Element of Cylindrical Surface
Any line in this family of parallel lines is called an element of the cylindrical surface. From a
kinematics point of view, given a plane curve, called the diratrix, a cylindrical surface is that surface
traced out by a line, called the generatrix, not in the plane of the directory, moving parallel to itself and
always passing through the directrix. Any particular position of the generatrix is an element of the
cylindrical surface.
Solid Cylinder
A solid bounded by a cylindrical surface and two parallel planes is called a solid cylinder. The line
segments determined by an element of the cylindrical surface between the two parallel planes is called
an element of cylinder. All the elements of a cylinder have equal lengths. The region bounded by the
cylindrical surface in either of the parallel planes is called a base of the cylinder. The two bases of a
cylinder are congruent figures. If the elements of the cylinder are perpendicular to the planes containing
the bases, the cylinder is a right cylinder. Otherwise it is called an oblique cylinder. If the bases are disks
(regions whose boundary is a circle) the cylinder is called a circular cylinder. In some elementary
treatments, a cylinder always means a circular cylinder. The height (or altitude) of a cylinder is the
perpendicular distance between its bases.
The cylinder obtained by rotating a line segment about a fixed line that it is parallel to is a cylinder
of revolution. A cylinder of revolution is a right circular cylinder. The height of a cylinder of revolution is
the length of the generating line segment. The line that the segment is revolved about is called the axis
of the cylinder and it passes through the centers of the two bases.
Right Circular Cylinder
The bare term cylinder often refers to a solid cylinder with circular ends perpendicular to the axis,
that is, a right circular cylinder, as shown in the figure. The cylindrical surface without the ends is called
an open cylinder. The formulae for the surface area and the volume of a right circular cylinder have been
known from early antiquity.

A right circular cylinder can also be thought of as the solid of revolution generated by rotating a
rectangle about one of its sides. These cylinders are used in an integration technique (the "disk
method") for obtaining volumes of solids of revolution.
Cylindrical sections
A cylindrical section is the intersection of a cylinder's surface with a plane. They are, in general,
curves and are special types plan section. The cylindrical section by a plane that contains two elements
of a cylinder is a parallelogram. Such a cylindrical section of a right cylinder is a rectangle.
A cylindrical section in which the intersecting plane intersects and is perpendicular to all the
elements of the cylinder is called a right section. If a right section of a cylinder is a circle then the
cylinder is a circular cylinder. In more generality, if a right section of a cylinder is a conic section
(parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola) then the solid cylinder is said to be parabolic, elliptic or hyperbolic
respectively.
For a right circular cylinder, there are several ways in which planes can meet a cylinder. First,
consider planes that intersect a base in at most one point. A plane is tangent to the cylinder if it meets
the cylinder in a single element. The right sections are circles and all other planes intersect the
cylindrical surface in an ellipse. If a plane intersects a base of the cylinder in exactly two points then the
line segment joining these points is part of the cylindrical section. If such a plane contains two elements,
it has a rectangle as a cylindrical section, otherwise the sides of the cylindrical section are portions of an
ellipse. Finally, if a plane contains more than two points of a base, it contains the entire base and the
cylindrical section is a circle.
In the case of a right circular cylinder with a cylindrical section that is an ellipse, the eccentricity
(e) of the cylindrical section and semi-major axis (a) of the cylindrical section depend on the radius of
the cylinder r and the angle α between the secant plane and cylinder axis, in the following way:

Formula Used
The modulus of rigidity η of a wire is given as
8𝜋𝑙𝑀 𝐿 𝑅
𝜂= ( + )
𝑟 𝑇 12 4
Here
𝜼 = modulus of rigidity
𝑴 = mass of cylindrical rod
𝒍 = length of string
𝑳 = Length of rod
𝒓 = radius of wire
𝑹 = Radius of rod
Mathematical Formulation
Fixed the one end of a given wire with fixed support and other end with solid cylindrical rod. Let
the combination be slightly rotate in a horizontal plane and then released. The body will execute S.H.M.,
about the wire as the axis.
When we twist the rod the torque produced in the rod is given as;
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
And the restoring torque produced in the wire by twisting is given as;
𝜏 = 𝐶𝜃
Where C is restoring constant.
Hence both torque are equal but opposite in direction. They can be related as;
𝜏 = −𝜏

So;
𝐼𝛼 = −𝐶𝜃
𝑑 𝜃
𝐼 + 𝐶𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝑡
Dividing byI on both sides;
𝑑 𝜃 𝐶
+ 𝜃=0
𝑑𝑡 𝐼
As reference from S.H.M.,
𝑑 𝜃 𝑘
+ 𝜃=0
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
This equation is identical to the equation of the simple harmonic motion which proves that the solid
cylindrical rode suspended by wire execute S.H.M.
Thus
𝐶
𝜔 =
𝐼
𝐶
𝜔=
𝐼
Time period for the oscillation of rod is;
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔
𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝐶
By squaring on both sides
𝐼
𝑇 = 4𝜋
𝐶

𝐼
𝐶 = 4𝜋
𝑇
𝜋𝜂𝑟
𝐶=
2𝑙
By comparing equations
𝜂𝜋𝑟 4𝜋 𝐼
=
2𝑙 𝑇
8𝜋𝑙
𝜂= (𝐼)
𝑟 𝑇
Here I is the moment of inertia about central diameter of the rod. By applying its value;
8𝜋𝑙 𝑀𝐿 𝑀𝑅
𝜂= ( + )
𝑟 𝑇 12 4
Equation derives equation through which we can determine the modulus of rigidity of wire by solid
cylindrical rod( 𝜂).
Apparatus
Solid cylindrical rod; given wire; screw gauge; vernier caliper; meter scale and physical balance
Procedure
1. One end of wire is fixed with fixed support and other end of wire with the solid cylindrical rod.
2. The rod is slightly rotated about the wire in the horizontal plane, it is allowed to perform
torsional oscillations.
3. Stop watch is used to count the number of oscillations. In this way the time period is
determined for five oscillations.
4. Time period of five oscillations is determined at least three times and finally mean of these
values is got. It will give us time period that is required in formula.

5. The screw guage is used to determine radius of r of rod.
6. The radius of solid rod is determined similarly by varnier caliper.
7. The length L of solid rod is measured by using varnier caliper and length (l) of wire.
8. The mass of solid cylinder is measured by physical balance.
Fixed Support
Given Wire
Solid Cylindrical rod
Figure 0: Experimental setup to determine modulus of rigidity by solid cylinder
Observations
Least count of stop watch = 0.1 sec
Least count of vernier caliper =0.01mm
Length of wire = 92cm
Length of solid cylinder =29 cm
Radius of wire = 0.038 cm
Radius of solid cylinder =0.965cm
Mass of rod = 650 g

Table: Calculations Of Time Period For Rotations Of Solid Cylinder
Sr. Time taken Mean Time Time period

No. of vibrations
No. (sec) (sec) (sec)
1 5 56.03
2 5 56.35 56.68 11.33
3 5 57.68
Calculations for "𝜼"

8(3.14)(650)(92) (29) (0.965)
𝜂 = ( + )
(11.33) (0.038) 12 4
𝜂 = 4.289 × 1011 𝑃𝑎
Conclusion
The modulus of rigidity of wire by using solid cylinder is. 𝟐𝟖𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎ˡˡ𝑷𝒂.

MCQ;s
1.________ positive/negative bending moments occur where shear force changes its sign:
(a) Minimum
(b) Zero
(c) Maximum
(d) Remain the same
2. The twisting couple per unit twist of a cylinder depends upon,
(a) Young’s Modulus

(b) Bulk Modulus
(c) Modulus of rigidity
(d) Poisson’s Ratio
3. If the material of the beam is, no bending should be produced,
(a) Homogeneous
(b) Isotropic
(c) Elastic
(d) Plastic
4. On which of the following the twisting couple per unit twist of a cylinder depends,

(b) Bulk Modulus
(d) Poisson’s ratio
5. The time period of a torsional vibrations is,
(a) = 2𝜋
𝑰
(b) T = 2π
𝑪

(c) T = 2π
6. Rectangular beam is bent into arc of circle, the strain produced in the beam is,
(a) Extensional only

(b) Compressional only
(c) Shearing only
(d) (a) and (b) both
7. The torsional rigidity of a cylinder,
𝐈𝐠
(a) Y
𝐑
(b) Y
(c) Y × R × Ig
(d) None of these
8. The periodic time of torsional pendulum depends upon,
a) Young’s Modulus
b) Torsional rigidity
c) Bulk Modulus
d) Amplitude of oscillations
9. The time period of torsional pendulum is directly proportional to square root of,
a) Distance
b) Vibrations
c) Moment of inertia
d) Force
10. The moment which resists the external bending is called:
(a) Moment of shear

(b) Tolerating moment
(c) Moment of resistance

(d) Maximum bending moment
11. The deformation per unit length is called
a) Strain
b) Stress
c) Elasticity
d) None of these
12. The moment resisting capacity of the cross section of a beam is termed as:
(a) Stiffness of the beam

(b) Strength of beam
(c) Modulus of beam
(d) Inertia of beam
13. The ability of the material to deform without breaking is called
a) Elasticity
b) Plasticity
c) Creep
d) None of these
14. The longitudinal stress is __________ stress across the section:
(a) Shear
(b) Bending
(c) Tensile
(d) Compressive
15. Which of the following material is more elastic?
a) Rubber
b) Glass
c) Steel
d) Wood

16. SI unit of shear force is:
(a) kN/m
(b) kN-m
(c) kNv
(d) m/N
17. The percentage elongation and the percentage reduction in area depends upon
a) Tensile strength of the material

b) Ductility of the material
c) Toughness of the material
d) None of these
18.The property of a material by which it can be beaten or rolled into thin sheets, is called
a) Elasticity
b) Plasticity
c) Ductility
d) Malleability
19. The property of a material by which it can be drawn to a smaller section by applying a tensile load is
called
a) Elasticity
b) Plasticity
c) Ductility
d) Malleability
20. If a material has identical properties in all directions, it is called
a) Elastic
b) Plastic
c) Isotropic
d) Homogeneous

21. The stress at which extension of a material takes place more quickly as compared to increase in load,
is called
a) No elastic zone
b) Plastic point
c) Yield point
d) Breaking point
22. The unit of twisting couple is,
(a) Nm
(b) N2m
(c) Nm2
23. On which of the followings the twisting couple per unit twist of a cylinder depends?
a) Young’s modulus
b) Bulk modulus
c) Modulus of rigidity
d) Poisson’s ratio
24. The twisting couple per unit twist of wire or cylinder is also called ____
a) Young Modulus
b) Modulus of rigidity
c) Bulk Modulus
d) Torsional rigidity
25. The bending moment of beam depends on only,

(b) Bulk modulus
(d) Poisson’s ratio

26. The twisting couple is equal and opposite to the,
(a) Force
(b) Pure shear
(c) Work
(d) Restoring Couple
27. The Young's modulus of a wire is defined as the stress which will increase the length of wire
compared to its original length
a) half
b) same amount
c) double
d) one-fourth
28. Modulus of rigidity also known as:
a) Shear modulus
b) Young’s modulus
c) Modulus of elasticity
d) None of these
29. The shear modulus of metals is usually observed to decrease:
a) With increasing temperature

b) With decreasing temperature
c) With high pressure or decreasing temperature
d) None of these
30. At high pressures, the shear modulus also appears to increase with:
a) Applied pressure
b) Increasing Area
c) Increasing temperature
d) Both a and c

EXPERIMENT # 3
DETERMINATION OF MODULUS OF RIGIDITY OF HELICAL SPRING
Introduction
The helical spring, in which wire is wrapped in form of a coil that resembles a screw thread, is
probably the most commonly used mechanical spring. It can be designed to carry, pull, or push loads.
Twisted helical (torsion) springs are used in engine starters and hinges. Helical tension and compression
springs have numerous uses, notably automobile suspension systems, gun-recoil mechanism, and
closing values on engines.
A coil spring, also known as a helical spring, is a mechanical device which is typically used to
store energy and subsequently release it, to absorb shock, or to maintain a force between contacting
surfaces. Under tension or compression, the material (wire) of a coil spring undergoes torsion.
Simple non-coiled springs were used throughout human history, e.g. the bow (and arrow). In the
Bronze Age more sophisticated spring devices were used, as shown by the spread of tweezers in many
cultures. Ctesibius of Alexandria developed a method for making bronze with spring-like characteristics
by producing an alloy of bronze with an increased proportion of tin, and then hardening it by
hammering after it was cast.
Coiled springs appeared early in the 15th century in door locks. The first spring powered-clocks
appeared in that centuryand evolved into the first large watches by the 16th century.
In 1676 British physicist Robert Hooke postulated Hooke's law, which states that the force a
spring exerts is proportional to its extension.
Stress
Stress is the internal resistance or counter force of a material to the distorting effects of an
external force or load. These counter forces tend to return the atoms to their normal positions.

The formula to calculate average shear stress is force per unit area.
𝐹
𝜏=
𝐴
Where
𝜏 = Shear Stress
𝐹 = Applied Force
𝐴 = Vector area parallel to force
Unit of stress
The unit of stress is 𝑁 or Pascal.
𝑚
Shear Strain
The ratio of change in angle to original angle is called shear strain.
In engineering, shear strain is the tangent of the angle, and is equal to the length of deformation at
its maximum divided by the perpendicular length in the plane of force application, which sometimes
makes it easier to calculate.
Mathematical expression of shear strain
The mathematical expression of shear strain is
𝜙 = ∆𝜃 𝜃
Unit of Shear Strain

It has no unit because it is a ratio and ratio has no unit.
Modulus of Rigidity
It is also known as shear modulus.It is basically a ratio of shear stress to shear strain within the
elastic limits.
Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity is denoted by 𝜂 or is defined as

𝜏 𝐹
𝜂= = 𝐴 = 𝐹𝜃
𝜙 ∆𝜃 𝐴∆𝜃
𝜃
Where
𝜏 = 𝐹 𝐴 = Shear stress
𝐹 = Force which acts

𝐴 =Area on which the force acts
𝜙 = Shear strain
∆𝜃 = Change in angle
𝜃 = Original angle
Unit of Modulus of Rigidity

The derived SI unit of shear modulus is the or Pascal (Pa),
although it is usually expressed in gigapascals (GPs) or in thousands of pounds square inch (psi).
Its dimensional form is 𝑀𝐿 𝑇 .
Uses of Helical Spring

 These are used in the automotive, medical, industrial and office equipment markets.
 Helical springs are widely used in watches, cameras, instruments and automatic weapons, toys
etc.
Mathematical Formulation
Consider a wire of radius r tightly and closely wounded on the wooden cylinder of radius R. When
we twist the spring (clockwise and counter clockwise) an imaginary surface formed in the form of
cylinder. We consider the axis of symmetry of cylinder as mean position of spring. When we twist the
spring it form angle 𝜙 with curved surface along length 𝑙 and angle 𝜃 along circular side of cylinder.

Figure 0.1: Representation of angle change when given a twist to a spring
According to the formula of modulus of rigidity 𝜂 is
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜂=
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹
𝜂=
𝐴. 𝜙
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜙
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 ∠𝐵𝐴𝐵 = 𝜙
For 𝐵𝐴𝐵′
𝐵𝐵 = 𝑙𝜙
For 𝐵𝑂𝐵′
𝐵𝐵 = 𝑥𝜃
Comparing equations, we get
𝑥𝜃
𝜙=
𝑙
Consider one helix of helical spring as shown in figure

r
R = R’-r
R’
Dwire
Figure: Representation of effective radius
Now
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑅𝑁
From equation , to find force ‘F’
𝐹 = 𝜂𝐴𝜙
Consider a surface area of hollow cylinder
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑥𝑑𝑥
Now force becomes

𝜂𝑥𝜃
𝐹 = 2𝜋𝑥𝑑𝑥.
𝑙
𝑛𝜃
𝐹 = 2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
𝑙
Exerting force produce twisting couple
𝐶 = 𝑟𝐹
Where
𝐶 = 𝑥𝐹 (∵ 𝑥 = 𝑟)
Now twisting couple becomes by putting value of force ‘F’
𝜂𝜃
𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙
We integrate from 0 to r to find the twisting couple on whole cylinder
2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝜂𝜃
=
𝑙
2𝜋𝜂𝜃
= 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙
After integration and applying limits from 0 to r, we get
𝜋𝜂θ𝑟
=
2𝑙
If we want to find couple per unit twist 𝜃 = 1 is
𝜋𝜂𝑟
𝐶=
2𝑙
We know that equation (1.10)
𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑅𝑁
Then

𝜋𝑟 𝜂 1
𝐶= .
2 2𝜋𝑅𝑁
𝑟 𝜂
𝐶=
4𝑅𝑁
We know that
𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝐶
We also know that
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅
4𝑅𝑁. 𝑀𝑅
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑟 𝜂
Where
𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
It follows that the effect of spring mass is the same as through M where at the end of massless spring
together with a load equal to one-third the spring mass.
So we take𝑚 =
Hence
𝑚
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑀 +
3
Equation becomes,

𝑚 4𝑅 𝑁
𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝑀+ .
3 𝑟 𝜂
To find 𝜂 squaring both sides
𝑚 4𝑅 𝑁
𝑇 = 4𝜋 𝑀+ .
3 𝑟 𝜂
16𝜋 𝑅 𝑁 𝑀 +
𝜂= .
𝑟 𝑇
Objectives
• Identify, describe, and understand principles of several types of springs

including helical compression springs, helical extension springs, torsion tubes, and
leaf spring systems.
• Design and analyze helical compression springs, including compatibility with

allowable stresses.
• Develop necessary analytical tools for spring design.
• Understand the principles of operation of springs and how to analyze the

energy being absorbed by springs.
• Review principles of design for other types of springs, such as extension springs
and leaf springs.
• Select predesigned springs from manufacturers’ catalogs and incorporate them

in appropriate designs

Apparatus
A flat spiral spring of large radius; heavy retort stand; hanger to carry slotted weights; screw
gauge; sensitive spring balance; varnier caliper
Procedure
 The mass of spiral spring was calculated by using physical balance.

 The outer radius of spring was calculated by using varnier caliper.
 After this, radius of wire was measured by using screw gauge.
 The effective radius of spring was calculated,
= −
 The number of turns ‘N’ of spring was counted.
 Then the spring end was clamped firmly on heavy retort stand and a mass M was attached at t
 he lower end.
 A small downward pull was given to the mass M and then it was released. It started vibrating up
and down.
 The time period for 20 vibrations was calculated by using stop watch.
 The experiment was repeated at least for three times for accurate values
 Then the modulus of rigidity of wire was calculated by using formula.
Observations
Mass of the spiral spring =m=1000 g
Mean value of mass= 𝑚 =1000 g
Diameter of wire= 𝑑 =0.325 cm
Radius of wire= 𝑟 = =0.1625 cm
Diameter of spiral spring= 𝐷 ′=6.51 cm
′
Radius of spiral spring= 𝑅 ′ = =3.25 cm
Effective value of radius𝑅 = 𝑅 ′ − 𝑟 =3.0875 cm

No of turns in the spiral spring=𝑁 =73
TABLE: CALCULATION OF TIME PERIOD OF HELICAL SPRING
Total Time for 20

𝒎
mass Time 𝑴+
Vibrations 𝟑
Mass 𝑻𝟐
𝒎 period 𝑻𝟐
Sr. suspend 𝑴+ 𝒕
𝟑 Mean time 𝑻=
No t1 t2 t3 𝟐𝟎
(sec)
M (g) (g) 𝒕= (sec) (
𝒈
)
(sec) (sec) (sec) 𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐 𝒕𝟑
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐
(sec)
𝟑
1 500 833.3 13.67 14.76 13.67 14.22 0.711 0.51 1633.9
2 1000 1333.3 18.92 18.90 18.93 18.93 0.911 0.89 1498.1
3 1500 1833 20.97 21.58 21.58 21.27 1.06 1.131 1620.6
𝑔
Mean value of = 1584.2
𝑠𝑒𝑐
Calculation for 𝜼
𝑚
16𝜋 𝑅 𝑁 ( 𝑀 + 3)
𝜂=
𝑟 𝑇
16(3.14) × 74(1584.2)
𝜂=
(0.1625)
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒
𝜂 = 7.805 × 10
𝑐𝑚

Percentage Error
The calculated value of modulus of rigidity is 7.805 × 1011 . To find percentage error in this value
according to actual value, we proceed as follows:
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

%𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
7.9 × 10 − 7.805 × 10
%𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = 1.2%
7.9 × 10
Conclusion
Hence, the modulus of rigidity of helical spring is 7.805 × 10 and percentage error
is 1.2%.

MCQ’s
1. The shear stress in the principal plane is
a) Zero
b) Maximum
c) Minimum
d) Average
2. The load required to produce a unit deflection in the spring is called
a) Modulus of rigidity
b) Spring stiffness
c) Flexural rigidity
d) Tensional rigidity
3. Rate of change of bending moment is equal to
a) Shear force
b) Deflection
c) Slope
d) Rate of loading
4. Bending moment will be maximum when shear force is
a) Is maximum
b) Is minimum
c) Is zero
d) None of these
5.Spring balance is used to
a) To apply force
b) To absorb shocks
c) To store strain energy
d) To measure mass

6. Maximum bending moment in a beam occurs where
a) Deflection is zero
b) Shear force is maximum
c) Shear force is zero
d) Shear force changes sign
7. Unit of shear strain is
a) Radian
b) Radian per square
c) No unit
d) Both
8. A beam of uniform strength has at every cross section same
a) Bending moment
b) Bending stress
c) Deflection
d) Stiffness
9. The spring used in mechanical toys is
a) Leaf spring
b) Spiral spring
c) Helical spring
d) All of these
( )
10. Recall the formula of = , here tells us
a) Effective mass
b) Total mass
c) Third part of spring mass is effective
d) None of these

11. For no torsion, the plane of bending should
a) Be parallel to one of the principle axes

b) Pass through shear center of section
c) Pass through neutral axis of the section
d) Pass through center of gravity of the section
12. The greatest load which a spring can carry without getting permanently distorted is called
a) Stiffness
b) Proof load
c) Proof stress
d) Proof resilience
13. Which of the following is maximum in the principal plane
a) Normal stress
b) Shear stress
c) Shear strain
d) None of these
14. A body is said to be in equilibrium
a) It moves horizontally
b) It moves vertically
c) It rotate about its C.G
d) None of these
15. Modulus of rigidity is also called
a) Poison’s ratio
b) Elastic modulus
c) Shear modulus
d) Bulk modulus

16. The deformation per unit length is called
a) Strain
b) Stress
c) Elasticity
d) None
17. The ratio of stress to strain is called
a) Modulus of rigidity
b) Young’s modulus
c) Modulus of elasticity
d) Rigidity
18. Unit of modulus of elasticity
a) Pascal
b) Newton
c) 𝑁 𝑚
d) None
19. A perfectly elastic body
a) Can move freely

b) Has perfectly smooth surface
c) Is not deformed by any external surface
d) Recover its original size and shape when the deforming force is removed
20. The ability of the material to deform without breaking is called
a) Elasticity
b) Plasticity
c) Creep
d) None of these

21. Which of the following is a dimensionless quantity?
a) Shear stress
b) Strain
c) Elasticity
d) None of the these
22. The state of stress at a point is
a) Scalar
b) Vector
c) Tensor
d) None
23. Nature of shear stress
a) Positive
b) Negative
c) Positive as well as negative
d) None
24. When a section is subjected to two equal and opposite forces tangentially to the section, the stress
produced is known as
a) Tensile stress
b) Poison’s ratio
c) Strain
d) Both a and b
25. When a wire is stretched to double in length, the longitudinal strain produced in it is
a) 0.5
b) 1.0
c) 1.5
d) 2.0

26.In compression springs, the external force tends to
a) Shorten the spring
b) lengthen the spring
c) both (A) and (C)
d) Keep the length same
27.Torsional shear stresses are induced in the spring wire when

a) Spring is under compression
b) Spring is under tension
c) Both (A) and (B)
d) none of the above
28.The helix angle in case of closely coiled helical spring is

a) Less than 10°
b) 10° to 15°
c) 15° to 20°
d) More than 20°
26.The helix angle in case of closely coiled helical spring is

a) Less than 5°
b) 5° to 7°
c) 7° to 10°
d) More than 10°
27.Helical torsion spring is used in

a) Door hinges
b)Door closers
c) Automobile starters
d) all of the above
28.A guitar string resonates at a frequency of 500 Hz forming a standing wave pattern with 5 loops.
What is the fundamental frequency?
a) 100 Hz
b) 200 Hz
c) 300 Hz
d) 400 Hz
e) 500 Hz

29.A guitar string resonates at a fundamental frequency of 300 Hz. Which of the following frequencies
can set the string into resonance?
a) 30 Hz
b) 100 Hz
c) 400 Hz
d) 500 Hz
e) 600 Hz
30.A helical spring of constant k is cut into four equal pieces and the four pieces are then combined in
parallel. The equivalent spring constant will be
a) k/16
b) k/4
c) 4k
d) 16k

EXPERIMENT # 4
DETERMINE THE MODULUS OF RIGIDITY OF WIRE BY MAXWELL’S
NEEDLE
Introduction
It was introduced by James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) to determine the modulus of rigidity of wire by
dynamic method. In this method, a rod which is suspended from the wire and performing torsional
vibration about the wire and the time period of a body is determined. Maxwell derived a method using
which we can easily determine the moment of inertia of body without knowing the couple per unit
twist. Maxwell needle apparatus is used to determine the shear modulus of the material of a wire by
uniform cylindrical cross section. Conventionally a single observation is taken for each observable and
value of ƞ is calculated in single shot
Modulus of Rigidity (Shear modulus)
The inability to be bent or be forced out of shape is

called Rigidity.Its also about the same thing as inflexibility.In material sciences shear
modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by G, or sometimes S or μ, is defined as the ratio of shear
(tangential) stress to the shear strain.
𝑭
𝝉𝒙𝒚 𝑨 𝑭𝒍 𝑭
= = 𝜟𝒙 = =
𝜸𝒙𝒚 𝑨𝜟𝒙 𝑨𝜃
𝒍
Where
𝜏 Shear stress,
𝑦 = Shear strain, in engineering𝛥𝑥 𝑙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃; where 𝜃 is the displaced angle and 𝑙is the transverse
displacement,
Fis the force which acts,
A is the area on which force acts.

Shear stress
is often denoted by τ (Greek: tau), is the component of stress coplanar with a

material cross section. Shear stress arises from the force vector component parallel to the cross section
of the material.
Shear strain
is the ratio of the change in deformation to its original length perpendicular to the axes of the member
due to shear stress.
The derived SI unit of shear modulus is Pascal (Pa).It is usually expressed in gigapascals (GPa) or in
thousands of pounds per square inch (ksi). Its dimensional form is M1L−1T−2 .
Principle:
The principle of our experiment is when Maxwell’s needle is slightly turned in horizontal plane and then
released as shown in fig 1 Shear Modulus, it executed torsional oscillation, the time period of which
depend on the modulus of rigidity of the material of wire.
Figure Shear Modulus
Relationship between Modulus of elasticity(E), Modulus of rigidity(G) & Bulk Modulus(K)
1. Young’s modulus (E) describes tensile elasticity, or the tendency of an object to deform along an
axis when opposing forces are applied along that axis; it is defined as the ratio of tensile
stress and tensile strain. It is often referred to simply as the elastic modulus.

2. Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G) describes an object's tendency to shear (the
deformation of shape at constant volume) when acted upon by opposing forces; it is defined
as shear stress over shear strain.
3. Bulk modulus (K) describes volumetric elasticity, or the tendency of an object to deform in all
directions when uniformly loaded in all directions; it is defined as volumetric over volumetric
strain, and is the inverse of compressibility. The bulk modulus is an extension of Young's
modulus to three dimensions.
4. Poisson’s Ratio(v) is the ratio of the proportional decrease in a lateral measurement to the
proportional increase in length in a sample of material that is elastically stretched.
We know that,
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑮(𝟏 + 𝜼)
𝑬 = 𝟑𝑲(𝟏 − 𝟐𝜼)
From
(𝟏 + 𝜼) = 𝑬/𝟐𝑮
𝑬
𝜼= −𝟏
𝟐𝑮
Equating equations
𝑬
𝑬 = 𝟑𝑲 𝟏 − 𝟐 −𝟏
𝟐𝑮
𝑬
𝑬 = 𝟑𝑲[𝟏 − +𝟐 ]
𝑮

𝑬
𝑬 = 𝟑𝑲[𝟑 − ]
𝑮
𝟑𝑮 − 𝑬
𝑬 = 𝟑𝑲[ ]
𝑮
𝑬𝑮 = 𝑲(𝟑𝑮 − 𝑬)
∴ 𝑬𝑮 + 𝟑𝑲𝑬 = 𝟗𝑲𝑮
𝟗𝑲𝑮
𝑬=
𝑮 + 𝟑𝑲
Difference between G,K,E,v:

Applications of Modulus of Rigidity(G)
Basically, it is a number that indicates how much force can an object take before it snaps or is no longer
able to function at it is intended. The modulus of elasticity should be calculated for all if not most
materials that are used in construction. It is primarily used to test the quality of concrete or steel.
Experimental setup
Arrangement 1
Hollow cylinders placed in middle and solid at ends of tube.
Arrangement 2
Solid cylinders placed in middle and hollow at ends of tube.
Apparatus used
A Maxwell needle; two solid cylinders; two hollow cylinders;metal wire; stopwatch; screw gauge; meter
scale; physical balance

Mathematical derivation
When we satisfy the arrangement 1 and slightly rotated in horizontal plane and released, the body execute
SHM and period of oscillation is ;
𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝐶
where ‘𝐼 ’ is the moment of inertia and ‘C’ is the restoring couple per unit twist due to torsional reaction.
For arrangement , period of oscillation is;
𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝐶
By squaring doth eq. and then subtracting, we get the value of C
4𝜋 (𝐼 − 𝐼 )
𝐶=
𝑇 −𝑇
As, 𝐶 = where ‘r’ is radius and ‘l’ is length of wire. Modulus of rigidity is now
8𝜋𝑙(𝐼 − 𝐼 )
𝜂=
𝑟 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
Let 𝑚 and 𝑚 be masses of hollow and solid cylinders respectively and 𝐼 ,𝐼 and𝐼 are moment of inertia
of hollow tube, hollow cylinder and solid cylinder respectively. Then, if ‘L’ is length of hollow tube;
𝐿 𝐿
𝐼 = 𝐼 + 2𝐼 + 2𝑚 ( ) + 2𝐼 + 2𝑚 (3 )
8 8
𝐿 𝐿
𝐼 = 𝐼 + 2𝐼 + 2𝑚 ( ) + 2𝐼 + 2𝑚 (3 )
8 8

By comparing both equations we get
𝐿
𝐼 − 𝐼 = (𝑚 − 𝑚 )
4
Put in equation
2𝜋𝑙(𝑚 − 𝑚 )𝐿
𝜂=
𝑟 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
Where,
l= length of wire,
L= length of Maxwell needle,
R= radius of wire,
m1= mean mass of solid cylinders,
m2= mean mass of hollow cylinders,
T1= time period of oscillation when solid masses are outside,
T2= time period of oscillation when solid cylinders are inside
Experimental Procedure
I. Maxwell’s needle is suspended from the lower end of a thin and long wire and fixed the upper
end to a rigid support.
II. Maxwell’s needle is slightly rotated about the wire in the horizontal plane, it is allowed to
perform torsional oscillation.
III. Keep the solid cylinder outside Stopwatch is used to count the time for number of oscillations.
Time is determined for 20 oscillations. Similarly, the time T1 and T₂ n is calculated for oscillations
and mean value is evaluated T₁.
IV. The position of cylinders is interchangedto find value of time period T₂. It is found that T 2> T1

V. The length of wire is fixed from rigid support up to the Maxwell’s needle, using meter scale.
VI. Find out least count of screw gauge and zero error in it. Using screw gauge, measure the
diameter of the wire to find radius r or wire.
VII. The length L of hollow tube is measured .
VIII. The solid cylinder and hollow cylinder are measured seprately to find the mean mass of solid
cylinder and mean mass of the hollow cylinder.
Observation
(1) Length of wire (l) = 54.5cm
(2) Length of Maxwell needle (L) = 40cm
(3) Mean mass of solid cylinders (m1) = 250g
(4) Mean mass of hollow cylinders (m2) = 70g
(5)Least count of screw gauge(100 div.on circular scale)= = 0.001 cm

.
(6) Zero error in screw gauge =(2 divisions up from main scale) 2 x 0.001= -0.002cm
(7) Zero correction = +0.002 cm
Table For Diameter Of Wire:
Sr. M.S. C.S. un-corrected diameter Mean un-corrected Corrected diameter

no. diameter
(cm) (div) (d= MS + CS x LC) (D=d±zero error)
(cm)
(cm) (cm)
1. 0 45 0.045 0.0475 0.0477
2. 0 47 0.047
3. 0 48 0.048
4. 0 50 0.050

Radius of wire(r) = D/2 = 0.02375cm
Least count of stopwatch = 0.1 sec
Table For T₁,T2and T3:
Sr. Position of solid cylinder Time for 20 vibrations t(s) Time period
no.
T1 T2 T3 T (mean) T = t/20
(sec0
1. Outward 633.65 630 634.5 T1= 632.8 31.64

8
2. Inward 488.6 501 504 T2 = 501.2 25.06
Calculations
( )
By putting all the results mentioned above in the following formula, 𝜂 =
( )
We get,
𝜂 = 8.3039 × 10 dyne/cm²
Or,
𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟎𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 N/m²
Result
Theoretical studies shows that the value of 𝜂 lies in the range of Iron Wrought metal
(0.77-0.83× 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 ) N/m². Thus by this experiment we not only find the modulus of rigidity but also the
nature of material wire used.

Note
It means that on 1m² area of iron wrought wire, we can apply force upto 0.8303 × 1011 N so that the
twisting angle produced in the material wire may deform its shape but its volume remain unchanged. If
the force exceeds this elastic limit then its volume get changed and body will reach the permanent
deformation state.
Precautionary measures
1. There should be no kink in the wire.

2. The Maxwell needle should remain horizontal and should not vibrate up and down.
3. The amplitude of vibration/oscillation should be small so that wire is not twisted beyond the
elastic limit.
4. To avoid the backless error, the circular scale of screw gauge should be moved in one direction.

MCQ’s
1.The modulus of rigidity depends upon:
a)Nature of material
b)Temperature
c)Both A and B
d)Area of cross section
2.Modulus of rigidity is another name for:
a)Young modulus
b)Bulk modulus
c)Shear modulus
d)None of these
3.Which of the following is more elastic?
a)Rubber
b)Steel
c)Lead
d)Glass
4.In a tensile test a cube is stretched such that its shape changes and shear strain becomes 2Δa. If initial
value of modulus of rigidity is G then what will be the new value of modulus?
a)2G
b)4G
c)G/2
d)G
5.Unit of modulus of rigidity is:
a)Nm-2
b)Pascal

c)None of these
d)Both A and B
6.Modulus of rigidity for a perfectly rigid body is:
a)Zero
b)Infinity
c)Undefined
d)None of these
7.Modulus of rigidity for liquid is:
a)Zero
b)Infinity
c)Undefined
d)None of these
8.The Maxwell needle is used to determine the:
a)Length of wire
b) Shear modulus of wire
c) Mass of the needle
d) All of these
9.The vibrations should be counted in direction
a) Right to left
b) From both sides
c) Direction doesn’t matter
d) Left to right
10.Why should the Maxwell’s needle be arranged to vibrate in a horizontal plane?
a) To get frequency
b) To get acceleration
c) To get pure torsional vibrations
d) To get wavelength

11.Why should be radius of wire be measured with special care because:
a) third power of radius occur

b) Fourth power of radius occur
c) Radius doesn’t involve in formula
d) Radius has not any logic
12. Point of inflection is at which moment is zero
a) Maximum
b) Minimum
c) Zero
d) Infinite
13. We can determine the moment of inertia of irregular body with a disc of known moment of inertia
by using:
a) torsional balance
b) spring balance
c) digital balance
d) Electronic balance
14. In the determination of young’s modulus how much load should be suspended from wire:
a) Half of breaking weight

b) One third of breaking weight
c) Fourth power of breaking weight
d) Fifth power of breaking weight
15. Bending moment is maximum, when shear force is
a) Maximum
b) Minimum
c) Zero
d) Infinite

16. What is poison’s ratio?
a) Ratio between shear strain to tangential strain

b) Ratio between tangential to shear strain
c) Ratio between tangential strain to lateral strain
d) Ratio between lateral strain to tangential strain
17. During experiment, air draughts should be:
a) Included
b) Avoided
c) Excluded
d) None
18. In Maxwell’s needle, the wire should be:
a) About 1 m
b) About 1.5 m
c) About 2 m
d) About 2.5 m
19. In this experiment, the elastic limit is under the:
a) Twisting couple
b) Twisting torque
c) Twisting force
d) Twisting torque and force
20. The diameter of wire should be determined at different sections to take:
a) Precise radius
b) External radius
c) Both
d) None

21. What is modulus of rigidity?
a) Ratio to lateral strain to tangential strain

b) Ratio to tangential strain to lateral strain
c) Ratio to tangential stress to shearing strain
d) Ratio to lateral strain to tangential strain
22. If the material of beam is _______, no bending should be produced:
a) Homogenous
b) Isotropic
c) Elastic
d) Plastic
23 Wire should be:
a) Free from kinks, frictional less

b) Frictional less, heavy weight
c) Free from kinks, heavy weight
d) All of these
24. A rectangular beam is bent into the arc of a circle, the strain produced in the beam is:
a) Extensional only
b) Compression only
c) Both
d) Shearing
e) 25. The bending moment of a beam depends on only ________
b) Bulk modulus

26. Torsional rigidity is:
a) Applied torque needed to produce a unit angle of twist in a circular elastic material
b) Applied force needed to produce a unit angle at inclined surface
c) Inertia that starts motion
d) All of these
27. The twisting couple per unit twist of a cylinder depends on _______
b) Bulk modulus
28. The time period of a torsional pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of:
a) Distance
b) Moment of inertia
c) Vibrations
d) Force
29. The material of a beam should not be:
b) Bulk modulus
30. The periodic time of torsional pendulum depends on ________
a) Distance
b) Vibrations
c) Moment of inertia
d) Force

31. In which part of cantilever the extension is maximum:
a) Homogenous
b) Isotropic
c) Elastic
d) Plastic
32. The unit of twisting couple is
a)
b) N.m
c)
d) 𝑁. 𝑚
33. The twisting couple is equal and opposite to the ________
a) Force
b) Shear
c) Work
d) Restoring couple

EXPERIMENT # 5
TO DETERMINE THE FREQUENCY OF A.C SUPPLY BY MELDE’S
EXPERIMENT
Objective
To find the frequency of A.C supply by varying length and mass usingmelde’sexperiment
Introduction
Melde’s experiment is a scientific experiment carried out in 1859 by German physicist Franz Melde on
the standing waves produced in a tense cable originally set oscillating by a tuning fork later improved
with connection to an electric vibrator.
Wavelength
Distance between the centers of two consecutive crusts or between two consecutive troughs.
Frequency
The number of vibrations completed by an object in one second.
Time period
The time taken by the object to complete one vibration about its mean position.
When a string under tension is set into vibrations, transverse harmonic waves propagate along its
length. When the length of string is fixed, reflected waves will also exist. The incident and reflected
waves will superimpose to produce transverse stationary waves in the string.
The string will vibrate in such a way that the clamped points of the string are nodes and the point of
plucking is the anti-node.
Let a harmonic wave be set on a string of length L, fixed at the two ends x=0 and x=L. This wave gets
reflected from the two fixed ends of the string continuously and as a result of superimposition of the
waves, standing waves are formed on the string.
Let the wave pulse moving on the string from left to right be represented by

Y1= r sin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
Xis the distance from the origin in the direction of the wave (from left to right). It is often convenient to
take the origin(x=0) at the interface (the site of reflection) on the right fixed end of the string. In that
case, sign of x is reversed because it is measured from the interface in a direction opposite to the
incident wave. As there is a phase change of π radian on reflection at the fixed end of the string,
therefore, the reflected wave pulse travelling from right to left on the string is:
Y2= r sin [ (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) + 𝜋]
= -r sin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
According to superposition principle, the resultant displacement y at time t and position x is given by
Y= y1 + y2
= r sin (𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥) − 𝑟 sin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
= r [sin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) − sin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)]
Using relation
Sin C – Sin D= 2cos 𝑆𝑖𝑛
We get,
Y= 2r cos 𝑣𝑡 sin 𝑥
As the argument of trignometrical functions involved in (4) do not have the form (vt ± x) therefore, it
does not represent a moving harmonic wave. Rather, it represents a new kind of waves called standing
and stationary wave.
At one end of the string, where x= 0
Y= 2r cos 𝑣𝑡 sin (0) = 0
At the end of the string, where x= L
Y= 2r cos 𝑣𝑡 sin 𝐿
As the other end of the string is fixed,
At this end Y= 0

Sin = 0 = sin 𝑛𝜋
Where n= 1, 2, 3, 4………..
Sin = 𝑛𝜋
2𝐿
𝜆=
𝑁
Where n= 1, 2, 3, 4………. corresponds to 1st, 2nd, 3rd……….. normal modes of vibration of the string.
Suppose 𝜆1 is the wavelength of the standing waves set up on the string corresponding to n= 1
𝜆1=
Or𝐿 =
The string vibrations as a whole in one segment,
The frequency of vibrations is given by
𝑣ı = = …
As 𝑣=
Where T is the tension in the string andm is the mass per unit length of the string.

1 𝑇
𝜈ı =
2𝐿 𝑚
This normal mode of vibration is called fundamental mode. The frequency of vibration of string in this
mode is Minimum and called fundamental frequency.
Apparatus
A.C mains, electric vibrator (5-10cm long), cotton thread, a stand with clump and pulley, scale pan,
weight box, meter rod, digital balance, melde’s experiment
Procedure
1. Take a pan and weight it using a digital balance.
2. set up melde’s apparatus which is available in laboratory.
3. 5cm long thread has taken and weighted it using digital balance.
4. Calculate mass per unit length (effective mass) of thread by using formula:
𝑚
𝑚 =
𝑙
5. Take a pan and attach one end of 1cm long thread with it and the other end of thread
with electric vibrator present in melde’s experiment.
6. Thread has passed through pulley.
Make sure that the pulley should be frictionless and inextensible.
7. Now switch o the A.C supply so that the bulb attached with the apparatus should be
enlightened.
8. In order to increase the tension in the string, weights added in pan.
9. By increasing weight, loops will form in the string.
10. Count the number of loops made in string.
11. Note the reading in observation table in order to calculate the length, wavelength,
tension and frequency of A.C supply.
12. Repeat the above procedure to take accurate readings.

Diagram
Observations and calculations
Observation
Mass of the pan m= 10g
Mass of 5m thread m= 4g
Length of thread= 5m = 500cm
Value of g= 980cms-2
Mass per unit length of thread m’= 0.008gcm -1
For transverse arrangement

n=
For longitudinal arrangement,
n=
Mean frequency, n=………… 𝑣𝑖𝑏 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Calculation
No. of Length of Length Wavelength Mass in Total Tension

f=
loops vibrating of one pan mass
𝜆= 2L T= m×980
string loop
Sr.No (cm)
(n) (g) (g) (Hz)
(cm) (dynes)
L=
3 90 30 60 65 75 73500 50.5
1.
2 70 35 70 90 100 98000 50
2.
1 29.5 29.5 59 60 70 68600 49.6
3.
Average value of frequency= = …….
50.5 50 496
Average value of frequency= = 50.3Hz
3

Conclusion
The average value of the frequency of A.C supply calculated from melde’s apparatus is = 50.3Hz
Precautions
1) The thread should be uniform and inextensible.
2) Well defined loops should be obtained by adjusting the tension with weight.
3) Frictions in pulley should be least possible.
4) The longitudinal and transverse arrangements should be correct otherwise the length measured will
be wrong.

MCQ’s
1.Waves produce in astringare .............................................................. ?

a) Electromagnetic waves
b) Stationarywaves
c) Matterwaves
d) None ofthese
2.In Melde’s apparatuswe use ............................................................ ?
a) Electromagnet
b) Barmagnet
c) Inducedmagnet
d) None ofthese
3. The zero displacement points in stationary wavesarecalled… ............................................... ?

a) Nodes
b) Antinodes
c) Both node andantinode
d) None of theabove
4.Who first used the term stationarywaves?

a) Newton
b) Maxwell
c ) FrenzMelde
d) Thomson
5.Melde’s Appratus was firstusedin ............................................................ ?

a)1892
b)1998
c)1859

6.Waves produce in a string are?
(a) Electromagnetic waves

(b) Stationary waves
(c) Matter waves
(d) None of these
7. In Melde’s apparatus we use?
(a) Electromagnet
(b) Bar magnet
(c) Induced magnet
(d) None of these
8.The zero displacement points in stationary waves are called?
(a) Nodes
(b) Antinodes
(c) Both node and antinode
(d) None of the above
9. Who first used the term stationary waves?
(a) Newton
(b) Maxwell
(c) FrenzMelde
(d) Thomson
10. Melde’s Apparatus was first used in?
(a) 1892
(b) 1998
(c) 1859
(d) 1860

11. Waves produce in a string are
a) Electromagnetic waves
b) Stationary waves
c) Matter waves
d) None of these
12. InMelde’s apparatus we use
(a) Electromagnet
(b) Bar magnet
(c) Induced magnet
(d) None of these
13. The zero displacement points in stationary waves are called as
(a) Nodes
(b) Antinodes
(c) Both node and antinode
(d) None of the above
14. Who first used the term stationary waves?
(a) Newton
(b) Maxwell
(c) FrenzMelde
(d) Thomson
15. Melde’s Apparatus was first used in?
(a) 1892
(b) 1998
(c) 1859
(d) 1868

16. In Melde’sexperiment, which waves are produce
(a) Stationary waves

(b) Standing waves
(c) Electromagnetic waves
(d) Transverse waves
17. Standing waves were discovered by:
(a) Franz Melde

(b) Maxwell
(c) Newton
(d) Hertz
18. A wave where the movement of the medium is in the same direction as the wave is called:
(a) Transverse waves

(b) Stationary waves
(c) Standing waves
(d) Longitudinal waves
19. The primary wave in the earthquake is:
(a) Longitudinal waves

(b) Transverse waves
(c) Stationary waves
(d) Standing waves
20. When the particles of medium vibrates up and down simple harmonically about their mean position
at right angles to the direction of propagation of wave, the wave is called:
(a) Transverse waves

(b) Longitudinal waves
(c) Stationary waves
(d) Standing waves

21. Transverse waves are produced in:
(a) Gasses
(b) Plasma
(c) Solid and liquid
(d) None
22. Longitudinal waves are possible in
(a) Solid
(b) Liquid
(c) Gasses
(d) Solid,liquid,gasses
23. What do you mean by frequency?
(a) No of vibrations per second

(b) No of cycle per second
(c) Reciprocal of time
(d) All of these
24. In the Melde’sexperiment, mechanical waves traveled in opposite directions from immobile points,
called:
(a) Antinode
(b) Node
(c) Both
(d) None of these
25. Finding the mass per unit length of a piece of string is also possible by using a simple method:
(a) A ruler or some scales

(b) Weight balance
(c) Screw gauge
(d) All of these

26. In meld’s experiment, the change in frequency produced when the __________ is increased in the
string:
(a) Force
(b) Electric field
(c) Tension
(d) Magnetic field
27. When guitar is tuned, change in ______ occur:
(a) Tension
(b) Pitch
(c) Force
(d) Mass
28. Who coined the term “standing wave”?
(a) Newton
(b) Franz Melde
(c) Hertz
(d) Laplace
29. Pulley is used in melde’s experiment to,
(a) Suspend a mass that causes tension

(b) To generate loops
(c) To apply force
(d) None of these
30. Transverse waves and longitudinal waves collectively called:
(a) Electromagnetic waves

(b) Progressive waves
(c) Both
(d) None of these

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A COMPLETE REPORT ON

“EXPERIMENTS IN MECHANICS, HEAT AND

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERSITY, FAISALABAD

DR. TAQMEEM HUSSAIN

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

 MUHAMMAD ADNAN (13004)

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 14 FEBRUARY 2021

 Determination of Modulus of Rigidity of a wire by solid

 Determination of Modulus of rigidity of helical

 Determine the Modulus of rigidity of wire by Maxwell’s

 To determine the frequency of A.C supply by Melde’s

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

Determine The Value Of ‘g’ By Compound Pendulum

Compound Pendulum is also called a physical pendulum or a rigid pendulum, a compound

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

.Where k is the radius of gyration about the axis through C.G.

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

Where”L” is the length of the equivalent simple pendulum.

.Where L can also be written as by the rules of quadratic equations:

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

Effective Length Time Period

1 61.5 1.58 971.58

2 58.5 1.54 972.32

Average 972.21 𝑐𝑚𝑠

The percentage error in this experiment is given as:

On putting the values, we get:

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

1.The distance between the series of holes on bar pendulum is approximately:

(a) Mass of body

(a) A simple harmonic motion is the necessarily periodic and oscillatory

(a) Inertia is also double

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

(a) The value of g

(a) Along vertical direction

(a) Metallic bar

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

(a) Frequency of sound > Frequency of compound pendulum

(a) A bar supported with knife edges

(a) Simple pendulum

(a) A solid body

(a) Point at the center of instrument

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

(a) center of gravity

(a) radius of earth

(a) center of gravity

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

(a) T=2π √l/g

(a) Simple pendulum

(a) Remain same

(a) Remain same

Group A “Mechanics, Heat and Vibration Lab” BS (Physics)

A. It doubles B. It quadruples C. Remains

A. It increases B. It decreases C. Stays

29.Which of the following statements is true about transverse waves?

A. They always have the same frequencies

30.Which of the following statements is true about longitudinal waves?