Week 2 Introduction To OS Student
Week 2 Introduction To OS Student
Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Chapter 1: Introduction
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Objectives
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What Does the Term Operating System Mean?
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What is an Operating System?
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Computer System Structure
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Abstract View of Components of Computer
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What Operating Systems Do
▪ Depends on the point of view
▪ Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
• Don’t care about resource utilization
▪ But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep
all users happy
• Operating system is a resource allocator and control program
making efficient use of HW and managing execution of user
programs
▪ Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
▪ Mobile devices like smartphones and tablets are resource poor,
optimized for usability and battery life
• Mobile user interfaces such as touch screens, voice recognition
▪ Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles
• Run primarily without user intervention
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Defining Operating Systems
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Operating System Definition
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Overview of Computer System Structure
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Computer System Organization
▪ Computer-system operation
• One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
• Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles
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Computer-System Operation
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Common Functions of Interrupts
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Interrupt Timeline
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Interrupt Handling
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Interrupt-drive I/O Cycle
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I/O Structure
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I/O Structure (Cont.)
▪ After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O
completion
• Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
• Wait loop (contention for memory access)
• At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no
simultaneous I/O processing
▪ After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for
I/O completion
• System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait for I/O
completion
• Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state
• OS indexes into I/O device table to determine device status
and to modify table entry to include interrupt
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Storage Structure
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Storage Structure
▪ Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can
access directly
• Random access
• Typically volatile
• Typically random-access memory in the form of Dynamic
Random-access Memory (DRAM)
▪ Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides
large nonvolatile storage capacity
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Storage Structure (Cont.)
▪ Hard Disk Drives (HDD) – rigid metal or glass platters covered
with magnetic recording material
• Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided
into sectors
• The disk controller determines the logical interaction between
the device and the computer
▪ Non-volatile memory (NVM) devices– faster than hard disks,
nonvolatile
• Various technologies
• Becoming more popular as capacity and performance increases,
price drops
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Storage Definitions and Notation Review
The basic unit of computer storage is the bit . A bit can contain one of two
values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name
a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient
chunk of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to
move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word,
which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made
up of one or more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and
64-bit memory addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer
executes many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.
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Storage Hierarchy
▪ Storage systems organized in hierarchy
• Speed
• Cost
• Volatility
▪ Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main
memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage
▪ Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
• Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel
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Storage-Device Hierarchy
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How a Modern Computer Works
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Direct Memory Access Structure
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Operating-System Operations
▪ Bootstrap program – simple code to initialize the system, load the
kernel
▪ Kernel loads
▪ Starts system daemons (services provided outside of the kernel)
▪ Kernel interrupt driven (hardware and software)
• Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
• Software interrupt (exception or trap):
Software error (e.g., division by zero)
Request for operating system service – system call
Other process problems include infinite loop, processes
modifying each other or the operating system
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Multiprogramming (Batch system)
▪ Single user cannot always keep CPU and I/O devices busy
▪ Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU
always has one to execute
▪ A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
▪ One job selected and run via job scheduling
▪ When job has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to
another job
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Multitasking (Timesharing)
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Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
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Dual-mode Operation
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Transition from User to Kernel Mode
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Timer
▪ Timer to prevent infinite loop (or process hogging resources)
• Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
• Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock
• Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
• When counter zero generate an interrupt
• Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time
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Process Management
▪ A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity; process is an active entity.
▪ Process needs resources to accomplish its task
• CPU, memory, I/O, files
• Initialization data
▪ Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
▪ Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location
of next instruction to execute
• Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
▪ Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
▪ Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
• Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads
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Process Management Activities
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Memory Management
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File-system Management
▪ OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
• Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
• Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)
▪ File-System management
• Files usually organized into directories
• Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
• OS activities include
Creating and deleting files and directories
Primitives to manipulate files and directories
Mapping files onto secondary storage
Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
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Mass-Storage Management
▪ Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main
memory or data that must be kept for a “long” period of time
▪ Proper management is of central importance
▪ Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem
and its algorithms
▪ OS activities
• Mounting and unmounting
• Free-space management
• Storage allocation
• Disk scheduling
• Partitioning
• Protection
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Caching
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Characteristics of Various Types of Storage
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Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register
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I/O Subsystem
▪ One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from
the user
▪ I/O subsystem responsible for
• Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of
data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping
of output of one job with input of other jobs)
• General device-driver interface
• Drivers for specific hardware devices
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Protection and Security
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Virtualization
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Virtualization (cont.)
▪ Use cases involve laptops and desktops running multiple OSes for
exploration or compatibility
• Apple laptop running Mac OS X host, Windows as a guest
• Developing apps for multiple OSes without having multiple
systems
• Quality assurance testing applications without having multiple
systems
• Executing and managing compute environments within data
centers
▪ VMM can run natively, in which case they are also the host
• There is no general-purpose host then (VMware ESX and Citrix
XenServer)
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Computing Environments - Virtualization
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Distributed Systems
▪ Distributed computiing
• Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems
networked together
Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Personal Area Network (PAN)
• Network Operating System provides features between systems
across network
Communication scheme allows systems to exchange
messages
Illusion of a single system
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Computer System Architecture
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Computer-System Architecture
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Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
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Dual-Core Design
▪ Multi-chip and multicore
▪ Systems containing all chips
• Chassis containing multiple separate systems
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Non-Uniform Memory Access System
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Clustered Systems
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Clustered Systems
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PC Motherboard
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Computer System Environments
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Computing Environments
▪ Traditional
▪ Mobile
▪ Client Server
▪ Pear-to-Pear
▪ Cloud computing
▪ Real-time Embedded
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Traditional
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Mobile
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Client Server
▪ Client-Server Computing
• Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
• Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by
clients
Compute-server system provides an interface to client to
request services (i.e., database)
File-server system provides interface for clients to store and
retrieve files
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Peer-to-Peer
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Cloud Computing
▪ Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service
across a network
▪ Logical extension of virtualization because it uses
virtualization as the base for it functionality.
• Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of
virtual machines, petabytes of storage available
across the Internet, pay based on usage
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Cloud Computing (Cont.)
▪ Many types
• Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
• Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
• Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
• Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available
via the Internet (i.e., word processor)
• Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application
use via the Internet (i.e., a database server)
• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available
over Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use)
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Cloud Computing (cont.)
▪ Cloud computing environments composed of traditional OSes, plus
VMMs, plus cloud management tools
• Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls
• Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications
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Real-Time Embedded Systems
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Free and Open-Source Operating Systems
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The Study of Operating Systems
There has never been a more interesting time to study operating systems, and it has never been
easier. The open-source movement has overtaken operating systems, causing many of them to be
made available in both source and binary (executable) format. The list of operating
systems available in both formats includes Linux, BUSD UNIX, Solaris, and part of macOS.
The availability of source code allows us to study operating systems from the inside out.
Questions that we could once answer only by looking at documentation or the behavior of an
operating system we can now answer by examining the code itself.
Operating systems that are no longer commercially viable have been open-sourced as well, enabling
us to study how systems operated in a time of fewer CPU, memory, and storage resources.
An extensive but incomplete list of open-source operating-system projects is available
from https://curlie.org/Computers/Software/Operating_Systems/Open_Source/
In addition, the rise of virtualization as a mainstream (and frequently free) computer function
makes it possible to run many operating systems on top of one core system. For example, VMware
(http://www.vmware.com) providesa free “player” for Windows on which hundreds of free
“virtual appliances” can run. Virtualbox (http://www.virtualbox.com) provides a free, open-source
virtual machine manager on many operating systems. Using such tools, students can try out
hundreds of operating systems without dedicated hardware.
The advent of open-source operating systems has also made it easier to make the move from
student to operating-system developer. With some knowledge, some effort, and an Internet
connection, a student can even create a new operating-system distribution. Just a few years ago,
it was difficult or impossible to get access to source code. Now, such access is limited only by
how much interest, time, and disk space a student has.
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End of Chapter 1
Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018