İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.

2012

Outline
 Introduction
 Principles of Highway Alignment
 Horizontal Alignment

Chapter 3:  Horizontal Curve Fundamentals

 Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve
Highway Geometric Design Design
Horizontal
CompanyAlignment
LOGO

Outline INTRODUCTION
 The design of highways necessitates the determination
 Vertical Alignment of specific design elements, which include
 Vertical Curve Fundamentals  the number of lanes,
 Stopping Sight Distance and Vertical Curve Design  lane width,
 median type (if any) and width,
 Stopping Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve
 length of acceleration and deceleration lanes for on-
Design
and off-ramps,
 Passing Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve  need for truck climbing lanes for steep grades, curve
Design radii required for vehicle turning, and
 the alignment required to provide adequate stopping
and passing sight distances.

1
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.2012

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
 Furthermore, vehicle performance characteristics
 Many of these design elements are influenced by the determine the need for truck climbing lanes on steep
performance characteristics of vehicles. For example, grades (where the poor performance of large trucks
vehicle acceleration and deceleration characteristics necessitates a separate lane) as well as the number of
have a direct impact on lanes required because the observed spacing between
vehicles in traffic is directly related to vehicle
 the design of acceleration and deceleration lanes (the performance characteristics
length needed to provide a safe and orderly flow of  In addition, the physical dimensions of vehicles affect a
traffic) and number of design elements, such as
 the highway alignment needed to provide adequate  the radii required for low-speed turning,
 height of highway overpasses, and
passing and stopping sight distances.
 lane widths.

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
 When one considers the diversity of vehicles' performance  This course focuses exclusively on the key elements of highway
and physical dimensions, and the interaction of these alignment, which are arguably the most important components
characteristics with the many elements constituting of geometric design.
highway design, it is clear that proper design is a  As will be shown, the alignment topic is particularly well suited
complex procedure that requires numerous compromises. for demonstrating the effect of vehicle performance (specifically
 Moreover, it is important that design guidelines evolve braking performance) and vehicle dimensions (such as driver's
over time in response to changes…. eye height, headlight height, and taillight height) on the design
 Current guidelines of highway design are presented in of highways.
detail in «A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and  By concentrating on the specifics of the highway alignment
Streets», published by the American Association of State problem, the students will develop an understanding of the
Highway and Transportation Officials [AASHTO 2001] procedures and compromises inherent in the design of all
highway-related geometric elements.

2
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.2012

Principles of Highway Alignment Principles of Highway Alignment

The alignment of a highway is a three-dimensional problem
 The actual implementation and construction of a
measured in x, y, and z coordinates. This is illustrated, from a driver's
design based on three-dimensional coordinates has
perspective, in Fig. 3.1.
been prohibitively difficult.

 As a consequence, the three-dimensional highway

alignment problem is reduced to two-dimensional
alignment problems, as illustrated in Fig. 3.2.

Principles of Highway Alignment Principles of Highway Alignment

 One of the alignment
 Referring to Fig. 3.2, note that
problems in this figure
corresponds roughly to x and  The horizontal alignment of a highway is referred to as
z coordinates and is referred the plan view, which is roughly equivalent to the
to as horizontal alignment. perspective of an aerial photo of the highway.
 The other corresponds to  The vertical alignment is represented in a profile view,
highway length (measured which gives the elevation of all points measured along
along some constant
the length of the highway (again, with length measured
elevation) and y coordinates
along a constant elevation reference).
(elevation) and is referred to
as vertical alignment.

3
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.2012

Principles of Highway Alignment Principles of Highway Alignment

 The notation for stationing distance is such that a point on a
 Aside from considering the alignment problem as 2 two-
highway 4250 ft (1295.3 m) from a specified point of origin is said
dimensional problems, one further simplification is made.
to be at station 42 + 50 (1 + 295.300), that is, 42 stations and 50
 That is, instead of using x and z coordinates, highway ft (1 station and 295.300 m), with the point of origin being at
positioning and length are defined as the distance along the station 0 + 00 (0 + 000 for metric).
highway (usually measured along the centerline of the highway,
 This stationing concept, combined with the highway's alignment
on a horizontal, constant-elevation plane) from a specified point.
direction given in the plan view (horizontal alignment) and the
 This distance is measured in terms of stations, with each station elevation corresponding to stations given in the profile view
consisting of 100 ft (1000 m for metric) of highway alignment (vertical alignment), gives a unique identification of all highway
distance. points in a manner that is virtually equivalent to using true x, y,
and z coordinates.

Horizontal Alignment
 The critical aspect of horizontal alignment is the horizontal
curve with the focus on design of the directional transition of the
roadway in a horizontal plane.

Horizontal Alignment  Stated differently, a horizontal curve provides a transition

between two straight (or tangent) sections of roadway.
 A key concern in this directional transition is the ability of the
vehicle to negotiate a horizontal curve.
 The highway engineer must design a horizontal alignment to
accommodate the cornering capabilities of a variety of vehicles.

4
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.2012

Vehicle Cornering Vehicle Cornering

Vehicle Cornering Vehicle Cornering

5
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.2012

Vehicle Cornering Vehicle Cornering

 In the actual design of a horizontal curve, the engineer  AASHTO provides general guidelines for the selection of
must select appropriate values of e and fs . e and fs for horizontal curve design, as shown in Table
3.5.
 The value selected for superelevation, e, is critical
 The values presented in this table are grouped by five
because high rates of superelevation can cause
values of maximum e. The selection of any one of these
 vehicle steering problems on the horizontal curve, and five maximum e values is dependent on the type of road
 in cold climates, ice on the roadway can reduce fs (for example, higher maximum e's are permitted on
such that vehicles traveling at less than the design freeways compared with arterials and local roads) and
local design practice. Limiting values of fs are simply a
speed on an excessively superelevated curve could
function of design speed. Table 3.5 also presents
slide inward off the curve due to gravitational forces. calculated radii (given V, e, and fs) by applying Eq. 3.34.

6
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.2012

Horizontal Curve Fundamentals Horizontal Curve Fundamentals

 In connecting straight (tangent) sections of roadway with a horizontal
curve, several options are available.  Compound curves consist of two or more curves, usually
circular, in succession. Compound curves are used to fit
 The most obvious of these is the simple circular curve, which is just a
curve with a single, constant radius. horizontal curves to very specific alignment needs, such as
interchange ramps, intersection curves, or difficult topography.
 Other options include reverse curves, compound curves, and spiral
curves.  In designing compound curves, care must be taken to not have
 Reverse curves generally consist of two consecutive curves that turn successive curves with widely different radii, as this will make it
in opposite directions. They are used to laterally shift the alignment of difficult for drivers to maintain their lane position as they
a highway. The curves used are usually circular and have equal radii. transition from one curve to the next.
Reverse curves, however, are not recommended because drivers
may find it difficult to stay within their lane as a result of sudden
changes to the alignment.

7
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.2012

Horizontal Curve Fundamentals Horizontal Curve Fundamentals

 Spiral curves are curves with a continuously changing radius.  Spiral curves are sometimes used on high-speed roadways with
Spiral curves are sometimes used to transition a tangent section sharp horizontal curves and are sometimes used to gradually
of roadway to a circular curve. introduce the superelevation of an upcoming horizontal curve. To
 In such a case, the radius of the spiral curve is equal to infinity illustrate the basic principles involved in horizontal curve design,
where it connects to the tangent section and ends with the We will focus only on the single simple circular curve.
radius value of the connecting circular curve at the other end.
 Because motorists usually create their own transition paths
between tangent sections and circular curves by utilizing the full
lane width available, spiral curves are not often used. However,
there are exceptions.

Figure 3.13 shows the basic elements of a simple horizontal curve.

8
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.2012

Geometric and trigonometric analyses of Fig. 3.13 reveal the following

relationships:
 It is important to note that horizontal curve stationing,
curve length, and curve radius (R) are usually measured
to the centerline of the road.
 In contrast, the radius determined on the basis of
vehicle forces (Rv in Eq. 3.34) is measured from the
innermost vehicle path, which is assumed to be the
midpoint of the innermost vehicle lane. Thus, a slight
correction for lane width is required in equating the Rv of
Eq. 3.34 with the R in Eqs. 3.35 to 3.39.

EXAMPLE 3.14 SOLUTION

 A horizontal curve is designed with a 2000-ft
(609.600-m) radius. The curve has a tangent length
of 400 ft (121.920 m) and the PI is at station 103 +
00 (3 + 139.440). Determine the stationing of the
PT.

9
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.2012

SOLUTION Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve Design

 Adequate stopping sight distance must be provided in the

design of horizontal curves.
 Sight distance restrictions on horizontal curves occur
when obstructions are present, as shown in Fig. 3.14.
 Such obstructions are frequently encountered in highway
design due to the cost of right-of-way acquisition or the
cost of moving earthen materials, such as rock
outcroppings.

Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve Design Fig.3.14.Stopping Sight Distance Considerations for Horizontal Curves

 When such an obstruction exists, the stopping sight

distance is measured along the horizontal curve from the
center of the traveled lane (the assumed location of the
driver's eyes).
 As shown in Fig. 3.14, for a specified stopping distance,
some distance Ms (the middle ordinate of a curve that
has an arc length equal to the stopping sight distance)
must be visually cleared so that the line of sight is such
that sufficient stopping sight distance is available.

10
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.2012

Fig.3.14.Stopping Sight Distance Considerations for Horizontal Curves Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve Design
 Equations for computing stopping sight distance (SSD)
relationships for horizontal curves can be derived by first
determining the angle, s, for an arc length equal to the
required stopping sight distance (see Fig. 3.14 and note
that this is not the central angle, , of the horizontal
curve whose arc length is equal to L). Assuming that the
length of the horizontal curve exceeds the required SSD
(as shown in Fig. 3.14), we have (as with Eq. 3.39)

Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve Design Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve Design
 Rearranging terms,  Solving Eq. 3.42 for SSD gives

 Substituting this into the general equation for the middle

ordinate of a simple horizontal curve (Eq. 3.38) to get an
expression for Ms gives  Note that Eqs. 3.40 to 3.43 can also be applied directly to
determine sight distance requirements for passing. If these
equations are to be used for passing, distance values given in
Table 3.4 would apply and SSD in the equations would be
replaced by PSD.

11
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.2012

EXAMPLE 3.15 SOLUTION

A horizontal curve on a two-lane highway is designed
with a 2000-ft (609.600-m) radius, 12-ft (3.6-m)
lanes, and a 60-mi/h (96-km/h) design speed.
Determine the distance that must be cleared from the
inside edge of the inside lane to provide a sufficient
stopping sight distance.

12
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.2012

EXAMPLE 3.16 SOLUTION

A two-lane highway (two 12-ft (3.6-m) lanes] has a
posted speed limit of 50 mi/h (80 km/h) and, on one
section, has both horizontal and vertical curves, as
shown in Fig. 3.15. A recent daytime crash (driver
traveling eastbound and striking a stationary roadway
object) resulted in a fatality and a lawsuit alleging that
the 50-mi/h (80-km/h) posted speed limit is an unsafe
speed for the curves in question and was a major
cause of the crash. Evaluate and comment on the
roadway design.

SOLUTION SOLUTION

13
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi 25.07.2012

SOLUTION

14