1

Electric Motors

1.1. Fundamentals Of Motor Technology

Electrical machines are ubiquitous in the modern world, as electric power has turned
out to be the most efficient source of energy. Another universal phenomenon is the
employment of magnetic field, the media for energy conversions in these electrical
machines. It is a clean mechanism, without employing any particulate matter for the
energy transformations involved. This factor alone makes a motor, as against an internal
combustion engine, highly suitable for even the most demanding of environments where
pollutants associated with combustion are undesirable.
An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy; in much the same
way as a generator that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The basic
commonality between them is that these machines convert energy from one form to
another through the utilization of a magnetic field.
Another electrical device that is very closely related to these and is usually studied
along with generators and motors is the transformer. A transformer is a device that
converts AC electric energy at one voltage level to AC electric energy at another voltage
level. This phenomenon of transforming the voltages is an inherent feature of generators
and motors as well.
2 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

1.2. Basic Principles Of Rotating Electrical Machines

Electrical machines utilize the concepts of electromagnetism. In the case of rotating
electrical machinery, a magnetic field interacts with either an electric field or a
mechanical force to produce the other. For example, in a motor, a magnetic field and an
electric field interact with each other to produce a mechanical force.
The basic principles connected with magnetic fields can be summarized as follows:
x A current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field in its vicinity and will
be as shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1
Magnetic field lines around a current carrying conductor

x A time varying magnetic field crossing a coil of wire induces a voltage in the
coil. This is the basic guiding principle for a transformer.
x A magnetic field crossing a current carrying conductor develops a force on the
conductor. This is because the current carrying conductor produces a magnetic
field that interacts with the external magnetic field to develop the mechanical
force. This is the basic guiding principle for a motor.
x Voltage gets induced in a conductor moving in a magnetic field. This is the
basic guiding principle for a generator.
x All these principles put together, generate the motoring action, as shown in
Figure 1.2. The process can be summed up as follows:
 As a voltage is applied to the stationary conductors, a magnetic field
is produced.
 This magnetic field, in turn, induces a voltage in the rotor conductors
in case of some motors (induction motors) or a voltage is externally
applied to the rotor conductors.
 This voltage also produces a magnetic field.
 The magnetic field of the stator and rotor, together, put the rotor in
running condition.
 Electric Motors 3

Figure 1.2
A motor action

Electrical machines (either a motor or a generator) typically have an overall appearance

as shown in Figure 1.3 and can be broadly classified as DC machines and AC machines,
depending on the nature of supply given to them. One has to appreciate the fact that the
study of an electrical machine can be interchangeably associated with either a motor or a
generator. The fundamentals for a particular category (like DC or Synchronous) are
identical for both the generator and motor.

Figure 1.3
Simple depiction of a motor
4 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

For the sake of clarity, it is more appropriate to study the details of a DC machine, as
the underlying principle of operation is simpler to comprehend. A simple DC machine, as
shown in Figure 1.4, has a current carrying coil supported in between two permanent
magnets (opposite poles facing each other) so the coil can rotate freely inside.

Figure 1.4
A simple DC machine with two pairs of poles

When the coil ends are connected to a DC source then current flows through it and it
behaves like a bar magnet. As the current starts flowing, the magnetic flux lines of the
coil, as shown in Figure 1.5, interact with the flux lines of the permanent magnet. This
causes motion of coil due to forces of attraction / repulsion between two fields. The coil
rotates in order to achieve a position where there is no force of attraction or repulsion.

Figure 1.5
Electromagnetic circuit of a DC machine
 Electric Motors 5

As the commutator segments are mounted on the same shaft, the commutator-to-
brushes contact changes and the polarity of DC supply connected to the coil is reversed.
This causes change in the direction of current, thereby changing the direction of the
resultant mechanical force. Hence the coil rotates by another 180 degrees and the process
continues forever. The mechanical features and electrical connection diagram of such a
machine is as shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6
Electromechanical features of DC machines

The brush contacting positions will keep on changing like this and a continuous
rotation of the coil (on the rotor) is achieved. The changes in the contact making
combinations - of the brush and commutator segments - make the coil supply (even
though DC) to alternate continuously. It is, therefore, apt to say that a commutator is the
heart of a DC machine. A commutator looks as shown in Figure 1.7.
6 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 1.7
Commutator of a DC machine

The resulting alternating electric current flows through the coil and produces necessary
rotation.
The cross sectional view of a DC machine is as shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8
Simple cross sectional view of a DC machine
 Electric Motors 7

In the case of an AC machine, as shown in Figure 1.9, the magnetic field itself revolves
at a speed corresponding to the supply frequency. The electric current in the rotor coils is
either induced (in case of asynchronous machines) or supplied through an external source
(synchronous machines). In either case, the current in the coil is alternating thereby
producing the rotating motion.

Figure 1.9
Simple cross sectional view of an Alternator / Synchronous motor

1.3. Fundamental Principles Of Speed Control

Speed control of a motor is necessitated by the need for operability of the connected
load at various speeds or at some pre-determined set of speeds to suit the process
requirements. To deal with the speed control of various types of motors, a good
understanding about the motor’s constructional features and their operational
characteristics is needed.
Depending on the type of combinations of windings used on the stator and the rotor,
DC and AC motors can further be classified into different types and each of them has a
significant role to play in delivering the power.
The speed regulation (much like the voltage regulation of a generator) of a motor is
defined by:

No load speed – Full load speed

Speed Regulation = X 100 %
Full load speed
8 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

1.3.1. DC Motors
The speed of a shunt motor is proportional to the armature voltage and is inversely
proportional to the field current (excitation) of the motor. An overview of the different
types of DC motors has been given below:
Shunt motor has field winding mounted on a yoke and the armature winding is
mounted on the rotor. The shunt motor is used where speed regulation is important.
Self-excited motor has the field winding connected in parallel (shunt) with
the armature winding and hence draws current from the same supply.
The speed control can be achieved by only adjusting the terminal
voltage. The series resistance in the field circuit can be adjusted, but
can naturally be done off-line.
Separately excited shunt motor has the field winding connected to a
separate constant voltage power supply.
The speed control can be achieved by only adjusting the armature
voltage as well as the field (excitation) current separately. The
armature voltage control mode is the constant torque operation zone
and the field current control mode is called as constant power
operation. This is also known as field weakening mode.

Series motor has the field winding connected in series with the armature winding.
Naturally, heavy current will pass through it, so field winding is of a thicker gauge. Series
motor is used where speed regulation is not important and the torque requirement is very
high.
In case of series motor, the field current cannot be controlled separately and is equal to
the armature current. Hence under no load condition the excitation becomes very weak.
The most important precaution required to be taken while using a series motor is that the
motor cannot be run in no-load as it can speed up to very dangerous levels and can cause
serious damage to itself.
Compound motor combines both series and shunt motor features. This combines the
good features of both types such as high torque characteristics of series motor and the
speed regulation of shunt motor. The level of compounding can be decided based on the
particular application. These motors are generally used where severe starting conditions
are met and constant speed is required at the same time.

The speed versus load current of various types of DC motors can be summarized as
shown in Figure 1.10.
 Electric Motors 9

Figure 1.10
Speed characteristics of various types of DC Motors

1.3.2. AC Motors
The synchronous speed of an AC motor is given by the following relation:

60 X Frequency
Synchronous Speed (rpm) =
No. of Pole pairs

For example, if the motor has two poles, then at 50 Hz frequency motor rpm will be
3000 rpm.
However, all AC motors do not run at synchronous speeds. Only synchronous motors
run at these speeds. Induction motors run at speeds slightly lower than the synchronous
speed and hence are known as asynchronous motors. By varying the frequency of the
supply, synchronous speed of these AC motors can be varied.
A simple definition for an AC induction motor is that it is essentially a rotating
transformer. Each of these different types of motors has specific benefits to offer over the
other. Even though they have different performance characteristics to offer, the AC
motors are virtually taking over the domain of DC motors for various reasons like ease of
maintenance and recent developments in the manufacturing of reliable power components
& controllers.
10 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

1.4. Efficiency, Torque, Inertia, Horsepower / Power Factor

1.4.1. Efficiency
The study of efficiency is essential for design purposes because it directly influences
the economy of operation of the machine. In simple terms,

Rotor Output
Efficiency =
Stator Input

The stator input can be directly measured, but the rotor output needs to be measured by
some indirect methods. However it is more accurate to determine the efficiency of a
rotating machine by determination of its losses rather than by the direct load test, in
which the input and output are to be measured. Furthermore, in large and even medium
size machines, it is not practically possible to arrange for the actual loading of the
machine. Once the losses are determined,

Stator Input – Total Losses

Efficiency =
Stator Input

Classification of losses in rotating machines:

Type of Loss Causes Example

Constant losses No load core (iron) loss, mainly Hysteresis losses

due to leakage fluxes and largely
confined to the armature in case
of DC and synchronous machines
and to the stator of an induction Eddy current losses
motor. Mainly a result of the time
variation of flux density and
rotation of its axes.
Mechanical loss, comprises Windage losses
losses due to brush friction,
bearing friction, windage and Friction losses
ventilation system losses. These
will be relatively large in a
machine of large diameter or of
high speed.
 Electric Motors 11

Type of Loss Causes Example

Variable losses Copper (I2R) loss, includes even Stator Cu losses

the losses in the field windings of
DC motors / synchronous motors. Rotor Cu losses
Brush contact losses
Stray load loss, mainly due to Copper stray load losses
skin effect (increased effective
resistance of conductors due to
non-uniform distribution of
alternating currents) and due to Core stray load losses
distorted flex pattern in the teeth
of the core.

As the voltage can be assumed to be constant, the core loss can also be approximated
as a constant. The stator resistance can be measured by DC methods. However, hysteresis
and eddy current loss in the conductors increase the resistance, and hence the effective
resistance is normally taken as 1.2 times the DC resistance. The rotor copper loss is
calculated by subtracting stator copper loss from the total measured loss or the rotor I2R
loss. Friction and windage loss may be assumed constant irrespective of the load.
Because of the fixed and variable losses, the motor efficiency continuously increases
with the load. The efficiency is maximum at a particular designed load. This full load
efficiency also varies with the rating of a motor and is higher for large size machines
varying between 75 % (typically for a 1 kW motor) and as high as 97 % (for a 3500 kW
motor). Similarly efficiency of a low speed motor is usually lower than that of a high
speed motor, the difference being as high as 3 to 4 %.

1.4.2. Torque
The torque on an object is defined as the product of the force applied to the object and
the smallest distance between the line of action of the force and the object’s axis of
rotation.
Torque is a force applied in a manner that tends to produce rotation, such as a pipe
wrench on a shaft. Torque without rotation is termed static torque, since no motion is
produced. Torque is measured in kg-m or lb-ft which is the product of the force in kgs or
in pounds (lb) x the distance in meters (m) or in feet (ft) from the center of the point of
apparent rotation. Because most power transmission is based upon rotating elements,
torque is important as a measurement of the effort required to do work (horsepower).
When the stator and rotor windings of an AC motor both carry currents, they produce
their own magnetic fields along their respective axes which are sinusoidally distributed
along the air gap. A torque results from the tendency of these two fields to align
themselves.
12 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

1.4.3. Inertia
Inertia in a rotational motion, as in case of a motor, is analogous to mass in a linear
motion.
Newtonian physics teaches us that F (force) = M (mass) x A (acceleration). In rotary
terms, the same is expressed as T (torque) = J (inertia) x A (acceleration). This
fundamental equation shows us that the less inertia a system has the less torque it will
take to meet a desired acceleration rate. For this reason it is advantageous to minimize
inertia to the greatest extent to maximize acceleration. For a fixed amount of load inertia
this means minimizing motor inertia. Stated another way, minimizing motor inertia would
allow most of the motor’s torque to accelerate the load not ‘wasting’ much of the motor’s
torque accelerating its own inertia. This is one of the main reasons for preferring AC
motors over DC motors, to the possible extent, as “inertia of AC motor is lower compared
to DC motor of similar rating”. Minimizing motor inertia for a given rating of torque will
theoretically maximize acceleration, increase system bandwidth, but at the same time,
increases load to motor inertia mismatch and needs to a careful evaluation.

Torque (N-m)
2
Moment of Inertia, J (kg-m ) =
Angular acceleration (rad / m2)

1.4.4. Horsepower
Power (Horsepower) is the rate of doing work and is a force applied in a manner that
produces motion and, therefore, is work over a specified time period. A common unit of
power is horsepower. One horsepower (HP) is defined as the force required to lift 33,000
lbs, one foot in one minute and is approximately 0.75 kW. Torque is constant at any
speed while there is a directly proportional relationship between power and speed.
Therefore, power is motion dependent but torque is not.

Power on the shaft of a motor = Torque X Angular velocity

 Electric Motors 13

Torque (lb.ft) X Speed (rpm)

Power (HP) =
5252

1.4.5. Power Factor

Motors achieve the transformation of electrical power into mechanical power by
magnetizing its stationary, as well as rotating parts, to create necessary magnetic field.
The relative magnetic fields between the rotating and stationary parts create the necessary
mechanical forces to drive the shaft. So the input power to the motor gets converted into
an output comprising of magnetization and mechanical components and manifests in two
forms:
1). Real power: This is absorbed by the active loads – fans, compressors, pumps –
connected to the motor and to meet any active power losses like frictional / windage ones.
2). Reactive power: This is due to the inductive load and is a function of the internal
quality of the electrical machine’s components / material. It is solely consumed by the
electrical equipment and does not result in any mechanical work. Magnetizing circuits,
the main infrastructure supporting the creation of magnetic field is basically inductive in
nature. Theoretically an inductive circuit draws no real current. It draws only reactive
current.

The sum (not algebraic) of these two components is the input power to the motor and is
called as the apparent power. The ratio between active power (W) and apparent power
(VA) is power factor.
True or Real Power is measured in watts (W). It is the power drawn by the electrical
resistance of a system that does useful work. Reactive Power is measured in volt-amperes
reactive (VAR) and is the power stored in and discharged by the inductive motors,
transformers or solenoids. Reactive power required by inductive loads increases the
amount of apparent power - measured in kilovolt amps (kVA) - in the distribution system.
Increasing the reactive and apparent power causes the power factor, PF, to
decrease. Apparent Power is measured in volt-amperes (VA) and is the voltage on an AC
system multiplied by all the current that flows in it. It is the vector sum of the true and the
reactive power and can be represented as shown in Figure 1.11
14 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 1.11
Representation of apparent power and real power

Power factor is the cosine of angle between the Resultant power and Real power. In the
above triangle, power factor is a fraction obtained by dividing the real power in the
system by (real power + apparent power). So it implies that Real power is equal to
product of resultant power and PF. Hence if we increase the PF we will get more real
power. But that is not so. We can not change the PF of individual equipment but we can
change the PF of the system.

Consider a 750 kVA load operating at 80% lagging PF. Construct a power triangle to
help determine the kW and kVAR components of the power
Solving for the real and reactive power values yields 600 kW and 450 kVAR,
respectively.

Figure 1.12
An example of representing apparent power and real power
 Electric Motors 15

So of the 750 kVA drawn from the source, only 600 kW, or 80% of it, can do useful
work. The reactive power, necessary to establish electromagnetic fields, adds a
considerable burden to the source.
Low power factor is caused by inductive loads such as transformers and electric
motors. Unlike resistive loads that create heat by consuming kilowatts, inductive loads
require the current to create magnetic fields to produce the desired work.
A pure inductor dissipates no heat, so it has a power factor of zero.
Power factor is a measure of a particular motor’s requirements for magnetizing
amperage can be expressed as (for a three-phase electric motor):

Power Factor, PF = Pw / [(3)1/2 U I]

where Pw = power applied (W, watts)

U = voltage (V)

I = current (A, amps)

Appliances are energy conversion devices. As dictated by the rules of power factor and
efficiency, the energy consumed by an appliance is always greater than the energy
provided by it.

1.5. Torque-speed Curves

In selecting a motor for a particular application, its speed-torque characteristic is
needed to be known to a fair degree of accuracy. Further, this has to be properly matched
to the speed-torque characteristic of the mechanical load. Typically the torque versus load
characteristics of DC motors will be as shown in Figure 1.13.
Shunt motor: The speed of the motor maintains to be almost constant with a slightly
drooping characteristic, ie., it reduces slightly with the increasing torque.
Series motor: The speed of the motor varies as the reciprocal of the square root of the
torque. When the torque goes to zero, its speed goes to infinity.
Compound motor: Combines both the features of shunt and series motors, the torque
doesn’t cross that of a series motor but starting torque higher than that of a shunt motor.
16 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 1.13
Torque characteristics of various types of DC Motors

Induction motor: The speed-torque characteristics and torque-slip characteristics of

an induction motor are important parameters for determining the performance of the
motor. Typical speed-torque characteristic and torque-slip characteristics of a 3-Phase
induction motor are shown in figure 1.14.
It can be seen that when motor starts from zero speed, start torque is lower than the full
load torque and the motor can start at light to no load.
The normal full load torque is achieved at a point where the rotor speed is only 5% less
than synchronous speed. From this point onwards, torque drops to zero value since there
is no relative motion or slip between stator and rotor.
In order to achieve high starting torque rotor is made with high resistance conductors
or external resistance is inserted in rotor circuit.
The nature of the characteristic curve can be changed in case of a slip-ring type
induction motor by inserting an external resistance in the rotor circuit. If the rotor
resistance is increased from r2 to r2’’, r2’’’ (r2 < r2’’ < r2’’’), then the maximum torque
remains the same, but the slip at which the maximum torque occurs is shifted as shown in
figure 1.14. The method of introducing an external resistance in rotor circuit is used to
obtain a higher starting torque as required up to the maximum torque limit that the motor
can produce. This method of increasing the starting torque can be used only in case of slip
ring or wound rotor induction motors.
 Electric Motors 17

Figure 1.14
Torque characteristics of AC Induction Motors

Synchronous motor: Torque in a synchronous motor is developed only at

synchronous speed when the locking of the two fields takes place.

Figure 1.15
Torque characteristic of a Synchronous Motor
18 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

1.6. Induction / Wound rotor / Synchronous Motor Types

The induction type motor is an important class of motors and finds wide applicability
as a motor in industry and in its single-phase form in several domestic applications.
Induction motor, in general, is known as the industrial horse of the modern industry.
Hence due importance is given to induction motors throughout this course.

1.6.1. Squirrel cage induction motor

It is the most common type of AC motors and is the most cost effective motor that
can be designed for any kind of environment. The typical construction of the rotor
gives it its name. The rotor consists of a series of conducting bars laid into slots carved in
the face of the rotor and shorted at either end by large shorting rings.

Figure 1.16
Simple view of squirrel cage induction rotor

1.6.2. Wound rotor motor

A wound rotor has a complete set of three-phase windings that are mirror images of the
windings on the stator. The three phases of the rotor windings are usually Y-connected
and the other three ends are tied to slip rings on the rotor’s shaft. The rotor windings are
connected in series with some external resistors – through brushes riding on the slip rings.
The motor starts with a full resistance bank, but as the speed of the motor increases, the
resistances are shorted, one by one. As the motor reaches full speed, the whole bank of
resistance is shorted out and the motor now runs like a squirrel cage induction motor.
 Electric Motors 19

Figure 1.17
Simple view of slip ring induction rotor

1.6.3. Synchronous motor

Synchronous motor is a constant speed motor; which can be used to correct the power
factor of the 3-phase system. Like the induction motor in terms of the stator, the
synchronous motor has either a permanent magnet arrangement or an electromagnet (with
current supplied via slip rings) rotor. In simple terms, the rotor will keep locking with the
rotating magnetic field in the stator. So, a 2-pole machine will run at exactly 3000 RPM.
In many synchronous machines, a squirrel cage is incorporated into the rotor for starting.
Therefore, the machine acts as an induction motor when starting and as it approaches
synchronous speed, it suddenly ‘locks in’ to the synchronous speed.

1.6.4. Single phase induction motor

This motor is used mostly in small sizes, where polyphase current is not available.
Characteristics are not as good as the polyphase motor and for sizes larger that 10 HP, the
line disturbance is likely to be objectionable. These motors are commonly used for light
starting and for running loads up to 1/3 HP Capacitor and repulsion types provide greater
torque and are built in sizes up to 10 HP.
20 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 1.18
Shaded pole single phase induction motor

1.7. Basic Construction Of A Motor

A Motor (whether DC or AC) comprises of 2 electromagnetic parts:
x Stationary part called the Stator consists of the frame, which provides the
physical support.
x Rotating part called the Rotor, supported at each end on bearings.
x The other parts, which are required to complete a motor are:
 Two end-flanges to support the two bearings ..... one at the Drive-
End (DE) and the other at the Non Drive-End (NDE)
 Two Bearings to support the rotating shaft .... at DE and NDE
 Steel shaft for transmitting the torque to the load
 Cooling fan located at the NDE to provide forced cooling for the
stator and rotor
 Terminal box on top or either side to receive the external electrical
connections

Both the Stator and the Rotor are made up of:

x An Electric circuit, usually made of insulated copper or aluminium, to carry
current.
x A Magnetic circuit, usually made from laminated steel, to carry magnetic flux.
However, the constructional details of DC and AC motors differ and are to be dealt
with separately.
 Electric Motors 21

1.7.1. DC Motors
The Stator, apart from providing physical support, houses the pole pieces, which project
inward and provide a path for the magnetic flux. The ends of the pole pieces that are near
the rotor spread out over the rotor surface to distribute the flux evenly over the rotor
surface. These ends are called the ‘pole shoes’. The exposed surface of a pole shoe is
called the ‘pole face’, and the distance between the pole face and the rotor is called the
‘air gap’. The poles on DC Motors are called salient poles, because they stick out from
the surface of the stator.

There are two main windings on a DC motor:

x Field windings are the windings that produce the main magnetic flux in the
motor. These are located on the Stator. The pole shoes occupy a major part of
the pole-pitch.
x Armature windings are the windings in which a voltage is induced. A DC
Motor’s rotor is often referred to as armature because the armature windings
are located on the rotor.
The two ends of the coil are connected to two conducting segments mounted on the
shaft and are insulated from each other and also from the shaft. This arrangement is called
the commutator. Current is collected from the commutator segments by means of carbon
brushes. The connections of the coil to the outside circuit reverse in a regular manner –
each half cycle in case of 2 pole motor. This is the rectification action of the commutator-
bruch arrangement in a generator.

1.7.2. AC Motors
Synchronous Motor: The rotor is essentially a large electromagnet. The magnetic
poles on this rotor can be of either salient (“protruding” or “sticking out” of the surface of
the rotor) or non-salient construction (constructed flush with the surface of the rotor).
Non-salient pole rotors are normally used for rotors two and four pole rotors. Salient pole
rotors are normally used for rotors with four or more poles. Because the rotor is subjected
to changing magnetic fields, it is constructed of thin laminations to reduce eddy current
losses. As the field circuit on the rotor must be fed with DC current, special arrangement
must be made to transfer the power. Normally slip rings and brushes are employed for
this purpose.
The Stator is normally made of preformed stator coils in a double layer winding. It
consists of several coils in each phase, distributed in slots around the inner surface of the
rotor, because it is simply impossible to put all the conductors into a single slot. In large
motors, each coil is preformed units consisting of a number of turns, each turn insulated
from the others and from the side of the stator itself. The voltage in any single turn of
wire is very small, and it is only by placing many of these turns in series that reasonable
voltages can be produced.

Induction Motor: The Stator is the outer cylindrical frame of the motor, which is
made either of welded sheet steel, cast iron or cast aluminium alloy. This may include a
feet or a flange for mounting. It comprises:
22 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

x The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel laminations pressed
into the cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The magnetic path is
laminated to reduce eddy currents, lower losses and lower heating
x A set of insulated electrical windings, which are placed inside the slots of the
laminated magnetic path. The cross-sectional area of these windings must be
large enough for the power rating of the motor. For a 3-phase motor, 3 sets of
windings are required, one for each phase

Figure 1.19
Stator and rotor laminations

The rotor
This is the rotating part of the motor. As with the stator above, the rotor consists of a
set of slotted steel laminations pressed together in the form of a cylindrical magnetic path
and the electrical circuit. The electrical circuit of the rotor can be either:
x Wound Rotor type, which comprises 3 sets of insulated windings with
connections brought out to 3 sliprings mounted on the shaft. The external
connections to the rotating part are made via brushes onto the sliprings.
Consequently, this type of motor is often referred to as a slipring motor
x Squirrel Cage Rotor type, which comprises a set of copper or aluminium bars
installed into the slots, which are connected to an end-ring at each end of the
rotor. The construction of these rotor windings resembles a 'squirrel cage'.
Aluminium rotor bars are usually die-cast into the rotor slots, which results in
a very rugged construction. Even though the aluminium rotor bars are in
direct contact with the steel laminations, practically all the rotor current flows
through the aluminium bars and not in the laminations
 Electric Motors 23

Figure 1.20
Assembly details of a typical AC induction motor

1.8. Principles Of Operation And Performance

The machine and the load are the two components of an electro-mechanical energy
conversion system. In particular, the machine characteristics play a very important role in
the operating behavior of the entire system. The steady operating point is the point where
the speed torque characteristics of the load and the motor intersect each other. Figure 1.21
shows the speed torque characteristic of a squirrel cage induction motor and that of a
typical linear load. The drive system settles at a speed corresponding to the point of
intersection of these two curves.
24 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 1.21
Speed-Torque curves of Motor Vs Load

At the time of engineering the drive system, the speed / torque / power characteristics
developed at the motor shaft and how well these characteristics suit the driven machine
must be considered. The four essential parameters that must be considered are:
x Breakaway Torque, the torque required to put the machine into motion.
Normally it is greater than the torque required to maintain motion (running
torque). Very often, the breakaway torque combined with process torque
determines a drive selection.
x Process Torque, the torque required to pull, push, compress, stretch or
otherwise process or act upon the material being transported by or through the
machine. On some machines, process torque may be so significant as to
determine the drive power rating. On other machines, this load may be
insignificant. The process torque load is superimposed on all other static and
dynamic torque requirements of the machine.
x Accelerating Torque, the torque required to bring the machine to its
operating speed within a given time. With most machines, the load is largely
frictional and a standard drive rating may have adequate torque for
satisfactory acceleration. However, certain machines classified as "high
inertia" with flywheels, bull gears or other large rotating masses may require
drive selection based upon the power required to accelerate the load within a
given time.
x Running Torque, the torque required to maintain the motion of the machine
in a steady state condition, after getting accelerated to the desired operating
speed.
 Electric Motors 25

The characteristics (especially the speed - torque curves) of both the driven machine
and the driving machine play very important role in the selection process. Broadly loads
can be classified into four basic categories and their characteristics will be as follows:
x Constant Torque
x Constant Horsepower
x Squared-Exponential Loads - torque varies directly as the speed, and power as
the square of speed.
x Cubed-Exponential Loads - torque varies as the square of speed, and power as
the cube of speed.
A limited number of machines may have operating characteristics which are a
composite function of these basic types and hence need a careful evaluation before
selecting the drive system.

To select a motor for a specified application it is imperative to study the operational

performance of the various types of motors, thereby making it possible to evaluate
various possible alternatives.

DC Shunt motor
The speed of a shunt motor (up to the rated speed) displays a drooping characteristic
with respect to the torque delivered. It means that the speed decreases slightly as the
torque increases. The rate of decrease in the speed is normally directly proportional to the
torque demanded by the load. The torque developed by a shunt motor is proportional to
the armature current, but with a deviation from the linear characteristic due to the effect
of armature reaction. Because of its excellent speed regulation the shunt motor was the
most preferred drive for variable speed applications. The ease of manipulating the speed
by varying either the field current (using separately excited DC motor) or armature
voltage gives it a great edge over other kind of motors for high rating variable speed
applications. Normally by increasing the armature voltage applied to the rotor the speed is
increased till the rated speed of the motor is attained. Further speed increase is achieved
by reducing the field current. The power developed by a shunt motor varies in proportion
with the speed as long as it is under the armature voltage control. In the field weakening
mode, the power developed by the motor remains constant. This is because, in this zone
of operation the torque developed by the motor decreases as the speed increases.

DC Series motor
The speed torque characteristic of a series motor is hyperbolic, with the speed
decreasing as the torque increases. The motor develops very high torque at low speeds
and very high speed at low torques. Hence the motor finds application where the load
remains connected forever, without any possibility of even accidental load throw off.
Also the very high initial torque makes it ideally suitable for traction duty of a
locomotive.
26 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

DC Compound motor
This motor has both series field winding and shunt field winding and is used to obtain
an intermediate performance, which is between that of a shunt motor and that of a series
motor. It means that the characteristics of such a motor lie in between those of shunt and
series motors. Even though cumulatively compounded – shunt and series fields aid each
other – motor is the only one that can be seen being used, differentially compounded –
series field winding opposes the shunt field winding – motor can also be used, but suffers
from lack of stable operation.

Synchronous motor
As constant speed drives, these motors find application in driving large compressors,
crushers etc. Even though they develop torque only at synchronous speed, their
efficiency, inherent ability to correct power factor – even of the local power system –
make them economically attractive. The speed of a synchronous motor is a constant
irrespective of the torque developed by the motor up to the pull-out (maximum) value. It
means that a synchronous motor runs at a constant speed till the point to which it is
capable of delivering the load torque. Once the torque crosses this value, it goes out of
synchronsim and comes to a stop. However some of these motors are fitted with damper
windings in the rotor to make them self-starting. With this winding in place, the motor
can be started as an induction motor and can be accelerated up to the synchronous speed

Induction motor
Torque-slip (speed) characteristic of an induction motor is a quite interesting
operational characteristic. This is a very important factor in the selection of an induction
motor drive. Additionally, the ratio of maximum torque to rated torque, ratio of starting
current to rated current, ratio of starting torque to rated torque and the ratio of no load
current to rated current are of equal significance. By adding external resistance the torque
slip characteristic of a slip ring induction motor can be easily modified. Even though the
maximum torque remains unaltered, the corresponding slip increases proportional to the
resistance added to the rotor circuit. The peculiarities in the characteristic of an induction
motor can be appreciated better by understanding the way it functions.
 2

3-phase AC Induction Motors

2.1. Overview
Even though AC Induction Motors are accepted to be the industrial workhorses,
synchronous motors still find application in many industrial tasks. In spite of the fact that
the initial cost of a synchronous motor is more than that of a conventional AC induction
motor (due to the expense of the wound rotor and synchronizing circuitry) some of the
following benefits make their usage economically feasible:
Precise speed regulation makes the synchronous motor an ideal choice for certain
industrial processes and as a prime mover for generators.
Synchronous motors have speed / torque characteristics which are ideally suited for
directly driving large horse-power, low-rpm loads such as reciprocating compressors.
Synchronous motors can be deliberately operated at various power factors, thereby
making it possible to improve the overall system power factor. Many industries use
synchronous motors to eliminate or reduce utility power factor penalties. An improved
power factor also reduces the system voltage drop and the voltage drop at the motor
terminals.
The main advantage of a synchronous motor is that it will run at constant speed
regardless of load variations up to a point called the pull-out torque. A load higher than
this will pull the motor out of synchronism and cause it to stop. Hence, before getting into
the details of an AC Induction motor, it is worthwhile to have a glance at the construction
of a synchronous motor, as shown in Figure 2.1. In addition to the components of an
induction motor, it will have additionally field windings & brushes.
28 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 2.1

Constructional features of a Synchronous Motor

2.2. Components Of A Motor

2.2.1 The Stator
This is the stationary member of a motor and typically appears as shown in Figure 2.2.
It is the annulus of a cylinder in which the cylindrical member rotates; both being
separated by an appropriate clearance called the air gap. The major sub-components of a
stator are:
x The Yoke or the outer cylindrical frame of the motor, which is made of
welded sheet steel, cast iron or cast aluminium alloy. This may include a
feet or a flange for mounting. The feet can be detachable in some cases,
especially in lower rating motors. At the top of the yoke is the threaded bore
to which is fitted an eyebolt for lifting the motor, even in assembled
condition. The external surface is finned so that the area is maximized and
hence the heat dissipation is improved.
x The Core, magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel laminations
pressed into the cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The magnetic path
is laminated to reduce eddy currents - lower losses and lower heating.
Silicon sheet steel, magnetic material having a high permeability is used for
the stampings / laminations.
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 29

x A set of insulated electrical windings, which are placed inside the slots of
the laminated magnetic path. The cross-sectional area of these windings is
designed based on the power rating of the motor and are large enough for
high current carrying capacity. The purpose is to strike a balance between
the initial cost of the copper used and the recurring copper losses, which
increases with decreasing cross section. For a 3-phase motor, 3 sets of
windings are required, one for each phase.

Figure 2.2

A Typical Stator of a Motor

Castings of the stator are usually machined to close tolerances on multi stage transfer
line machines.
The basic stator structure, called the core, is composed of steel laminations (or
stampings), each of them having an appearance as shown in Figure 2.3. These are shaped
in such a fashion so as to form poles around which are wound the copper wire coils. A set
of coils put together and grouped into various patterns form a winding. These primary
windings connect to, and are energized by, the voltage source to produce a rotating
magnetic field. Three-phase windings spaced 120 electrical degrees apart are popular in
industry.
30 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 2.3

Stator core lamination

High quality magnetic steel laminations forming the cores are varnished so as to be
insulated from each other. They are then stacked together such that slots are formed along
the axis of the motor. Through these slots, synthetic enameled (for insulating between any
two turns) copper wire coils are placed after covering the slots with proper insulation
material. Winding impregnation, i.e., synthetic resin varnish is applied over the windings,
which avoids ingress of moisture. This also avoids entry of acidic / alkaline fumes, grease
and oil. Mechanically, it provides rigidity to withstand higher vibrations and electrically,
protection against tracking. When the bunch of laminations is stacked together, it forms
the core with slots for holding the coils of the windings, as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4

Winding coils at the time of insertion into Stator

 3-phase AC Induction Motors 31

2.2.2 The Rotor

The rotor, the rotating member or rotating secondary is another assembly of
laminations. The stampings, appearing as shown in Figure 2.5, are staggered onto a steel
shaft by using hydraulic press. Radial slots around the laminations' periphery house rotor
bars-cast-aluminum or copper conductors shorted at one end and positioned parallel to the
shaft.

Figure 2.5
Simple cross sectional view of a Squirrel Cage Rotor

The set of slotted steel laminations are pressed together to form a cylindrical magnetic
path by accommodating the electrical circuit. The electrical circuit of the rotor can be
either:
x Squirrel Cage Rotor type, which comprises a set of copper or aluminium
bars installed into the slots, which are connected to an end-ring at each end
of the rotor. The construction of these rotor windings resembles a 'squirrel
cage' and hence the name. A typical squirrel cage is shown in Figure 2.6.
Aluminium rotor bars are usually die-cast into the rotor slots, which results
in a very rugged construction. Even though the aluminium rotor bars are in
direct contact with the steel laminations, practically all the rotor current
flows through the aluminium bars and not in the laminations.
32 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 2.6
Squirrel Cage Rotor

x Wound Rotor type, which comprises 3 sets of insulated windings with

connections brought out to 3 sliprings mounted on the shaft will appear as
shown in Figure 2.7. The external connections to the rotating part are made
via brushes onto the sliprings. Consequently, this type of motor is often
referred to as a slipring motor.

Figure 2.7
Simple view of a Slip Ring Rotor

Irrespective of whether the rotor is of squirrel cage or slip ring type, the rotor
laminations will look alike as shown in Figure 2.8.
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 33

Figure 2.8
Rotor core laminations

2.2.3 Other Parts

The shaft is made of carbon steel and is the axle of the rotor. It is carried at either end
on the bearings, which are housed in two end-covers resting on the stator circumference,
bolted on the two sides of the stator.
The terminal box is the enclosure, where the winding terminal leads are brought out
and terminated on studs. Based on the requirement, if designed for adaptability, motor
winding can be connected in Delta or Star. In such a case, appropriate shorting links are
to be provided on these studs to group the winding terminals as required. The external
cable connections are terminated on these terminals.
A cooling arrangement (fan / exchanger) by way of providing radial fans on the shaft
internally or externally, is necessary. For lower rating motors, an external fan takes care
of the required cooling. In case of larger rating motors, heat in the internally circulated
hot air is normally removed by heat exchangers provided on the top of the motor. Cooling
air duct and tubes assembly are required in such a case.

2.3. Theory of operation

When a 3-phase AC power supply is connected to the stator terminals of an induction
motor, 3-phase alternating currents flow in the stator windings. These currents set up a
changing magnetic field (flux pattern), which rotates around the inside of the stator, as
shown in Figure 2.9. The speed of rotation is in synchronisation with the electric power
frequency and is called the synchronous speed.
34 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 2.9

Induced forces on a rotor

At starting, while the rotor is stationary, the magnetic flux cuts the rotor at synchronous
speed and induces the highest rotor voltage and, consequently, the highest rotor current.
However, the induced voltage in the rotor produces a magnetic field, which is in
opposition to the stator’s magnetic field – as per Lenz’s Law. Hence the induced
magnetic field gets attracted (because of the opposite polarity) and tries to be aligned with
the main rotating magnetic field.
Once the rotor starts to accelerate in the direction of the rotating field, the rate at which
the magnetic flux cuts the rotor windings reduces and the induced rotor voltage decreases
proportionately. The frequency of the rotor voltage and current is also reduced.
When the speed of the rotor approaches synchronous speed at no load, both the
magnitude and frequency of the rotor voltage becomes small. Had the rotor reached
synchronous speed, the rotor windings would be moving at the same speed as the rotating
flux, and the induced voltage (and current) in the rotor would be zero. Without rotor
current, there would be no rotor field and consequently no rotor torque. To produce
torque, the rotor must rotate at a speed slower (or faster) than the synchronous speed.
Consequently, the rotor settles at a speed slightly less than the rotating flux, which
provides enough torque to overcome bearing friction and windage. The actual speed of
the rotor is called the Slip Speed and the difference in speed is called the Slip.
Consequently, induction motors are often referred to as Asynchronous Motors because the
rotor speed is not quite in synchronisation with the rotating stator flux. The amount of
slip is determined by the load torque, which is the torque required to turn the rotor shaft.
For example, on a 4-pole motor, with the rotor running at 1490 r/min on no-load, the
rotor frequency is 10/1500 of 50Hz and the induced voltage is approximately 10/1500 of
its value at starting. At no-load, the rotor torque associated with this voltage is required
to overcome the frictional and windage losses of the motor.
As shaft load torque increases, the slip increases and more flux lines cut the rotor
windings, which in turn increases rotor current, which increases the rotor magnetic field
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 35

and consequently the rotor torque. Typically, the slip varies between about 1% of
synchronous speed at no-load to about 6% of synchronous speed at full-load.

( no - n)
Slip = s = per - unit
no

And actual rotational speed is:

n = no (1 - s) rev/ min
Where,
no Synchronous rotational speed in rev/min
n Actual rotational speed in rev/min
s Slip in per-unit

The direction of the rotating stator flux depends on the phase sequence of the power
supply connected to the stator windings. The phase sequence is the sequence in which
the voltage in the 3-phases rises and reaches a peak. Usually the phase sequence is
designated A-B-C, L1-L2-L3 or R-W-B (Red-White-Blue). In Europe, this is often
designated as U-V-W and many IEC style motors use this terminal designation. If two
supply connections are changed, the phase sequence A-C-B would result in a reversal of
the direction of the rotating stator flux and the direction of the rotor.

To understand the performance of an AC induction motor, it is useful to electrically

represent the motor by an equivalent circuit and can be represented as shown in Figure
2.10. This clarifies what happens in the motor when stator voltage and frequency are
changed or when the load torque and slip are changed.
There are many different versions of the equivalent circuit, which depend on the level
of detail and complexity. The stator current IS, which is drawn into the stator windings
from the AC stator supply voltage V, can then be predicted using this model.

Figure 2.10
The equivalent circuit of an AC induction motor
36 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Where,
V Stator Supply voltage
RS Stator Resistance
ES Stator Induced Voltage
XS Stator Leakage Reactance at 50Hz
ER Rotor Induced Voltage
RR Rotor Resistance
NS Stator turns
XR Rotor Leakage Reactance
NR Rotor turns
RC Core losses, Bearing friction,
IS Stator current windage losses, etc
IR Rotor current
XM Magnetizing Inductance
IM Magnetizing Current

The main components of the motor electrical equivalent circuit are:

x Resistances representing the resistive losses in an induction motor and
comprising:
 Stator Winding Resistance losses (RS)
 Rotor Winding Resistance losses (RR)
 Iron losses, which depend on the grade and flux density of the core
steel
 Friction and windage losses (RC)

x Inductances representing the leakage reactance. These are associated with

the fact that not all the flux produced by the stator windings cross the air-
gap to link with the rotor windings and not all of the rotor flux enters the
air-gap to produce torque:
 Stator Leakage Reactance (XS)
 Rotor Leakage Reactance (XR)
 Magnetizing Inductance (XM which produces the magnetic field flux)
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 37

2.4. Design of an Induction motor

A well-designed induction motor – for a particular application – is a well struck
balance between the two conflicting requirements, namely the starting torque and a good
efficiency. This is because a better starting torque can be achieved by increasing the rotor
resistance, but at the expense of incurring more losses in normal operation as the slip of
the motor increases. Hence, wound rotors have evolved, wherein external resistance can
be added at the time of starting and can be withdrawn in the normal running of the motor.
But the rotor is not self-contained and hence cannot be used in a hazardous atmosphere or
explosive environment. Moreover, they require complicated control circuits, more
maintenance and are expensive as compared to squirrel cage induction motors.
The speed torque characteristic of an ideal motor can be dreamt of being like that of a
high resistance wound rotor motor curve at high slips and like that of a low resistance
wound rotor motor curve at low slips. This can be achieved by taking advantage of
leakage reactance in induction motor rotor design.
The underlying principle in a Squirrel-cage rotor design to control the motor
characteristics takes advantage of the concept of leakage reactance. If the bars of a
squirrel cage rotor are placed near the surface of the rotor, they will have a small leakage
flux and the reactance, XR will be small in the equivalent circuit. The rotor reactance will
be larger if the rotor bars are placed deeper into the rotor surface.
Deep bar and double cage rotor designs provide a variable resistance. In the case of a
deep bar rotor, the leakage inductance is small for the top bar as there is a tight coupling
of the flux with the rotor. The flux is loosely coupled for the current flowing in the
bottom of the bar and can be visualized as shown in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11

Flux pattern in a Deep bar rotor

38 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Under normal conditions all the paths – both the upper and lower parts of the rotor coil
are in parallel electrically, thereby reducing the rotor resistance. This is because the
frequency of the rotor-induced voltage is very low at low slip. Hence the reactance is low
and current flows through all parts of the bar equally. The resulting large cross-sectional
area reduces the resistance. Hence, high efficiency can be achieved at low slips. While
starting, when the slip is very high, the leakage inductance of the coils deep in the rotor
bar is high and hence the rotor current is forced through the low-reactance part of the bar
near the stator.
In the case of double cage rotor, a large low-resistance set of bars are placed deep
inside the rotor and small high-resistance set of bars are placed on the outer surface as
shown in Figure 2.12. Hence, under starting conditions, only the small bar is effective in
providing a path for the current. This serves as a high resistance starting of the rotor and
so the starting torque is quite high. When the rotor is running close to its operating speed,
both the bars are effective and the resistance is very small thereby yielding very good
efficiency.

Figure 2.12

Flux pattern in a Double cage rotor

When we consider the speed-torque characteristics, the main driving force for
designing these types of rotor, the benefit of having a higher starting torque can be seen.
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 39

Figure 2.13

Speed Torque curve with a Deep bar rotor

Figure 2.14

Speed Torque curve with a Double cage rotor

NEMA supports varieties of rotor designs that can be selected appropriately for various
load requirements and the salient points of such designs are as follows:

Design Class A
Starting torque rated torque (large motors); 200 % rated torque (small
motors)
Starting current 500 – 800 %
Full load slip low (< 5 %)
Pullout / full-load torque 200 –300 %
Slip at pullout torque < 20 %
Typical applications Fans, blowers, pumps
40 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Design Class B
Starting torque rated torque (large motors); 200 % rated torque (small
motors)
Starting current 25 % that that of “A” for the same torque
Full load slip low (< 5 %)
Pullout / full-load torque 200 –300 %
Slip at pullout torque < 20 %
Typical applications Same as Design Class A

Design Class C
Starting torque 250% rated torque
Starting current Low
Full load slip Low (< 5 %)
Pullout / full-load torque 200 –300 % (slightly less than that of Design Class A)
Slip at pullout torque < 20 %
Typical applications High starting torque loads like loaded pumps,
compressors & conveyors

Design Class D
Starting torque 275% rated torque
Full load slip High (7 to11 %)
Typical applications Requiring the acceleration of extremely high inertia loads
like fly wheels

In each of these cases, the rotor lamination punching differs and will be typically as
shown in the Figure 2.15.
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 41

Figure 2.15

Difference in the rotor laminations of various designs

2.5. Duty cycles

The rated output of an AC induction motor given in manufacturer's catalogues is based
on some assumptions about the proposed application and duty cycle of the motor. It is
common practice to base the motor rating on the continuous running duty cycle S1.
When a motor is to be used for an application duty cycle other than the S1 continuous
running duty, some precautions need to be taken in selecting a motor and the standard
motors may be re-rated for the application. The duty cycles are normally calculated so
that the average load over a period of time is lower than the continuous load rating S1.
In the standards, several different duty cycles are defined. In IEC 34.1 and AS
1359.30, eight different duty cycles, defined by the symbols S1 to S8, are listed. They
have been explained below:

S1: Continuous running duty

x Operation at constant mechanical load for a period of sufficient duration for
thermal equilibrium to be reached
x In the absence of any indication of the rated duty type of a motor, S1
continuous running duty should be assumed
x Designation example : S1
42 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

S2: Short-time duty

x Operation at constant load, for a period of time which is less than that
required to reach thermal equilibrium, followed by a rest and motor de-
energised period of sufficient duration for the machine to re-establish
temperatures to within 2oC of the ambient or the coolant temperature
x The values 10min, 30min, 60min and 90min are recommended periods for
the rated duration of the duty cycle
x Designation example : S2 - 60min

S3: Intermittent periodic duty not affected by the starting process

x A sequence of identical duty cycles, each comprising a period of operation
at constant load and a period of rest when the motor is de-energized
x The period of the duty cycle is too short for thermal equilibrium to be
reached
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 43

x Assumed that the starting current does not significantly affect the
temperature rise
x The duration of one duty cycle is 10 min
x The following items should also be specified for this duty cycle:
 The Cyclic Duration Factor, which represents the percentage
duration of the loaded period as a percentage of the total cycle
 Recommended values for cyclic duration factor are 15%, 25%, 40%,
60%

x Designation example: S3 - 25%

S4: Intermittent periodic duty affected by the starting process

x A sequence of identical duty cycles, each comprising a period of significant
starting current, a period of operation at constant load and a period of rest
when the motor is de-energized
x The period of the duty cycle is too short for thermal equilibrium to be
reached
x Assumed that the starting current is significant
x The motor is brought to rest by the load or by mechanical braking, where
the motor is not thermally loaded
x The following items should also be specified for this duty cycle
 The Cyclic Duration Factor, which represents the percentage
duration of the loaded period as a percentage of the total cycle
 The number of Load Cycles per hour (c/h)
 The Inertia Factor FI, which is the ratio of the total moment of
inertia to the moment of inertia of the motor rotor
44 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

 The Moment of Inertia of the motor rotor (JM)

 The Average Moment of Resistance TV, during the change of speed
given with rated load torque

x Designation example: S4 - 25% - 120c/h - (FI=2) - (JM=0.1kgm2) -

(TV=0.5TN)

S5: Intermittent periodic duty affected by the starting process and

also by electric braking

x A sequence of identical duty cycles, each comprising a period of significant

starting current, a period of operation at constant load, a period of rapid
electric braking and a period of rest when the motor is de-energized
x The period of the duty cycle is too short for thermal equilibrium to be
obtained
x The following items should also be specified for this duty cycle
 The Cyclic Duration Factor, which represents the duration of the
loaded period as a percentage of the total cycle
 The number of Load Cycles per hour (c/h)
 The Inertia Factor FI, which is the ratio of the total moment of
inertia to the moment of inertia of the motor rotor. The Moment of
Inertia of the motor rotor (JM)
 The Permissible Average Moment of Resistance TV, during the
change of speed given with rated load torque
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 45

x Designation example: S5 - 40% - 120c/h - (FI=3) - (JM=1.3kgm2) -

(TV=0.3TN)

S6: Continuous operation, periodic duty with intermittent load

x A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle consists of a period at
constant load and a period of operation at no-load (no-load current only),
but with no period of de-energisation
x The period of the duty cycle is too short for thermal equilibrium to be
obtained
x Recommended values for the cyclic duration factor are 15%, 25%, 40% and
60%
x The duration of the duty cycle is 10 min
x Designation example: S6 - 40%
46 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

S7: Uninterrupted periodic duty, affected by the starting process and

also by electric braking
x A sequence of identical duty cycles, each comprising a period of starting
current, a period of operation at constant load, a period of electric braking.
x The braking method is too short for thermal equilibrium to be obtained.
x The following items should also be specified for this duty cycle
 The number of Load Cycles per hour (c/h)
 The Inertia Factor FI, which is the ratio of the total moment of
inertia to the moment of inertia of the motor rotor.
 The Moment of Inertia of the motor rotor (JM)
 The Permissible Average Moment of Resistance TV, during the
change of speed given with rated load torque

x Designation example: S7 - 500c/h - (FI=2) - (JM=0.08kgm2) - (TV=0.3TN)

S8: Uninterrupted periodic duty with recurring speed and load

changes
x A sequence of identical duty cycles, each comprising a period of operation
at constant load corresponding to a predetermined speed of rotation,
followed by one or more periods of operation at other constant loads
corresponding to different speeds of rotation
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 47

x The period of the duty cycle is too short for thermal equilibrium to be
obtained
x This type of duty cycle is used for pole changing motors
x The following items should also be specified for this duty cycle
 The number of Load Cycles per hour (c/h)
 The Inertia Factor FI, which is the ratio of the total moment of inertia
to the moment of inertia of the motor rotor
 The Permissible Average Moment of Resistance TV, during the
change of speed given with rated load torque
 The Cyclic Duration Factor for each speed of rotation
 The Moment of Inertia of the motor rotor (JM)
 The combinations of the load and the speed of rotation are listed in
the order in which they occur in use

x Designation examples
 S8 - 30c/h - (FI=30) - TV=0.5TN - 24kW - 740rev/m - 30%
 S8 - 30c/h - (FI=30) - TV=0.5TN - 60kW - 1,460rev/m - 30%
 S8 - 30c/h - (FI=30) - TV=0.5TN - 45kW - 980rev/m - 40% -
(JM=2.2kgm2)
48 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

2.6. Insulation and Cooling requirements

The insulation should withstand the voltage conditions of the motor under different
operating conditions. At the same time depending on loading and surrounding conditions,
there may be a rise in temperature of motor. So, it should also withstand the temperature
rise. This is important, so that the hot-spot temperature in any part of the motor does not
exceed the permissible limit of the type of the insulation used.
In case of insulating materials, their thermal characteristics are more sensitive than
their dielectric characteristics, i.e., the failure of an insulating material is more due to
thermal limitations than due to voltage limitations.
In most cases, the temperature rise or the rise in load does not produce fault in the
winding in the conductor itself, but with the rise of load current or greater fault current
when it is excessive, the insulation covering the conductor has a thermal breakdown,
which creates fault in the winding.
Thus, the maximum permissible temperature rise in electrical motors must be carefully
observed for the type of insulation used and the type of the construction of the motor.
The main characteristics of insulating materials used in electrical machines are:
x Dielectric strength
x Thermal strength

The insulating material used for the electrical machines should satisfy the following
requirements:
x High dielectric strength, high specific resistance, and minimum loss in
alternating electric field
x High mechanical strength and elasticity of material
x Thermal strength of insulation; the insulating material should preserve its
insulation and mechanical properties when subjected to the operating
temperatures of the windings for a long time
x The material should remain unaffected by chemical influences
The temperature rise permissible can be determined from the maximum permissible
temperature minus the ambient temperature.
For electrical machines, following are types of insulating material have been classified
and standardized as follows:
x Class A Insulation: Cotton, silk, paper, and similar organic materials
impregnated or immersed in oil, and enamel applied on enamelled wires.
The limiting hot-spot temperature for class A insulation is 1050C
x Class E Insulation: An intermediate class of insulating materials between
Class A and Class B insulation material
x Class B Insulation: Mica, asbestos, glass fiber, and similar inorganic
materials in built-up form with organic binding substances. The limiting
hot-spot temperature for class B insulation is 1300C
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 49

x Class F Insulation: Includes insulation having mica, asbestos or glass fiber

base with a silicone or a similar high temperature resistant binding material.
The limiting hot-spot temperature for class F insulation is 1550C
x Class H Insulation: Includes insulation having mica, asbestos, or glass fiber
base with a silicone or a similar high temperature resistant binding material.
The limiting hot-spot temperature for class H insulation is 1800C

For purposes of motor design, most motor specifications, such as IEC, AS/NZS,
specify a maximum ambient temperature of 40oC. The temperature rise of the induction
machine is the permissible increase in temperature, above this maximum ambient, to
allow for the losses in the motor when running at full load.
Insulation Class E B F H

Maximum Temperature 120oC 130oC 155oC 180oC

Max Temperature Rise 70oC 80oC 100oC 125oC

Table 2.1
Maximum temperature ratings for insulation materials

From these tables, note that electrical rotating machines are designed for an overall
temperature rise to a level that is below the maximum specified for the insulation
materials.
For example, using class F insulation,
Max Ambient + Max Temperature Rise = 40oC + 100oC = 140oC
which gives a thermal reserve of 15oC.
The larger the thermal reserve, the longer the life expectancy of the insulation material.
When operating continuously at the maximum rated temperature of its class, the life
expectancy of the insulation is about 10 years. Most motors do not operate at such
extreme conditions because an additional safety margin is usually allowed between the
calculated load torque requirements and the actual size of the motor chosen for the
application. So life expectancy of a motor, which is correctly matched to its load and
with suitable safety margins, can reasonably be taken as between 15 to 20 years.
If additional thermal reserve is required, the motor can be designed for an even lower
temperature. It is common practice for the better quality manufacturers to design their
motors for Class-B temperature rise but to actually use Class-F insulating materials. This
provides an extra 20oC thermal reserve that will extend the life expectancy to more than
20 years. This also means that the motor could be used at higher ambient temperatures of
up to 50oC or more, theoretically up to 65oC.
All rotating electrical machines generate heat as a result of the electrical and
mechanical losses inside the machine. Losses are high during starting or dynamic
braking. Also, losses usually increase with increased loading. Cooling is necessary to
continuously transfer the heat to a cooling medium, such as the air. The different
methods of cooling rotating machines are classified in the standards IEC 34.6 and AS
1359.21.
50 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

For AC Induction motors, cooling air is usually circulated internally and externally by
one or more fans mounted on the rotor shaft. To allow for operation of the machine in
either direction of rotation, fans are usually of the bi-directional type and made of a
strong plastic material, aluminium or steel. In addition, the external frames of motor are
usually provided with cooling ribs to increase the surface area for heat radiation.
The most common type of AC motor is the Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC)
motor, which is provided with an external forced cooling fan mounted on the non-drive
end (NDE) of the shaft, with cooling ribs running axially along the outer surface of the
motor frame. These are designed to keep the air flow close to the surface of the motor
along its entire length, thus improving the cooling and self-cleaning of the ribs. An air
gap is usually left between the ribs and the fan cover for this purpose.
Internally, on smaller TEFC motors, the rotor end-rings are usually constructed with
ribs to provide additional agitation of the internal air for even distribution of temperature
and to allow the radiation of heat from the end shields and frame.
Special precautions need to be taken when standard TEFC induction motors are used
with AC Variable Speed Drives, powered by VVVF converters. For operation at speeds
below the rated frequency of 50Hz, the shaft mounted fan cooling efficiency is lost. For
constant torque loads, it is sometimes necessary to install a separately powered forced
cooling fan (IC 43) to maintain adequate cooling at low speeds. On the other hand, for
prolonged operation at high speeds above 50Hz, the shaft mounted fan works well but
may make excessive noise. Again, it may be advisable to fit a separately powered
cooling fan.
Larger rotating machines can have more elaborate cooling systems with heat
exchangers.
The system used to describe the method of cooling is currently being changed by IEC,
but the designation system currently in use is as follows:
x A prefix comprising the letters IC (Index of Cooling)
x A letter designating the cooling medium - this is omitted if only air is used
x Two numerals which represent:
 The cooling circuit layout
 The way in which the power is supplied to the circulation of the
cooling fluid - fan, no fan, separate forced ventilation, etc

Code Description Drawing

IC 01 - Open machine
- Fan mounted on shaft
- Often called 'drip-proof' motor
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 51

Code Description Drawing

IC 40 - Enclosed machine
(New : IC 410) - Surface cooled by natural
convection and radiation
- No external fan

IC 41 - Enclosed machine
(New : IC 411) - Smooth or finned casing
- External shaft-mounted fan
- Often called TEFC motor

IC 43 A - Enclosed machine
(New : IC - Smooth or finned casing
416A) - External motorised Axial fan
supplied with machine

IC 43 R - Enclosed machine
(New : IC 416R) - Smooth or finned casing
- External motorised Radial fan
supplied with machine

IC 61 - Enclosed machine
(New : IC 610) - Heat Exchanger fitted
- Two separate air circuits
- Shaft-mounted Fans
- Often called CACA motor

Table 2.2
Designation of the most common methods of cooling
52 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

2.7. Starting Methods

Direct-On-Line (DOL) starting method is the simplest and most economical method of
starting an AC squirrel cage induction motor. A suitably rated contactor is used to
connect the stator windings of the motor directly to the 3-phase power supply.
While this method is simple and produces a reasonable level of starting torque, there
are a number of disadvantages:
x The starting current is very high, between 3 to 8 times the full load current.
Depending on the size of the motor, this can result in voltage sags in the
power system
x The full torque is applied instantly at starting and the mechanical shock can
eventually damage the drive system, particularly with materials handling
equipment, such as conveyors
x In spite of the high starting current, for some applications the starting torque
may be relatively low - only 1.0 to 2.5 times full load torque
To overcome these problems, other methods of starting are often used. Some common
examples are as follows:
Star-Delta Starting method, as shown in Figure 2.16, employs connection of the motor
winding, first in start and then converted into a delta connection. In case of star
connection, the voltage across each phase will be less initially and then rises to full
voltage.

Figure 2.16

Star Delta starting method

Series Inductance Starting method (eg Series Chokes) drops the voltage applied across
the motor.
Auto-transformer Starting method, as shown in Figure 2.17, uses reduced voltage being
applied to the motor windings during starting, with the help of a variable voltage
transformer or variance.
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 53

Figure 2.17
Auto-transformer starting method

Series Resistance Starting (eg Liquid resistance starter) makes the voltage to drop
across the motor winding with a good amount of starting torque.
Solid State Soft-Starting (eg Smart Motor Controller) is a variable frequency drive used
for the sake of controlling the initial inrush currents without having any effect on the
developed torque, depending on the configuration employed.
Rotor Resistance Starting requires a slip ring motor to control the speed of the motor.

Most of the above motor starting techniques reduce the voltage at the motor stator
terminals, which effectively reduces the starting current as well as the starting torque.
From the equivalent circuits and formulae for AC induction motors, covered earlier in
this chapter, the following conclusions can be drawn about reduced voltage starting:
Both the stator current and output torque during starting are proportional to the
square of the voltage. During star-delta starting, the voltage is reduced to 0.58
of its rated value. The current and torque are reduced to 0.33 of prospective
value. Thus,
2
I Start v (Voltage )
2
T Start v (Voltage )

2.8. Selecting motors

The correct selection of an AC Induction motor is based on a thorough understanding
of the application for which the motor is to be used. This requires knowledge about the
type and size of the mechanical load, its starting and acceleration requirements, running
speed requirements, duty cycle, stopping requirements and the environmental conditions.
54 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

The following checklist and reference to the preceding sections provides a guide to the
selection procedure:
x Type and Torque requirements of the mechanical load
x Method of Starting
x Acceleration time
x Type of construction of AC induction motor
 Squirrel cage rotor
 Wound rotor with slip rings
 Foot mounted
 Flange mounted

x Environmental conditions
 Ambient temperature
 Altitude
 Dust conditions
 Water

x Required degree of protection of the enclosure

x Insulation class
x Motor Protection
x Method of Cooling
x Mounting arrangement
 Horizontal
 Vertical

x Cable connections
x Direction of Rotation
x Duty cycle
x Speed control (if required)
In general, the selection of the motor is dictated by the type of load and the
environment in which it will operate. The selection of a cage motor or slip ring motor is
closely related to the size of the machine, the acceleration time required (determined by
load) and the method of starting (determined by the electrical supply limitations).
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 55

From the point of view of price, reliability and maintenance, the cage motor is usually
the first choice. In general, slip ring motors are required when:
x The load has a high starting torque requirement, but the supply dictates a
low starting current
x The acceleration time is long due to high load inertia, such as a fan
x Where duty dictates frequent starting, inching or plugging
These are general comments because cage motors can be successfully used in all the
above situations.
Slip ring motors are sometimes used for limited speed control. The slip can be
controlled by changing the external rotor resistance. As demonstrated earlier, the overall
efficiency of this method is poor, so this method can only be used if the speed does not
deviate too far from the rated speed. The slip power is dissipated as heat in the external
rotor resistors.
At the time of engineering the drive system, the speed / torque / power characteristics
developed at the motor shaft and how well these characteristics suit the driven machine
must be considered. The four essential parameters that must be considered are:
x Breakaway Torque, the torque required to put the machine into motion.
Normally it is greater than the torque required to maintain motion (running
torque). Very often, the breakaway torque combined with process torque
determines a drive selection.
x Process Torque, the torque required to pull, push, compress, stretch or
otherwise process or act upon the material being transported by or through
the machine. On some machines, process torque may be so significant as to
determine the drive power rating. On other machines, this load may be
insignificant. The process torque load is superimposed on all other static
and dynamic torque requirements of the machine.
x Accelerating Torque, the torque required to bring the machine to its
operating speed within a given time. With most machines, the load is
largely frictional and a standard drive rating may have adequate torque for
satisfactory acceleration. However, certain machines classified as "high
inertia" with flywheels, bull gears or other large rotating masses may
require drive selection based upon the power required to accelerate the load
within a given time.
x Running Torque, the torque required to maintain the motion of the machine
in a steady state condition, after getting accelerated to the desired operating
speed.
The characteristics (especially the speed - torque curves) of both the driven machine
and the driving machine play very important role in the selection of a VSD. Broadly loads
can be classified into four basic categories, the torque characteristic being represented as
in Figures 2.18 and 2.19, and their characteristics will be as follows:
56 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

x Constant Torque - About 90% of all general industrial machines, other than
pumps, are constant torque systems. The machine's torque requirement is
independent of its speed. If the machine speed is doubled, its power
requirement gets doubled.
x Constant Horsepower - For machines with constant horsepower loads, the
power demand is independent of speed, and torque varies inversely with
speed. This type is most often found in the machine tool industry and with
center driven winders / coilers in steel rolling mills & paper mills.

Figure 2.18
Simple Loads - Constant Torque & Linear Torque requirement

x Squared-Exponential Loads - With machines of this type, torque varies

directly as the speed, and power as the square of speed. Such relationships
are frequently found in positive-displacement pumps and mixer
applications.
x Cubed-Exponential Loads - It is a characteristic of these machines that
torque varies as the square of speed, and power as the cube of speed. This
type of load is imposed on centrifugal pump drives and most fan or blower
drives. In some uses, fan or blower horsepower varies as the fifth power of
speed.
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 57

Figure 2.19

Special Loads - Constant Power & Exponential Torque requirement

A limited number of machines may have operating characteristics which are a

composite function of these basic types and hence need a careful evaluation before
selecting the drive system. These load torque curves must be properly correlated with the
torque delivering capability of the motor being selected.

Figure 2.20

Various types of Torque delivering capabilities of motors

58 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

2.9. Types of Faults, Fault Finding and Testing of AC

Machines
Induction motors are quite reliable over their normal service life due to their rugged
construction and hence need little maintenance. It doesn’t mean that they are
maintenance free. Once a properly selected motor is properly installed and aligned with
the driven equipment, simple precautionary steps like regular cleaning, correct
lubrication, and proper maintenance of the insulation, cable terminations etc. will ensure
satisfactory performance of the motor. A proper degree of quality maintenance will
considerably extend the service life of a motor.
The drive for continual improvement in the name of energy conservation, precise
designs with the operating parameters close to the rated ones, regular optimization of
process parameters etc. is leaves little room for any lapse in the maintenance aspect.
Hence it is vital to know about various types of faults that can occur and the way they
can be diagnosed. Slowly the emphasis is shifting from preventive to predictive or
condition based maintenance.
Faults that can be typically encountered in the life of a motor, on an average can be
categorized, in the order of their probability of occurrence as:
x Insulation failures in the majority of the cases
x Rotor-bar failures are next in probability
x Mechanical problems like rubbing of rotor against stator etc.
x Other causes like termination failure, badly soldered / brazed joints,
blocking of ventilation systems, deteriorating environmental conditions etc.

2.9.1 Insulation failures

In the case of AC induction motors, the operating system voltages of the stator will be
much higher as compared to the rotor. Hence the stresses due to the operating voltage are
more in the case of stator as compared to the rotor and accordingly a general talk about
motor insulation refers to stator insulation only. Therefore stator insulation material is
expected to endure high voltage gradient as well as high temperatures. The term
insulation material, in the context of a motor, refers to the dielectric medium (bad
electrical conductor) provided between the turns of the winding, solder joints between the
coils and the stator core or laminations.
Normally for the insulation material used for motors, electrical characteristics are
rarely a constraint. But high temperature along with the ageing process, moisture / dirt
entry put lot of stress on the insulation and most of the cases of insulation failures can be
attributed to thermal reasons.
Normal thermal aging brings in a slow deterioration of the insulation in a natural,
inevitable manner. However, the following factors accelerate the deterioration process:
x Contamination, a chemical deposit on the windings that causes deterioration
of the insulation. The environment in which the motor is operating is the
key, contributing factor.
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 59

x Mechanical forces, vibration or movement within the windings or on the

motor will wear out the insulation system.
x Early thermal aging due to excessive winding temperatures cause premature
failure of the insulation.
x Over-voltage spikes like the high voltage surges caused by switching,
lightning, and variable frequency applications.

Voltage imbalance, at the motor winding input, may result out of even high resistance
connection in one of the phase. A 5 % voltage imbalance can cause lot of overheating in
the stator winding, especially when run at its rated load.
The flow of negative sequence currents can result in abnormal rise in temperature as
the copper losses become multifold. Also there will be a serious reduction in the torque
developing capability of the motor. Hence a deleterious effect of the supply voltage can
be fixed only with proper analysis of the supply voltage to the motor. Otherwise motor
failure will repeat but with the symptom very much differing from the root cause.
Insulation testing is normally carried out using a megger. It is the most commonly
used but most disregarded way of checking the insulation strength. This is because
maintenance personnel will be satisfied with a simple reading of the value, which may
usually be higher than the IEEE stipulated (1+ System voltage in kV) Meg Ohms. For
instance an electrician checking the insulation strength of a 415 V motor winding will be
satisfied with a 2 Meg Ohm reading (more than the IEE stipulated 1.415 Meg Ohms). But
there is much more to be drawn in the test. Suitable temperature correction needs to be
applied, as the IEEE norm is applicable for an ambient temperature of 40 deg C. Even
though such a reading obviates any earth fault condition, the value cannot be recorded,
without the room temperature / appropriate correction applied. Hence such a value cannot
be used for trending purpose. Even if used will not convey any intelligible information.
Also another care needs to be taken - de-humidification of the motor enclosure
internals. To prevent windings getting contaminated from moisture the heaters are to be
energized whenever the motor is not running.
In spite of all these, motor insulation may get damaged due to general ageing.
Resulting faults may manifest in various ways like grounding (earth fault), phase to phase
fault or a turn-to-turn fault. The prime fault is the same in all these cases, insulation
breakdown, but the difference will be in its location.
Grounding occurs when the insulation between the winding coil and the stator slot
breaks down. If the earth fault relay setting is sensitive enough, it may isolate the fault.
Otherwise problem increases in size, i.e., area of insulation breakdown increases, due to
localized intense heat and reaches a stage where the increased leakage current is sensed
by the protection relay and trips the motor. During the process considerable portion of the
stator slot also may get damaged by way of melting down in the vicinity of overheating.
This may call for even re-staggering of the laminations or in the worst kind of damage
replacement of the motor. Phase-to-phase fault is across two separate phases in the same
slot. The potential difference across the point of insulation breakdown varies depending
on the location. Hence the gravity of the effect depends on the location of fault only. To
minimize such faults, slot paper is inserted between different phase coils accommodated
in the same winding. A Turn-to-turn fault occurs in the same coil and hence reduces the
60 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

coil’s ability alone. The intensity of such coil’s magnetic field reduces. The resulting
imbalance between different coils’ magnetic field can cause vibration and results in
higher mechanical fatigue on the bearings. Also the localized heating spreads further, due
to the vicious cycle of heat causing insulation damage and insulation breakdown in turn
causing more heat.
The Megger can reveal only a ground fault. In order to detect other faults, motor
winding resistance and inductance are to be measured. There are various types of
instruments and methods available to carry out measurement. High frequency AC
waveform is applied and the winding’s inductance is evaluated between each line. Same
way by applying DC voltage, resistance is measured across each line. However little care
is to be taken during the analysis as winding’s configuration needs to be considered.

Figure 2.21
Turn-to-turn short: Inductance readings in Star / Delta connected windings

Motor winding can be connected in two different ways, namely Star (“Y”) or delta. In
case of a turn-to-turn short, star connected winding will show two low inductance values
and the other one higher. Under the same fault conditions, a delta connected winding will
show one lesser inductance and the other two higher. The figure 2.21 regarding such
connections is self-explanatory.

2.9.2 Rotor-bar failures

These are believed to be the root causes for motor failures in 10 % of the cases. In
majority of the situation they go unnoticed as they can influence other components to fail
first. For example the intensity of heat emanated from a running, damaged rotor bar can
reach the stator insulation, which is narrowly separated through small air gap. As the
rotor is designed to be sturdy, it will not fail easily. But the huge heat transfer taking
place from the broken or cracked rotor can play havoc in the insulation system of the
rotor. Even though advanced technology makes it possible to detect rotor damages,
normal maintenance personnel may not realize its potential. Hence a problem goes
unnoticed and will ultimately result in the burnout of stator winding – as the insulation
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 61

gets damaged due to the heat. Usually motor goes for rewinding and will be installed
back, immediately after repair and the root cause of the failure will remain unidentified.
The problem takes its toll again but the effect may manifest in various ways like resulting
in a motor rewind or replacement of bearings, but not a rotor repair. Unless otherwise
some deliberate efforts are put for checking the healthiness of rotor, problem persists.
The healthiness of rotor can be checked by measuring the inductance of the winding
with the rotor in different positions. The idea behind this test is that the rotor acts as a
magnet and influences the inductance readings. If the rotor’s integrity is satisfactory, then
the rotor can be considered by symmetrical and hence offers the same magnetic effect
irrespective of its position. A plot of the inductance values versus the rotor position will
be typically sinusoidal under normal conditions. The values will be erratic in case of any
damage, like broken or cracked bars, to the rotor as it results in skewing of the magnetic
filed flux.

2.9.3 Mechanical failures

Mostly rubbing of rotor against the rotor causes mechanical damages and is believed to
be the root cause for more than 10 % of the motor failures on an average.
This is the direct result of non-uniform air gap between the stator and rotor. This also
makes the magnetic field non-uniform and results in winding failures, vibrations or even
a bearing failure.
Such a case of non-uniform clearance between stator and rotor is called eccentricity.
This can further be classified as static and dynamic. In case of static eccentricity, the rotor
position is fixed with respect to motor and is usually caused due to improper sitting of the
bearings or the shaft over the bearings. On the other hand dynamic eccentricity, the shaft
will be in different positions at different points of revolution. This is normally the result
of a misalignment.
These two conditions can be detected by measuring the inductance values for all the
three lines and plotting them against the rotor position. In the former case the variations
in the peaks of the three inductance plots will vary as shown in the top figure of Figure
2.22.
62 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 2.22
Inductance for dynamic eccentricity

In case of a dynamic eccentricity, the inductance values will move up or down

depending on which phase is closest to the rotor as shown in the bottom figure of Figure
2.22.

2.9.4 Other problems

A motor as a stand-alone item, may not have any problem, but once installed and put
into service, it may give problems while in operation. There can be several reasons for
this ranging from quality of the power supply, improper power terminations, blocking of
ventilation systems, deteriorating environmental conditions etc.
High harmonic content, imbalance in voltage will cause overheating and are covered in
the earlier topics. Down the lane the power components need thorough inspection starting
from circuit breakers / isolators / disconnect switches, fuses, contactors, overload relays,
cabling, lugging effectiveness, termination tightness. Any loose connection at any of
these points will lead to high resistance in that particular phase. This will be damaging
not only that particular component but the motor as well because of the resulting voltage
imbalance.
Corrosion near the power terminals, joint between two dissimilar metals, e.g., copper
bus and aluminium cable / lug, loosening of motor terminations due to vibrations can
result in an increased contact resistance. Such things can play havoc and hence need to be
addressed suitably.
 3-phase AC Induction Motors 63

2.10. Testing Instrumentation

There are various types of instruments available today for the condition checking,
monitoring and prediction, such remaining life assessment (RLA) of motors. The
maintenance field is witnessing a paradigm shift, due to the developments in electronics,
from a preventive approach to a reliability centred approach.
A brief overview of various types of instrumentation useful for the maintenance of
motors:
Megger is a DC voltage Generator used for off-line evaluation of the fitness of an
insulation system. Normally 500 V, 1 kV, 2.5 kV & 5 kV rated ones are available in the
market. By applying the voltage across the insulation system, leakage current is
monitored. Voltage applied is divided by the leakage current observed and is displayed as
resistance (usually in Meg ohms).

DC Ramp Testers are used for measuring the ‘insulation’ resistance with the voltage
applied being raised steadily, as a ramp. Modern day instruments include a facility for
trending the results and opening the circuit once the values reach abnormal proportions.

Digital Winding Resistance Reporter / Contact Resistance Testing is useful for

measuring the low resistance values and accurate display of the results.
Surge Comparison Tester is used for detecting any fault in the winding ranging from
simple grounding to even inter-turn short of the coils in a winding. It applies a high
voltage spike to the two circuits under study and their reflections are compared. If both of
the objects are exactly similar, the waveforms will overlap and the user can see only a
single waveform indicating healthiness. In case of any disturbance in the shape of the
waveform, the manufacturer’s manual can be referred and the likely problem can be
diagnosed.

High Current Testing, also known as primary injection, is used for checking the
healthiness of CTs like ratio error within limits, polarity finding etc.

Secondary Injection / Relay Testing kits are used for injecting small currents into the
circuits to be checked and the protective relays – as they operate on very low amperage –
can be checked, calibrated if required. Protective relays, being the heart of any electrical
system, shall be checked periodically and problems noticed shall be rectified
immediately.

High Voltage AC Test / DC HiPot test sets are used for confirming the healthiness of
insulation system. Very high voltages are applied and leakage currents are monitored.
These sets will normally have the provision for shutting off the set in case of a major
abnormality. However they stress the insulation system and may advance an impending
failure causing early breakdowns.
64 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

There are various test kits and methods that are useful in Stator Core Fault Detection
like ELCID (Electro Magnetic Core Imperfection Detection), Wedge Tightness
Detection.
Recurrent Surge Oscillogram test (RSO) can be employed for checking the integrity of
the rotor.

Partial Discharge Monitoring kit is used to monitor the discharges resulting out of an
ageing insulation. A proper trending of the results will give an early warning to a possible
insulation failure.
 3

Energy Losses and 3-phase AC

Induction Motors

3.1. Introduction
Three phase AC induction motors form a major part of the electrical load in any
industry. Very often, the efficiency of a motor and the loss values are also parameters
subject to specific performance guarantees between a manufacturer and a buyer and their
accurate determination is of significance. Even without such guarantees, the losses
represent a continuous wastage of useful resources and therefore, knowledge of the
efficiency of a motor assumes importance. An accurate knowledge about the efficiency
and losses in a machine can result in better motor designs with improved efficiency and
therefore reduced cost of operation. Many motors often work under part load conditions
in actual practice due to various factors involved in motor selection. Conventional designs
exhibit much lower efficiencies in part load operation and therefore there is a lot of scope
for improvements in this area. The subject of losses in AC rotating machines and
calculation of efficiency of a machine at various loads is of considerable practical
interest.
The methods for testing the efficiency of three phase AC induction motors can be
broadly classified as direct or indirect. Direct testing methods, as the name implies, will
measure the input & output power directly.
Hence the formula,
Efficiency = (Output power * 100) / Input power
can be utilized.
In the case of indirect testing methods, the motor losses are calculated from the data
obtained through load or no-load testing. “Output power” in the above formula is
substituted with (Input power – Losses) and the efficiency is calculated.
66 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

3.2. Standards for Testing

With the ever-increasing emphasis on energy conservation, the operational efficiency
values of all equipment have become very important and are playing an instrumental role
for applications in industry. The efficiency values given by the manufacturers are
measured or calculated according to certain standards. World-wide, several standards for
testing electric machinery exist. The most accepted standard for the testing of induction
motors is of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), named as IEEE -
112, which recognizes five methods for determining motor efficiency. Each of these
methods has certain merits and demerits with regard to ease of testing, cost and accuracy.
These standards are well applied in USA.
Majority of the American companies consider Method “B” of the standard to be the
most accurate method for integral horsepower motors. Also it is believed to give the
motor performance results close to the values under actual operating conditions. This may
be attributed to the dynamometer testing method. Hence it provides consistent and
verifiable motor performance data required and will be useful for proper motor
comparison. All these make it the preferred method for polyphase AC motors rated 1-125
HP according to NEMA Standard MG 1-12.58.1.(1). NEMA Standard specifies that
motors 1-125 HP be tested by IEEE Standard 112, method B. However some additional
steps, to maximize the accuracy of this test procedure, are specified.
The other relevant standards, which are most accepted, particularly by the European
Union Nations, are given by International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and are as
follows:
IEC 60034-1: 1996 popular as IEC 34-1:
Rotating Electrical Machines Part 1: Ratings and Performance
IEC 60034-2: 1972 popular as IEC 34-2:
Rotating Electrical Machines Part 2: Methods for Determining Losses and Efficiency
of Rotating Electrical Machinery from Tests
These methods employ the loss summation principle.

Germany has its VDE 0530 standard; Great Britain, its BS 2613; Australia & New
Zealand have AS/NZS1359. But they all parallel IEC based standards. Same is the case
with many of the standards world-wide as they are similar, or derivatives of the first two
standards except for the Japanese JEC 37 which uses circle diagram method for the
evaluation of motor performance.

Usually Part 1 of all these standards (equivalent to IEC60034-1) set out methods for
determining the rated output of the electric motor, thermal performance and other related
performance tests (pull up torque, various short circuit tests etc.).
Part 2 (equivalent to IEC60034-2), also known as Test Method B of these standards set
out methods for determining the efficiency of an electric motor, primarily using the
summation of losses for AC cage induction.
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 67

To sum up, for induction motors there are two widely recognized, most important
standards, namely IEEE Standard 112-Method B and the European IEC 60034-2. The
Japanese standard JEC 37 is also well acclaimed.
All these standards, however, are defined for sinusoidal voltage supplied motors only.
For converter fed motors, no standards exist as such. Normally the stray-load losses range
from 0.5 to 4%. The IEEE standard provides a correct procedure for measuring them. But
these are ignored in the Japanese standard and arbitrarily fixed at 0.5% in the old IEC
standard. Even though the IEC standard is being replaced by the new IEC 61972, it still
recommends a fixed percentage as approximation for the stray load losses in its
alternative procedure. Naturally, these different methods lead to differences in the
measured efficiency values, which can deviate by even above 3%. For example, in a
typical case, when the test methods recommended by IEEE-112 are followed, the
efficiency may work out to 90.0 %. For the same motor, if the testing is carried out using
the methods set out by IEC34-2, it would yield an efficiency of 92.7 %. The efficiency
can be as high as 93.1 % if the test methods stipulated by JEC 37 are adopted. This
difference is unacceptable since it may be comparable to the efficiency gap between an
energy-efficient motor and a standard motor.
The growing importance given to utilization of energy very effectively has started
reflecting in the standards and such initiatives. For instance, three phase electric motors of
0.73 kW to 185 kW manufactured in or imported into Australia must comply with
Minimum Energy Performance (MEPS) requirements. These are set out in AS/NZS
1359.5: 2000 for ensuring minimum efficiency levels. Only exception from MEPS is
submersible motors, integral motor-gear systems, variable or multi-speed speed motors or
those rated only for short duty cycles (IEC60034-2 duty rating S2).

3.3. Types of Losses

The efficiency of a machine is a measure of how well it converts the input electrical
energy into mechanical output energy. Any electrical machine, particularly rotating
machines with moving components, is subject to loss of energy and hence will not be able
to convert entire electrical (input) energy into mechanical energy. This loss is the
difference between electrical power input to the machine and the mechanical power
output at the motor shaft (expressed in the same units as the input, usually in terms of
kilowatts). What really matters is the loss of energy expressed in, say, watt-seconds or
kilowatt-hour because loss ultimately translates into wasted electrical energy or
equivalent primary fuel having a monetary value. However, in actual practice, the loss is
not a constant figure and varies with the loading or the output of the machine. Therefore
instead of expressing losses in terms of energy, it is customary to express it in terms of
the instantaneous representation of energy viz., power.
There are four different kinds of losses occurring in a motor: electrical losses,
magnetic losses, mechanical losses and stray load losses. These losses can be reduced by
using quality materials, as well as by optimizing the design.
The electrical losses are of the type I2 R, and hence increase rapidly with the motor
load. These Joule losses can be decreased by increasing the cross-section of the stator and
rotor conductors.
68 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Magnetic losses occur in the steel laminations of the stator and rotor. They are due to
hysteresis and eddy currents, and vary with the flux-density and the frequency. They can
be reduced by increasing the cross-section of the iron in the stator and rotor, by using
thinner laminations, and improved magnetic materials.
Mechanical losses are due to friction in the bearings, ventilation and windage losses.
They can be decreased using low friction bearings and improved fan design.
Stray load losses are due to leakage flux, non-uniform current distribution, and
mechanical imperfections in the air gap and irregularities in the air gap flux density. They
can be reduced by optimal design and careful manufacturing. It is directly related to the
losses in the motor, which depend on the design of the machine.
Losses in an electrical machine are generally of two types; fixed losses and variable
losses. Fixed losses are constant under all load conditions (for a given speed, voltage,
frequency, and other ambient conditions) whereas variable losses are a function of the
load on the machine. In the case of a rotating machine, the fixed losses are:

3.3.1. Load dependent losses

Such losses are also known as variable losses. These are mainly the copper losses due
to the load current flowing through the resistance of the stator and rotor windings. These
losses are proportional to the square of the stator current and manifest as copper losses in
stator, rotor, brush contact losses, stray copper and core losses.
The variable loss is the copper loss (or I2R loss or load loss) in the windings & other
conducting parts and usually comprise the following:
x The stator copper loss (called here as stator winding loss)
x The rotor copper loss (called here as rotor winding loss) and
x The stray load loss (or additional load loss) taking place due to induced
currents in other metal parts of the motor because of load current through the
motor windings.

3.3.2. Constant losses

These losses are mainly due to the friction, windage and iron losses and are almost
independent of load. They are represented in the equivalent circuit as IM2RC. Hysterisis,
eddy current losses, friction & windage losses form constant losses.
Since the constant losses are essentially independent of load, while the stator and rotor
losses depend on the square of the load current, the overall efficiency of an AC induction
motor drops significantly at low load levels.
Losses in the magnetic core of the machine, usually termed as core losses (or
sometimes as Iron losses) which are due to the phenomena of hysteresis in the magnetic
material and the flow of eddy current induced in the core material by the rotating
magnetic field of the stator winding at no load.
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 69

Note:
a) Hysteresis loss is reduced by having the magnetic circuit constructed of low
hysteresis materials and eddy current loss is reduced by having the core
constructed using thin sheets of magnetic material (called laminations) each
insulated from the adjoining lamination by a coating of non-conducting
varnish. This construction increases the resistance of the eddy current circuit
thereby restricting the area available for flow of eddy currents. Thus it reduces
the value of eddy currents and thereby the losses due to these currents. Also
note that the losses due to eddy currents induced by load current on active
materials and other magnetic parts do not form part of the fixed loss.

b) Core losses are primarily dependent on the magnetic flux (in turn, the supply
voltage) and the frequency of the input power supply and are valid for the
stated conditions only. For example, the hysteresis loss is given by the relation:
Hysteresis loss = Kh . f. Bmax n
Where,
Bmax is the maximum flux density
f is the frequency
n is a value between 1.5 and 2.5 (usually assumed as 2) and
Kh is a constant

Similarly,
Eddy Current loss = Ke . (B . f . W)2
Where,
Bmax is the maximum flux density
f is the frequency
W is the thickness of lamination and
Ke is a constant

It is therefore necessary to measure these losses at rated voltage and frequency

conditions and ensure these conditions by using a separate test supply source
with regulated voltage and frequency.

Friction losses that are inherently associated (in bearings and other mechanical contact
points) with the rotation of an equipment.
Windage losses due to the action of air, for instance, air impinging on rotating parts,
wastes some energy. In addition to any unintended loss, the fans mounted in the rotor
also absorb energy. Usually, totally enclosed motors have an internal fan for circulation
of cooling air through the air paths in the stator and rotor as well as an external fan that
drives air over the cooling fins on the outer body of the motor.
70 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

The symbols used for various parameters measured during the tests are:

Symbol Parameter
Cos I Power factor
F Supply frequency
(I2R)d Winding losses during Dynamometer test
(I2R)0 Stator winding losses at no-load
(I2R)s Stator winding loss
(I2R)r Rotor winding loss
I Line Current
IN Line current at rated load
I0 Line current at no-load
IX Line current at partial load
Kd Dynamometer torque correction
n Operating Speed (Revolutions per minute)
p Number of pole pairs
P1 Input power
P2 Output power
PFE Core loss
Pf Friction and windage loss (sum)
Pk Constant losses
PL Additional load losses (raw data)
PLL Additional load losses (after regression)
P LL% Additional load losses as % of P1
PLLX Additional load losses at partial loads
P0 Input power at no load (represents no load losses)
Pd0 Input power at no load with dynamometer coupled
R Stator line-to-line resistance
Ra Stator line-to-line resistance at an ambient temperature of Ta
RN Stator line-to-line resistance at rated load
R0 Stator line-to-line resistance at no-load
RS Stator line-to-line resistance corrected to ambient
temperature
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 71

Symbol Parameter
S Slip as per unit of synchronous speed
sd0 Slip during dynamometer test
T Torque
Td Reading of torque measuring device
Td0 Torque reading at no load coupled with dynamometer
U Terminal voltage
U0 Terminal voltage at no-load
UN Rated voltage
Ur Reduced voltage used in calculations to allow for voltage
drop in stator winding
K Efficiency
T Stator winding temperature
Ta Ambient temperature
TN Stator winding temperature at Rated load

Efficiency of a motor is the ratio of output power to input power at a given load and can
be expressed by the formula:

K = P2 / P1 (Eq:1)

Where,
Kis the efficiency (per unit value)
P1 is the input power and
P2 is the output (mechanical) shaft power

Though it is possible to obtain the efficiency of a motor directly by measuring the

mechanical output (in equivalent electrical units) and the electrical input, the results will
be greatly influenced by measurement accuracy. IEC standard 60034-Part2, therefore,
suggests that this method be adopted (if at all) for machines with efficiencies lower than
90% i.e., in the lower ratings. For all other cases, especially involving higher capacities,
efficiency should be calculated based on measurement of losses.
Since,
P1 = P2 + Losses,
efficiency can also be expressed as:
72 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

K= P2 / (P2 + Losses) (Eq:2)

Or
K= (P1 – Losses) / P1 (Eq:3)

Out of these, the iron loss and stator winding loss are assumed as taking place on the
stator with the rest of the power passing through the air gap of the motor. The losses
taking place in the rotor are the rotor winding loss, friction loss and additional load loss
with the balance power being available in the form of mechanical output at the motor
shaft. Figure 3.1 illustrates this action.

Figure 3.1

Losses in an Induction motor

3.4. Determination of Efficiency of Large Motors

The above discussions are mostly applicable to motors of lower rating and mainly in
the LV range. Determination of losses and efficiency of machines in the HV range,
however, may require a different approach mainly due to the difficulty of testing such
machines under their rated load conditions. The constraint may be the electrical system
of the requisite capacity to support full load testing or the availability of a dynamometer
of adequate rating. Back-to-back method of testing can be adopted if two identical
machines are available for testing.
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 73

The machines will be coupled to a common mechanical system and connected to a

common electrical supply mains. One of the machines will be run as a motor and the
other as a generator which acts as a load on the motor. Since an induction machine has to
run at a speed above the synchronous speed to work as a generator, the mechanical
coupling will be needed to be done through a gear box with a variable gear ratio for
varying the output load.
Since there is no mechanical power flow outside of the above system, the net electrical
input to the combination of machines will thus be equal to the losses of both machines put
together and the loss in the gear box between the two machines. The electrical mains
must supply these losses and in addition, the magnetizing current of both the machines.
High efficiency motors will definitely cut down the running costs. However, they
require higher initial costs because of better quality copper, higher quantity of iron etc.
Hence motor manufacturers are under constant pressure to economize on the material
front and improvise their designs of the motors. A perfect balance is to be struck between
the initial cost of the motor and the running losses, i.e., operational costs. Even the end
user can carry out such a cost benefit analysis and select suitably efficient motor for the
specific application. In case of variable frequency drives the losses will be further
additional due to the harmonic currents with conventional converters. Better designed
converters offer a solace on this front but may cost higher. Hence these factors also need
to be considered in working out the economics.

Figure 3.2
Efficiency of an AC Induction Motor vs Load
74 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

3.5. Tests For Measurement and Computation Of Losses And

Efficiency
The earlier discussed standards stipulate various methods to measure and determine
various types of losses and calculate the efficiency and the salient methods are as follows.
x Rated-load thermal test
x Load test
x No-load test
The different categories of losses can be computed based on these tests and the
efficiency at different loads thus calculated. Load test can either involve the measurement
of torque (Method 1) or based on electrical measurements only (Method 2). In method 1,
it is possible to calculate both load loss and additional load loss; in method 2, the latter
will have an assigned value only.
The details of tests conducted are given in subsequent sections. Following factors,
should be kept in mind while conducting these tests:
x Arithmetic averages of line currents, line voltages and line-to-line resistances,
when measurements across different phases are to be used, unless otherwise
indicated.
x Sequence of tests needs to be maintained as indicated. If there is any delay
between the tests, the winding temperature must be brought to as close as
possible to the value obtained during the load test.
x Temperature rise of windings is to be obtained using resistance method.
x The tests should be conducted at rated voltage and with a frequency variation
limited to + 0.3% of the rated frequency.

3.5.1. Rated-load thermal test

This test is conducted at rated load in accordance with IEC 60034-1 clause 7 and the
stable values of the final parameters Ta, TN and RN are recorded. The winding temperature
TN and resistance RN thus measured form the reference values for the other tests.

3.5.2. Load test

Method 1:
The temperature of the stator winding should be within 5 Deg K of the value measured
during the load thermal test. Six load points between 25% and 150% of the rated load are
selected, one of them being 100% and two points above rated value. The points may be
approximately equally spaced. Load is applied and varied using a dynamometer tester
capable of torque measurement.
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 75

Note:
The dynamometer itself along with the bearings used to couple it will introduce an
additional torque even at no load and this needs to be corrected. The torque
correction value is added to the measured torque to get the actual motor torque. The
actual motor torque can be obtained using the relation:
T = Td + kd
Where kd is the torque correction value.

Load test should be done starting from the highest to the lowest point. Value of R
before and after the test is to be measured and the arithmetic mean calculated for use in
other tests. The following values should be measured at each load point: U, I, P1, Td, Cos
I , f, and n.
Note:
The value of R is used for computing the stator winding loss.

Method 2:
This is similar to method 1 except that there is no torque measurement. In this method,
it is possible to record the values during the rated load thermal test itself, unless it is
specifically required that efficiency is to be determined at multiple points, in which case
the measurements will be repeated for the rated load and other load points which are
required in addition to rated load.

3.5.3. No-load test

The no-load test is carried out at different voltages and the value of voltage, no-load
current and no-load input are measured (U, I0 and P0) at each voltage value. A total of six
measurements are to be taken three between 100% and 125% of rated voltage and three
between 20% and 50% of rated voltage. The test is to be carried out in the descending
order of voltage after running the machine at no-load at rated voltage and frequency (with
the motor in uncoupled condition) till the no-load input power value P0 becomes stable
(variation of <3%) at two successive 30 min. intervals. Value of R before and after the
test is to be measured and the arithmetic mean calculated for use with the test values.

3.5.4. Computation of losses

Calculation of Core loss and Friction and Windage loss
The power input under no-load test has the following components.
x Core loss
x Friction and windage loss
x Stator winding losses at no-load
76 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

This can be expressed by the equation:

P0 = PFE + Pf + (I2R)0

P0 = PK + (I2R)0 (Eq:4)

where PK represents the constant loss.

Note:
The rotor winding loss under no-load condition can be neglected since slip will be
close to zero and current flow in the rotor and consequently the loss in rotor cage
winding will be negligible.

The no load stator winding loss can be computed using the expression:
(I2R)0 = 1.5 (I02 . R0) (Eq:5)

Note:
The relation is applicable to both star and delta connected machines. In the case of
a star connected machine, the following are applicable:
The value of R = 2 . per phase value of resistance
The value of phase current is the same as line current
Total stator winding loss at no-load in all three phases is thus:
= 3 . I02 . (R0 /2)

= 1.5 (I02 . R0)

In the case of delta connected motor, the following apply:

The resistance value across two line terminals is by a parallel combination of one
phase winding and the winding of the other two connected in series. The resistance of
one phase winding will thus has a value of 1.5 R0 where R0 is the measured line-to-
line resistance.

The value of phase current = Line current /(Sq. Rt 3)

Total stator winding loss at no-load in all three phases is thus calculated as:

= 3. (I02 /3) . (1.5 R0 )

= 1.5 (I02 . R0)

 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 77

The constant loss PK can be found using Eq:4 and Eq:5 since the other two terms of
Eq:4 are already known. The value of PK has to be calculated for the set of readings taken
at different voltages.
To compute the value of Pf , the values of PK should plotted on a graph with U2 on the
X-axis for all values of voltage < 50% of UN and extrapolated to the value of U = 0. The
point of intersection on the Y axis will give the value of Pf. Refer to figure 3.3 for
illustration.

Note:
Since the core loss at voltage equal to 0 is also 0, it follows that the only remaining
component will be the friction and windage loss.

Figure 3.3
Computing Friction and Windage loss (Reference: AS/NZS 1359.102.3:2000)

To compute core loss the following needs to be done. In the graph in fig. 3.3 PK is
plotted using the readings taken at voltage > 60% of UN. Subtract Pf from the value
obtained for PK at U = UN. The resulting value will represent the core loss PFE at UN. An
exact calculation of PFE at rated operating conditions may also take into account the
voltage drop corresponding to this condition in the stator winding and using the resultant
voltage as the basis instead of UN. The necessary calculation for obtaining this voltage is
given in the reference standard.
Calculation of winding losses
Stator winding loss can be computed using the relation similar to that of Eq:5 as shown
below.
(I2R)S = 1.5 (I2 . R) (Eq:6)
78 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Where I, and R corresponds to the readings taken during the load test at different points
on the load curve. Since the resistance of the rotor winding cannot be measured, the rotor
winding loss is indirectly computed using the following equations.
(I2R)r = {P1 - (I2R)S - PFE } . s (Eq:7)

where, s is the per unit value of slip. The rotor winding loss is computed at different
load values substituting the values of P1, Stator winding loss and slip obtained at each
load and the value of core loss as derived earlier for rated operating conditions.

Calculation of additional load losses

Additional load losses (PL) can be found based on the total losses and the other loss
components which we have computed as per the foregoing sections. The value thus
computed is taken as the raw value of additional loss.
We know that:
Total losses = Input - output

= P1 - P2

Total Losses = Pf + PFE + (I2R)S + (I2R)r + PL

Which means that:
PL = P1 - P2 -{ Pf + PFE + (I2R)S + (I2R)r } (Eq:8)

Since P2 is required to be known to apply the above formula, it is useful only if the test
includes measurement of the mechanical output. In other words, load test should have
been conducted as per method 1 to apply eq:8 to calculate the value of PL.
The output shaft power can be computed using the relation:

P2 = 2. ST . n
60 x 1000

which can be further reduced as

P2 = T.n (Eq:9)

9550

the units being P2 in kW, T in Nm and n in revolutions per minute (RPM).

The value of PL has to be calculated for each load point and plotted against the square
of the torque value (T2) on the X-axis. The curve may only be approximately be linear
and needs to be corrected. The standard suggests regression analysis to obtain a
smoothened straight line. Also, the straight line obtained above will not pass through the
origin (Additional load loss should have a zero value at no-load, since the input at no-load
has been already apportioned to other losses).
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 79

Figure 3.4
Computing Additional Load loss (Reference: AS/NZS 1359.102.3:2000)

Figure 3.4 shows the final value of additional loss (PLL) at different loads after the
above corrections have been applied.
In case load test has been conducted as per Method 2 which does not involve
measurement of the mechanical torque, the above computation for additional load loss is
not possible. For this purpose, the standard recommends that the additional load losses are
assigned as a percentage of input power. The table 3.2 indicates percentage values to be
used for motors of different standard ratings.
80 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Table 3.2
Assigned Additional Load loss-Percentages (Reference: AS/NZS
1359.102.3:2000)

Motor Rating < 10 kW Motor Rating < 100 kW Motor Rating < 200 kW
kW Per Cent kW Per Cent kW Per Cent
<1 3.00 11 2.32 110 1.67
1.1 2.97 15 2.23 132 1.62
1.5 2.89 18.5 2.17 150 1.58
2.2 2.78 22 2.12 160 1.56
3.0 2.69 30 2.04 185 1.52
4.0 2.61 37 1.98 200 1.50
5.5 2.52 45 1.91
7.5 2.43 55 1.87
75 1.78
90 1.73

The additional load loss at rated load can be computed using the following relations.
PLL = P1 . (% value for motor rating as in fig. 4) (Eq:10)
100

The above value of PLL will be applicable at rated load. For any other part load value,
the following equation can be applied.

PLX = PLL . (IX2 - I02 ) (Eq:11)

(IN2 - I02 )

where PLX is the additional load loss corresponding to the load current IX, IN and I0
being the full load and no-load values of motor current.

3.5.5. Computation of Efficiency

All the losses having been individually calculated as above, the total loss can be
computed using the formula for the rated load.
PLoss = Pf + PFE + (I2R)S + (I2R)r + PLL (Eq:12)
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 81

Efficiency can be computed using the equations given in Eq: 2 or Eq:3 as applicable.
For other load points, the losses have to be individually determined for that load and the
efficiency re-computed.

3.6. Dynamometers
The tests discussed in the previous section for finding out the different losses of a
motor and arriving at the efficiency require the motor to be subjected to a mechanical
shaft load of up to 150 % of the rated output. One of the most common ways in which
this can be done is by using a dynamometer. Dynamometer is an apparatus that helps us
to subject a test motor to various combinations of mechanical torque and speed. In a
typical dynamometer test cell, the test machine shaft is coupled to the dynamometer via
couplings and a drive shaft. When the machine is running, the dynamometer can exert a
braking force on the motor. Sensors on the dynamometer measure motor speed and
torque. Knowing these values, we can calculate the power output of the test machine. It
must be noted that, the measurement of speed must be done accurately and dynamometers
available in the market use shaft mounted digital encoders for precise measurement of
speed.
Dynamometers allow us to reproduce a desired point on the speed-torque characteristic
of the machine being tested under controlled conditions. Their function is to generate a
braking torque which acts in the direction opposite to the rotation of the motor. Some of
the devices are also capable of generating torque at standstill condition (zero RPM).
Others apply a torque that is a function of the rotational speed of the motor but which is
adjustable at any point.
Apart from applying a load, some form of torque measurement is also necessary so that
the output power of the motor can be determined using this measurement directly. Refer
to Method 1 of motor load test in the previous section. In the absence of this
measurement, other assumptions become necessary to compute the motor efficiency (such
as allocation of additional load losses outlined earlier). In this section, we will review
various types of dynamometers used for load testing of motors in detail. To understand
how dynamometers work, we will first discuss how a simple mechanical brake can be
used to load a motor.

3.7. Loading a motor

3.7.1. Loading by a brake
The simplest form of a brake is a sector shaped brake-shoe which is pressed by an
external force against a brake drum having a matching curvature. The purpose of a
matching curvature is to maximize the area of contact with the drum surface so that the
load toque can be as high as possible. Varying the pressure applied on the brake shoe will
cause a change of load torque. Refer to figure E.4 which explains this principle.
82 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 3.5
Principle of a Brake

Assuming that a pressure of P is applied by the brake with area of contact with the
drum being A, the braking force F will be obtained by the relation:
F = P . P. A

Where P is a constant called the friction coefficient which in turn depends on the
material properties of the mating surfaces.
The torque caused by the brake can be calculated as:
T = F.R

Where,
T is the torque
R is the radius of the brake drum and
F is the braking force
The braking force as well as torque will be in a direction opposite to the direction of
rotation of the motor. The motor therefore has to produce a torque equal to that of the
brake in the direction of rotation in order to maintain equilibrium (that is, in this case, a
constant speed of revolution).
In order to avoid the transverse force being applied on the drum and thereby the motor
shaft, it is usual to have two brake shoes placed diametrically opposite to each other.
Refer to figure 3.6.
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 83

Figure 3.6
A pair of Brake shoes operating on a brake drum

Assuming that the braking force of the shoes is identical, the brake system generates a
couple of opposing forces F, separated by the distance D (equal to the diameter of the
brake drum) with the torque being given by the relation:
T = F.D

While this is a very simple method of measuring the motor torque, the arrangement has
certain drawbacks. The following are the main problems:
x The entire output power of the motor is being absorbed by the brake drum.
Unless proper arrangements exist for cooling the brake, it can get overheated
and burn.
x This method is not accurate and cannot account for the torque produced by the
brake drum itself when on no-load (a measurement which is necessary for
accurate determination of losses).
x Manual torque measurements and their correlation with other parameters need
the motor to be run at stable load for a period of time required for the
mechanical and electrical parameter readings to be noted down. This may
result in excessive heating.
x Behavior of the motor under fluctuating load conditions cannot be easily
studied.
The more sophisticated dynamometers try to address these drawbacks by a variety of
features and we will discuss such devices in the paragraphs that follow. But before that,
we will discuss the principle of how loads can be applied on motors through a coupled
electrical generator.
84 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

3.7.2. Loading by coupling with a generator

One of the ways of applying mechanical load on a machine is to couple it with a
generator. The generator can either be an AC machine or a DC machine and the electrical
load connected to the generator (along with the losses of the generator) will appear as a
mechanical load on the output shaft of the motor.
One of the advantages of using this method is that, no elaborate cooling arrangements
of the are needed as in the case of a brake drum or other heat dissipating methods as the
load is entirely electrical. The load may take the form of a lamp load or a water rheostat
and variations of load can easily be achieved by voltage control. Another advantage is the
possibility of pumping the output power of the generator back into the electrical system
(which ultimately is also used to drive the motor under test). Thus the net wastage of
energy is minimal, limited only to the losses of the motor-generator combination. In fact,
some of the dynamometers are based on this principle as we shall discuss later in this
paper.
Direct measurement of mechanical torque in this type of set up will call for more
sophisticated techniques such as in-line, non-contact type torque measuring devices and
use of wireless data communication between the rotating sensor and a stationary
instrument. Alternatively, the mechanical output may be calculated based on the electrical
output of the generator and its efficiency curves. This however requires the efficiency of
the test generator at various loads to be available. Otherwise, the approach as discussed in
method-2 of load testing in the previous section will have to be adopted.

3.7.3. Principles of load application by braking

In case of testing the performance of small motors, it is possible to dissipate the whole
of the output in a measurable manner – as the goal of any exercise aimed at determining
the efficiency of a motor is to measure the output, directly as far as possible. The motor
can be loaded either with mechanical brake in its simplest version. The load can as well
be in the form of an eddy current brake or a calibrated air fan.
A very common and simple type of mechanical brake is a rope brake and will be as
shown in Figure 3.7
The load on the shaft is created by the tension in the rope passing over the pulley
directly coupled to the shaft of the motor under test. The rope tension, a force, is created
by the weights placed in the scale pan.
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 85

Figure 3.7
A rope Brake

Once the motor is started and running at its rated speed, the spring balance reading
reduces and gives a reading equal to the rope tension in the upper half. Rope tension in
the lower half is equal to the calibrated weights. The rotational force developed by the
motor will be opposing the tension in the rope and develops a force that can be measured
– the difference between the rope tension in the bottom half and the rope tension in the
upper half.
Now the torque can be calculated as the product of this rotational force and the
distance between the centre of the pulley and the centre of the rope (measured on a
horizontal plane). This distance is equal to half of the sum of the rope’s diameter and the
pulley’s diameter.

Torque: T = (T1 – T2) * R lb-ft

Where, R = ½ (D1 + D2)

86 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Output Power developed by the motor can be calculated as

P = (2 * pi * T * n) / 550 hp

3.8. Basics of Torque Measurement

Torque is a force applied in a manner that tends to produce rotation. Torque without
rotation is termed static torque, since no motion is produced, and exerts a twisting force
on the object. On the other hand, a dynamic torque produces a rotation, and hence can be
called as a turning force.
Torque is measured in kg-m or Ib-ft which is the product of the force in kgs or in
pounds (lb) and the distance in meters (m) or in feet (ft) from the center of the point of
apparent rotation. Because most power transmission is based upon rotating elements,
torque is important as a measurement of the effort required to do work (horsepower).
The torque on an object is defined as the product of the force applied to the object and
the smallest distance between the line of action of the force and the object’s axis of
rotation.

3.8.1. A simple method of Torque measurement using a Dynamometer

The arrangements described above do not lend themselves to easy measurement of the
braking force or motor output torque. A simple arrangement for measuring these values is
illustrated in figure 3.7 where the brake shoe is replaced by a belt which is in contact with
the drum.

Figure 3.8
Use of a belt around a brake drum for torque measurement
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 87

The belt is in contact with the surface of the drum with an angle of contact of 180
degrees with either end of the belt fixed to a force measurement gauge. The brake belt is
subjected to an initial force at rest by the use of a tensioning arrangement. When the
motor is at rest the force registered by both gauges is equal. However, when the motor is
running, the braking force generated along the length of the belt causes the force on either
gauge to change. The difference between the readings of the gauges is a measure of the
braking force. To explain further:
Let FT be the initial force registered by both gauges A and B . The action of the brake
generates a couple with the force F. Now the readings of gauges A and B will be
respectively:
FA = FT + F
FB = FT - F
The difference between the reading of the gauges is:
FA - FB = 2. F
The torque T developed by the braking system is given by:
T = R . (FA - FB)
= 2.F.R
with R being the radius of the brake drum. Thus T is the same as the torque generated
by the braking couple. The initial brake tension should be adjusted that the braking does
not produce a slack on the belt in the side of gauge B.
Various types of highly sophisticated, accurate torque transducers are available in the
market and are used for precise measurement of torque. A strain gauge system measures
strain through the change in resistance of a metal foil or wire that is bonded to a stressed
element. A phase displacement system measures the windup of a rotating shaft. Strain
gauge systems using slip rings are less expensive as compared to Phase displacement
systems that are economical for turbomachinery.

3.9. Types Of Practical Dynamometers

Dynamometers which are generally available as a complete test system can be broadly
classified into:
x Devices which use mechanical methods for obtaining a load torque
x Devices which use electrical properties for obtaining a load torque
In the first category, we have the pump type dynamometers. The second category has
several subtypes such as eddy current type, hysteresis type, powder type and AC and DC
type dynamometers. Both these categories can be used for testing a machine under steady
load conditions at several points of the load curve.
There is however another type of dynamometer which uses inertial loading for testing.
This category is somewhat different because here the load is actually the torque that is
required for accelerating an inertial mass such as a flywheel. This is however not of
particular use for testing of motors.
88 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

As a matter of fact, most of the available dynamometers are used not just for motor
testing but mainly for testing of mechanical prime movers such as Diesel engines and
automobile drives especially those used in motor-racing. The latter application has given
rise to extensive improvements in dynamometer design and sophisticated peripheral
systems for measurement and control, since very fast-varying load conditions must be
possible in order to simulate actual road duty requirements. Such designs include
computer-based data acquisition and control. The control circuits simulate load
requirements and a data acquisition system records dynamically all the machine and load
parameters at a fast rate (impossible to record manually) for later analysis. Power
electronics is used for regenerative type loading with PLCs for load control, operation
monitoring and protection and data communication for connecting the sensors with data
acquisition systems and the control commands to the to the dynamometer.

Figure 3.9
Typical testing set up using a Dynamometer

Different types of dynamometers behave differently and have their own typical
advantages. Practical systems often use multiple types of dynamometers coupled to a
common shaft so that all possible loading conditions can be obtained for simulation.
We will briefly discuss the different types of dynamometers below.

3.9.1. Pump dynamometer

This is an example of a mechanical type of dynamometer. This type of dynamometer
uses either water or hydraulic fluid for creating a braking torque which also serves as the
medium of cooling. The principle in either case is the same. The fluid is churned by a
bladed rotor inside the dynamometer housing and moves radially from the center to the
outer casing by centrifugal force and can be controlled by throttling. The more the fluid
inside, the greater the braking force exerted on the machine under test. With the machine
being tested running at a steady speed, load is applied via the pump until the motor torque
can just maintain this speed at a given throttle position. At this point the rotational force
or "torque" being applied to the pump housing is measured and converted to "standard"
output readings. The results are calculated by the values obtained from a load cell or
simply by converting pump pressure. Usually a dynamometer can contain several
compartments and using a combination of these compartments, load variations are
achieved.
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 89

When oil is used as the dynamometer medium, it gets hot very quickly and its viscosity
goes down. As this happens, the power required to pump it changes dramatically and will
in turn change the power drawn by the dynamometer. Water has the same tendency,
although to a lower degree. Water and oil pumps also tend to mix air with the fluids,
causing them to become aerated, or "foamy", changing the viscosity and again changing
the power drawal. This type of dynamometer is a low cost device but difficult to control
and requires higher maintenance. Moreover, the entire power of the motor being tested
must be absorbed by the fluid and this can become a limitation.

3.9.2. Eddy Current dynamometer

Eddy current dynamometers operate on the principle of slip losses that occur when an
electrically conductive drum is made to rotate against a stationery and non-uniform flux
distribution, formed around its periphery. The relative speed between the stationery flux
and the rotating drum, causes flow of eddy currents, in the drum material, governed by
the laws of electromagnetic induction. The reactive magnetic field, resulting from
induced currents, is responsible for the braking torque developed by the unit. The motor
power will therefore cause the conductive drum to get heated and the heat will have to be
taken away by the use of a cooling medium such as air or water. Thus, this is a subtype of
dynamometers which use an electrical property for producing a braking torque.
Figure 3.9 shows the principle of a typical eddy current dynamometer. Flux is
produced by magnetic poles on the stator and results in the induction of eddy currents in
the material of the rotor which is in the form of a toothed disk. The teeth also cause a
change in the flux path and as a result the flux density varies as the rotor rotates thus
enhancing the braking effect. These Dynamometers have low inertia as a result of small
rotor diameter.

Figure 3.10
Working principle of an Eddy Current Dynamometer

Eddy current dynamometers of water-cooled or air-cooled type are available in the

market. The specifications of a commercially available water-cooled type eddy-current
dynamometer and the general arrangement are shown in Table E.3 and figures E.8 below.
90 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Table 3.3
Typical Specification of an Eddy Current Dynamometer
Parameters Specification
Form of dynamometer Air cooled, compressed air
Braking torque-Nominal N.cm 150
Rated Speed RPM 1800
Peak Speed RPM 6000
Power dissipation (rated) Watts 300
Excitation voltage V DC 90V DC
Excitation current (max) A 2.5
Torque sensor Reaction type-force sensor
Load cell Full bridge, strain sensitive
Load cell excitation (max) 10 V DC
Sensitivity (nominal) 1mV/V
Load cell bridge resistance 350 Ohms
Load cell accuracy class 0.2
Speed sensing Toothed wheel/inductive proximity sensor
Air flow nominal lpm 7
Pressure at inlet 3 bar
Weight kg 48

The characteristic of Torque/Power vs. Speed of a typical eddy current dynamometer is

shown in figure 3.11 below. The characteristic shown is typical of most types of
dynamometers. Note that the torque and power at zero speed are both 0. The torque and
power capability of the dynamometer increase almost linearly up to its rated speed. The
power at this speed is the maximum that the dynamometer can handle. Beyond this point,
if the speed has to be increased, the braking torque falls so that the power limit
(proportional to the product of speed and torque) is not exceeded. The speed limit
represents the maximum value of speed that the dynamometer can safely withstand. The
lower torque value is the minimum torque at which the dynamometer can be stable at a
given speed. Hence these are suitable for medium to high power range application.
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 91

Figure 3.11
Typical characteristics of an Eddy Current Dynamometer

Note: Dotted line represents Power and continuous line represents Torque in the above
figure.

3.9.3. Hysteresis Dynamometer

This type of dynamometer uses the hysteresis effect of electromagnetic materials to
produce breaking action. These are versatile – as the torque can be full from free-run to
locked rotor – and ideal for testing in the low to middle power range. The dynamometer
consists of a solid rotor surrounded by a drive cylinder with energizing coils. When the
rotor is rotated, the hysteresis effect of the magnetising flux produced by the coils on the
rotor material produces a braking torque. Pure Hysteresis dynamometers produce torque
through the magnetic air gap without the use of magnetic particles or friction components
and are claimed to have several advantages such as smoother torque, longer life, superior
repeatability, high degree of controllability, lower maintenance requirements and less
down time. The power handling capacity will be limited by the ability to dissipate the
heat produced in the rotor without excessive heating of the rotor material. This type of
dynamometer can be designed to produce full torque at zero speed. They have both
continuous and intermittent power ratings where the dynamometer is capable of
dissipating more power for shorter periods of time.
92 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 3.12
Typical characteristics of an Hysterisis Dynamometer

3.9.4. Powder Type Dynamometer

As the name suggests, the Powder Brake Dynamometers contains a magnetic powder.
The electrical current passing through a coil generates a magnetic field, which changes
the property of the powder, thus producing a smooth braking torque through friction.
Such dynamometers are ideal for applications operating in the low to middle speed range
or when operating in the middle to high torque range. Thus, this type too like the eddy
current and hysteresis type of dynamometers, employs the property of electromagnetism
for its operation. They can also be designed to produce full torque at standstill.
Each type of Dynamometer has advantages and limitations and choosing the correct
one will depend largely on the type of testing to be performed.

3.9.5. DC and AC Dynamometers

These dynamometers use electrical machines coupled to the motor under test to
provide the required load torque. The dynamometer acts as a variable torque load. The
input power required by the dynamometer (this being the output of the test machine) can
be expressed as:
Dyn. Input = Electrical Output + Losses in the dynamometer
The output torque can be derived using the relation in Eq:9 with the power value
substituted by Dyn. Input. The above calculation will need the value of dynamometer
losses under variation conditions. It is therefore usual to obtain the dynamometer torque
by direct measurement using a shaft-mounted torque sensor.
As discussed earlier, both DC and AC machines can be used as dynamometers. This
type of dynamometer is very popular for testing of automobile engines in view of its
versatile performance. Very quick load changes can be applied on the machine under test
and can be pre-programmed. Also, the dynamometer can switch between generating
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 93

(braking) and motoring modes very easily. Motoring mode is useful if the rotating parts
of the test machine have to be rotated by external means (say, to find the mechanical loss
at any given speed). Both AC and DC type dynamometers can be designed to work in
regenerative and non-regenerative configurations. The requirements can be summarised
as follows.
x Quick, pre-programmed load changes
x Operation at a range of speeds with independent torque variation
x Low inertia of rotating mass
x Possibility of regeneration in braking regime
x Braking and motoring mode of operation

The point to be noted about regeneration is that, the generated power must be at mains
frequency and almost at mains voltage if power has to be pushed back into the power
supply mains. Since the test machine may have to be tested over a wide speed range,
regeneration is invariably done using inverters so that the above requirement can be met.
In the case of a DC dynamometer, the output DC is utilized directly as input to inverter.
In the case of an AC dynamometer the output which can be at different frequencies
(corresponding to the speed of the test machine), it is converted first to DC and then to
AC. Digital controls acting upon pulse-width modulated inverters are used to achieve this
functionality.
In the case of non-regenerative mode, the requirements are simpler. In the case of a DC
dynamometer, the machine acts as a separately-excited generator and control of field
voltage is used to control the output which is dumped into a resistive load. With an AC
machine, a similar method is adopted except that a thyristor controlled rectifier is used to
get variable DC output which in turn can obtain the desired output. It should be noted that
the output voltage of the dynamometer in either case is also a function of speed and thus
the output power will be limited at low speeds.
Motoring requirement will need the dynamometer to be run using external power with
speed regulation. This means that a DC dynamometer will require a controlled armature
supply through a thyristor rectifier operated from mains supply. The AC dynamometer
will have to be run as a variable speed motor through an inverter drive also from mains
supply.
Though both DC and AC dynamometers are available as a part of test kits, AC
dynamometers are considered superior in view of their low inertia and consequently
better loading response and also the absence of commutator/brushes and thereby reduced
maintenance.
Figures 3.13 to 3.16 illustrate the principle of the different types of dynamometers
discussed above. These are only meant for the purpose of understanding the approach
adopted in these machines. The actual dynamometer designs may vary in details and will
also differ from manufacturer to manufacturer.
94 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Note: In the diagrams below TM represents the motor under test.

Figure 3.13
Block Diagram-DC non-regenerative Dynamometer

Figure 3.14
Block Diagram-DC Regenerative Dynamometer
 Energy Losses and 3 phase AC Induction Motors 95

Figure 3.15
Block Diagram-AC non-regenerative Dynamometer

Figure 3.16
Block Diagram-AC Regenerative Dynamometer
96 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance
 4

Motor Failure Analysis

A failure of electric motor can be either due to mechanical fault(s) or electrical fault(s)
or due to both. A mechanical failure, in turn, can be either due to a bearing problem or
due to improper mechanical fitting of the components of the motor or even a root cause
lying in the electrical system may show up the symptoms mechanically. In either case
there is a possibility of vibrations giving a sufficient clue. If the vibrations are monitored
and trended properly an impending failure may show up as an increasing vibration. In the
earlier days, electrical symptomatic problems could be gauged only during off-line
testing. But nowadays there are lot of methods to diagnose such dormant problems and if
applied and analyzed properly can avoid repeated failures or even breakdowns.
It is the duty of the electrical maintenance professional to gain a good understanding
about various mechanisms that can cause motor failures. Then effective usage of
discretion in diagnosing the root cause of a failure must be applied. Based on these
findings, practical action plans have to be devised. These plans shall be meticulously
implemented in order to overcome the problems permanently. An electrical engineer must
always remember that the obvious defect noticed may not be the real cause. The very
cause of the failure may still be lying dormant in the system and again may result in the
same failure or in a different failure for the same basic reason. Unless this approach is
adopted the Plant will be witnessing repetitive failures and unplanned outages. Hence
each and every motor failure has to be investigated thoroughly and, if required, the issue
may be taken up with the OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers).

4.1. Types of Motor Failure

Motor failures can be broadly classified as:
x Insulation failure
x Rotor bar failure
98 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

x Mechanical failure
x Auxiliaries failure

Insulation failures (as covered in Chapter 1, are related to stator insulation mainly) is
the most important type of failure mode for an electric motor. This mode alone
contributes a major chunk to the cases of motor failures. It is believed that more than 50
% of the motor failures are due to insulation failure alone. It can occur due to the stresses
resulted by the thermal, electrical, mechanical & environmental processes that are
deviating from the designed values or from the specification originally envisaged in the
detailed engineering. These failures can manifest in various forms like winding
shorts, insulation to ground faults etc.
Thermal processes harming insulation systems are usually a result of overheating of the
winding due to various reasons like overload, too-frequent starts, a higher ambient
temperature than the designed one, inadequate ventilation, hard-to-start (also known as
high inertia) loads etc. Motor ventilation related problems, i.e., inadequate cooling will be
mainly due to, congestion on fan cover, improper spacing at the end of motor etc.

Rotor bar failure is an important failure mode of especially large motors. It can be
due to the manufacturing defects or complications developing out of improper operational
& maintenance practices. Design problems that can create this problem are casting
defects, loose laminations, improper protection provided for operation in harsh
environments etc.
Operational problems that can contribute to this failure are frequent starts, inadequate
cooling for the motor etc.
Maintenance problems like incorrect fitting, incorrect alignment can cause excessive
vibration & overheat in the rotor.
Rotor failures can also arise due to rubbing with stator because of bearing failure,
eccentricity of the rotor resulting out of bent shaft or improper air gap.

Mechanical failures are primarily caused by various reasons like misaligned

couplings, sheaves out of alignment, poor shimming of feet, soft foot, dynamic imbalance
of load, internal imbalance of motor rotor etc.
Most common failure under this category is bearings related. This can be due to
excessive loading (causing bearing clearance problems), improper lubrication, general
wear out, improper engineering of the system, non-suitability of the bearing for the
particular application, corrosion etc.

Auxiliaries failure are failures related to the power supply, electrical circuits & cable
termination. Unless due care is taken to fix these problems the motor may go out of
service. In some extreme cases like imbalance in voltage, negative sequence currents etc.,
the motor insulation failure and even vibrations can be seen.
 Motor Failure Analysis 99

4.2. Common Causes Of Motor Failure

Some of the very common causes of motor failure are discussed below:

4.2.1. Frequent starts

This is very critical factor for a large rating motor (usually 200 kW and above) started
directly on-line. Hence it doesn’t apply for soft started motors.
A motor is said to be frequently started if the number of starts in an hour exceeds the
one specified by the designer / manufacturer. Usually it is 3 Nos. of cold starts per hour or
2 Nos. of hot starts per hour. Cold start means when the motor is normally started without
a preceding thermal overload trip in the previous start / operation. Hot start is the one
involving a thermal trip.
To gain an understanding about the underlying principles, one has to appreciate the fact
about the amount of inrush currents flowing through both the stator & the rotor and their
deleterious heating effect. A motor’s temperature (mainly of the winding as it is the main
concern) typically rises exponentially in response to the time taken for the motor to start.
Even in operation this temperature continues to increase but with a declining rate of
temperature rise.

Figure 4.1
Typical heating and cooling curves of a motor
100 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Typical motor heating curve is shown in Figure 4.1. As shown in this figure, a motor
will have another curve called as cooling curve. Based on the heat dissipating efficiency
of the cooling circuit – comprising the cooling fans assembly, finned structure of the yoke
etc. – the temperature of the motor drops exponentially with respect to time, once the
motor is de-energized and allowed to coast down.
As the motor is started, since the starting currents and hence the power dissipated is
very high the temperature keeps on increasing. During this period the cooling circuit will
be almost ineffective.
If the motor gets tripped at time t1 with the motor temperature T1 and then allowed to
cool down, the motor temperature decreases and would have touched T3 after time t2.
Instead, if the motor is re-started, before complete cool down, the temperature of the
motor will shoot up to a temperature (T2 as shown in the figure) which will be much
higher than T3. This temperature may be tolerable for the motor as this re-start being the
first one. However, if another such step is repeated the temperature of the motor may
attain dangerous proportions unless it the motor is designed for such purpose. In practice,
the values of these vary from each rating of motor to the other. Also for the same rating
they differ from manufacturer to manufacturer and based on the specification given by the
user.
Hence too-frequent-starts is the most detrimental aspect to the life of a motor, as both
the stator and rotor get heavily stressed out during every start. Stator’s insulation
degradation process rate gets multiplied with the rise in temperature.
Also the rotor’s thermal aging process gets accelerated. This is because the rotor will
be running at much lesser speeds during starting and hence the induced currents are also
high. Because of this excessive heat and the resulting thermal uneven expansion, the rotor
bars may crack (at the joints where the bars are welded to the shorting ring) after
expanding unevenly even with respect to the rotor. Due to the cracks the electrical
resistance of the bars increases and hence heating of the rotor bars also increases. Since
the current is diverted through other rotor bars, they get overheated. All these result in a
localized overheating of the rotor bars. These high temperatures of the rotor may cause
bowing effect thereby reducing air gap / bearing clearances. This can result in mechanical
damage to the rotor.

4.2.2. High inertia

Motor failures due to high inertia loads normally go undetected, as a hard-to-start load
can’t be easily identified. Due to high inertia of the load, the motor takes excessive time
to accelerate to full speed. As a motor draws very high current during acceleration phase,
the windings get overheated. Typical high-inertia loads are certain fans, blowers, pumps,
and some kinds of machine tools. Even though it can’t be considered as a definition, if the
load’s moment of inertia is more than twice that of the motor, the acceleration gets
prolonged and it can be considered as a high inertia load-motor combination. However
the details of inertia may not always be available to the end user. Hence a practical way
can be devised as follows: Observe and record the acceleration time needed to reach full
speed during every start. If this time is more than a few seconds, and if the application
requires frequent starting, there's a good chance that inertia is the problem. A high inertia
load usually demands high torque and hence lesser torque – difference of motor torque
and the load torque - is available for acceleration. This lesser acceleration torque requires
 Motor Failure Analysis 101

a much longer time to take the load to full speed. Hence the associated copper losses will
also be huge, thereby overheating the motor. This often leads to the burnout of the motor.
When an energy efficient motor – which has a much higher starting current and
somewhat lower starting torque – is used for replacing a standard motor the motor
starting torque may not be sufficient for driving a high inertia load. Starting current can
also be excessively high causing possible damage to equipment.
In motor-reversing applications, the motor needs to be selected / designed properly.
This is because, certain types of electrical braking can impose substantial losses. For
example a full-voltage reversal (plugging) will result in four times the normal
acceleration losses.
To take care of these factors various protection techniques can be employed and are as
follows:
Internal temperature protection: In case of a repeated failure of a motor, direct
measurement of the temperature can be resorted to, in order to safeguard the motor
against overheating. While rewinding in the motor shop, internal-temperature protectors
can be embedded within the new winding. Such devices sense the actual winding
temperature directly and will trip the motor starter when it reaches an unsafe temperature.
This way the protection can be made very reliable as compared to the inherently less-
sensitive indirect relay-sensing methods. Furthermore, the direct temperature-sensing
method takes care of the motor's thermal storage and cooling capacities – instead of
utilizing the extrapolation techniques used by the indirect temperature measurement relay.
Solid-state protection: The advent of modern solid-state protective relays has
simplified the job. In these, the motor's losses are actually computed from current
measurements using sophisticated "symmetrical component" techniques. Based on this,
the motor temperature profile is developed and then adjusted to the cooling profile. Such
an extrapolation is used to determine an approaching unsafe temperature. This provides a
much closer degree of protection than indirect methods under more difficult conditions of
operation. The great strides in the development of electronics and the reducing costs of
solid-state protective devices have made this kind of protection available in less costly
designs. So the application of these relays even for lower rating motors is turning out to
be economical.
Earlier generation relays, typically electromagnetic ones, used to simulate a motor’s
heating and cooling characteristics by means of thermal sensitive heater elements. Since
there cannot be any discrimination employed between the heating associated with starting
and in normal conditions, the heater element needs to be designed for not responding to
600 %. This makes the relay to be a bit insensitive during normal operation. The problem
used to get further compounded when used for high load inertia loads which have longer-
than-normal starting times. This kind of application drastically reduces the degree of
protection with an increased probability of a motor burnout.
In order to cater to the needs of a high inertia load, if efficiency is not a bar, NEMA
Design D motor can be used. But a careful evaluation is needed while selecting this motor
and a good compromise between its price and the efficiency is required. This type of
motor accelerates and decelerates the load much more rapidly and develops high torque
from zero to full speed.
Another feasible solution is to enhance the quality of the winding insulation while re-
winding the motor.
102 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

4.2.3. Inadequate cooling

Insulation system plays a vital role in the life of a motor and its major enemy is heat, so
it's important to be sure to keep the motor within temperature limits. There is a rule of
thumb that says a 10 degree Celsius rise reduces the insulation's useful life by half, while
a 10 degree Celsius decrease doubles the insulation's life. From this it can be safely
deduced that if we can keep a motor cool enough, the winding will last longer, which
covers up other factors like moisture, vibration, chemicals and abrasives in the air that
also attack insulation systems.
While selecting a motor for a particular application, due study needs to be carried out
regarding the environmental conditions. This is because, at high ambient temperatures or
at high altitudes, above 3,300 feet (1005.84m), the air will be light and has less cooling
potential. Accordingly standard motors need to be de-rated or requirement is to be
specified to make the motor suitable for use under these conditions. The cooling
ineffectiveness needs to be addressed for variable speed drives as they can run at lesser
temperatures and hence the shaft mounted cooling fan may not be able to give sufficient
air flow. In such cases separate cooling fan driven externally may have to be provided
depending on the operational requirements. Resistance to the ventilation air must be
maintained to be the least. Also the cooling air system must be checked and always
ensured to be without any short passes of air.

4.2.4. Congestion on fan cover

Another environmental concern is dirt, insects and fibers, which can clog ventilation
openings, form a thermal insulating layer over the heat dissipating surfaces and cause a
variety of mechanical problems. Hence regular maintenance schedule must include
cleaning the fan covers effectively. The time interval has to be decided at site based on
the ambient conditions and the prevailing operating and maintenance conditions differing
on a case-by-case basis.

4.2.5. Improper spacing at end of motor

The layout preparation for a Project will normally be done at a very early stage where
there will be not much of concrete information available. Hence they must be reviewed
periodically as the detailed engineering proceeds.
The main driving force behind restricting the load on a motor is the thermal capability
of the motor. As a motor gets loaded, the current drawn by the motor heats the windings
by virtue of the copper (I2R) losses. The rate at which the winding temperature rises for a
particular load, is dependent upon the characteristics of insulation material employed.
This is an exponential function and hence the rate comes down at higher temperatures.
Same way the cooling of the motor is a function of the heat exchange arrangement and
the ambient temperature. The heat exchange mechanism typically consists of at least one
external fan and for higher rating motors, one or two internal cooling fans. This
mechanism will help in the cooling of the motor with an exponential rate, which is high at
higher temperatures and reduces with lesser temperatures. A normal motor, under steady
state conditions, stabilizes to a temperature for a particular load and ambient temperature,
which is an intersection point between the heating and cooling curves of the motor. The
heating of the motor gets accelerated during starting due to the higher copper losses due
to large starting currents. As the motor’s heating is much more rapid than the cooling, the
motor must be given sufficient time to cool down before another start is taken.
 Motor Failure Analysis 103

4.2.6. Incorrect belt alignment

Simple, regular checks on the belt coupling can save a lot of time and trouble due to
various reasons that can otherwise result in huge repair costs. These checks are mostly
connected with proper alignment and tensioning of the belt and hence the maintenance
personnel shall always endeavor for ensuring them.
Before going into the maintenance aspects, there are certain checks that must be taken
care of during installation / design and are as follows:
x Wherever possible, make lower side of the belt the driving side.
x Pulley ratio must not exceed 8:1. If not, the manufacturer must approve it.
x The drive sheave on the motor should be centered on the shaft extension.
x The overhung load (OHL, a bending moment that results from drive tension)
shall be kept to a minimum. An increase in OHL can gave doubling effect in
the reduction of the L10 bearing life. Reducing the shaft extension can
minimize this.
x When using a belt drive on a horizontal application, any belt sag should be on
the top. Optimum drive/pulley contact occurs when the tight segment of the
belt is on the bottom.
x Vertical belt drives cause more problems than horizontal belt drives. If an
application requires a vertical belt drive, make arrangements to mount the
drive pulley at the top. Optimum belt / drive pulley contact is achieved when
the tight part of the belt is pulling upward.

A belt drive, as shown in Figure 4.2, must be not be too tight as to overload the motor
or put unwanted extra force on the motor bearings. At the same time it should be tight
enough to avoid it from slipping. Adjust the tension by changing the distance between the
motor and driven load. The tension must be just enough to prevent excessive bow on the
slack side.

Figure 4.2
Typical Belt drive
104 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Belt tension is determined by the sound the belts make when the drive is first started.
Belts will produce a loud squeal that slowly vanishes as the speed approaches rated value.
If the belt tension is too tight or too loose the operation becomes inefficient and damages
can occur. Do not change the pulley pitch diameter to change tension. This will result in a
different fan speed than desired.
Misalignments in belt drives can be categorized as angular and parallel.
Angular misalignment normally results from improper mounting of motor / reducer. A
skewed bushing or a bent shaft can also contribute to angular misalignment. It is
measured as angle between shafts or in Mils per Inch of coupling diameter. Normally an
angular misalignment of less than 0.002 in for each inch diameter of pulley is considered
to be fine.
Parallel misalignment is the misalignment arising out of mounting of motor / reducer
on different planes as shaft centerlines don’t coincide. It is normally measured in Total
Indicated Run out, TIR in Mils (0.001”).
Bearing misalignments can be classified as static and dynamic.
Static misalignment arises due to a non varying static load (like deflection) and is due
to axes being not co-linear or the supports being not in the same plane.
Dynamic misalignment normally arises due to a bent shaft, which results in a balance
problem as well as clearance problems in the bearings resulting in undue fatigue.
Motor / Reducer Soft Foot is a problem associated with warped or bent machine foot or
an uneven mounting base. This in turn causes high stress on motor housing and bearings
thereby resulting in higher vibrations. Such problems can be confirmed by using a dial
indicator. Observation has to be made for any excessive movement while loosening one
foot at a time.
Adjust belt alignment by moving the motor or driven load pulley inward or outward
along the shaft.
The pulley’s horizontal alignment can be carried out by ensuring that the pulley face is
perpendicular to the centerline of the conveyor. This ensures the bearings are co-linear.
Slightly oversized bearing mounting holes on the conveyor structure along with welded
adjusting bars facilitate proper installation. Vertical alignment is done by ensuring that
the shaft centerline is matching the elevation of the reducer shaft centerline.

4.2.7. Solid belt guards

It is important that belt drives be protected from abrasive damage by using adequate
drive guards. Keep drive guards clear for proper ventilation and clean pulley grooves to
remove the build-up of dust, grime, rust or other foreign materials. Belt guards must be
designed for adequate drive protection, yet provide ventilation and suitable access for
oiling / greasing. Belt guards shall be open mesh type to aid in situ visual inspection of
the belts. Belt guards shall have tachometer openings for motor and fan shafts.
Solid belt guards will normally be useful as fire proof construction apart from
protecting the operator and other personnel moving around in the area. They are supposed
not to interfere with efficiency and create no new hazard.
 Motor Failure Analysis 105

4.2.8. Excessive loading causing bearing clearance problems

Excessive loading of the bearings due to reduced internal clearances is often
encountered in industry. As the reduction in internal clearances can’t be seen directly,
motors will be allowed to run. Normally this is accompanied by a change in appearance
of the lubricant. Once the problem becomes more pronounced, the roller elements will be
subjected to high heat and hence the draining grease can be seen in very dark color.
One of the possible reasons for such upset can be due to the bearing housing being out
of round or a over size of the shaft. Hence at the time of overhauling a motor, it is
advisable to take measurements of all dimensions, like shaft outer diameter, inner
diameter of bearing housing etc. Any of the abnormalities noticed in the clearance
between the bearing & shaft or bearing & housing are to be cleared. Also run out of the
shaft has to be taken to detect whether the shaft is straight or any bend is there.
The bearing housing when it is being outer race to shrink, increasing the load. This
kind of external cooling, if needs to be resorted to, has to be done away with at the
earliest. Root cause analysis needs to be carried out and suitable permanent rectification
can be carried out. It can be either replacement of the grease with synthetic, high
temperature tolerant grease or upgrading the motor itself.
In case the motor has a tapered shaft, due care is to be taken to avoid driving the
bearing beyond its intended position.
The pump side problems like cavitation, excessive axial thrust, water hammer in the
lines or misalignment between the pump and motor, unbalance in the rotating assembly
can also result in the reduction of bearing clearances.

4.2.9. Insulation failures

The insulation system of an AC induction motor mainly consists of:
x Ground wall insulation - the slot liner paper that protects the insulated copper
to ground
x Phase-to-phase insulation - a sheet of insulation paper that is laid between the
phases
x Turn-to-turn insulation - often the weakest link in the insulation system, the
enamel on the copper of a random wound motor or the tape found on form
coils. This insulation’s purpose is to protect from copper to copper failures.

The developments being witnessed in the modern day have introduced good quality
insulation material that can endure higher temperatures with little negative impact on
their longevity. In spite of all these things, motor insulations do fail and hence needs a
check mechanism to keep the deterioration under control or to take a corrective action
pro-actively. To do so, the insulation degradation process needs to be understood
properly.
Basically, this degradation process can be attributed to the ageing phenomenon, which
gets further accelerated with various types of stresses due to thermal, electrical,
mechanical or environmental reasons.
106 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Thermal Stresses are imposed on the insulation by the operating temperature.

Whenever an electrical motor is started or stopped it is subjected to thermal cycle of
heating and cooling. Overloads will also cause the motor temperature to rise steeply, for
very short periods may be, causing the degradation of the mica / resin bond. Whether it is
conventional thermoplastic insulation or new thermosetting insulation, the excessive heat
generation impairs the mica / resin bond. In the former case, delamination will take place
and in the latter case embrittlement would occur.
Electrical Stress is a result of the working voltage of the machine and increases as the
voltage is raised above normal values, even for brief time intervals. Unless deliberately
suppressed, impulse due to system faults or opening of breakers can result in severe short
time electrical stresses. Discharge treeing / erosion can be caused by discharges occurring
in insulation voids or cavities.
Mechanical stresses are due to the operating philosophy. For example, direct on-line
starting of motors will exert severe forces on the end winding structure. This effect gets
multiplied during system faults. Another factor is vibration that results in insulation wear
by fretting. Also the differential rates of expansion of the core and conductors result in
tearing of the insulation.
Environmental stresses are a result of oxidation of the organic material, contamination
(from water, oil, dust, carbon, salinity, sand, corrosion etc), deposition etc. As a result of
these, the insulation can age and crack. Surface deposition and ingress of moisture make
the stator windings to suffer a lot. This is very common in high humidity conditions and
can damage the insulation system, if proper care by way of enclosure heating is not
carried out.
All these processes are interrelated as thermal cycling may cause differential
expansion. This will lead to void formation and in turn can aid propagation of electrical
discharges. These in turn can cause electrical and subsequent electrochemical
deterioration. The electrical factors like voltage imbalance, negative sequence currents
etc. can cause undue overheating.
As a result of these various ageing factors in service delamination, shrinkage of wedges
& side packing etc can take place. These in turn result in vibration abrasion and loss of
the functionality of gradient control coatings. All these will invariably result in partial
discharges, which increase in severity as the deterioration progresses. Partial discharge in
turn contributes to the additional damage rate. Slot discharges, which are the discharges
occurring between the electrical shield of the stator bar and the core, will ensue and are
detrimental as they attain high energy levels that can damage over a period.

4.2.10. Bearing current problems

Bearing currents are produced in different forms and almost all rotating machines,
either large or small in size, have a bearing current problem whether it is DC or AC. Even
though bearing current is caused by an electrical phenomenon, it results in mechanical
damages. That's why it went undetected for so many years and was the reason for the
slow pace of progress in studying these phenomena and solving the associated problems.
Electric current flow in bearings can be seen simultaneously on both the races and the
rolling element. The bottom of the depression will be dark in color and is known as
fluting as shown in Figure 4.3.
 Motor Failure Analysis 107

Figure 4.3
Fluting of a bearing

The various sources of shaft voltage can be broadly categorized as electromagnetic

induction, electrostatic coupled from internal sources and electrostatic coupled from
external sources.

Electromagnetic induction from the stator winding to the rotor shaft is more prevalent
in long axial machines. The shaft voltage is due to small dissymmetries of the magnetic
field in the air gap that are inherent in a practical machine design. Most induction motors
are designed to have a maximum shaft voltage to frame ground of < 1 V rms. The
induced shaft voltages cause bearing current to flow in a circulating path from the shaft,
thru drive end non-insulated bearing, thru the stator frame, thru non-drive end non-
insulated bearing and back to the shaft. This circuit basically has very low resistance.
Hence even though the induced shaft voltage is low in magnitude, a high circulating
current flows through both motor bearings. Hence, theoretically it is advisable to provide
insulated bearing at least on one side to break this circuit, whenever the estimated the
likely shaft voltage is going to be higher. This may happen typically for motors with a
rating greater than 250 horsepower. However, during transient start and stop conditions
across the AC line, magnetic dissymmetries appear as increased shaft voltage, resulting in
bearing current flow and reduced life. The traditional electromagnetic solution to induced
shaft voltage on larger frames is to insulate the non-drive end bearing. This does not
mitigate shaft voltage but rather the resulting bearing current. Voltage pulses fed by the
inverter contain such high frequencies, that the leakage inductances of the motor winding
provide paths for currents to leak to earth. This induces a voltage between the shaft ends.
If the induced voltage is high enough to overcome the impedance of the lubrication film
of the bearings, a circulating type of high frequency bearing current occurs.

Electrostatic induced shaft voltage may be present in any situation where rotor charge
accumulation can occur. Examples are belt driven couplings, ionized air passing over
rotor fan blades or high velocity air passing over rotor fan blades as in steam turbine. The
electrostatic solution is to keep the shaft and frame at the same potential by installing a
shaft grounding brush to reduce electrostatic build up and reduce shaft voltage to 70 - 400
mV. This value is not enough to cause damaging bearing current to flow.
108 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Electrostatic coupled shaft voltage from external rotor sources, such as a static
exciter in a turbine generator, is possible and historically solved with the application of a
shaft grounding brush. Electrostatic coupled shaft voltage from external stator sources,
such as a PWM inverter.

The shaft voltage magnitude measured is commonly used as an indicator of the

possible bearing current that results. It is the magnitude and passage of electrical current
thru the bearing that results in ultimate mechanical damage. Bearing damage caused by
electrical current is characterized by the appearance of either pits or transverse flutes
burnt into the bearing race. Electrical pitting continues until the bearing loses its
coefficient of friction, further increasing the losses and breaking up bearing surface.
However, while modern motor design and manufacturing practices have nearly
eliminated the low frequency bearing currents induced by the asymmetry of the motor,
the rapid switching in modern drive systems may generate high frequency current pulses
through the bearings. If the energy of these pulses is sufficiently high, metal transfer
between the ball and races occurs. This is known as Electrical Discharge Machining
(EDM). As a result, the bearing may need replacing after only a short time in service.
Each individual item of a drive system, such as the motor, the gearbox or the drive
controller, considered alone is the product of sophisticated manufacturing techniques, and
normally carries a favorable Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) rate. It is when these
components are combined together and the system integrated as a whole has a much
lesser MTBF.

4.3. Modern Developments

Present drive technology, incorporating Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT),
create switching events 20 times faster than those considered typical ten years ago.
Recent years have seen a rising number of EDM-type bearing failures in drive systems
relatively soon after start up, within one to six months. The extent to which this occurs
depends on the drive system architecture and the installation techniques used.
Bearings in the initial stages of EDM destruction exhibit more of a satiny finish
distributed fairly evenly, depending on how a particular system is operated. The
discharges tend to be a bit more random if the speed is being varied continually. However
the earliest bearing damage cannot be detected through vibration monitoring.
When the oil film thins locally from variations in temperature or viscosity—or from
changes in radial loading or vibration—and voltage on the shaft exceeds the dielectric
strength of the oil film, electrical energy discharges, he said. If the energy is great
enough, the discharge melts a tiny pit in the surface of the race.
Higher-quality bearings, with their smoother raceways and balls, exhibit fewer
irregularities than their lower grade counterparts. Shaft voltage discharges less often with
the better bearings. Consequently, voltage builds up to a higher level than it would in
rougher bearings. Hence a high-quality bearing will see fewer, yet stronger, discharges
than a low-grade bearing, and, as a result, will sustain deeper damage.
An inverter approximates the waveform with a series of voltage pulses and does not
actually produce a sinusoidal shaped waveform to feed the motor. Unlike the three phases
 Motor Failure Analysis 109

of sinusoidal power supply that always add to zero, the three phases of the PWM (Pulse
Width Modulated) drive, although they balance in peak amplitude, do not balance
between phases instantaneously because the pulses are of different widths. The resulting
common mode voltage is a source of bearing currents.
Regular three-phase sinusoidal power supply is balanced and symmetrical under
normal conditions, i.e., the peak-to-peak voltages are equal for all the three lines and the
shape of each of the three waveforms is identical. Hence, the vector sum of the three
phases always equals to zero. Thus, it is normal that the neutral is at zero volts, however
this is not the case with the PWM inverter’s output. While the voltages may be balanced
in peak amplitude, it is impossible to achieve perfect balance between phases
instantaneously, when pulses of different widths are produced. When this happens, the
neutral will not be zero and the voltage can be defined as a common mode voltage source.
This creates a potential between the inverter output and earth which will force currents
through stray impedances present between anything connected to the inverter phases,
such as the motor cables and motor windings, and earth. This is known as common mode
current.
Frequency converters built with BJTs (bipolar junction transistor), SCRs (silicon
controlled rectifier) or GTOs (gate turn-off thyristors) are operable at a switching
frequency less than 600Hz and hence make lot of audible noise. However, the IGBT
(insulated gate bipolar transistor) came onto the scene and these represented a huge
improvement in drive technology, increasing the switching frequency up to 20 kHz,
reducing harmonics and audible noise. But these improvements have been bought at a
price: IBGT technology has resurrected bearing problems due to electrical discharge,
creating a new challenge to manufacturers of electric motors. The new problems arose
because PWM inverters equipped with IGBT inverters distort the sinusoidal supply
generating high frequency harmonics and high (dv/dt)s. The inverter switching
mechanism also creates what is called common-mode voltage.
Due to the high switching frequencies of IGBT inverters, parasitic capacitances
between stator winding and stator, and between rotor and stator winding become relevant.
These capacitances result from the common mode voltage and lead to a common mode
current flowing through the motor bearings. They are called on to handle two types of
bearing currents that have been identified. The first these, conductive-mode bearing
current, is discharged continuously during a period of time when bearings exhibit good
conductivity. In contrast, the second type, discharge-mode bearing current, is discharged
in discrete time intervals. The former prevails at lower speeds, because the good electrical
contact between the rolling elements and bearing raceways connects the rotor to ground
through the outer bearing race, whereas the latter is more significant for higher inverter
output frequencies, as the electrical conductivity of the bearing decreases, enabling the
capacitive voltage to build up till it is able to break down the dielectric resistance of the
grease. Although both types of currents are present at the same time, it can be said that
the discharge bearing current is the more critical. The conductive bearing current is
usually less harmful to bearings, as it is a low-amplitude current that flows continuously
without arcing. However, it increases bearing temperature, accelerating grease
deterioration and reducing bearing life. On the other hand, the high energy level of the
discharge bearing current works like an electro-erosion machine, resulting in bearing pits
or flutes. The amplitude of bearing currents depends on operating conditions such as
speed, temperature, lubrication type, motor size etc.
110 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

From all these factors, motor size is probably the most significant, as the larger the
motor the larger its parasitic capacitances. Motor design can also have reasonable
influence over bearing current amplitudes. Manufacturers offer a number of options as a
means of overcoming the damage to bearings caused by electrical discharge. The most
obvious of these is insulated bearings, which are used where it is desirable to achieve
perfect insulation of the bearing from its application environment. However, the method
increasingly used to achieve insulation is ceramic coating, which is very expensive,
typically adding anything from GBP 600 to 700 to the price of motors with frame sizes in
the range from 315 to 355. Another option for applications where some passage of current
can be accommodated is a shaft grounding brush. A much less costly option than
insulated bearings, the shaft brush reduces stray current through the motor bearings by
half, as a result of short-circuiting the path between rotor and stator. By employing a shaft
brush it is possible to keep voltages below the so-called "fritting voltage" which is
responsible for the development of bearing defects due to electric current discharge.
Although damage cannot be completely prevented by employing this measure, the extent
of damage can be kept within such limits that the life expectancy of the bearing is not
affected.
ABB has recently patented a motor winding designed to eliminate circulating bearing
currents. The design divides the stator winding into an even number of equal parts per
phase. The groups are then distributed uniformly between ac supply connections at both
ends of the stator. This generates a high-frequency net current flowing equally, and in
opposite directions, through the windings. By dividing the windings into two branches,
we have a better chance of balancing the high-frequency common mode currents and
getting more symmetric flux distribution
The solution pits one high-frequency net current against a current of equal magnitude
flowing in the opposite direction. The currents, in effect, cancel each other out, and the
bearings roll on, unmolested.
 5

Testing

A motor has many rotating parts and hence deterioration in these components due to
wear and tear becomes inevitable. Also, as the stator and the winding insulation are
expected to bear with temperatures crossing 100 deg C, the insulation material degrades
over a period of usage. To assess the condition of these components and materials - so
that the motor can be re-conditioned in a predictive manner - a wide range of tests are
available. These tests taken up in a pro-active manner will provide very cost effective,
condition-based solutions for the asset-manager.

5.1. Insulation Life And Resistance

The motor winding is a set of coils insulated from each other. These coils are required
to carry huge currents whose exact value depends on the rating of the motor, the starting
methodology and its operating conditions. The insulation material is designed for
enduring high temperatures expected to be present when the motor is in service. However
in practice, the basic characteristics of the insulation material change over a period of
time and usage.
The insulation aging process is affected by many factors like contamination, thermal
ageing, mechanical damages and over voltage spikes. When the insulation becomes
contaminated, a chemical gets deposited on the windings and causes deterioration of the
insulation. Mechanical damages can come in various forms like vibration or movement –
during fault conditions etc – within the windings or the motor and causes wear out of the
insulation system. Thermal aging can be natural, wherein slow deterioration of the
insulation takes place over the windings natural life. Excessive winding temperatures can
cause premature failure and results in early thermal aging. Over voltage spikes due
to high voltage surges caused by the switching, lightning surges and variable frequency
drives may also result in damaging the insulation system.
112 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

The insulation, left unattended to, may reach a threshold point where it cannot tolerate
the system voltage any more and yields to the stresses. This damages the integrity of the
motor severely and finally breaks down the insulation. However, such motor failures due
to insulation breakdown can cause catastrophic damages to the equipment, loss of
production or de-rating of power output, lengthy forced outages and heavy costs to the
utility. Hence it is wiser to detect the insulation deterioration at its nascent stage and
identify potential failures as early as possible. One of the very popular and most feasible
tests is determination of insulation resistance.

Insulation resistance:
Insulation resistance measurement is the easiest field test that can be employed to
monitor the health of the winding’s insulation and is popular in most of the countries as
“megger," test. This test applies DC voltage, usually 500 or 1000 Volts, to the object
under test and measures the resistance of the insulation. Low current leakage is measured
and converted to a measurement of Meg, Gig or Terra-Ohms.
NEMA standards stipulate a minimum resistance to ground, at 40 degrees C ambient,
of 1 Meg Ohm per kV of rating plus 1 Meg Ohm. Medium size motors in good condition
will generally have an insulation resistance in excess of 50 Meg Ohms. A low reading
usually indicates a bad insulation condition, may be caused by contamination or ageing or
excessive heat. Contamination may be due to moisture, conductive dirt or oil. Excessive
heat may be due to a constant overloading of the motor. In case the value measured is
below the value obtained by the above equation, the motor requires attention and the
resistance value needs to be improved. As per the above, a 440 V rated motor has to have
a minimum insulation resistance of 1.44 Meg Ohms.
A megger reading of a motor, alone, conveys very little information about incipient
faults, if any. A better method would be, trending of the insulation resistance - a curve
recording resistance, with the motor cold and hot, and date - that indicates the rate of
deterioration. This curve provides the information needed to decide if the motor can be
safely left in service until the next scheduled inspection time.
However a megger test indicates winding’s insulation condition with respect to ground
only and does not measure turn-to-turn insulation condition. It cannot reflect localized
weaknesses. Also the stress on insulation due to operating voltage peaks will be more
severe than those of due to megger voltage. For example, the DC output of a 500-volt
megger is below the normal 625-volt peak (for a normal supply rms voltage of 440 V
AC) each half cycle of an AC motor. Hence a better study demands additional data.
The insulation material being a natural dielectric can be conceived to be a pool of
dipoles (a set of +ve and -ve charges). When DC potential is applied, the dipoles will
begin to align with negative towards the conductors and positive towards ground
(opposite charges attract). As the dipoles polarize, the effective capacitance of the circuit
changes and the resulting current (leakage) across the dielectric boundary decreases. The
megger takes the leakage current and converts it from milli or micro-amps to Meg Ohms
(or Gig Ohms, or Terra-ohms). A greater current leakage implies a worse condition of the
insulation.
 Testing 113

Motor insulation testers come in two primary varieties, low and high voltage. The
former, as they apply low potential, are less destructive. But high voltage insulation
testers can be very dangerous if a voltage equal to or higher than the motor nameplate
voltage is applied. In all Insulation testers, the current is limited so that there is less
potential for damage to the test object. In order to detect the faulty insulation, the applied
voltage must be selected in such a way as to create an even energy level across the
insulation surface of the object being tested. This will happen in areas that do not
properly polarize, the material condition has changed in the insulation system, or there is
continuity between the conductors and ground (direct short).
Dielectric insulation materials in electric motors are chemicals and follow the
arrhenious chemical equation for chemical changes due to temperature. The actual
temperature at which the insulation resistance measurements are made will effect the
leakage across the insulation boundary. Hence, as the temperature increases, the amount
of potential leakage across the insulation system increases, causing a reduced insulation
test result. This requires temperature correction of insulation test results for trending.
Also the temperature of the object must stabilize and can be 30 minutes or more after de-
energization. Otherwise the readings will turn out to be inaccurate and there is no pint in
trending these values. As shown in Figure 5.1, the actually measured insulation resistance
values when plotted against time without temperature correction will yield a picture that
shows wild variations based on which it may be inferred that there can be some serious
problem.

Figure 5.1
Trending of Insulation Resistance
114 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

If proper temperature correction is applied for the individual readings by considering

the actual temperature of the winding will yield consistent readings as shown in the
Figure 5.1 by the corrected curve. With this it can be concluded that there is nothing
wrong in the insulation system. The formula to be employed for these corrections is:

R40 = k R
R – insulation resistance measured at the specific temperature.
R40 – insulation resistance corrected to a temperature of 40 0C.
k - the temperature correction factor.

The relationship between the insulation resistance and the ambient temperature of
measurement is typically logarithmic and will be as shown in Figure 5.2 where the
temperature of the insulation under test is shown on the X-axis. The temperature
correction factor, k to be applied is shown on the Y-axis. This factor, when applied as per
the above formula, brings the insulation resistance measured at any temperature to its
equivalent at 400C, as stipulated by IEEE standards.

Figure 5.2
Reference curve for temperature correction of IR value
 Testing 115

Moisture has a dielectric constant and hence damp windings or even humidity will
have a direct effect on these measurements. The deviation will be quite appreciable when
the temperature of the insulation being tested is less than the dew point. It will cause an
abnormally low test result that will not represent the actual conditions of the insulation
system during operation. Hence a correction needs to be applied. For large machines,
usually the corrections to be applied will be supplied by the manufacturer.

Disadvantages:
The insulation resistance tests will only monitor the boundary surface area between the
coils and ground. Therefore winding shorts, insulation defects on the end turns of the
coils and insulation breakdown or contamination within insulation components not
directly in contact with the stator frame, will not have any bearing on the test results.
Hence such faults cannot be detected in their initial stages and hence cannot be totally
relied upon.
This methodology of checking insulation resistance detects defects associated with
brittle or damaged insulation and a significant area of insulation getting damaged is a pre-
requisite for detection of an abnormality. However to diagnose an impending problem,
the quality and dielectric property of the insulation needs to be checked and is done by
determining the polarization index.

5.2. Polarization index

An insulation test that is not normally given its due importance is the Polarization
Index test. This test is used to evaluate the elasticity of the insulation and detect severe
winding contamination or overheated insulation systems.
An insulation system is basically a dielctric with a pool of dipoles. When placed in an
electric field E (a vector, represented with an arrow over its top), these dipoles, and
molecules of the insulation material get aligned with that field as shown in Figure 5.3. As
the insulation gets aged, hardens and brittle, polarization of the molecules retards. If the
insulation is very brittle, the polarization index will be one or very slightly more than one,
indicating no polarization.
116 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 5.3
Polarization phenomenon – Dipolar orientation

Polarization happens slowly, when a voltage less than the operating voltage of the
motor is applied. While measuring Meg Ohm value, a standard of one minute can be
applied (or once the energy level within the instrument and the system being tested has
stabilized) in order to produce a test result. The polarization process can be presented in
the form of a curve by plotting the total leakage current – the sum of absorption current,
surface leakage current & dielectric charging current – against time in minutes. From this
curve, it can be seen that there will be a gradual increase in the reading of the insulation
resistance. This is because of the charging of the insulation system, much like a capacitor.
This results in the charging of the capacitor like dielectric medium and hence a reduction
in the absorption current. The reduction of this absorption current results in an increase
in the resistance. The ten minute reading divided by the one minute reading gives the
Polarization Index, the PI value of the insulation system and serves as an indication of the
average polarization of the material. IEEE recommends a value of 2.0 or higher as
acceptable. However motors with unstable insulation systems can also give values close
to or greater than 2.0, but still be defective. Hence it is always recommended to look at
the PI Profile and not just the Index.
It must also be borne in mind that, according to the IEEE 43-2000, insulation values
over 5,000 Meg Ohms need not be evaluated using PI.
 Testing 117

Even though this test gives an insight into the healthiness of the insulation system, it
also looks at only the ground insulation and will not see the problems neither in the turn-
to-turn insulation nor the weaknesses in the insulation system.
Hi Pot tests are High Voltage testing methods and are aimed at checking the strength of
the insulation. They operate on the principle of breakdown happening in the presence of
strong electric fields. What happens is that a loose charge (electron or ion) somewhere in
the air is accelerated by the field (electric field), and if the field is very great, the charge
can pick up enough speed before it hits another atom to be able to knock an electron off
that atom. As a result, more and more ions are produced and their motion produces a
discharge or spark.

5.3. DC Hipot
This test can uncover insulation weaknesses. In addition to measuring overall
insulation resistance to ground, it provides information on insulation dielectric
strength. In this sense, it can detect insulation weaknesses that are likely to fault to
ground if subjected to the high transient voltage surges that commonly occur on industrial
power systems.
DC high potential testing is very similar to a meg-ohm test with the exception that the
actual leakage current, in micro amperes, is also measured and plotted. In the case of the
high potential test (as per IEEE Std 95 Recommended Practice for Insulation Testing of
Large AC Rotating Machinery With High Direct Voltage) a voltage up to twice the rated
voltage plus 1,000 Volts multiplied by 1.732 is applied in order to stress the insulation
system. The potential harm from this test comes when the voltage is incorrectly applied or
the full potential (voltage) is applied at once. This can cause violent polarization of the
insulation system, which may damage the equipment at some small points in the system,
in a localized manner. Hence, the test is widely considered potentially destructive.
In this test, the motor frame is grounded and a DC voltage applied and increased
gradually in step increments up to the maximum recommended test voltage. At each step
up to this voltage, leakage current in microamperes in read and plotted against the
corresponding dc test voltage. The resulting plot should be a straight line.
Magnitude of leakage current and resulting slope of the line alone doesn’t give the real
information. The number of discrete steps in which the test is performed is
optional. However, taking more steps in smaller voltage increments yields better results
and minimizes the possibility of test voltage overshoot. Most of the DC high potential
test sets incorporate over current trips to protect the winding if a weakness is
detected. The most sensitive of these over current protective circuits can operate when
leakage current is as low as one micro amp.
The most important criterion is that the plot must be a straight line. Any abrupt
upswing in the slope of the plot indicates an insulation flaw and in such a case, the test
must be immediately aborted to prevent the winding from failing under test. The motor
can be returned to service, but winding reconditioning or replacement should be planned
at the earliest convenient opportunity.
The DC Hi Pot is also a test that only looks at the ground wall and is of no value for
the turn-to-turn insulation.
118 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

5.4. DC ramp test

As the name implies the test voltage is applied as a ramp – where the variation of
voltage applied will be very smooth. The principal advantage of this test over the
conventional step method is that it requires only one person to perform the test. Also it
provides the testing engineer with better control and sufficient foresight of impending
failure to avoid damage to the insulation. The elimination of the human factor in
controlling the voltage and current parameters yields overall test results that are much
more accurate and repeatable. In addition, the slow and continuous increase in applied
voltage (normally 10 – 20 volts per second) is less likely to damage insulation than the
step-method voltage increments (approx. 1 kV per second). Typical ramped-voltage test
response curves are a composite overlapping of the capacitive charging current,
absorption current and leakage currents plotted against time.
The ramped technique of insulation testing normally uses a programmable DC, high-
voltage test set and automatically ramps the high voltage at a pre-selected rate. These
curves are plotted on an x-y recorder providing continuous observation and analysis of
insulation current response as the test progresses. Hence, to evaluate insulation it is no
longer necessary to hand plot insulation current and resistance versus applied voltage.
Insulation quality can be evaluated directly from the automatically recorded insulation
current curves, because the observed insulation current non-linearities are directly
proportional to leakage current variations. Modern day test equipment is capable of
producing accurate, repeatable results. Even though a careful evaluation of such results
will be useful in assessing the insulation condition, diagnosing the impending failures in a
non-accelerating manner there are certain limitations. The deterioration mechanism will
not get further fuelled, as the sets will get shut off even before reaching dangerous levels.
A limiting factor about DC resistance to ground testing is that the DC signal will many
times not give the best evaluation of the true insulation condition. The insulation on a
motor winding is a natural dielectric material. Therefore it is a poor conductor of DC.
Even though this will avoid excessive leakage to ground it can turn out to be not so
reliable as insulation system in a degraded condition may take a bit longer to be
identified. AC however, does not allow the dielectric to charge and will pass through the
dielectric much easier. Hence an AC signal, as with an AC Hi-Pot, gives much earlier
indications of insulation degradation.

5.5. AC hipot
AC high potential tests impress a high voltage sine wave across the insulation system
by applying a voltage of twice the motor rated voltage plus 1,000 volts. Hence only a
good insulation system without any contamination or degradation can pass the test. In
case of even moisture being present in moderate quantities can damage the insulation
system.
In case of weak insulation, even if the damage is highly localized, the damage spreads
to the surroundings as the ionization process easily spreads like a wild fire. Unlike the DC
high pot test the defect point gets ionized very easily as the AC voltage has the potential
for penetration through the dielectric. Once the spark is generated, an impulse occurs
within the insulation system, which can cause other sparks to occur in the next weakest
parts of the insulation system. This generates tracking and carbon paths develop across
 Testing 119

the insulation. The fault is characterized by snapping sounds, an odor of ozone and visible
arcs. Once this occurs, direct paths to ground exist through the carbonized insulation.
Hence it can be summed up that this test is highly destructive, even as compared to a
DC Hi Pot test, as AC penetrates through the dielectric medium much easier. Low voltage
capacitance to ground tests, however, are non-destructive and are very good early
indicators of degradation modes in your insulation systems.

5.6. Capacitance Test

This is a test to assess for deterioration and moisture content within the insulation
material. It gives an indication of early failure of insulation.
These tests allow continued trend analysis of the condition of the insulation over a
number of years. The trending is mandatory because absolute values do not give a picture
about the healthiness of the equipment. These values will be read in pico farads (pF) and
have to be necessarily compared with those values of the same equipment taken earlier.
An insulation system can be represented, on a macroscopic level, as a parallel circuit
containing resistance and capacitance in each branch and can be represented as shown in
Figure 5.4. The total current drawn by the insulation under testing, the specimen, can be
considered to be having two components, capacitive and resistive. Depending on the
capacitive current the capacitance value can be determined.

Figure 5.4
Equivalent circuit of a dielectric
120 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Parameters that are computed from the measurements performed are discharging void
volume ratio (if discharges are present), effective phase of occurrence of discharges,
characterizing constants (if variations are due to stress grading) and effective area
involved in slot discharges (if slot discharges are present).
The results will be analyzed in order to assess the winding insulation with regard to
extent of de-lamination, condition of binding resin / varnish, condition of slot corona
shield, end winding surface condition etc.

5.7. Dissipation factor

Also known as Loss tangent and are popularly called as Tan delta measurements. Much
similar to the capacitance values, these are to be trended and can only be compared with a
benchmark, necessarily of the same equipment measured earlier. These measurements are
mostly employed for transformers and HT motors operating on higher voltages.

Figure 5.5
Vector components of test voltage and current

The currents drawn by the specimen shown in Figure 5.4 can be vectorially represented
as shown in Figure 5.5. The ratio between the resistive component and the total current
drawn gives the power factor. The dissipation factor of the insulation system can be
defined as the ratio of the capacitive current to the resistive component.
The typical setup for the measurement of the Tan Gҏ of an insulation system is as shown
in Figure 5.6. In this process capacitance values between the three windings - among
themselves and with respect to earth for each can be represented as shown below and
accordingly can be measured.
 Testing 121

Figure 5.6
Tan G - Test connection

Capacitance and tan delta measurements will be performed using a transformer ratio
arm bridge. Measurements will be performed at increments that will not exceed 0.2*vl.
Maximum test voltage will be vl/1.732 rms (v1 being the line voltage).
Power factor & dissipation factor are different means of expressing the same quality.
However usage of power factor is advantageous because of its range – varying between 0
and 1.0. A typical plot of power factor for a 11 kV, 8.6 MVA synchronous machine will
be as shown in Figure 5.7.
122 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 5.7
A typical plot of power factor and voltage

5.8. Partial Discharge

This is an on-line test for monitoring the healthiness of the machine in energized
condition and depends on the principle that an insulation, as it ages or due to some voids
in it, will allow leakage currents to pass through as sudden discharges.
 Testing 123

Measurement of Partial Discharge (PD) has been for long, an important aspect of
quality control of HV apparatus and insulation materials. Recent developments have
made possible usage of the PD kits for on-site diagnosis tool by the utilities
Partial discharges occur when minor defects are present in electrical insulation
systems. When partial discharges occur repetitively in solid insulation material, the
destructive energy released deteriorates the insulation material at that site. Over a period
of time, this deterioration spreads to others in its vicinity and may lead to failure of
insulation.
Premature failures of insulation systems have been attributed to the action of partial
discharges. For this reason testing for partial discharges in an insulation system has been
adopted as a quality control measure for applications where high reliability is a concern.

Figure 5.8
A typical PD measurement setup

In this test, with the set up as shown in Figure 5.8, partial discharge pulse patterns will
be monitored and recorded using a transformer ratio arm bridge with appropriate coupling
capacitors.
The partial discharge pulse patterns will be analyzed with regard to pulse count, pulse
magnitude, polarity dependence and phase to identify the nature of discharges which can
then be classified as:

x Internal Discharges
x Surface Discharges
x Slot Discharges
124 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Quantitative values are normally not available for sensing the PD activity and hence
trending can be regarded as critical. Only trending can reveal the impending danger.
Contrary to PD test in laboratories the PD diagnostic test on-site is in general
extremely disturbed by electromagnetic interference. Practically, the background noise
level substation is about 10 to 100 times higher than in HV labs, which can be
electromagnetically shielded. Aging of the HV insulation may cause a continuous
increase of the PD level and finally a breakdown failure. Usually the PD level exceeds the
basic disturbance level before the breakdown occurs. Therefore total breakdown can be
prevented if PD values are detected above basic disturbance level.
The main aim of on-site PD diagnostic tests is the identification of dangerous PD
faults. The detectable PD level of such fault mostly exceeds the basic disturbance level,
as expressed in Figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9
Stress - PD activity versus time

Detection of the main PD quantity (apparent charge) by detecting electromagnetic

fields radiated from PD sources. Wide band amplification of PD pulses and electronic
integration of them gives the end reading in terms of pico coulombs. Main sensing is
done using Capacitive & inductive sensors. Capacitive sensors will be useful for scanning
the surface of the machine whereas inductive sensors are used for sensing any discharges
across the earthing strips.
 Testing 125

5.9. Surge test

Surge comparison testing is used to detect winding faults and defective insulation in
coils, motors, transformers & generators. Using surge comparison, following types of
faults can easily be detected:
x Turn-To-Turn faults
x Coil-To-Coil faults
x Phase-To-Phase faults

Some examples of faults that can be typically detected are:

 Short Circuits
 Open Circuits
 Grounding
 Misconnections
 Wrong turns count

Insulation is tested by applying a series of brief, high voltage pulses to a pair of

windings. If the two windings are identical, their patterns will get superimposed and
match perfectly. Hence only a single, stable waveform can be observed. Otherwise the
pattern will be unstable, as the insulation breaks down. If a double line appears there must
be a fault in the winding. If the pattern is unstable and flickering, the insulation is at the
verge of its breakdown.
A typical surge comparison tester derives very brief (approximately lasting a
microsecond) surges using capacitor discharge. These are impressed upon the pair of
windings. These surges stress the whole of the winding system - turn, coil, phase
insulation as well as the main (or ground) insulation - because the current is applied as a
series of pulses and they traverse through the winding coil by coil. If the insulation on
some of the turns is weak, the voltage will break through the insulation as their dielectric
strength will be less as compared to the surge voltage applied.
This causes short circuit across a set of coils and the surge takes the shorter path and
hence the overall pattern differs from that of a healthy one. This in turn results in arcing
across the short. Such an arcing will not have a side effect at lower voltages. However, at
higher voltage and currents such a direct short may cause a carbon track through the
insulation. This will damage the insulation further.
Figure 5.10, 5.11 and 5.12 demonstrate the surge pattern for various types of faults that
are likely to occur in the windings of a motor.
Figure 5.10 shows healthy windings vis-à-vis windings with shorting across turns or
coils. The deviation between the two waveforms will be very little.
Figure 5.11 shows the waveforms that can be seen in the event of an open coil
connection or complete grounding detection in a Surge comparison test. In case of
grounding, the deadening of the waveform can be seen.
Figure 5.12 shows the waveforms that can be seen in case of Group-to-group / phase-
to-phase shorts detection in a Surge comparison test where the deviations in the
waveforms are high.
126 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 5.10
Turn-to-turn short & coil-to-coil short detection in a Surge comparison test
 Testing 127

Figure 5.11
An open coil connection / complete grounding detection in a Surge comparison test
128 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 5.12
Group-to-group / phase-to-phase shorts detection in a Surge comparison test
 Testing 129

Hence the surge test is always started with minimum possible values and is gradually
increased. Once the pattern begins to flicker or separate, voltage is to be immediately
reduced as the dielectric limit of the insulation is already reached.

Test Voltage, V = (2E + 1000) X 1.4

where, E is Working voltage.

Due care must be taken before using these testers as the test is considered to be
potentially destructive because of the following reasons:
Moisture and other contaminants ionize quickly and at a different rate than air and far
faster than the insulation system. When testing a winding that is in service, when
contaminants exist, tracking can occur across the points of the insulation where
contaminants exist.
Surge testers can be used for evaluating pass / fail for impulses, but not for detecting
the actual condition of the insulation system (ie: dry/brittle insulation, age, etc.). While
AC high potential and surge testing have been effective, in the past, for motor
manufacturers and motor repair centers, they remain a potentially dangerous method for
evaluating the insulation system of motors in the field. This is because the motor systems
that have been in use have aged insulation and winding contamination. Mixed with the
required testing conditions (clean and dry environment at the winding), makes these tools
highly risky for field testing.

5.10. Mechanical testing

These tests give direct information about the capability of the motor’s capability to
deliver the load requirements. The necessary load can be simulated using various types of
brakes.
In the No-Load Test of a motor, various parameters like Voltage, Current, Power,
Power Factor, Speed (RPM) & Direction are checked. It is performed by unloading the
shaft of the motor as much as possible or by applying it as close to zero torque as
possible. A regulated AC voltage is applied to the motor leads and motor voltage, current,
wattage and direction are monitored. A low voltage start test can be done prior to these
no-load tests.
Three types of no-load tests can be provided: disconnected, inferred no-load and
measured no-load. In the first type, the motor shaft is disconnected from any load. This is
the most accurate no-load test. In case of Inferred no-load test, the dynamometer or
absorber is essentially "turned off" so that no braking torque is produced. With this
method, zero torque is inferred (not completely achieved) as there will always be some
drag torque on the shaft, even if the instruments read zero. In case of measured no-load,
an in-line torque transducer is used to measure the torque at the motor shaft. Then the
dynamometer is controlled to run in such a way as to create zero torque, as measured by
the torque transducer.
130 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

In case of Load Point Test Voltage, Current, Electrical Power, Power Factor Speed
(RPM), Direction, Torque, Mechanical Power and Efficiency are measured and
calculated.
As many different load steps as needed can be programmed for a given motor-under-
test, or a continuous speed vs. torque curve can be generated.
To measure a specific Load Point, the dynamometer is set to control in either speed
mode or torque mode, depending on customer preference. If the dynamometer is
controlling speed (speed mode testing), then a speed is established by the dynamometer
and torque is produced based on the capabilities of the motor. If the dynamometer is
controlling torque (torque mode testing), then a load is established by the dynamometer
and speed is produced based on the capabilities of the motor. In either case, once the
desired point is established, the tester can measure speed, torque, voltage and current
(amps) depending on how the individual tester is configured.
The most commonly used single load point is the full load point. This means that the
speed selected is the motor’s rated speed (if speed mode testing is used) or the load
selected is the motor’s rated torque (if torque mode testing is used).
In case of Locked Rotor Test Voltage, Current, Electrical Power & Power Factor are
measured.
Another common load point is known as “Locked Rotor” or “Stalled Torque”. A full
current is applied to a Hysteresis Brake, Dynamometer, or by simply clamping or
“locking” the motor shaft and energizing the motor. More torque is produced by the
Dynamometer / Brake than the motor can produce. In this state the shaft cannot turn,
simulating the rotor being “locked” or “blocked”.
This test is very hard on a motor. There is a large amount of current that flows into the
rotor, causing it to heat up rapidly. As a result, this test must be performed very quickly.
A motor, with a locked rotor, draws up to six or seven times its rated current (sometimes
more). The power supply used must be capable of regulating the motor voltage
adequately during rapid changes in current to ensure the proper voltage is maintained
when the data is being taken. Locked rotor torque testing is important. If the motor cannot
produce enough torque to overcome the friction in the load, as it sits without rotating, the
motor can be energized but it will not start the load. If the motor remains in this state for
very long it will overheat and fail.

Eddy current brakes are available in a wide range of torques and configurations, from
fractional to hundreds of horsepower, air and water cooled. They provide smooth and
controllable loads and operate without any physical contact of interactive members. They
produce no torque at zero speed. This makes them ideal for applications where low speed
control is not required. Note that locked rotor testing can still be accomplished using a
conventional friction brake.
Hysteresis brakes are for small fractional sizes. They operate without any physical
contact being made to the interactive members and they provide smooth and controllable
loads. This results in virtually no wear on the components, with the exception of the shaft
bearing. They are ideal for motor testing from zero speed (locked rotor) all the way up to
full speed. Hysteresis brakes often exhibit a minimum torque, so care must be taken to
assure that the minimum torque is acceptable.
 Testing 131

AC vector drives can be used as brakes and they produce full torque at zero speed so
they can be used for locked rotor testing. They have a very fast response (often needed for
switch cutout testing) and, in some cases, sophisticated electronics that can determine
shaft torque without the use of an additional instrument. Because the drive can act as a
motor, it can help accelerate smaller motors being tested on systems that can
accommodate much larger motors.

5.11. Online Testing

On line testing of motors is an important tool in the condition monitoring aspect of
motor maintenance. This includes various types of parameter monitoring from the
simplest temperature monitoring to the most modern, highly sophisticated motor current
signature analysis.
Temperature measurement of various parts of the motor like terminal box, end shields,
bearing cups etc. is very simple and gives a close monitoring of the condition of motor.
Though it may not give any diagnostic support, sudden equipment failures can be
avoided. For further assistance, thermography or infrared analysis can be employed. This
will be very much useful for detecting any loose connections and possible electrical
faults. Close understanding about the operating conditions will be very much useful, even
in identifying a fault.
Voltage and current measurements will provide limited information on the condition of
the motor system.
Vibration Analysis gives fairly a good picture about the imminent problems, if any.
Again this also goes by trending. Motor can be taken for overhauling based on vibration
analysis. Even though a single set of reading may not give a final verdict, trending will
positively point out the possible failure. Also on many occasions this data can be used for
fixing the root cause even. Mechanical vibration is measured through a transducer
providing overall vibration values and FFT (Fast Fourier transform) analysis is carried
out. FFT transforms the vibration waveform in time domain into a vibration pattern in
frequency domain and will serve the purpose of identifying the source of vibration, if
appreciable. These values provide indicators of mechanical faults and degree of faults,
can be trended and will provide information on some electrical and rotor problems that
vary based upon the loading of the motor. This requires a working knowledge of the
system being tested. It can detect bearing wear well in advance of a fault.
Motor Current Signature Analysis uses the electric motor as a transducer to detect
electrical and mechanical faults through a significant portion of the motor system.
Sensitive to load variations and readings will vary based upon the load. Requires
nameplate information and many systems require the number of rotor bars, stator slots
and manual input of operating speed, which may not be available readily.
Electrical Signature Analysis (ESA) also uses the electric motor as a transducer to
detect electrical and mechanical faults. However, with the ability to perform FFT
analysis on both current and voltage, ESA allows the operator to look both upstream and
downstream of the point of test. Considered very trendable, ESA can detect winding and
mechanical faults, through a larger part of the system, much earlier than MCSA.
132 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Electrical signature analysis is the procedure of acquiring the motor current & voltage
signals, performing signal conditioning and analyzing the derived signals to identify the
various faults. The three phase signals are collected either directly (for a LT motor) or
through a CT (for a HT motor). Thus, motors can be tested from the control panel,
enabling easy testing of remote, inaccessible or hazardous area motors. A FFT (Fast
Fourier Transform) analyzer is required for converting the signals from the time domain
to the frequency domain. Motor current acts as an excellent transducer for detecting faults
in the motor. Spectrum analysis of the motor’s current & voltage signals can hence detect
various faults without disturbing its operation. Typical faults that can be detected are:
Rotor bar damage, Misalignment / unbalance, Foundation looseness, Static eccentricity,
Dynamic eccentricity, Core damage, Loose wedges, Inter-turn shorts, Defective bearings
etc.
The full capability of each technology looks at only a portion of the electric motor
system. Therefore, the best approach is a combination of technologies. In addition, each
technology, when properly applied will give the ability to compare test results. With this
a more accurate program can be made by mentioning the frequency of testing, based on
the importance of the equipment.
 6

Bearing Failure Analysis

Motors have been an integral part of industry and these wonderful pieces of machinery
are being improved upon on a continual basis. Modern design and manufacturing
technologies have introduced significant improvement in efficiency and energy savings.
However, the maintenance practices have not improved much due to various reasons.
Many of the industries still employ the age-old practices. Electric motor manufacturers
also differ in their recommended methods of bearings maintenance. For example, while
some of them recommend that the motor should be shut down for greasing, others allow
lubrication when the motor is running. Bearing failure, therefore, has become the most
common mechanical failure in AC induction motors.

6.1. The Bearing

To gain an understanding about the intricacies of studying a bearing failure analysis,
one has to have a clear idea about the terms connected with a bearing and the Figure 6.1
elucidates this.
134 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 6.1
Terminology connected with a typical Bearing

In order to carry out a bearing failure analysis, there is a need to understand the basic
types of bearings, especially with regard to their susceptibility to get exposed to the
external environments, along with their advantages and disadvantages. Normally,
depending on the manufacturer, motor enclosures may vary from open to totally enclosed
and bearings from open to sealed.

Open Bearing: A single row, deep groove ball bearing is sometimes called a Conrad
bearing and is listed by AFBMA (Anti-Friction Bearing Manufacturers Association) as
Type BC (single row radial contact without filling slot).
The Conrad open bearing, as shown in Figure 6.2, is assembled by eccentrically
offsetting the thinner and outer races to allow the insertion of balls. This type of bearing,
therefore, has uninterrupted raceways (no filling slot) which permit excellent bearing
performance under light to moderate radial loads, relatively moderate thrust loads and
combined radial and thrust loads.
 Bearing Failure Analysis 135

Figure 6.2
A typical Open Bearing

This bearing is also somewhat self-aligning and typically allows for a minor
misalignment without affecting the bearing operation and life. It can take unrestricted re-
greasing, as it is not susceptible to over-greasing. The friction is minimum, thereby
allowing a cooler bearing operation. However due care must be taken against
contamination and restricting the migration of the grease out of the bearing cavity.

Sealed Bearing: This is a variation of the standard deep groove, Conrad bearing and
the construction of the raceway, cage and ball assembly is the same except for the
incorporation of mechanical non-metallic seals between the inner and outer rings. Hence,
a "sealed" bearing, as shown in Figure 6.3, cannot be re-lubricated.

Figure 6.3
A typical Sealed Bearing
136 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

This makes the bearing maintenance-free and entry of the contaminants is restricted to
a great extent. The only maintenance that can be carried out on these bearings is the
replacement. The bearing life is limited by the amount of lubrication packed between the
seals of the bearing and the lubricant life. Sealed bearings cannot be used for larger sizes
due to the excessive heating.

Shielded Bearing: This is very much similar to the sealed-type bearing except that the
shielded bearing has a metallic rather than a non-metallic shield. The metal member is
secured to the outer race with a close running clearance to the inner race. A shielded
bearing can be re-lubricated but with due care. A shielded bearing may be shielded on
one side or both sides, as shown in Figure 6.4, and retains the lubricant at the rolling
elements regardless of the chamber fill.

Figure 6.4
A typical Shielded Bearing

The shield restricts contamination from getting into the rolling elements at installation
and during operation. However, excessive pressure with no relief provided can force the
shield against the cage or balls, thereby losing re-greasability and can cause immediate
failure.

6.2. Failure Analysis

Only a well experienced engineer can appreciate the fact that the cause for a failure
may not be normally exhibited as the failure that is seen externally. In order to fix the
problem permanently by attacking the root cause, a lot of analysis needs to be carried out.
At times, the methodology to be adopted for carrying out such an analysis may be beyond
the comprehension of a maintenance man. However, an accurate analysis of a bearing
failure is an integral part of a good maintenance practice, which helps in avoiding
 Bearing Failure Analysis 137

repeated failures and the resulting additional expenses. Hence expert services are
normally hired.
Even if the failure analysis is left to an expert, the actual collection of information by
the user can contribute a lot in correctly diagnosing a bearing failure. A premature
bearing failure is usually symptomatic of other problems that, if left untreated, will cause
the same kind of failure to occur again. Hence it is necessary to send the failed bearing to
an expert for analysis and diagnosis of the problem. Such an analysis helps maintenance
departments in determining the root cause of a bearing failure and pinpoint action that can
be taken to prevent future failures. For example, a bearing subjected to abnormal
operating conditions may only apparently exhibit signs of lubrication failure. The
lubricant may have failed all right, but poor lubrication delivery, maintenance methods,
or the wrong lubrication type may have been the root cause of the failure.
To understand why additional analysis in this case is necessary, one must realize that
an abnormal operating condition often produces excessive heat within a bearing. Heat
buildup lowers the viscosity of the lubricant, reducing the thickness of the fluid film that
separates bearing surfaces. The result is metal-to-metal contact and bearing failure. The
surface damage and increased friction that results from metal-to-metal contact further
increases the bearing's operating temperature, reducing the lubricant's viscosity and fluid-
film thickness even more. Under such conditions, continued operation seriously
jeopardizes the bearing and results in bearing failure. An immature analysis may end up
by diagnosing the problem as a lubrication problem. When a bearing fails, there is a
certain sequence of events that occurs. A trained analyst examining a failed bearing can
read those events.
The process of getting to the root cause of a bearing failure is not very straightforward.
It often is difficult to determine the mode or modes of failure from a severely damaged
bearing. The following facts should be borne in the minds by plant maintenance
personnel and steps must be integrated into the system of monitoring the machinery
accordingly:
x Complete information about the bearing, its application and its history are
definitely of great help in fixing the root cause of failure.
x A history of the bearing in the form of condition-monitoring data is valuable
and speeds up the analysis. When an analyst determines the cause of failure,
the maintenance department is in a better position to implement changes to
increase the life of the replaced bearing.
x Correct interpretation of condition-monitoring data that makes the analyst's
search for a cause of bearing failure easier can also be used to prevent failures
before they occur. For example, trending of the vibration data may reveal an
increasing pattern. Accordingly the monitoring may be beefed up and the
frequency of taking the readings may be increased as long as they are within
limits.
Condition monitoring data can also signal that a bearing should be removed from
service before a failure that may result in damage, occurs.
138 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

6.3. Bearing Failures

6.3.1. Types of Failure
A bearing is designed to withstand and operate reliably for a particular load. A
designer takes care of applying good margin of safety in selecting the motor bearings.
Still bearings fail in operation. Bearing fatigue life calculations are commonly referred to
as L-10 life (previously B-10) and are based on statistical evaluations. These calculations,
normally resulting in thousands of hours of bearing life, give a good indication if a
specific bearing can handle a specific load. But they cannot and should not be used to
predict bearing life. This is because of the fact that the L-10 life is arrived at considering
ideal operating and maintenance condition and is normally a far reach even for the
bearings with good lubrication practice.
Bearing failures can be categorized as follows:
x General wearout due to ageing of the bearing or Abnormal wear out due to
the improper design / application of the bearing. General wear out of the
bearings can be expected after a reasonable period of operation only.
x Flaking or spalling. This is a sign of normal fatigue. Overloading, however,
can cause premature fatigue that is an indication of bearing overloading and
finally result in cracking of the bearings even. The process of flaking can be
seen in multiple stages as shown in Figure 6.5, wherein the first phase results
in slight roughness of the bearing and the SPM (Shock Pulse Meter) values
will not be really appreciable. As the flaking process progresses the bearing
vibration levels will keep raising.

Figure 6.5
Flaking phenomenon in Bearings

x Cage damage due to excessive loading or improper engineering of the system.

Non-suitability of the bearing for the particular application can also be a
reason.
x Corrosion. Corrosion of the internals of the bearing may be due to changing
environment or improper selection of the material of the bearing with respect
to the environment in which it is supposed to operate.
 Bearing Failure Analysis 139

x Fluting. Various possibilities due to the bearing currents flowing through the
bearings are the cause o fluting and are dealt with in the last section of
Chapter 4.
x Indentations. Indentations on the races are due to standstill bearings damaging
them permanently.
x Surface distress.This is a clear indication of improper lubrication. In spite of
the best machining efforts, asperities – peaks and troughs at the microscopic
level – will remain on the surface of any material. Naturally, this is applicable
to bearings races as well. Lubricant loaded in the bearing serves the purpose
of covering them at the sub-microscopic level. It acts as a gliding medium
avoiding the surface asperities from into contact with each other, even
momentarily. If for any reason, the lubricant film between raceways and
rolling elements becomes too thin, this functionality gets affected. Small
cracks then form in the surfaces and are known as surface distress. Slowly
these microscopic cracks, on the surface only, will increase in their size very
gradually and can surface out as roughness of the bearings. Smearing of the
material can be seen in the next stage. This slowly transforms into sub-surface
cracking of the material leading to a possible seizure.

6.3.2. Causes & Preventive Measures

x Over loading of the bearings can be noticed as a rubbing pattern on the races
of the bearing. The load can be radial or axial. It needs to be appreciated that
an excessive load on the bearing reflects as a rubbing between the roller
elements and the races. It appears like a sort of erosion of the finishing coat.
This can be seen as a dull appearance of the surface. In case of a radial,
inward load in a particular direction the inner ring exhibits a rubbing pattern
for less than half of the circumference of the inner ring. The outer ring
experiences a uniform rubbing pattern throughout its internal circumference.
If such a load is outward, the internal ring exhibits a rubbing pattern on the
outer circumference throughout its surface. In case of axial excessive loads,
there will be uniform rubbing patterns on both the raceways and in a laterally
displaced position. The overloading can be a combination of both the axial
and radial loads, the rubbing patterns will appear throughout the
circumference of both the rings and the width will be widest in the direction
of the radial loading.
x Imbalance will also result in uniform rubbing patterns on both the raceways
and the details of preventive measures that can be taken are covered in a later
section.
x Improper lubrication can be seen as a surface distress during the initial phases.
Any further delay will result in cracking of the
x Mishandling can happen in transporting the bearing separately or in an
assembled condition or even in long storage. Normally this reflects as a false
brinelling as a result of subjecting a non-rotating bearing to external vibration.
This can be seen as an impression of the standstill roller elements made on the
raceways. To avoid this kind of problem the motors’ shafts have to be
immobilized by blocking the rotors to prevent radial or axial movement. A
140 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

standby drive in a plant should not be allowed to remain idle for long. A
bearing should never be dropped.
x Ineffective sealing can result in the contamination of the lubricant thereby
resulting in the damage of the raceways.
x Improper fitment that is too tight with resultant insufficient internal bearing
clearance will result in a rubbing pattern around the circumference of the
raceway, positioned in the center. The pattern will be very wide in the
direction of the radial load.

If the root cause analysis is carried out properly, the cause of bearing failures can be
broadly attributed to one of the following four types in order of incidence rate from very
high to low:
x Poor lubrication practices coupled with errors in specifying bearings: The
topic is covered in the following parts of the manual.
x Fatigue: Overloading, unbalance, misalignment etc. cause unintended loads
on the bearing that can pull down the service life of bearings.
x Poor installation: Usage of improper tools, fitment techniques and lack of
training play havoc in reducing the life of bearings.
x Contamination: Appropriate sealing methods not being in place particularly in
challenging operating environments damage the bearings in no specified time.

6.3.3. Diagnostics
Normally maintenance menu includes temperature monitoring of the bearings. These
values while providing insight into potential bearing problems, does not really reveal the
actual condition of bearing components as accurately as vibration monitoring and
lubricant analysis. An elevated bearing temperature affects the lubricant's viscosity and
can lead to failure. Therefore, maintenance professionals should attempt to find out why a
bearing is overheating and try to correct the situation.
There are many predictive technologies with varying levels of sophistication that can
spot the degeneration of a bearing before it fails. Some common ones are outlined below.

x SPM
x Vibration analysis
x FFT analyzers
x Electrical Signature analysis

SPM, acronym of Shock Pulse Meter, is widely used for measuring the roughness in a
bearing. It directly indicates the healthiness of a bearing. Based on the reading of SPM it
can be decided whether a bearing can continue in operation or not. Usually trending will
not be taken with this instrument. It is more of a “Continue” or “Stop” sort-of-decision
only. In case of any intermediate reading, vibration analysis will be taken up.
 Bearing Failure Analysis 141

Vibration analysis can best utilized for trending the developments. It is used for pin
pointing the problem in a system as it can detect the source of problem. Vibration
analysis is used to analyze the condition of various components, including rolling-
element bearings. By analyzing vibration signatures produced by bearing components, a
vibration analyst can pinpoint bearing damage caused during operation. Any unusual
pattern generated at one of these suspected frequencies is cause for immediate concern.

FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) analyzers, are handheld data loggers etc that can
store the data of the analysis carried out. They can later be downloaded to a computer for
further analysis using specific software. These features facilitate the detection, analysis,
and correction of machine problems. A frequency analysis feature can overlay bearing
defect frequencies on collected spectra to facilitate the detection and identification of
machine and component problems.

Electrical Signature Analysis (ESA) is a method of evaluating the motor system as a

whole and includes investigating the problems in power supply, controls employed,
motors, coupling, load and process. It uses various methods like Motor Current Signature
Analysis, Voltage Signature Analysis, Inrush Analysis and Power Analysis. These
methods if properly employed and analysed, can immediately identify a fault and even its
magnitude. This method detects and evaluates broken rotor bars, static eccentricity and
dynamic eccentricity very effectively.
The various electrical signature analysis methods mentioned here are being
successfully applied in applications using any type of motors, Variable Frequency Drives
(VFDs), Alternators / Generators, Transformers, Traction equipment and the like.
Handheld computers support operator-based maintenance. Online systems can
constantly monitor bearings and other components. Powerful analysis software can
manage, manipulate, and analyze machine condition data.

6.3.4. Bearing Misapplications

Ball bearings can handle lesser radial load as compared to their axial capability. Hence
they are normally used in the applications like the drive end position of a pump or fan. If
such a motor is used for driving a belt driven equipment running off of a shaft mounted
pulley, which calls for heavy radial load delivering capability, the bearing is bound to
fail. In the same way, roller bearings, which are designed to run with at least some radial
load, can develop noise & overheating if they are utilized for strictly axial loads and may
fail prematurely.

6.3.5. Precautions during motor repair

New bearings must not be left on the repair bench for long before being mounting them
on the motor. This is because the bearing can accumulate contaminants (flying dust /
metallic particles, moisture, chemicals etc). it should always be remembered that a
bearing is intended for usage / storage / handling in a sealed environment. The longer a
bearing is exposed to environment, the more it is likely to fail.
142 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

While mounting a bearing due care must be taken to handle it with its inner cage. It
means pulling a bearing onto a shaft by the outer race subjects it to tremendous stresses,
which it is not designed to take and hence may fail prematurely. Also the manufacturer’s
instructions must be clearly adhered to. Bearing heating must be taken as a serious issue
and should be handled in a controlled manner. Due care must be taken, especially while
heating with induction heaters, as a thermal differential between the inner race and outer
race of the bearing results in reduced internal clearances. This may take dangerous
proportions if proper care is not taken.
Due care must be taken regarding the fitment of the bearing with the specified
tolerances clearly taken into consideration. The allowed interference between the bearing
outer race and the bearing housing and the bearing inner race and the shaft must be
strictly followed. A fit too tight can cause the bearings to deform resulting in undue
stresses. Too loose a fitting may result in the spinning of the bearing races with respect to
their mating surface, either the shaft or the bearing housing.
Each of the abnormal conditions discussed in this article can lead to premature or
catastrophic bearing failure. When two or more such conditions exist at the same time,
the bearing will only fail sooner.

6.4. Grease and Greasing

Even though the real causes of premature bearing failures can be many, this particular
aspect, greasing, contributes to the majority of the failures. Surprisingly any bearing
failure due to some other cause will also give indications of lubrications failure. This
is because any bearing problem will result in its overheating. Even a rotor bar failure
or any other such failure will also result in overheating of the shaft including the
bearing. This heat results in pouring down of the greasing. Bearings will run dry and
fail giving an indication of insufficient grease in the bearings. A novice analyst may
sum up the failure as observed physically. Hence due care must be taken in analyzing
and diagnosing the faults.

6.4.1. Gravity of lubrication problem in electric motors

Shafts of electric motors present a very simple duty for the bearings. By normal
standards, the rotor weight is disproportionately very low with respect to its shaft
diameter. Hence the bearings are large for the shaft weight as they are selected based on
the shaft diameter. Going by the statistical analysis, the failure of bearings due to fatigue
can never be expected in the plant’s lifetime. However, in practice, it is a far cry and
motor bearing life is considered to be the least among the components of the motor. Most
bearing failures are not the result of bearing fatigue but of improper lubrication. It can be
implied that as long as the lubrication remains satisfactory, there is no possibility of
bearing failure. Once the lubrication film becomes thin due to insufficient grease or high
temperatures, surface distress starts and finally results in the failure of bearing. The
temperatures may rise because of insufficient or even over-greasing. So the maintenance
aspect of the bearings needs to be reviewed seriously from every quarter especially with
regard to the greasing philosophy.
 Bearing Failure Analysis 143

6.4.2. Re-lubrication: the need and philosophy

It can be appreciated that proper bearing protection has a greater effect on motor life.
This can be of much more value as compared to even specifying and equipping for
electric motors. Keeping bearings lubricated with the right amount of clean,
uncontaminated, high-quality lubricant allows bearings in most industrial motors to
outlast all other motor components. So a proper, timely step of maintenance professionals
can forestall motor hearing failures altogether. So whether we like it or not, re-greasing of
motors has to be taken as a responsible duty. At the time of re-grease it must be ensured
that the grease being injected is clean and fresh. Next, it must be ensured that the grease
entry is also free of any non-grease material and the new grease is compatible with the
existing grease.
Re-greasing intervals shall be fixed with due care and then must be adhered to.
Generally, two-pole motors should be greased twice a year, four-pole and slower motors
only once a year. It must be appreciated that re-lubrication frequency depends on
environmental conditions. Under extreme conditions such as heavy shock, vibration, or
dust, re-lubrication every one to three months is not uncommon. It is always better that
reference to the manufacturer’s recommendation about the re-greasing quantity &
frequency be made and followed meticulously. But nobody, including the motor
manufacturer, knows the application and lubrication needs better than the people that
work with the equipment every day. Another tip is to re-grease the motor while it’s still
warm. This will allow the existing dirty grease to flow freely and it will provide better re-
lubrication. Also, remember to unplug grease drains (if provided) during re-greasing.
Another point of concern about bearing life is over lubrication. From ages, it is
continuing to plague many motor bearings. Too much grease can cause overheating of the
bearings. The physical characteristics of the grease you use are critical. For example,
some motors require conductive grease, which prevents the charging of the rotor
capacitance. The arcing associated with the discharge of this rotor charge causes
degradation of the rolling bearing contact surfaces.
Other motors may require high-temperature grease, which will not decompose when
subjected to the heat produced by the motor. The temperature rise of the motor (together
with the motor cooling system design) will determine how hot the bearing lubricant can
get. If the grease does get too hot, it will separate within the bearing enclosure. Then, oil
will rise to the top of the bearing enclosure and residuum will slump to the bottom. The
resulting loss of lubricating qualities will lead to additional heating, coking, and eventual
bearing failure.
The service life of most motors is dependent on a little bit of good grease at the right
times.

6.4.3. Contamination: the problem and preventive measures

Because of contaminated lubrication, bearings fail well before they serve their
theoretical fatigue life. There are many reasons for less than-ideal bearing lubrication.
Lubricants can leak out; chemical attacks or thermal conditions can decompose or break
down lubricants; lubricants can become contaminated with non-lubricants such as water,
dust, or rust from the bearings themselves. Motor bearings can last virtually forever by
simply providing an ideal contamination-free, well-lubricated bearing environment.
144 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Conventional wisdom teaches that such an ideal motor bearing environment can be
provided by using a dry-running lip seal or using sealed (lubricated-for-life) bearings.
Indeed, for many light-duty applications, such bearing protection techniques are often
sufficient to allow bearings to last as long as the equipment itself. However, these bearing
protection methods have not significantly reduced the rate of bearing failure in severe-
duty industrial motors.
Even then there are instances of bearings failing because of inadequate lubrication
caused by lubricant loss even in sealed bearings. Lip seals invariably wear out well before
the bearing fails, and sealed bearings inherently foreshorten the life of a bearing to the
service life of the contained grease (usually only about 3,000 to 5,000 hours for most
industrial services).
Contamination due to dirt and other foreign matter also should cause concern. Dirt and
other hard particles such as metal and chips from abrasive wheels can get into the bearing
raceways and be squeezed between the balls and raceway. This will cause roughness of
the race and ball and will eventually cause failure. If the particles are a consistency of a
very fine dust, they will act like a lapping compound and cause accelerated wear of the
races and ball.

6.4.4. Quantity to be greased

In many cases it can be just as damaging as undergreasing. Heat is the biggest enemy a
bearing has, and it causes the bearings to run at higher temperatures. When you combine
it with other factors such as high bearing loading, you get excessive bearing heating and
premature failure. The other concern of it is that if the bearing is the shielded type,
excessive pressure with no relief provided can force the shield against the cage or balls,
thereby, eliminating re-greasability or causing an immediate failure. It is very difficult to
decide the quantity of grease to be put as the requirement varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer and from design to design. The best advice is to consult the manufacturers
instruction manual.
One golden rule of thumb that is worth remembering always: It is better to use a little
grease more often than a lot of grease less often.

6.4.5. Quality of Grease

The most commonly used bearing grease is polyurea-based, a low-cost, low-
performance, highly compatible lubricant. However, it does not handle water well, a
serious drawback for many industrial applications. It reacts readily with water and loses
its ability to lubricate bearings.
It is ideal to lubricate industrial motor bearings with synthetic aluminum complex
based grease.
High quality grease pays for its additional cost by way of reduced motor downtime and
repair costs.
 Bearing Failure Analysis 145

6.4.6. Greasing Philosophy

Greasing rolling element bearings in motors has been an industry problem for years.
Electric motor manufacturers differ in their recommended methods of greasing bearings.
While some of them recommend that the motor should be shut down for greasing, others
allow lubrication when the motor is running.
Our suggestion is to grease your electric motor bearings while running at stable,
normal operation temperature. This makes the grease less viscous. Greasing your
bearings while running also allows grease to distribute more evenly and helps purge old
grease.
Be sure to remove any hardened grease from the drain plug and apply grease to a clean
grease fitting. Follow the OEM's recommendations for grease quantity and re-greasing
frequency or use ultrasonics for condition-based greasing.
A little bit of common sense, a little bit of grease, and a good lubrication schedule will
keep the industrial motors of today running a long, long time.

6.4.7. Practical Steps of Greasing

The type of grease placed into the bearing and its enclosure must be of the same type
and temperature rating as recommended by the manufacturer for the specific motor in
question. In mill and chemical duty motor applications, the grease may vary, depending
upon the chemical environment in which the motor operates.
While replacing the grease care must taken not to exert enough pressure to force grease
past the grease seal into the motor. The amount of hydraulic force a common grease gun
can create is surprisingly large and can be much more than needed to blow out most
bearing isolator seals. This is because these seals are normally just tapped into place with
an interference fit. Also the grease may enter the bell housing of the motor, get slung
around the interior during motor operation, and prevent normal air circulation and cooling
of the windings. The loose grease would then choke into a carbonized solid, which would
catch particles that could cause short circuits within the motor windings.

A specific procedure must be followed that removes the old grease while charging the
bearing enclosure with new grease. The grease fitting and plug must not be over tightened
because they're tapered and they can act as a wedge, causing the enclosure to crack.
By adopting the most appropriate methodology with adapted frequency and suitable
quantity the rolling elements can be maintained clean and well lubricated. By thinking
ahead and taking bearing maintenance seriously the average bearing life can be extended.

6.4.8. Bearing Isolators

Unless the motor is being hosed down or it operates in a humid environment,
reasonably shielded motor bearings may not become seriously contaminated with
moisture while the motor is running. However, when the rotor is shut down, moisture and
condensation can collect on the surface of the bearing components. Eventually, this water
breaks through the oil and grease barrier, contacts the metal parts of the bearing, and
produces tiny particles of iron oxide. These rust particles make an excellent grinding
146 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

compound when mixed with the grease, resulting in premature failure of the bearing
because of surface degradation.
Vapor-blocking bearing isolators are among the more successful devices presently
available to prevent water vapor from entering a stationary bearing. When the motor shaft
is rotating, the isolator opens, eliminating the possibility of friction and wear. However,
when the shaft is stationary, the isolator closes, preventing movement of air or water
across its face. With no wear from rotating friction, the seal may last indefinitely, and
surely as long as the fatigue-failure life of the bearing.
Lip seals, contact seals, and frequent grease replacement help minimize the amount of
dirt and other air-borne abrasives that can contaminate bearing lubricant. These solutions,
however, have some drawbacks. Lip seals have a short service life, and frequent grease
displacement is expensive and messy.
Preventing water contamination is a major challenge to bearing housing design. Close
shaft-to-end bell clearances cannot stop the movement of humid air. Contact seals will
quit contacting, resulting in large gaps that allow movement of air and water vapor across
the bearing. One successful approach to keeping air-borne dirt and liquids out of an
operating bearing is to install a labyrinth-type non-contact seal over the bearing housing.
These bearing isolators, readily available from suppliers, combine a tortuous labyrinth
path with impingement and centrifugal forces to trap and remove air-borne dirt and
liquid; virtually no contamination can reach the bearing. Because the bearing isolator is a
non-contact device, it will generally be the longest-lasting component of the motor.
Typical bearing isolators are mechanical devices that permanently isolate the bearing
from its operating environment - keeping humidity and moisture from entering the
bearing enclosure during stop and start cycles. Basically, these isolators contain grease
lubricant within the bearing enclosure while keeping external contaminants such as sand
out. But for the bearing lubrication system to work properly, the bearing enclosure must
remain intact.
The unique technology has been developed over a number of years to provide total
bearing protection by ensuring zero leakage of lubricant to atmosphere and total
exclusion of contaminants from the bearing housing. Lip seals are primarily designed to
keep lubricants in, and are not always effective at keeping contaminants out. Surveys
have shown that even a tiny amount of water or dirt in the lubricant can drastically reduce
bearing operating life.

6. . e e ri e
The belt drive mechanism is the simplest form of transferring the power from motor
shaft to the driven equipment’s shaft. A belt drive is essentially a method of transferring
rotary motion between two parallel shafts. The belts transferring torque by surface
friction need to be in tension. This results in the need for adjustable shaft centers or using
tensioning pulleys.
Following are the basic varieties of belts that are used for realizing such torque
transfer:
 Bearing Failure Analysis 147

x Flat belts are usually made of rubber with cord reinforcement. They transfer
torque by friction of the belt over a pulley. The belt can be made from other
materials like leather, woven cotton etc. These are susceptible to slip and
hence need tensioners. These are suitable for high speed applications.
x belts ee belts usually comprise a set of tensile members with a wear
resistant outer cover. They are set into pulley grooves and rely on the wedging
action. The materials employed like polyurethane, hi-text woven textiles make
them smooth and reliable. They have better torque transferring capability.
They are more compact than a flat belt.
x edge belts poly ee belts are an improvement over V-belts and are vee
grooved along the inner surface. Hence it combines the high traction
capability of vee-belt into a single belt. These are narrower and lighter than
V-belts resulting in reduced centrifugal separating force. Hence the belt-
pulley contact pressure will be much better. Accordingly the frictional torques
are not so deleterious in this kind of belts. A different form would be with
cogging (inside material cut in the form of teeth). This ensures that the
bending stresses, especially while passing over the pulley curvature that can
be dangerous, on the belt are minimized.

Figure 6.5
arious types of elts

Synchronous or Timing belt provides positive coupling between the belt and the pulley
as the teeth provided along the inside surface serve the purpose like a geared coupling.
The mating between the teeth and the pulley is always ensured, unless there is a major
slackness, thereby allowing no slip.
For reliable operation of a belt drive, for that sake any equipment, it must be designed
properly with due consideration for the loading pattern, possible service factors of the
driving motors, starting conditions, operating conditions, environmental conditions & the
tolerance levels of the pulleys.
148 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Even a best-designed belt drive should be properly engineered – tailored to suit the
requirements of the system like specifying the best size and number of belts needed. This
of course starts at the time of specification and continues through the plant operation.
Pulley tolerance levels must be within the industry set norms. Heavy duty components
and/or structural members like frame work, motor mounting structures, machine pads,
concrete structures shall be properly sized to carry the load. Also, the spacing between the
motor and the driven pulley and their alignment are very critical. The belts need to be
protected, but at the same time must remain well ventilated. Any modifications should be
carried out only after referring to the designer.
While specifying the requirements for a belt drive, proper information about the
ambient temperature extremities, presence of chemical vapours, lubricants, cutting fluids
employed, possible harshness in weather conditions, the equipment’s exposure to
sunlight, humidity etc. must be given to the supplier. Accordingly, the selection of
material and technologies can be done by the designer. The protections required for the
belt drive should also be engineered based on these data.
Handling / Environment related issues
In spite of the improvement in the manufacturing technologies and better quality
materials being employed, belt drives still fail.
One of the various reasons for such failures is improper handling of the belts. Force
should never be applied on the belts at the time of installation or replacement of the belts.
While installing the center distance should be reduced or the idler released to reduce the
tension. Otherwise the belt may get damaged or the internal cord reinforcement may
break. Hence, to carry out such jobs, adjustment of tension is an imperative. This may be
done by reducing it initially and setting it properly back. Belts should never be twisted or
bent below the minimum recommended diameter.
Rubber belts normally have a shelf life of 8 years, if stored properly - no direct
sunlight, temperature, humidity maintained within the specified limits. Contact the
supplier for details. Never go by thumb rules as the material quality and manufacturing
technology is a continually changing affair.
Given below are some other considerations by way of maintenance for belts:
x Storing belts in the original shipping cartons is the most desirable method,
provided original integrity is restored back after every opening.
x Keep the belts away from ozone sources such as arc welders and other
electrical equipment or motors.
x Don’t leave any room for contamination.
x V-belts may be stored by hanging them on properly designed belt racks or
hooks.
x Synchronous belts should be stored on their sides on shelves.
x Belts should not be coiled too tightly or by bending them sharply.
x Belt drive systems should always be protected from abrasive damage by using
adequate drive guards.
x Keep drive guards clear to disallow the build-up of any foreign material.
 Bearing Failure Analysis 149

ain enan e rea ed iss es

Ensuring proper tension in the belts must be a regular affair. Regular checks must be
carried out to ensure this. Maintenance personnel must show genuine concern and reduce
the frequency, if required, even from the designer recommended levels. However, such
deviations must be parallely be taken up with the OEM. The frequency will be more in
the case of flat / V-belts. Even though synchronous belts may not require frequent
correction, checking needs to be carried out periodically as otherwise it can have a
detrimental effect on the teeth.
Manufacturer's recommendations should be meticulously followed to determine the
tension values. The ideal tension for a V-belt drive is the lowest tension at which the belt
will not slip at the highest load condition.

At the time of commissioning, run-in procedure is adopted, where the drive is started
and run under full load and then stopped. Checking and retensioning to the recommended
values will be taken up as running of the belts under full load allows them to seat
themselves into the grooves.
A rule of thumb regarding belt drive alignment:
x Sheave alignment on V-belt drives should be less than 1/2° or 1/10-in. per
foot of drive centre distance.
x Synchronous belts should be controlled to within 1/4° or 1/16-in. per foot of
drive centre distance.

Improper alignment may result in the following:

x The V-belt sheave may cause excessive belt wear on the sidewalls, instability
and belt turnover.
x Pulleys may wear synchronous belt teeth unevenly across the belt, as well as
overload the tensile cords at the edge of the belt.
x Unaligned belts may create objectionable belt noise.
The alignment of the drive should be checked both before and after belt tensioning,
since belt tensioning can possibly move some components, he advises.

6.6. a an e
Balance can be defined as the state of the mass distribution within the rotating
assembly about its axis of rotation. The eccentricities of this mass distribution are referred
to as unbalance. Unbalance can create forces on bearings, structure, shaft, couplings etc.
and the effect manifests as vibration.
The amount of unbalance is stated in units of mass times a distance, such as grams
inches ounce inches gram centimeters or gram millimeters
Unbalance is a major source of machine vibration. Vibration in turn is defined as the
unwanted motion of a body in response to forces imposed upon that body. Vibrations
150 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

result in premature failure of the associated and even surrounding equipment. They create
unacceptable noise and general discomfort to those around such machines.
Vibration in assembled motors can be typically measured as amplitude (peak to peak)
in inches, or as elocity in inches per second pea or as elocity in millimeters per
second
The balancing act can be defined as a deliberate correction of the eccentricities of the
mass distribution in rotating elements so as to have a homogeneous distribution of mass
and hence the minimum possible unbalance.
A simple test to determine gross weight unbalance is to put the rotor – balance problem
is related to only rotating elements – on two knife edges, as if to check the run out of a
shaft. Rotate it and allow it to slow down to still condition. If every time the rotor is
stopping at the same position, it indicates an unbalance.

6.6.1. Purpose of balancing

The basic purposes of balancing have been given below:
x Minimizing vibration - as they cause undue stresses on the machines, even
surrounding it. This in turn results in increased machine life
x Minimize noise – Minimize operator fatigue and annoyance. Exposure to high
levels of vibration and noise affects operator’s efficiency and may impair his
discretionary capacity to act in emergencies.
x Minimize structural stress – as the surrounding structure absorbs all forces
emanating from such machine.
x The time between outages can be extended if the machine is running
smoothly. This results in higher availability of the machine and hence
increased productivity.
x ҏIncreased bearing life - as they are the main components to bear the brunt of
the unbalance forces.
x Increased product quality - minimum vibration, especially on machine tools,
produces better parts.
x Increase personnel safety – a rough running machine has an impending danger
involved. Balancing the machine thereby makes it to run smoothly and
obviate such dangers associated with machine failure.

6.6.2. Reasons for unbalance

x Eccentricity may because of a manufacturing defect or a machining problem
or due to the blow holes in the casting.
x Corrosion, erosion or wear out in operation results in loss of material.
x Deposits getting built up on the shaft can also cause unbalance.
x Keys and keyways can also contribute for unbalance.
 Bearing Failure Analysis 151

x Mechanical distortions may be due to problems in maintenance.

x Thermal distortions may be due to problems in operation.
x Component shift can also result in unbalance.

6.6.3. Types of Unbalance and their correction

Unbalance is broadly categorized as:
 Static
 Couple
 Dynamic

Static unbalance is the simplest as the mass is excessive at one point. This results in
unbalance and can be eliminated by balancing in one or at the most in two planes.
Couple is an unbalance resulting out of two excessive mass points in two opposing
directions. Hence it needs to be balanced in two planes.
Dynamic unbalance is a combination of both Static unbalance and Couple unbalance.
Either two-plane methods are trial-and-error procedures are to be adopted for correction.

Balancing can be carried out either by trial-and-error method for in situ corrections or
by using a computerized balancing machine that can be used for balancing in a workshop.
In case of the former method, the vibration levels are taken prior to balancing and the
measurements are repeated with each balancing weight added or removed on a trial basis.
In the latter case, the rotor alone needs to be mounted on the adjustable arms supporting
the knife edges. The rotor is then run at a speed, which need not be the rated speed, and
the data is collected. The machine does the necessary analysis, with prior data that is fed
into it and displays the weight and phase angle at which it is to be added.

6. . rage iss es
A bearing is normally supplied in a pack sealed by the manufacturer. Due note should
be taken of its preservation aspects.
In case the original pack is opened for inspection purpose, due care must be taken to
wrap it back properly to avoid any ingress of moisture. The pack must be made air tight.
The pack must be stored in a cool, dry place. Moisture absorbent substances like silica
gel, should be placed in the wooden boxes containing the bearings packs. This is to avoid
moisture in the environment of bearings storage.
Sometimes the original rust preventive coat, applied by the bearing manufacturer, may
get wiped off while inspecting. So a coat of rust preventive coat should be applied again
before storing it.
Bearings planned for long storage should not be cleaned with kerosene, diesel etc.
152 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

The bearings storage area must be free of any storage of acids or any other corrosive
chemicals.
When the bearing is in installed condition, the old grease should be removed and
bearings relubricated with new grease before re-using the motor. For this
purpose, disassemble the bearing housings and clean the inside of the housings, the
housing plates, caps and the bearings with a suitable solvent.
Rotate the shaft to check for roughness in bearings or interference between rotating and
stationary parts. Perform a bench test on the unit to check for excessive amp. draw, noise,
or vibration. Regrease the motor bearings (as applicable) in accordance with the unit’s
operating instruction folder.

6. . er i e a r ading
As per NEMA Standard MG1-1.42 "service factor of an ac motor is a multiplier which,
when applied to the rated horsepower, indicates a permissible horsepower loading which
may be carried under the conditions specified..." Those "conditions," include a winding
temperature rise at the service factor horsepower that exceeds the rated insulation system
temperature by 10° C. Normally motors are designed to deliver their rated horsepower
under voltage variations of ± 10% of rated and frequency variations of ± 5% of rated. The
combined variation of voltage and frequency is limited to ± 10%. When operated within
these limits, with shaft load at or less than rated, the motor current and winding
temperatures will remain within rated values, and normal motor life can be expected.
Hence service factor of a motor gives an idea of the increased power output (or overload
capacity) that the motor is capable of providing under certain conditions. Service factors
that can normally be seen will be 1.0, 1.15 & 1.25. A service factor over 1.0 must be
clearly indicated on the nameplate of the motor. Some times it is mentioned as SFA –
service factor amperes.
One must read between the lines, when it comes to service factor loading. The normal
rated voltage and frequency need to be maintained in order to load the motor up to this
power. Even then the temperature rise of 10° C will be there. This may lead to lowering
of the life of winding insulation by half.
The cost of the motor with a higher service factor, for the same rating, class of
insulation etc., will naturally be higher. This is because, a higher service factor means that
the motor must be capable of operation at higher loads and hence must have better heat
dissipation capability. This is possible only by increasing the size of the motor and hence
at a higher cost.
Hence operation of a motor at its service factor loading is worth only for short periods
and shall not be indulged in running continuously at that higher load. Also the voltage
source has to be very stable. There should not be any concern for the longevity of the
motor.
Hence the advantage that can be taken out of such flexibility can be restricted to only
unforeseen conditions like plant upsets, startups that may not be too frequent and
unpredictable climatic conditions that may be bring in sporadic requirements.
It shall always be borne in mind that continuous operation at service factor load can
lead to a higher rate of motor failure due to insulation breakdown. The increased load
 Bearing Failure Analysis 153

may also put stress on other components and may reduce life of the most vulnerable
component, the bearing. Also the efficiency, power factor, and speed of the motor at
service factor load may vary from their values at rated load. Efficiency can typically be
expected to decrease, as motors will have optimal performance only for the rated load.
A motor with a higher service factor will not deliver a higher torque or the same
efficiency; it plays only a sacrificial role to meet dire needs. If a consistent overload is
expected, it may be even better to replace the motor with that of a higher rating. This will
increase the operational efficiency and may be economical.
154 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance
 7

. . nr d i n
Of all motors, squirrel cage induction motors, particularly the TEFC type (Totally
Enclosed, Fan Cooled), have become extremely popular mainly because of their simple,
rugged construction and good starting and running torque characteristics. The TEFC
design improves the mechanical life of the motor because dust and moisture are excluded
from the bearings and windings. This type of motor has proved to be extremely reliable
with an expected lifetime of up to 40 years when used in the correct application.
However, the industry is witnessing failures in this kind of motors also, for various
reasons, in spite of these much-improved designs and the continually improving
maintenance practices. According to the statistics gathered by the ABB Group, as shown
in Figure 7.1, 81% of such motor failures could have been avoided by using an accurate
and effective relay for protecting the motor concerned.
156 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 7.1
Protecti e functions needed to detect the motor dri e faults

7.1.1. Thermal Overload Protection

Normally a motor’s operational heating curve and cooling circuit efficiency curve, as
shown in Figure 7.2, can be represented as two exponential curves showing the
temperature rise and drop against a particular time frame respectively. During normal
running of a motor passage of load current through the winding results in I2R copper
losses and other magnetic losses that will ultimately rise the temperature of the motor.
This is represented by the heating curve. As the motor gets heated up, the rate of rise of
temperature reduces and hence it is an exponential curve. In the same way, a running
motor when stopped it looses the heat in it, to the environment. Also this temperature
drop is also an exponential curve. In the normal running of a motor, the rate of heating
and the rate of cooling strike a balance, specifically for a particular load.

Figure 7.2
emperature rise ersus time for a motor
 Protection of Motors 157

At this point, the temperature of the motor remains constant for a particular load, at a
particular ambient temperature. As the load on the motor changes, this stabilized
temperature varies depending on the balance between the heating and cooling
phenomena. At higher, persistent loads the motor temperature may reach dangerous
values. If the motor is left to continue in these conditions, for long, the stator insulation
may start breaking down resulting in the failure of the motor. Even if the motor doesn’t
break down immediately, the high temperatures to which the insulation system is
subjected to, will accelerate the degradation process of the insulation system (the details
are already covered in the topic on insulation failure in Chapter 4). In this context it is
worth remembering that higher the operating temperature of a motor the lesser the service
life of the motor. Also, it has been proven empirically that for every 10 0C rise in
temperature, the life of a motor reduces to half.
Hence, the basic intention of the thermal overload protection is to safeguard the motor
against such overheating of the stator insulation system so as to extend the life of the
motor. However, there is a trade-off between the loading of a motor and its protection.
This demarcation line drawn between the load current and time is called as thermal
capability curve or motor thermal withstand characteristic of the motor. Also it will have
two different curves – the cold one involving no thermal trip and the hot one connected
with a thermal trip. Operation of the motor above the thermal capability curve can be
detrimental to the motor’s life in the long run, if not immediately, and the motor is said to
be thermally overloaded. Therefore, this protection is called as thermal overload
protection.
Also known as running protection, this is intended to protect the motor against only
persistent overloads, while in operation. The National Electric Code (NEC) defines Motor
Overload Protection as that which is intended to protect motors, motor-control apparatus,
and motor branch-circuit conductors against excessive heating due to motor. This is not
expected to protect the components against a ground fault or a short circuit fault. Hence a
protection against thermal overloads is aimed at enhancing the longevity of a motor.
Motors can be protected against thermal overload by two broad methods – indirect
method is by simulating the motor internal conditions by sensing the current flowing
through it and direct method by sensing the temperature within the motor. Indirect
methods employ thermal overload relays or magnetic overload relays or through
differential current sensing systems. Direct methods can be are of inherent type or
thermostat type. Inherent type engages bi-metallic strip to sense the ambient temperature,
motor internal temperature, internal motor heating and the current flowing in the circuit.
These are used for small (FHP) motors. Using thermostat type the motor winding
temperature is directly sensed and the contact is used for tripping the motor. Usually it is
used in conjunction with thermal overload relays.

7.1.2. Thermal time constants

The time constant T (tau) is defined (IEC 255-8) as the time in minutes required for the
temperature of a body to change from an initial temperature T0 to 63% of the difference
between T0 and the new steady state temperature Tf.
Unfortunately the thermal time constant T of the motor is frequently not known. Table
7.1 gives typical values in relation to motor ratings and mechanical design.
158 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

The cooling time constants during operation are approximately equal to those for
temperature rises, while at standstill they are four to six times the values given in the
table.

A[mm]
Type 355 400 450 500 560 630 710 800 900 1000 1120 1250
O 20 25 28 30 35 40 50 60 65 70
R 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 100 110
U 30 35 40 45 50
A = Shaft height (mm)
O = Open Type (IP23)
R = Closed type with air/air heat-exchanger (IP54)
U = Fully clad with cooling finds (IP54)
Table 7.1
ean thermal time constants of asynchronous motors from rown o eri in relation to motor rating and type

7.1.3. Early relays and new digital relays

Some of the early designs of motor protection relays had a single function whose
purpose was to protect the motor against overloading. This was done by continuously
monitoring the electrical current drawn by the motor and arranging for the motor to be
disconnected when the current exceeded the rated current for a certain period of time.
The higher the overload current, the shorter the permissible time before disconnection.
This time delay was achieved in various ways. An example is the “solderpot” relay,
which relied on the time taken for solder in the measuring circuit to melt when the load
current was passed through it. The bimetal type relays disconnect the motor when the
load current passing through a resistor heated in a bimetallic strip sufficiently to bend it
beyond a preset limit. This released the trip mechanism. In recent years, electronic
relays utilise an analogue replica circuit, comprising a combination of resistors and
capacitors, to simulate the electrical characteristics of the stator and rotor. The main
principle linking all these methods is the design of a replica system to simulate as closely
as possible the electrical characteristics of the motor.
It has in the past been common practice to detect high temperatures for temperature
dependent elements built into the winding of the motor. However, this form of
temperature measurement is in most cases unsatisfactory as it is not taken directly from
the current conductor. Instead it is taken through the insulation which gives rise to
considerable sluggishness. Due to insulation considerations, insertion of thermocouples
in high-voltage motors can cause problems. Furthermore, after a fault (e.g. a break in the
measuring lead inside the machine) high repair costs are encountered. Another problem
is that no one can accurately predict, during the design, how many and where the “hot
spots” will be.
Consequently, protection is preferably based on monitoring the phase currents instead.
Because the temperature is determined by the copper and iron losses, it must be possible
to derive it indirectly by evaluating the currents in the motor supply leads.
The performance of a Motor Protection Relay depends on how closely and accurately
the protection simulates the motor characteristics. The ideal simulation occurs when the
heating and cooling time constants of the motor windings are matched by the relay under
all operating conditions. In some of the early devices, the protection could underestimate
 Protection of Motors 159

the heating time of the windings from cold and could trip before a motor/load
combination with a long run-up time had reached running speed.
On the other hand, during several sequential starts and stops, the device could
underestimate the cooling time of the windings, allowing the motor windings to overheat.
This situation can very easily arise with the bimetallic thermal overload relays commonly
used on motor starters even today. Under certain conditions, bimetallic thermal overload
relays do not provide full protection because the device does not have exactly the same
thermal heating and cooling characteristics as the motor which it is protecting. The
heating and cooling time constants of a bimetallic relay are much the same but in actual
installations it should be borne in mind that a stopped motor has a longer cooling time
constant than that for a running motor. When a motor has stopped, the fan no longer
provides a forced draft and cooling takes longer than when the motor is running on no
load. A simple bimetallic device is a compromise and is calibrated for normal running
conditions. As soon as an abnormal situation arises, difficulties can be expected to arise.
To illustrate the point, take the case of a motor that has been running at full load for a
period of time when the rotor is suddenly stalled. Figure 7.1 shows typical temperature
curves of the winding temperature (solid line) compared to the heating and cooling curve
of the protective device (dotted line). Starting at a normal continuous running
temperature of 120°C, the current increases for the locked rotor condition and
temperature rises to 140°C when the thermal device trips the motor after some seconds.
After about 10 minutes, the bimetal will have cooled to ambient, but the windings will
only have reading 100°C. With the bimetal reset, it is then possible to attempt a restart of
the motor. With the rotor still locked, high starting currents cause the temperature to
quickly rise to 165°C before the bimetal again trips the motor.
Considering that a similar sequence of events as described above can again be
repeated, where the different cooling times of the motor and bimetal strip allow the
bimetal to reset before the windings have cooled sufficiently, and if the motor is again
restarted after another 10 minutes, the winding temperature is likely to exceed 180°C, the
critical temperature for Class B insulation materials. This illustrates the importance of an
accurate simulation by the protection device in both conditions where the motor is
running and when the motor is stopped.
Nowadays, solid-state electronic relays are able to deliver various functionalities
integrated under one casing. They extend all the protections offered earlier by
electromechanical relays. Apart from this, they can be programmed as universal relays
suitable for even the smallest motor to even a multi MW rated motor. With the earlier
relays, one was required to specify the rating of a motor for which it is intended to be
used. These digital relays have lot of special features to their credit as mentioned blow:
x Compact as compared to their conventional equivalents.
x Very stable against temperature variations
x Longer calibration accuracy – some of the relays hardly require any testing
x Versatility – there is no need of specifying the motor rating before hand
x Reliability is very high
x Very low power consumption
160 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

The most recent versions of motor protection relays are digital, microprocessor based
ones and have the capability to incorporate various, programmable protections. Even their
prices are also making them very attractive as compared to their earlier counterparts,
especially after considering the various functionalities.
Typically a new generation microprocessor based motor protection relay can fulfill the
following protections for any rating motor:
x Overload protection
x Locked rotor protection
x Phase and ground fault protection
x Unbalanced current protection
x Load jam
x Load loss of induction motor etc.
All these are covered accurately with the bare minimum data that needs to be fed into
the relay at site. Typical information required for the purpose are:
x Motor full load current
x Locked rotor current
x Locked rotor thermal limit time
x Motor service factor etc.
They use an element that accounts for the I2r heating effect of both the positive- and
negative-sequence current. The element is a thermal model defined by the motor
nameplate data entered as settings. The model estimates motor temperature and compares
it to thermal limit trip and alarm thresholds. The relay trips to prevent overheating for the
abnormal conditions of overload, locked rotor starting, too frequent or prolonged starts,
and unbalanced current.
These relays typically include:
x Thermal overload protection, monitoring all three-phases with thermal
replicas for direct and frequency convertor controlled drives
x Short circuit protection
x Start-up and running stall protection
x Phase unbalanced protection
x Single-phasing protection
x Earth fault protection
x Undercurrent protection
x Digital read-out of set-values, actual measured values and memorized values
x Self supervision system
x Outstanding accuracy
x Optimum philosophy
 Protection of Motors 161

The present day concept is use of microprocessor based numerical relays for both HV
and LV motors (say beyond 50 KW), as the relays come with lot of features which allow
them to be interchangeable, ensures site settings and give valuable feedback on the load
details whenever a trip occurs or not.

7.1.4. Starting and stalling conditions

As the magnitude and duration of motor starting currents and the magnitude and
permissible duration of motor stalling currents are major factors to be considered in the
application of overload protection, these will be discussed. It is commonly assumed that
the machines started direct on line the magnitude of the starting current decreases linearly
as the speed of the machine increases.
This is not true. For normal designs the starting current remains approximately
constant at the initial value for 80-90% of the total starting time.

Figure 7.3
otor Current during tart Conditions

When determining the current and time settings of the overload protection it can be
assumed that the motor starting current remains constant and equal to the standstill value
of the whole of the starting time.

. . a ing rs
Refer to Figures 7.4 and 7.5. Should a motor stall when running or be unable to start
because of excessive load, it will draw a current from the supply equivalent to the locked
rotor current. It is obviously necessary to avoid damage by disconnecting the machine as
quickly as possible if this condition arises.
162 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 7.4
elay operation times less than stall withstands time: relay gi es stall protection
 Protection of Motors 163

Figure 7.5
elay peration time greater than stall with stand time: elay does not gi e stall protection

It is not possible to distinguish this condition from a healthy starting condition on

current magnitude.
Majority of the loads are such that the starting time of normal induction motors is
about or less than 10 seconds, while the allowable stall time to avoid damage to the motor
insulation is in excess of 15 seconds.
If a double cage drive is to be protected, it might be that the motor cannot be allowed
to be in a stall condition even for its normal start-up time. In this case a speed switch on
the motor shaft can be used to give information about whether the motor is beginning to
run up or not. This information can be fed to suitable relays which can accelerate their
operating time [Refer Figure 7.6 (a) and (b)].
164 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 7.6 (a)

ypical otor tart
 Protection of Motors 165

The following characterise a blocked rotor condition:

motor current IbI.R.

tbI.R.

motor speed

current sig. relay closed

open

speed switch closed

open
blocked rotor 1
signal 0
t
Figure 7.6 (b)
loc ed otor Condition

Whether or not additional features are required for the stalling protection depends
mainly on the ratio of the normal starting time to the allowable stall time and the accuracy
with which the relay can be set to match the stalling time/current curve and still allow a
normal start.

. . er rren er ad
Over current protection for motors is usually required to safeguard the motor against
short circuit mainly to take care of phase faults. In order to provide an effective
protection, phase fault current shall be greater than starting current. Otherwise the
protection will act during normal starts. In such extreme cases, differential protection
shall be provided for the motor. An instantaneous, high set, simple protection provides
reliable, inexpensive coverage against phase faults. The operation of this instantaneous
protection may involve, typically, 70 – 130 milli second at twice the current setting.
IDMT characteristics suiting the motor’s thermal capability curve are realized using
the overload units to provide protection against long duration, light and medium
overloads. NEC recommends provision of such overload coverage in each phase.
However thermal capability curve of a motor represents an approximate average of the
safe thermal zone of operation only and cannot be the exact model of the motor. Also the
overload protection requirement varies considerably with size and design.
166 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

7.3.1. Phase-phase faults

Because of the relatively greater amount of insulation between phase windings, faults
between phases seldom occur. As the stator windings are completely enclosed in
grounded metal the fault would very quickly involve earth, which would then operate the
instantaneous earth fault protection.
Differential protection is sometimes provided on large (2 MW) and important motors
to protect against phase-phase faults, but if the motor is connected to an earthed system
there does not seem to be any great benefit to be gained if a fast-operating and sensitive
earth fault is already provided.

7.3.2. Terminal faults

High set instantaneous overcurrent relays are often provided to protect against phase
faults occurring at the motor terminals, such as terminal flashovers. Care must be taken
when setting these units to ensure that they do not operate on the initial peak of the motor
starting current, which can be 2.5 times the steady state r.m.s. value. The asymmetry in
the starting current rapidly decreases, and has generally fallen to its steady state value
after one cycle. A typical motor starting current is shown in figure 7.7.

Figure 7.7
ransient o er current during first few cycles when starting a motor

.4. nder age er age

As per NEMA MG1 standards, AC induction motors shall operate satisfactorily at
rated load, with the voltage varying within + / - 10 % of rated value at rated frequency.
With a voltage decrease in this range, the power factor of the AC induction motor
increases. In the same way, an increase in voltage results in a decrease of the power
 Protection of Motors 167

factor. The torque developed by the motor, whether of locked rotor or of breakdown will
be proportional to the square of the voltage applied.
Average accelerating torque is given as:
[(voltage available at motor bus / rated motor voltage) 2 (rated torque)] - Load torque
Hence, due to the reduced accelerating torque, the motor will have problems in starting
and reaching full speeds. Also a running motor may lose speed and draw heavy currents.
Hence under voltage protection is invariably provided for induction motors. Typically,
by sensing a bus under voltage condition all the connected motors to that bus are tripped
out.
The under voltage setting is normally 75 to 80 %.
Either an increase or a decrease in voltage results in increased heating of the motor at
the rated load and hence may accelerate the deterioration of the insulation system, in the
long run.
Similarly, over voltage can be detrimental to the insulation system as the temperature
rises because of increased slip due to either an under voltage or an over voltage.

. . nder re en
AC motors operate successfully under running conditions at rated load and at rated
voltage with a variation in the frequency up to 5 percent above or below the rated
frequency.
Performance within this frequency variation will not normally be as per the standards
established for operation at rated frequency.
At a frequency lower than the rated frequency, the speed is decreased. Since the
magnetic flux in the machine, which is proportional to the inverse of frequency at a
particular voltage increases, locked-rotor torque also increases and power factor
decreases.
Also this may result in over magnetization of the core of the motor that, in turn, may
result in overheating of the stator due to increased iron losses. If left unchecked, this may
cause severe damage to the motor.
Normally, the result being overheating that is protected separately, motor feeders will
not be separately provided with this protection. Frequency cannot be different from the
source to even the remotest utilization point, unlike voltage that can drop even
atrociously. However the impact of this aspect being very serious the protection is
provided at the source itself, be it generator or the switchgear incomer of the particular
plant.
168 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

.6. esi se
These aspects are purely applicable to synchronous machines only. During a pole-slip
condition, negative currents can be induced into the field which is opposite of the normal
positive current flow produced by the excitation system.
Hence, a large negative induced current with no current path will result in a very high
positive voltage transient across the power rectifiers. The large voltage transient can
cause damage to the solid-state devices and produce severe pitting on the slip rings.
With the application of the crowbar SCR circuit, the voltage sensing circuit will detect
the positive induced field voltage and gate on the appropriate SCR to allow the negative
current to flow from the field through the discharge resistor. When the crowbar circuit
turns on, the rectifier bridge will be inhibited to prevent overload into the crowbar
discharge resistor.
The out-of-step conditions (loss of synchronism) of a synchronous machine may occur
as a result of pole slipping and hence pole slipping protection also detects loss of
synchronism, but with the excitation intact.
Synchronous motors can develop torque only in synchronism. Overloading, beyond
motor’s capability, may result in slowing down of the rotor. Once synchronism is lost, the
motor will not be able to develop any torque. This is called ‘a motor going out of step’.
Since the rotor of a synchronous motor is applied DC voltage and the rotor doesn’t
have any induced voltage, no AC voltage is supposed to be present when the motor is
operating synchronously. Hence synchronous motors with brush type excitation can be
easily protected against out of step or loss of synchronism by means of AC detection
circuits connected to the rotor. Such circuits will detect pullout resulting from excessive
shaft load or too-low supply voltage and protect the motor against overheating and the
resulting damages.
Both effects may cause severe mechanical and thermal stresses to the machine. Loss of
excitation protection is generally used to guard against the consequences of a partial or
complete failure of the excitation. An under impedance relay is used to recognize this
event.

. . ss e iai n
Synchronous motors can be protected against loss of excitation by a low-set
undercurrent relay connected to the field. This relay should have a time delay drop out.
On large synchronous motors an impedance relay is frequently applied that operates on
excessive VAR flow into the machine, indicating abnormally low field excitation. If an
under voltage unit is part of the relay, its function should be shorted out because loss of
motor field may produce little or no voltage drop. Operation of synchronous motors
drawing reactive power from the system can result in overheating in parts of the rotor that
do not normally carry current. Some loss-of-field relays (device 40) can detect this
phenomenon.
 Protection of Motors 169

. . nad er en energi a i n
Inadvertertent energization protection is needed for synchronous motors especially to
avoid any accidental closing of the breaker when the supply to the motor fails and the
motor is coasting down. Due to the stored energy in the drive, especially from the driven
side, motor starts acting like a Generator. Under such circumstances, the supply being
restored will be out of phase with motor generated voltage and there can be a resultant
flashover.
While giving permissive start to a motor, there can be an accidental energization which
can cause physical damages to the equipment in spite of all precautions to avoid closing
of the breaker of a motor satisfying all the mandatory conditions,.

. . er ing
At frequencies lower than the rated frequency, the speed decreases. Since the magnetic
flux in the machine, which is proportional to the inverse of frequency at a particular
voltage increases, locked-rotor torque also increases and power factor decreases. Also this
may result in over magnetization of the core of the motor that in turn may result in
overheating of the stator, due to increased iron losses. If left unchecked, further fall in
frequency will result in saturation of the magnetic core thereby impairing its torque
delivering capability.
This kind of protection must invariably be provided in applications where the
frequency of the supply is varied in order to obtain variable speeds. All modern day
variable frequency drives have this protection built into the logics and hence they are
called as variable voltage variable frequency drives, VVVF drives in short.
By reducing the over fluxing of the motor, and hence the iron losses, the motor runs
cooler and more efficiently, the power factor is maintained at the most appropriate value
for every condition of load, which, in turn, reduces the apparent reactive power.
This will bring about a significant reduction in the apparent power demand which may
reduce the input real power as well. This kind of protection is popularly known as V/Hz
protection or “V / f” control.

. . a r e i n a e era i n i e
Stall condition of a motor is the result of a hard-to-start load causing a blockage of its
rotation. This results in the motor drawing heavy current without any scope for reduction
on its own. One of the easiest ways to detect such conditions is sensing of the motor’s
speed. It can safely be concluded that motor is stalled, if the zero speed (standstill)
condition of the motor continues, even after energizing the motor. However, it may not
always be feasible to provide such detection and the circuits must depend on the current
drawing pattern to discriminate against a normal starting current. The motor manufacturer
will give the motor’s withstanding capability. The protection must be strictly in
agreement with this. Else the motor will be seriously damaged.
This majority of loads are such that the starting time of normal induction motors is
about or less than 10 seconds, while the allowable stall time to avoid damage to the motor
170 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

insulation is in excess of 15 seconds. It may not always be possible to distinguish this

condition from a healthy starting condition on current magnitude, especially using the
conventional thermal overload detection models.
A typical stalling protection circuit is able to determine stalling based on the current
drawn and the duration of the current flow, instead of depending on the simulation of a
thermal model, providing a reliable protection for the motor.

7.10.1. Acceleration Time

Acceleration time for electric motors is directly proportional to total inertia and
inversely proportional to the electric motor torque. For electric motors with constant
acceleration torque, acceleration time is:

WK2 (N2 – N1)

t=
308 Tx
2
where = rotational inertia in lb-ft2, ( 2 - 1) = the speed difference, and =
acceleration torque in lb-ft.
Acceleration torque decreases with the motor’s voltage squared. It decreases with the
load torque, which normally increases as a function of the increasing speed, and higher
frictional losses and windage losses. Hence it can be summed up as a composite function
of several parameters and cannot be a constant throughout its starting period. An
approximation method is necessary to find the electric motor's acceleration time if the
acceleration torque is not linear during speed increase. The quickest method is to break up
the speed versus torque curves of the electric motor and the driven machine into segments
and calculate acceleration time for each segment. Accurate electric motor acceleration
times usually result.

7.10.2. Start up supervision

Typical startup supervision includes monitoring of the time taken for the motor to draw
the huge inrush current. Out of experience and through the wisdom passed on by the fore-
runners, it has been a regular practice to keep the record of the starting details of various,
especially critical, motors of higher rating (above 200 kW). Such a typical record would
contain the date and time of starting, the supply voltage in all the three lines, starting
current range, as it declines over the period of starting, the starting time – right from the
breaker closure to the resumption of normal current, breaker operation counter reading
etc.
However all such data is being logged by the modern day, intelligent relays and even
some of them support additional information. Apart from the regular features they give
information about harmonic current, thermal parameters like the equivalent heat
generated etc. Based on such data it will be possible to see the time remaining for the
thermal overload to act at the present load. Accordingly, the operational personnel can be
warned. In case the motor trips on overload, instead of relying on the conventional
number of starts, the time required for a safe restart will be made available through the
 Protection of Motors 171

algorithm incorporated in it and based on the data entered by the user & actual data
acquired by it.

7.10.3. Unbalanced Supply Voltages

The voltage supplied to a three phase motor can be unbalanced for a variety of reasons:
single phase loads, blown fuses in p.f. improvement capacitors etc. In addition, the
accidental opening of one phase lead in the supply to the motor can leave the motor
running, supplied by two phases only.
It might seem that the degree of voltage unbalance met within a normal installation
(except when one phase is open circuited) would not affect the motor to any great extent,
but this is not so. It should be remembered that it is not the unbalanced voltage that is
important but the relatively much larger negative sequence component of the unbalance
current, resulting from the unbalanced voltage.
Loss of one phase represents the most dangerous case of unbalance. It is therefore
essential for motors that are protected again short circuit by fuses (limited breaking
capacitor of the breaker) to be equipped with fast operating loss of phase protection.
Voltage unbalance is defined as the percentage maximum voltage deviation
from average voltage with respect to the average voltage. Higher voltage unbalances will
result in reduced efficiency, overheating of the motor calling for derating of the power
rating of the motor. This is because, rated performance of polyphase motors assumes a
balanced power supply at the motor terminals and hence, unbalanced voltage affects the
motor’s current, speed, torque, temperature rise and efficiency. A minor voltage
unbalance in voltage significantly increases the losses and reduces the efficiency
considerably. For instance, it is noticed that the usage an energy efficient motor that can
reduce the losses by 20 % was offset by a voltage unabalance of 3.5 % on the energy
front
NEMA Standard MG 1–14.35, recommends the derating of the motor where the
voltage unbalance is between 1% and 5% beyond which operation shall not continue.
Basically, unbalanced voltages, single phasing in the extreme case, will give rise to a
pulsating flux in the rotor bars. This will result in uneven heating of the rotor bars and
hence localized overheating will be taking place. Uneven expansion due to the localized
heat of the rotor bars can be detrimental to the rotor's integrity. This can result in the
development of cracks ending up finally as rotor bar failures.
However this kind of protection against unbalanced voltages will safeguard the motor
against an unbalance based on the magnitude of the voltages. This can turn out to be a
sort-of-overbearing for the motor. The motor may be able to continue in service,
satisfactorily, even with an appreciable amount of unbalance - that may not result in too
dangerous overheating. To detect whether the unbalance can have a deleterious effect or
not, it is required to analyze the three phase voltages both by means of the phase angle as
well as magnitude difference, not just magnitude alone. This gives a picture about the
quantum of negative sequence currents that are present, which will be contributing to the
ultimate additional overheating of the rotor winding.
172 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

. . ega i e se en e rren s
Analysis of negative sequence currents (one of the three symmetrical components of
any type of current) are particularly of more importance in the case of large rating motors
(1000 HP and above).
Symmetrical components of three phase currents consist of:
x Positi e se uence currents: normally present during a typical steady state
condition.
x egati e se uence currents: present only during unbalance.
x ero se uence currents: present only when earth is also involved in the
unbalance.
Negative- and zero-sequence currents are usually only present in substantial levels
during unbalanced, faulted conditions.

Figure 7.8
he Positi e egati e and ero Components

The method of symmetrical components consists of reducing any unbalanced three

phase systems of vectors into three balanced systems: the positive, negative and zero
sequence components. The positive sequence components consist of three vectors equal
in magnitude 120° out of phase, with the same phase sequence or rotation as that of the
source of supply. The negative sequence components are three vectors equal in
magnitude, displayed by 120° with a phase sequence opposite to the positive sequence.
The zero sequence components consist of three vectors equal in magnitude and in a
phase.
Larger rating motors are more prone to dangers arising out of negative sequence
currents flowing. The presence of negative sequence can be expressed as a percentage
with respect to the positive sequence currents.
Based on this value, the motor rating needs to be derated. The derating effect is more
pronounced in the case of motors with high starting current to running current ratio. For
example a motor with this ratio as 6 (starting current = 6 times the full load current) needs
to be derated by 20 % for an unbalance (100 * negative sequence current / positive
 Protection of Motors 173

sequence current) of 5 %. For the same level of unbalance, a motor with this ratio as 4
needs to be derated by less than 10 %.
The reduction in output for the machines having ratios of starting to running current of
4, 6 and 8 respectively is shown in figure 7.9.

Figure 7.9
a imum continuous output ersus oltage unbalance

. . era ing a rs
The performance of AC induction motors, or for that sake any equipment, is influenced
by various factors like ambient temperature, quality of the incoming power supply etc.
these factors need to be specified explicitly while procuring, especially when the
operating conditions differ widely from the standard values. For instance, when an
induction motor is required to be operated at an ambient temperature exceeding 40 degree
C, it must be clearly spelled out at the procurement stage itself.
Once a standard motor is available and needs to be utilized for an application with the
operating conditions differing from the originally intended ones, the motor’s rating has to
be suitably derated.
The factors that need to be considered in derating a motor’s performance are:
x Supply Voltage
x Supply Frequency
174 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

x Ambient Temperature
x Altitude of the location of installation

AC motors are designed to operate on voltages and frequencies that are well
standardized. For example, NEMA standards specify voltage ratings of 380 V, 400 V,
415 V … at 50 Hz. Similarly, for 60 Hz of supply frequency, voltage ratings of 115 V,
200 V, 230 V, 460 V, 575 V are standardized.
A small variation in supply voltage can have a great influence on a motor’s
performance. For example, when the voltage is 10% below the rated voltage of the motor,
the motor has 20% less starting torque. This reduced voltage may prevent the motor from
getting its load started or keeping it running at rated speed. A 10% increase in supply
voltage, on the other hand, increases the starting torque by 20%. This increased torque
may cause damage during startup. A conveyor, for example, may lurch forward at startup.
A voltage variation will cause similar changes in the motor’s starting amps, full-load
amps, and temperature rise. It can be generalized that a 10 % rise in voltage will result in
an increase in motor performance of 20 %.
In the same way, an increase in frequency of 5 % results in a corresponding increase in
the speed and a 10 % decrease in the motor starting torque. Conversely, a decrease in the
supply frequency by 5 % results in a proportionate reduction in speed and a 11 % increase
in the starting torque. Hence suitable corrections have to be applied to the standard
motors accordingly.
Standard motors are designed to operate below 3300 feet (1000 m). The motors
operating at temperatures above 1000 meters have to be derated because of the impaired
cooling of the motor due to the light air at higher altitudes. The thin air at higher altitudes
will have less cooling effect on the motor as the net heat transfer, due to the reduced air
mass, goes down. At an altitude of above 5000 ft, the derating factor becomes 0.94.
Roughly for every 1600 feet rise in altitude, the derating factor reduces by 0.04.

7.13. Earth Faults – Core Balance, Residual Stabilising

Resistors
Faults that occur within the motor windings are mainly earth faults caused by a
breakdown in the winding insulation. This type of fault can be very easily detected by
means of an instantaneous relay, usually with a setting of approximately 20% of the
motor full load current, connected in the residual circuit of three current transformers.
It is important to note that unbalanced load currents do not cause nuisance earth-fault
trips. If there is no leakage to earth, unbalanced load currents add to zero and do not cause
an output from a core-balance CT.
 Protection of Motors 175

Figure 7.10
Earth fault protection

Care must be taken to ensure that the relay does not operate from spill current due to
the saturation of one or more current transformers during the initial peak of the starting
current; this can be as high as 2.5 times the steady state r.m.s value, and may cause
operation, given the fast operating speed of the normal relay. To achieve stability under
these conditions, it is usual to increase the minimum operating voltage of the relay by
inserting a stabilizing resistor in series with it (refer figure 7.10).
Current sensing is the best method to detect and locate earth faults. However, system
capacitance, unbalanced loads, current-sensor limitations, and harmonics affect current
measurement and limit the lower level of practical earth-fault detection.
Current flowing to earth has only two paths—it can flow to earth through an earth fault
or it can flow to earth through distributed capacitance. Current flowing to earth through
distributed capacitance can cause sympathetic tripping during an earth fault and it can
cause nuisance tripping during normal operation. If the earth-fault trip level is high
enough to eliminate sympathetic tripping, nuisance tripping due to unbalanced and
176 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

harmonic capacitive current is usually not a problem. Charging current is defined as the
current that flows to earth when one phase of an unearthed system is faulted to earth.
When a motor is started across the line, the inrush current can have a DC-offset
component that can cause an output from a core-balance current transformer. Such
transient characteristics are unpredictable because the switch can close at any point in the
electrical cycle. Transient conditions typically last less than 100 ms and nuisance earth-
fault trips can be avoided by setting a longer trip delay time or by using a digital filter to
reject the dc component. All current transformers, including the window-type core-
balance CTs used to detect earth-fault (zero-sequence) current, have practical limitations.
A minimum excitation current is required in the primary coil before there can be a
proportional output current. Excitation current is a function of burden, CT construction,
and size. Sensitive earth-fault detection requires excitation current to be small. A large
fault current, such as a phase-to-phase fault or an earth fault on a solidly earthed system,
can saturate a current transformer. Saturation occurs when a CT cannot maintain a
secondary current waveform proportional to a large primary current. Secondary current
characteristics in this case are unpredictable and earth-fault protection may not operate.
Stability against external faults is guaranteed thanks to the use of a stabilizing resistor.
To detect high-impedance faults and provide machine-winding protection, the earth-
fault current pickup level should be less than 20% of the prospective earth-fault current.
The pickup level of all system earth-fault protection devices should be the same, and
coordination should be accomplished by varying trip delay times.

7.1 . Calculation o rotecti e rela settings

A digital motor protection relays, typically, require the following details to be entered /
programmed into the unit (the appropriate calculations / justifications for the settings are
indicated in the remarks column). As an example, protective relay (microprocessor based
relay) settings for a 700 kW, 3.3 kV, 147A squirrel cage induction motor driving a fan
having an acceleration time of 44 seconds is considered and the settings will be as shown
in Table 7.2:

Description of the Setting Default Unit of Calculation / remarks about

parameter to be set measurement the setting
CT primary 175 Actual A Primary current rating of the
current protection CT
CT secondary 1 Actual A Secondary current rating of
current the protection CT
Thermal current 0.84 As per the Rated current of the motor
setting calculation being 147 A, per unit value
given with respect to CT primary
current will be (147 / 175).
Starting current 6.00 4.00 x Ifl (multiple As given the motor
of full load manufacturer: in this case it is
current, Ifl) 6 times the full load current
of the motor.
Starting time 45 6 S Acceleration time of the load
with some cushion, but below
that of the motor’s capability
 Protection of Motors 177

Description of the Setting Default Unit of Calculation / remarks about

parameter to be set measurement the setting
of 48 seconds.
Short circuit 6.08 6 X Ifl
current
Stalling current 6.00 4 x Ifl
Stall withstand 50 10 S
time
Negative phase 0.40 0.40 x Ifl
sequence (NPS)
current
NPS Characteristic Inverse Inverse Definite / Inverse to be
selected
Cold restarts / hr 3 3 As given by the motor
manufacturer
Hot restarts / hr 2 2 As given by the motor
manufacturer
Heating time 15 04 Minutes As given by the motor
constant manufacturer
Cooling time 75 05 Minutes As given by the motor
constant manufacturer
Hot / cold ratio 0.33 0.33 As given by the motor
setting manufacturer
Earth fault Residu Actual either CBCT or Residual type
connection al needs to be selected
CBCT ratio Actual Enter as applicable
CBCT Earth fault Actual Enter as applicable
current
Residual Earth 200 200 mA Low values may result in a
fault current tripping of the motor
whenever the CTs get
saturated at the time of
starting
Earth fault time 0.10 0.10 S
Speed switch (used NU Actual This will be useful in
/ not used) ascertaining the stalling that
can be easily confirmed with
the speed switch sensing a
stall condition.
Table 7.2
rotecti e ela ettin

However, most recent developments have made this new generation, digital
(microprocessor based) relays much more intelligent, requiring very few parameters to be
set by the user at site. At the same time they provide very fast, reliable response in
clearing the faults.

ANSI Device numbers used in these circuits:

12 = Over speed
24 = Over excitation
178 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

25 = Synchronization check
27 = Bus/Line under voltage
32 = Reverse power (anti-motoring)
38 = Over temperature (RTD)
39 = Bearing vibration
40 = Loss of excitation
46 = Negative sequence / unbalance (phase current imbalance)
47 = Negative sequence under voltage (phase voltage imbalance)
49 = Bearing over temp (RTD)
50 = Instantaneous over current
51 = Time over current
51V = Time over current -- voltage restrained
55 = Power factor
59 = Bus over voltage
60FL = Voltage transformer fuse failure
67 = Phase/Ground directional current
79 = Auto re-close
81 = Bus over / under frequency
37 Under current
48 Incomplete Sequence
49S (26) Locked Rotor
49/51 Over load
50 Short Circuit
50GS/51GS Ground Fault
51R Jam (Running)
59 Over voltage
60V Voltage unbalance
62 Timer
66 Successive
81L/H Under-and Over frequency
87M Differential
86M Lock-out Auxiliary
 Protection of Motors 179

Addl. Protection for a Synchronous motor:

26F Ammortisseur Winding Over temperature
(Include if field is accessible)
27DC Under voltage Relay
37 Undercurrent
50 Short Circuit
55 Out of Step Protection/Power Factor
95 Reluctance Torque Synchronizing and Re-Synchronizing
96 Auto loading/Unloading Relay
180 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 7.11
Typical protection logics for a Synchronous motor
 Protection of Motors 181

Figure 7.1
Typical protection logics for an Induction motor
182 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance
 8

Motors are considered as workhorses across all industries. Naturally, they need to be
properly controlled - to realize their full potential - the way industry demands from them.
This may include reliable starting at the moment of requirement (vertical startup), and
controlling their start / stop through safety / operational interlocks. Also it may include
the control of speed for some of the special equipments requiring variable speed drive
either smoothly or in steps. Reversing the direction or braking the motor speed by various
means involving regenerative or dissipating techniques may also be required for certain
other applications.
In order to carry out these tasks effectively, one has to have a conceptual understanding
of these requirements.
The backbone of all these controls is the power circuit, which need to be designed,
engineered, installed and maintained well in order to have a reliable operation. Control
circuit is like the nervous system of a human body wherein various stimuli are received,
processed and necessary commands are issued for effective control of the intended
operation.

.1. he o er Circuit
The power circuit is the backbone of a motor control arrangement and needs to be
strong for a trouble free operation. It refers to all the conductors and connections that
exist from the point at which the voltage is tapped from the MCC (Motor Control Center)
bus through all intermediate points up to the connections at the motor. The power circuit
typically includes isolators / disconnects, fuses, contactors / circuit breakers, overloads,
cables and lug connections.
184 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

In industrial power distribution systems, usually connectors and conductors are the
source of a majority of the faults that reduce motor efficiency. It needs to be understood
that a motor even in perfect health, gets affected due to problems like harmonics, voltage
imbalances, current imbalances, etc. if installed into a faulty power circuit. As these
problems become more severe, the horsepower rating of motor drops, causing
temperatures to increase and insulation damages to occur. In particular, high resistance
connections resulting in voltage imbalances will reduce the horsepower rating
significantly.
One method of detecting high resistance connections is by performing phase to phase
resistance testing. On a three phase motor, the three resistance measurements should be
nearly identical. In an ideal case, there would be a 0% resistive imbalance. As one or
more phases develop a high resistance, the resistive imbalance increases, indicating a
fault. Any problem related to power / voltage imbalance will then result in negative
sequence currents.
These type of problems can be overcome by using proper power cables, lugs and
proper crimping. The bi-metallic effect, ie., increase of contact resistance due to two
dissimilar metals like copper and aluminium, causes various problems. Minimum
possible contact resistance and balanced impedance resulting in balanced voltages &
currents shall be the ultimate goal of any good power circuit design and its maintenance.
As the problem becomes more severe the temperature increases, thereby heating the
components in its vicinity and reducing the power developing capability of the motor.
Some of the fault mechanisms that cause high resistance connections and the
corresponding actions to be taken to mitigate them are:
x Corrosion of terminals, due to oxidation resulting out of moisture or corrosive
environments, can be avoided by proper sealing of the motor terminal box.
x Looseness of cables, due to vibrations can be avoided by ensuring proper
tightness at regular intervals or by providing suitable locking mechanisms.
x Looseness in bus bars can be kept under check by carrying out regular
maintenance.
x Corroded fuse clips and corroded contacts should be identified, and repaired
or replaced in good time.
x Open leads, proper sizing of conductors should be identified and the reasons
for such failures should be investigated, root cause be identified and suitable
long term action taken.
x High resistance points in the power circuit should be checked whenever
possible and if found each section starting from the upstream of the fuse up to
the motor terminal box should be checked sequentially.

. . he Control Circuit
The control circuit being similar to the nervous system of a human body, should be
engineered with due care to cover all aspects of motor control, not only in the normal
conditions but also to handle abnormal conditions / emergencies.
 Motor Control 185

The circuit is normally powered by a separate electrical system (at a different voltage
level, say 110 V AC most commonly). Such a step down transformer (typically, 415 V /
110 V) is called a control transformer. The main advantage of this low voltage for the
control circuit is safety. The push buttons for start and stop of the motor is usually in the
field and the operation (non-electrical) personnel using them have very little
understanding about the hazards involved.
In the power circuit shown in Figure 8.1, all the components except the contactor are
static (no closing / opening operation) under normal operating condition. The contactor
transfers the electrical power from the incoming source to the motor based on the
requirement. Only during abnormal conditions, where the motor gets overloaded, does the
overload relay come into action. So the control of the contactor based on the requests /
commands received (and the safety conditions prevailing over the circuit), the contactor
needs to be either closed or opened. This becomes the essence of a control circuit’s basic
function.

Figure 8.1
pical tarter

The switching ON / OFF of the power contactor is linked up to the auxiliary relay, M.
If M gets ON, the contactor gets ON and the motor gets energized under normal operating
conditions. In the same way, the motor stops if M drops off.
The control circuit, through the overload relay’s auxiliary contact, monitors the most
important condition of the motor being not overloaded. In case of the overload being
sensed, M will drop instantaneously. The OFF push button’s NC (normally closed)
contact is monitored by the relay M.
An NC contact is specifically used to provide a “fail-safe” condition. It means that the
relay M cannot be closed, even when all other conditions are fulfilled, unless the OFF
186 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

push button’s integrity is established. This includes the push button wiring in the field and
the cable connecting the MCC and field. If, for some reason, the wiring is out of service -
may be due to a loose connection – M will not pickup. To clarify further, let us consider
the NO of the OFF push button is used for healthiness. The motor will be running in spite
of a wiring disconnection at the OFF push button. Under such conditions, the motor
cannot be stopped using the OFF push button. If a wiring problem exists before starting
the motor with NC logic, motor won’t start at all. The problem needs to be fixed prior to a
start and hence the motor can be stopped positively in case of need.
When everything else is in order, the motor gets started with the pressing of ON push
button, as the relay M picks up. However when the hand is removed from the push
button, M drops out. Hence, to keep the relay M in picked up condition, its own NO
contact is used in parallel with the push button contact. So, once the relay M picks up, the
ON push button gets bypassed thereby allowing the motor to continue without bypassing
any other interlock. This is called the latching contact of M.

Figure 8.2
e en for the co ponent of tarter

.3. otor Control Circuits rouble Shooting

There can’t be a readily available solution for a symptom observed or trouble faced. A
lot of understanding about the basics and logical approach can help in solving a problem
at the earliest.
The tables given below are only indicative of various types of problems that can be
expected and the possible solutions for some of the causes and cannot be considered as a
comprehensive guide. However a close study of the table helps in gaining a reasonably
good understanding and sets the path for trouble shooting.
 Motor Control 187

The various types of possible causes are indicated for a particular type of problem in
Table 8.1. The checks to be carried out and the remedial action to be taken are to be
correlated from Table 8.2.
One word of caution: continuity needs to be checked off-line only. Equivalent on-line
checking with the voltage supply not isolated, is by finding the voltage drop (in a series
circuit) one-by-one section.
Also please note that most of the recommended checks are suitable for off-line only. In
case of any doubt contact an experienced electrical engineer or the supplier / OEM.

Trouble / Symptom Probable Causes

noticed
Contacts Chattering Contact making problem
Low voltage
Defective Contactor
Improper contact closing
Corrosion
Sluggish contacts
Welding or freezing Current inrush abnormal
Tip pressure low
Low voltage
Ingress of foreign matter preventing contact closing
Short circuit / ground fault.
Short tip life Filing or dressing.
Arcing problem
High current interruption
Low tip pressure.
Foreign matter ingress
Short circuits /ground fault.
Loose power circuit connection.
Persistent overload.
Frequent failure of coils High voltage
Gap in magnetic circuit
High ambient temperature
Compatibility problem
Noisy magnetic circuit Corrosion
Gap in magnetic circuit
Damaged component
Shading coil broken
Improper assembly
Pickup failure Contact making problem
Low voltage
188 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Trouble / Symptom Probable Causes

noticed
Defective Contactor
Improper contact closing
Corrosion
Gap in magnetic circuit
High ambient temperature
Sluggish contacts
Improper assembly
Failure to drop Contact making problem
Defective Contactor
Corrosion
Gap in magnetic circuit
High ambient temperature
Damaged component
Residual magnetism
Sluggish contacts
Improper assembly
Heavy carbonation of Abnormal currents
contacts
Tip pressure low
Improper contact closing
Corrosion
Reduced contact
Persistent overload
Arcing problem
Compatibility problem
Damaged component
Overheated coil Over voltage or high ambient temperature.
Coil unsuitable
Under voltage
Table 8.1
ro le an their pro a le cau e

Probable Checks to be carried out Remedial action to be taken, in

Cause for confirmation of the case the checks confirm the
cause cause
Contact Check the continuity of Replace the device where the
making various sections one by one contact making is improper
problem – in control circuit - to find
any high resistance /
varying resistance
 Motor Control 189

Probable Checks to be carried out Remedial action to be taken, in

Cause for confirmation of the case the checks confirm the
cause cause
Low voltage. Check coil terminal Find the root cause of voltage
voltage/general voltage problem and rectify it
fluctuation/ voltage dips
during starting
Defective Check the contacts to find Replace the contactor
Contactor any making problem (NO
to NC & NC to NO)
Abnormal Check current levels / Remove fault.
currents Check the circuit for
finding any short or
grounding (low IR value)
Check with a clamp meter Ensure correctly rated fuse, motor
to find motor load current circuit breaker, over current,
to be very high (starting earth fault protections are used.
current > 6 times; running
current > 1.1 times full load
current)
Inspect the tips by putting a Replace contacts /springs contact
Tip pressure thin paper between the Carrier may be damaged
low contacts and manually
depressing the contact
assembly. Check for non-
uniform impressions of the
contacts.
Improper Inspect the internals of the Clean contacts with a contact
contact closing contact making assembly cleaning aerosol (typically Klinit)
for finding any dirt / carbon
deposits / ingress of foreign
matter
Corrosion Check enclosure for Replace with suitable oil tight /
ambient condition dust proof duty components
suitability
High voltage Check terminal voltage to Correct the voltage level
find whether it is more than
110% of rated voltage
Gap in Check travel of armature Adjust magnetic circuit. Clean
magnetic pole faces.
circuit
High ambient Check whether the Identify a suitable one and
temperature component is suitable for replace it
the environment
Reduced Inspect for any damages to Dress up contacts with fine file.
contact the Contact carrier, or Replace if badly worn.
occurrence of any pitting
etc.
Persistent Check the current with Either get the problem fixed on
190 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Probable Checks to be carried out Remedial action to be taken, in

Cause for confirmation of the case the checks confirm the
cause cause
overload. clamp meter to establish the driven equipment side or if it
that the running current is is OK,
more than 110 % of rated Use higher size contactor.
current.
Filing or Check for any problem in Ensure silver tips are not filed
dressing the integrity of the silver
tips.
Loose power Check for any high Tighten or re-terminate the
circuit resistance in the path of the conductors in the problematic
connection power flow from the section
upstream of fuses till the
motor
Arcing Check for any discoloration Adjust for correct contact
problem of the contacts / heavy pressure. Replace spring or worn
carbonation of the contacts contacts if necessary.
Compatibility Check for suitability with Replace with suitable duty
problem respect to the rating, components
ambient & environmental
conditions
Damaged Check for any physical or Replace the component with a
component mechanical damages similar one
Shading coil Replace magnet and armature
broken assembly
Residual De-energize & check the Improve the air gap
magnetism armature of the magnet for
finding out that it is not
dropping
Sluggish Check for contacts Lubricate the mechanism, if it
contacts changing over problem doesn’t improve, replace the
with the contact operated mechanism
manually
Improper Check the mechanical parts Re-assemble the mechanical parts
assembly for any integrity problem
Table 8.2
rou le hootin reference ta le for otor control circuit

Trouble Cause Corrective Action

Contactor / Supply voltage failure Check fuses/disconnect
Relay closing switch.
failure Low voltage Check power supply. Ensure
correct size of wire
Replace.
 Motor Control 191

Trouble Cause Corrective Action

Open-circuited coil. Adjust to ensure correct
Pushbutton, interlocks, or movement, easy operation, and
relay contact not making. correct contact pressure.
Loose connections or broken Check circuit. Isolate circuit
wire. first.
Check with wiring diagram.

Incorrect pushbutton Reset relay.

connection
Open o/l relay contact Clean/align and adjust for
Mechanical parts damaged, proper operation
corroded, not properly
aligned/assembled etc.
Contactor or Incorrectly connected Check connection with wiring
relay fails to pushbutton diagram and rectify.
open
Worn shim in magnetic Replace shim.
circuit.
Residual magnetism holds
armature closed.
Pushbutton, interlock, or Make adjustment for correct
relay contact fails to open movement, ease of operation,
coil circuit. and proper opening.
Check for insulation failure
“Sneak” circuits. See “Excessive corrosion of
Welding of contacts contacts”
Mechanical part malfunction Clean mechanical parts. Check
due to damage corrosion etc. for free movement.
Remove obstruction/ingressed
matter Repair or replace worn
or damaged parts.
Contact Contact spring pressure not Adjust for correct contact
corrosion / adequate. Overheating or pressure. Replace spring or
welding arcing on closing. worn contacts if necessary.
Reduction of effective Dress up contacts with fine
contact surface area due to file. Replace if badly worn.
pitting etc.
Abnormal operating Check rating and load. In case
conditions. of severe operating condition
replace open contactors with
oil-immersed or dust-tight
equipment.
192 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Trouble Cause Corrective Action

Chattering of contacts due to Instruct operator in proper
external vibrations control of manually operated
device.
Check control switch contact
pressure. Replace spring if it
fails to give rated pressure.

Tighten all connections. If

problem persists mount/ move
control, so that vibrations are
decreased.
Sluggish operation Clean and adjust mechanically.
Align bearings. Check free
movement.
Arc lingers Blow out problem Check blow out type with
across contacts Series blow out may be wiring diagram. Check blow
short-circuited. out circuit.
Shunt blow out may be open

Shunt blow out may be Check rating. Replace in case

open. of improper application. Check
Ineffective blowout coil. polarity and reverse coil if
necessary.
Note travel of contacts, in Increasing travel of contacts
case blow out is not used increases rupturing capacity.
Ensure that arc box is fully in
place.
Arc box might be left off or Check rating against load.
not in correct position if
blow out is used.
Overload.
Noisy ac magnet Improper assembly. Clean pole faces. Adjust
mechanical parts
Broken shading coil. Replace.
Low voltage. Check power supply. Check
wire size.
Frequent coil High voltage. Check supply voltage against
failure controller rating.
Gap in magnetic circuit. Check travel of armature
Adjust magnetic circuit. Clean
pole faces.
Ambient temperature may Check controller rating against
be high ambient temperature. Replace
coil with correctly rated coil
for ambient, from
manufacturer
Table 8.3
rou le e e chart for tarter
 Motor Control 193

. . S nchronous otor controls

Controllers for synchronous motors have four components: a three-pole starter for the
ac stator circuit, a contactor for the dc field circuit, an automatic synchronizing device to
control the dc field contactor, and a cage-winding protective relay to open the ac circuit if
the motor operates too long without synchronizing.
Synchronous motors require AC power during both starting and running, thus the main
contactor is closed when the motor is operating. The DC winding of the rotor is energized
by the field contactor as the motor approaches synchronous speed. Two normally open
poles on the field contactor make the connection for DC excitation, and one normally
closed pole permits dissipation of induced field current (through a resistor) during any
period of non-synchronous operation.
For smooth synchronization, two conditions determine the instant that the DC field is
energized:
(a) The rotor must be turning at the proper speed - usually 93 to 98% of synchronous
speed, and
(b) The rotor poles must be lagging slightly behind stator poles of opposite polarity.
Several synchronizing devices apply DC to the rotor field. Special relay systems can
automatically close the DC contactor when the rotor reaches the proper speed and the
rotor and stator poles are in proper relationship.
These relays will open if the motor falls out of step because of a momentary overload
or voltage dip. Synchronous operation is automatically restored when voltage returns to
normal or the overload is removed. In some cases, resynchronization may not be desirable
from a safety standpoint. In such cases, the controller can be designed to disconnect
power from the stator.
Out-of-step protection is provided by a conventional thermal-overload device (OSP).
This device is energized whenever the motor is running without rotor field excitation. If,
during the start, the motor does not synchronize within a given time period (usually 15 to
20 sec) the OSP relay opens the main contactor.
If the motor pulls out of step while running and does not resynchronize within the
specified time, the relay will disconnect the motor. This protection is necessary because
the cage winding has limited thermal capacity and will overheat in a short time at sub-
synchronous speed. Synchronous motors can be stopped quickly by methods similar to
those used with induction motors.
Single-speed squirrel-cage motors have starters that fall into two categories: full
olta e or acro the line tarter ; and re uce olta e tarter .

8.4.1. Full Online voltage starting

Also known as Direct-On-Line (DOL) starting and is usually employed for starting
smaller squirrel cage induction motors. In such a case, the starting current equals the short
circuit (locked rotor) current.

Starting Torque (Starting current) 2

=
Full load Torque Full Load Slip * (Full load current) 2
194 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

From the above equation, it can be inferred that the starting torque just equals the full
load torque when the full load slip is 4 % and the starting current is 5 times that of the full
load current. Under such starting conditions, the motor must accelerate to normal speed as
quickly as possible. Otherwise, the motor winding may get overheated beyond tolerable
limits. Hence the load on the motor must be very light, to facilitate acceleration of the
motor, at the time of starting.
Since the currents drawn are huge, starting of large rating motors may not be supported
by the supply systems. Even if supported, staggering of the start of various motors has to
be planned meticulously.

8.4.2. Reduced voltage starting

AC Induction Motors especially those designed for achieving good efficiency and
relatively high power factor at rated load typically have a problem of having huge inrush
current of 5 – 8 times the rated current when full voltage is impressed on them. Such a
current is objectionable because of possible sharp drop in the voltage of the supply circuit
and may cause undesired effects on the other connected devices.
Accordingly it is customary to start such motors at reduced voltage by means of
starting compensators or reduced voltage starters and can be realized by various methods
ranging from simple resistive / reactive drop to sophisticated voltage and frequency
converters, called as soft starters.
The starting current can be reduced considerably by reduced voltage starting. However,
this method reduces the starting torque in direct proportion to the square of the voltage
applied. Hence this kind of starting, at reduced voltage, can be carried out on no-load or
very light load, as otherwise the motor will never be able to accelerate to its normal
speed.

Figure 8.3
pical connection of a re uce olta e tarter ith an
 Motor Control 195

The following devices are commonly used in industry for reduced voltage starting.

x Auto-transformers in series with stator: Reactive volt drop

x Reactors in series with stator: Reactive volt drop
x Resistors in series with stator: Resistive volt drop.
x Thyristor bridge with electronic control: Chopped voltage waveform

Referring to the above, the characteristics of stator voltage control are as follows:
x Starting current inrush decreases as the square of the reduction in supply
voltage.
x Motor output torque decreases as the square of the reduction in supply
voltage.
x For reduced stator voltage, starting torque is always lower than DOL starting
torque.
x Reduced voltage starting is not suitable for applications that require a high
breakaway torque.

8.4.3. Resistance / Reactor Starting

Inclusion of an external resistance or reactance in series with the stator winding, in the
three lines feeding the stator, of the induction motor reduces the terminal voltage to xV
from the rated voltage, V. Accordingly, the starting torque reduces to a fraction x2 of that
obtainable from direct on line starting. Since this involves lot of I2R losses, this method of
starting cannot be used for large motors.

8.4.4. Delta-star Starting

A motor with a “Delta” connected stator winding for normal operation can be started in
“Star” as shown in Figure 8.4. This is the cheapest method of starting and is commonly
employed for both small and medium sized motors.
196 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 8.4
pical connection of a tar elta tarter

However this method of reduced voltage starting can be utilized only when the
reduction in voltage per phase and the resultant reduction in starting torque to one-third of
its full-voltage value will be able to accelerate in a reasonable time.

8.4.5. Autotransformer
Reduced voltage is obtained by connecting the autotransformer in Star as shown in
Figure 8.5.

Figure 8.5
pical connection of an utotran for er tart
 Motor Control 197

If the voltage is reduced by a fraction x, the current drawn from the system becomes x2.
Also the starting torque reduces by the same factor. This method of starting is much
superior to that of stator impedance starting. Also a smooth starting and high acceleration
can be achieved by smoothly varying the voltage to the full line value.

8.4.6. Soft start

Reduced voltage control is not usually applied for speed control in industry, but for
motor torque control, mainly for oft tartin squirrel cage induction motors. Here the
voltage to frequency is maintained constant so that the torque will remain constant.
Reduced voltage (reduced torque) soft starting has the following main advantages:

x Reduces mechanical shock on the driven machinery, hence the name soft
starting
x Reduces the starting current surge in the electrical power supply system
x Reduces water hammer during starting and stopping in pumping systems

Usually this method of starting is applied for very large, frequently started machinery.
It is highly expensive but has a promising future because of the ever improving
electronics and their economic feasibility.

. . Bra ing
Motor braking refers to stopping a running motor. Removing the supply given to the
motor will make it stop. However, due to inertia, the motor will tend to rotate for some
time before halting. To stop the motor quickly, a braking mechanism is required. This is
called motor braking.
While operating electrical drives, it is often necessary to stop the motor quickly and to
reverse it. Particularly, in electrical hoist or crane applications, it is required to control the
torque of the drive motor so that the load does not have undesired acceleration. Some
applications require accurate positioning of motor shaft.
The speed and accuracy of stopping and reversing operations of motors improve the
productivity of the system. For example, take the rolling mill motor application. In such
applications, braking torque is required which may be either electrical or mechanical.
Braking can be broadly classified as:

x Electrical braking
x Mechanical braking
198 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

8.5.1. Electrical braking

In electrical braking, winding of motor is used to produce braking torque. A braking
torque is developed during the braking operation, which opposes the motion of the
rotating member or shaft. This is achieved by suitably changing electrical connections of
the motor. The motor operates on a speed-torque characteristic depending upon the
method of braking employed.

8.5.2. Mechanical braking

In mechanical braking, the frictional force between the rotating parts and the brake
drums produces the required braking. To achieve this, mechanical equipment, such as
brake linings and brake drums are required. Whether electrical or mechanical, braking of
the drive should stop the motor at the specified point of time and the position.
A brief comparison of electrical and mechanical braking is given in Table 8.4.
Electrical Braking Mechanical Braking
Maintenance Little maintenance and Mechanical brakes require frequent
dust free operation due to maintenance, like adjustment of brakes
absence of mechanical replacement of brake linings prone to
equipment. wear and tear.

Energy Energy of rotating parts Energy of rotating parts is wasted as heat

can be converted to in friction. Heat is generated during
electrical energy that can braking.
be utilized or returned to
the mains during braking.

Smoothness of Braking is smooth without Depending on conditions, braking may

Braking snatching. not be smooth.

Equipment Equipment of higher rating Equipment like brake shoes, brake lining,
than the motor rating may and brake drum are required.
be required in certain
braking applications.

Holding For producing holding Mechanical Braking can be applied to

torque, electrical energy is hold the rotating part or shaft at a
required for operation. particular position.

Table 8.4
Comparison of electrical and mechanical breaking

From the above comparison of electrical and mechanical braking, it is seen that
electrical braking is more effective and superior to mechanical braking. However, for
safety reasons, in hoist or crane applications a standby mechanical brake system is also
provided to avoid accidents in case of power failure. However, in case of severe operating
cycle of the motor, electrical braking should be employed only when it is highly desirable
to control retardation and limit the braking time.
 Motor Control 199

8.6. Braking Methods: Electric Motors

Electrical braking may be achieved by the following:
x Counter current braking or plugging
x Regenerative braking
x Dynamic or rheostatic braking

Electromechanical braking may be achieved through an electromechanical brake.

8.6.1. Counter current braking or plugging

This is accomplished by momentarily connecting the motor in forward direction when
the motor is already running in reverse direction. It is accomplished in DC motors by
reversing the armature supply leads so that the motor draws a current to develop a reverse
torque to oppose its already existing rotation and in case of AC motors the phase
sequence is interchanged.
The motor acts as a brake and comes quickly to rest but has the tendency to accelerate
in a reverse direction. If reversal is not required, the supply to the motor should be cut off
at zero speed. This method of braking is also used to maintain a constant speed when the
load tries to accelerate the rotor to high speeds
This method is inefficient because of power loss in resistors used for limiting the
current due to interconnection. The mechanical energy is converted to heat and additional
power is required. At the same time, if for a large motor sudden torque is applied in
reverse direction for plugging, and then it may result in damaging the machinery as well
as a high current will flow through the system.

8.6.2. Electrical braking

In electrical braking, it is possible to convert the kinetic energy of the rotating parts to
electrical energy and return it back to the mains or dissipate in a resistance.

8.6.3. Regenerative braking

The braking is called regenerative when the energy is returned to the mains supply
back. This method uses the motor as generator during braking, developing retarding
torque which acts on the running motor and halts it. The kinetic energy and the potential
energy, minus the losses of the motor are returned to the mains and the motor runs at
constant speed. Thus, regenerative braking eliminates tendency of the load to accelerate
the motor.
200 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

8.6.4. Dynamic or rheostat braking

The braking is called dynamic or rheostatic braking when the energy is dissipated as
heat in a resistance. In either case, the machine operates as a generator. Electric machines
are capable of smooth transition from motor to generator action.
In dynamic braking, the motor must be switched to the load or braking resistor keeping
the field constant.

8.6.5. Electro-mechanical friction braking

This is an external brake used for stopping the motor as well as holding the motor at a
single position.
It consists of a solenoid along with a drum brake arrangement. When motor is running,
the solenoid is energized; so, it keeps the brake shoes away from the rotor shaft. As motor
is turned off, solenoid is de-energized and the brake shoe act on rotating shaft and apply
brakes due to friction between brakes and shaft.
This kind of brakes hold the load at one position even after the motor stops; so used in
applications that require motor to be held at one position with load, like in crane
applications.
These brakes require more maintenance than purely electrical braking because of brake
shoe mechanism wear and tear.

8.7. Braking Methods: Induction Motors

8.7.1. Regenerative braking
In an induction motor, when the rotor runs faster than the stator field’s synchronous
speed, the slip becomes negative and the machine generates power.
Whenever, the motor has tendency to run faster than the rotating field, regenerative
braking occurs and the Kinetic Energy of the rotating parts is returned to the mains.
The speed torque curve extends to the second quadrant as shown in figure 8.6.
B A

II I
Braking Motor
Speed

C
Ia (b ) Ia(Td)
Ta Iast Current
or (Torque)
IV
III

Figure 8.6
egenerati e braking of ind ction motor
 Motor Control 201

As the speed of the motor decreases, the braking torque makes the motor run at
constant speed and arrests its tendency to rotate faster. Due to the effects of stator
resistance, the maximum torque developed during regeneration is greater than the
maximum torque during motoring.
For example, in cranes and hoists, the motor has a tendency to run faster than the
synchronous speed. This situation occurs when the hoist is raising an empty cage. Due to
counter weight, the cage may acquire dangerous speeds. The transition takes place almost
automatically, a torque is developed to arrest the acceleration, and regeneration takes
place. Automatic regeneration arrests undue acceleration. In such cases, rotor resistance
control may be employed to get better braking torque.
Regenerative braking is also possible with a pole change motor when the speed is
changed from high to low. It can also be easily accomplished in variable frequency drives
by decreasing the frequency of the motor momentarily - the synchronous speed decreases
and conditions favorable to regeneration are created.
As the motor speed decreases, the frequency is continuously reduced so that braking
takes place at constant torque and stator current, until the motor comes to zero speed.
During regenerative braking, there is a possibility of dangerous speeds if the operating
point during braking falls in the unstable region of the characteristic. This happens if the
load torque is greater than the breakdown torque of the motor. The torque developed
cannot brake the motor and undue acceleration takes place. This possibility can be
eliminated by means of a high resistance in the rotor.

8.7.2. Dynamic braking

Dynamic braking is used to brake non-reversing drives. The stator is transferred from
AC mains to DC mains as shown in figure 8.7.

+
Re - +
Rt +
Vt C E V
-
+ -
D
-
Figure 8.7
namic braking of ind ction motor

The DC flowing through the stator sets up a stationary field. This induces rotor
currents that produce a torque to bring the rotor to rest quickly. The torque developed and
retardation during braking may be controlled by the amount of the DC power. Additional
resistances r1 and r2e in the stator and rotor circuits control the DC excitation and braking
torques respectively.
202 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

An equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of the motor during dynamic braking are
shown in figure 8.8.

3
Speed

r1

r2
B

-n1 T L2 C

Figure 8.8
i alent circ it and phasor diagram of the motor d ring d namic braking

When the stator is fed from DC, the MMF produced is stationary. The MMF depends
upon the stator connections for feeding DC, the number of turns and the current. The
possible connections of the stator for feeding DC are shown in figure 8.9.
 Motor Control 203

F E F E
+
R R
GA HB

HB GA
-

Motoring Plugging

P M
R
GA

HB

Reconnecting of DC Series Motor for Reverse Current Braking (Plugging)

Figure 8.9
tator connections for C d namic braking

Dynamic braking is employed in conjunction with automatic control. Induction motors

are more popular in hoists than DC motors due to this reason. Methods of feeding DC
supply to the stator are shown in figure 8.9. The DC excitation is controlled by the
limiting resistor R1.
Torque control is achieved by rotor resistance variation. Alternately, an AC supply
with a bridge rectifier may be used to feed the motor.
In AC dynamic braking, the stator is switched to a capacitance bank. The machine runs
as a self-excited induction generator. All the mechanical energy is dissipated as electrical
energy in the rotor resistance. This method is un-economical due to a high cost of
capacitors.

8.7.3. Counter current braking or plugging

In an induction motor, by changing the phase sequence of the input supply the
direction of the stator field can be reversed. This is also called Plugging.
In practice, this is done by interchanging the supply to any two terminals of the motors
as shown in figure 8.10.
When phase sequence of the input supply is changed, this reverses the direction of the
revolving flux, which produces a torque in the reverse direction, thus applying a brake on
the motor. During this braking action, the motor absorbs kinetic energy from the
revolving load causing speed reduction and motor comes to rest. The motor must be
switched off, as it approaches zero speed.
204 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

In high capacity motors, if sudden torque is applied in reverse direction (plugging)

without slowing down the motor then it can result in mechanical damage. To avoid this,
anti-plugging protection is used which does not allow reverse torque to be applied unless
the speed of motor reduces below acceptable value.

+ +

Speed
V
- -
V - Varied
Smoothly

Tg = Tb Torque

Figure 8.10
Changing of phase se ence for co nter c rrent braking of a phase ind ction motor

The speed-torque characteristics of an induction motor can be modified by varying the

rotor resistance.
The maximum torque point can be achieved in the range of slips 1-2, where the torque
developed tends to brake the rotor. The torque developed can also be used to arrest the
tendency of the rotor to accelerate.
A high resistance is introduced in the rotor, so that the operating point shifts to the
fourth quadrant.

F E

Figure 8.11
peed tor e c r e of an ind ction motor d ring pl gging

The braking torque developed prevents any acceleration of the rotor and the rotor
works at uniform speed as shown in figure 8.11.
The total braking torque (TP) may be controlled with a variable rotor resistance, which
limits the braking current.
 Motor Control 205

8.8. Braking Methods: Synchronous Motors

8.8.1. Regenerative braking
When a synchronous motor operates as a variable speed drive utilizing a variable
frequency supply, regenerative braking can be applied, and all the kinetic energy will
return to the mains.
As in the case of induction motor, regeneration is possible if the synchronous speed is
less than the rotor speed.
Similarly for synchronous motor, the input frequency is gradually decreased to achieve
this. The kinetic energy of the rotating parts is returned to the mains. The braking takes
place at constant torque.

8.8.2. Dynamic braking

To achieve dynamic braking, a synchronous motor is switched on to a 3-Phase
balanced resistive load after disconnecting it from the mains, keeping the excitation
constant. To achieve greater braking torque for effective braking, the excitation may be
increased.
The terminal voltage and current decreases as the speed decreases. At very low speeds,
the resistance effect is considerable. The resistance affects the speed at the maximum
torque. The maximum torque can be ideally made to occur just before the motor is
stopped.

8.8.3. Plugging
Braking of a synchronous motor by the plugging method has major disadvantages like
very heavy braking current flow causing line disturbances and ineffective torque.
Plugging can be used for braking if the motor is a synchronous induction motor and
only if the machine is working as an induction motor.

8.9. Speed Control

8.9.1. AC Motors
Synchronous Speed of an AC motor is given by the following relation:

120 X Frequency
Synchronous Speed (rpm) =
No. of Pole pairs
206 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

For example, if the motor has two poles, then at 50 Hz frequency motor rpm will be
3000 rpm. With the same supply, a 4 pole motor will run art 1500 rpm.
However all the AC motors will not run at synchronous speeds. Only synchronous
motors run at these speeds. Induction motors run at speeds slightly lower than the
synchronous speed and hence are known as asynchronous motors. In any case the speed
will be either at or very close to the synchronous speeds and the approximate speed /
synchronous speed is dependent on the number of poles.
So if we can re-connect a (2*P) pole motor as a P pole motor, the speed of the motor
can be doubled. This method of changing the speed of a motor is known as pole changing
method and a typical wiring diagram is shown as Figure 8.12. However the motor needs
to be designed differently so that such changes can be carried out in the control circuit.

Figure 8.12
peed control b pole changing method
 Motor Control 207

By varying the frequency of the supply, synchronous speed of these AC motors can be
varied.
In contrast to the mechanical and hydraulic variable speed control methods, electrical
variable speed drives are those in which the speed of the electric motor itself, rather than
an intermediary device, is controlled. Variable speed drives that control the speed of DC
motors are loosely called C ariable speed dri es or simply C dri es and those that
control the speed of AC motors are called C ariable speed dri es or simply C dri es.
Almost all electrical VSDs are designed for operation from the standard 3-phase AC
power supply system.
Historically, two of the best known electrical VSDs were the Schrage motor and the
Ward-Leonard system. Although these were both designed for operation from a 3-phase
AC power supply system, the former is an AC commutator motor while the latter uses a
DC generator and motor to effect speed control.

AC commutator motor – Schrage motor

The schrage motor is an AC commutator motor having its primary winding on the
rotor. The speed is changed by controlling the position of the movable brushes by means
of a hand-wheel or a servo-motor. Although it was very popular in its time, this type of
motor is now too expensive to manufacture and maintain and is now seldom used.

Ward-Leonard system
The Ward-Leonard system comprises a fixed speed 3-phase AC induction motor
driving a separately excited DC generator that, in turn, feeds a variable voltage to a shunt
wound DC motor. So this is essentially a DC variable speed drive.

Figure 8.13
he ard eonard s stem

DC drives have been used for variable speed applications for many decades and
historically, were the first choice for speed control applications requiring accurate speed
control, controllable torque, reliability and simplicity. The basic principle of a DC
variable speed drive is that the speed of a separately excited DC motor is directly
proportional to the voltage applied to the armature of the DC motor. The main changes
208 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

over the years have been concerned with the different methods of generating the variable
DC voltage from the 3-phase AC supply.
In the case of the Ward-Leonard system, the output voltage of the DC generator, which
is adjusted by controlling the field voltage, is used to control the speed of the DC motor
as shown in Figure 8.13. This type of variable speed drive had good speed and torque
characteristics and could achieve a speed range of 25:1. It was commonly used for winder
drives where torque control was important. It is no longer commonly used because of the
high cost of the three separate rotating machines. In addition, the system requires
considerable maintenance to keep the brushes and commutators of the two DC machines
in good condition.
In modern DC drives, the motor-generator set has been replaced by a thyristor
converter. The output DC voltage is controlled by adjusting the firing angle of the
thyristors connected in a bridge configuration connected directly to the AC power supply.

8.9.2. Electrical Variable Speed Drives for DC motors (DC drives)

Since the 1970s, the controlled DC voltage required for DC motor speed control has
been more easily produced from the 3-phase AC supply using a static power electronic
AC/DC converter, or sometimes called a controlled rectifier. Because of its low cost and
low maintenance, this type of system has completely superseded the Ward-Leonard
system. There are several different configurations of the AC/DC converter, which may
contain a full-wave 12-pulse bridge, a full-wave 6-pulse bridge or a half-wave 3-pulse
bridge. On larger DC drive systems, 12-pulse bridges are often used.
The most common type of AC/DC converter, which meets the steady state and
dynamic performance requirements of most VSD applications, comprises a 6-pulse
thyristor bridge, electronic control circuit and a DC motor as shown Figure 8.14. The 6-
pulse bridge produces less distortion on the DC side than the 3-pulse bridge and also
results in lower losses in the DC motor. On larger DC drive systems, 12-pulse bridges are
often used to reduce the harmonics in the AC power supply system.
The efficiency of an AC/DC converter is high, usually in excess of 98%. The overall
efficiency of the DC drive, including the motor, is lower and is typically about 90% at
full load depending on the size of the motor.

Figure 8.14
asic constr ction of a p lse C ariable speed dri e
 Motor Control 209

AC/DC converters of this type are relatively simple and robust and can be built for
VSDs of up to several megaWatts with good control and performance characteristics.
Since the DC motor is relatively complex and expensive, the main disadvantage of this
type of VSD in comparison to an AC VSD, is the reliability of the DC motor. Although
the maintenance requirements of a DC motor are inherently higher than an AC induction
motor, provided that the correct brush grade is used for the speed and current rating, the
life of the commutator and brushgear can be quite long and maintenance minimal.
The fundamental principles of a DC variable speed drive, with a shunt wound DC
motor, are relatively easy to understand and are covered by a few simple equations as
follows:
x The armature voltage VA is the sum of the internal armature EMF VE and the
volt drop due to the armature current IA flow through the armature resistance
RA.
 Armature Voltage A E A A

x The DC motor speed is directly proportional to the armature back EMF E

and indirectly proportional to the field flux ), which in turn depends on the
field excitation current E. Thus, the rotational speed of the motor can be
controlled by adjusting either the armature voltage, which controls E, or the
field current, which controls the ).
 Motor Speed n v E

x The output torque of the motor is proportional to the product of the armature
current and the field flux.
 Output Torque v A)

x The direction of the torque and direction of rotation of the DC motor can be
reversed either by changing the polarity of ), called field reversal, or by
changing the polarity of A, called armature current reversal. These can be
achieved by reversing the supply voltage connections to the field or to the
armature.

x The output power of the motor is proportional to the product of torque and
speed.
 Output Power v n

From these equations, the following can be deduced about a DC motor drive:

x The speed of a DC motor can be controlled by adjusting either the armature

voltage or the field flux or both. Usually the field flux is kept constant, so the
motor speed is increased by increasing the armature voltage.
210 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

x When the armature voltage A has reached the maximum output of the
converter, additional increases in speed can be achieved by reducing the field
flux. This is known as the field eakening range. In the field weakening
range, the speed range is usually limited to about 3:1, mainly to ensure
stability and continued good commutation.
x The motor is able to develop its full torque over the normal speed range. Since
torque is not dependent on A, the full-load torque output is possible over the
normal speed range, even at standstill (zero speed).
x The output power is zero at zero speed. In the normal speed range and at
constant torque, the output power increases in proportion to the speed.
x In the field weakening range, the motor torque falls in proportion to the speed.
Consequently, the output power of the DC motor remains constant.

Figure 8.15
or e and po er of a C dri e o er the speed range

Although a DC machine is well suited for adjustable speed drive applications, there are
some limitations due to the mechanical commutator and brushes, which:
x Impose restrictions on the ambient conditions, such as temperature and
humidity
x Are subject to wear and require periodic maintenance
x Limit the maximum power and speed of machines that can be built
 Motor Control 211

8.9.3. Electrical variable speed drives for AC motors (AC drives)

One of the lingering problems with thyristor controlled DC drives is the high
maintenance requirement of the DC motor. Since the 1980s, the popularity of AC variable
speed drives has grown rapidly, mainly due to advances in power electronics and digital
control technology affecting both the cost and performance of this type of VSD. The main
attraction of the AC VSDs is the rugged reliability and low cost of the squirrel cage AC
induction motor compared to the DC motor.
In the AC VSD, the mechanical commutation system of the DC motor has been
replaced by a power electronic circuit called the in erter. However, the main difficulty
with the AC variable speed drive has always been the complexity, cost and reliability of
the AC frequency inverter circuit.
The development path from the Ward-Leonard system to the thyristor controlled DC
drive and then to the PWM-type AC variable voltage variable frequency converter is
illustrated in Figure 8.16. In the first step from (a) to (b), the high cost motor-generator
set has been replaced with a phase-controlled thyristor rectifier.
In the second step from (b) to (d), the high cost DC motor has been replaced with a
power electronic PWM inverter and a simple rugged AC induction motor. Also, the
rectifier is usually a simple diode rectifier.
212 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 8.16
ain components of ario s t pes of ariable speed dri e
a ard eonard s stem
b h ristor controlled C dri e
c oltage so rce in erter C dri e
d oltage so rce C dri e

Frequency control, as a method of changing the speed of AC motors, has been a well-
known technique for decades, but it has only recently become a technically viable and
economical method of variable speed drive control. In the past, DC motors were used in
most variable speed drive applications in spite of the complexity, high cost and high
maintenance requirements of the DC motors. Even today, DC drives are still often used
for the more demanding variable speed drive applications. Examples of this are the
sectional drives for paper machines, which require fast dynamic response and separate
control of speed and torque.
 Motor Control 213

Developments in power electronics over the last 10 to 15 years has made it possible to
control not only the speed of AC induction motors but also the torque. Modern AC
variable speed drives, with fl ector control can now meet all the performance
requirements of even the most demanding applications.
In comparison to DC drives, AC drives have become a more cost effective method of
speed control for most variable speed drive applications up to 1000 kW. It is also the
technically preferred solution for many industrial environments where reliability and low
maintenance associated with the AC squirrel cage induction motor are important.
The fundamental principles of an AC variable speed drive are relatively easy to
understand and are covered by a few simple equations as follows:

x The speed (n) of the motor can be controlled either by adjusting the supply
frequency (f) or the number of poles (p). In an AC induction motor, the
synchronous speed, which is the speed at which the stator field rotates, is
governed by the simple formula:

120 f
Synchronous Speed, nS rev/min
p

Although there are special designs of induction motors, whose speed can be changed in
one or more steps by changing the number of poles, it is impractical to continuously vary
the number of poles to effect smooth speed control. Consequently, the fundamental
principle of modern AC variable speed drives is that the speed of a fixed pole AC
induction motor is proportional to the fre enc of the AC voltage connected to it.
In practice, the actual speed of the rotor shaft is slower than the synchronous speed of
the rotating stator field, due to the slip between the stator field and the rotor.

Actual speed, n = (ns –slip) rev/min

The slip between the synchronous rotating field and the rotor depends on a number of
factors, being the stator voltage, the rotor current and the mechanical load on the shaft.
Consequently, the speed of an AC induction motor can also be adjusted by controlling the
slip of the rotor relative to the stator field.
Unlike a shunt wound DC motor, the stator field flux in an induction motor is also
derived from the supply voltage and the flux density in the air gap will be affected by
changes in the frequency of the supply voltage. The air-gap flux ()) of an AC induction
motor is directly proportional to the magnitude of the supply voltage ( ) and inversely
proportional to the frequency (f).

Air-gap Flux, ) v
f
214 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

To maintain a constant field flux density in the metal parts during speed control, the
stator voltage must be adjusted in proportion to the frequency. If the flux density is
allowed to rise too high, saturation of the iron parts of the motor will result in high
excitation currents, which will cause excessive losses and heating. If the flux density is
allowed to fall too low, the output torque will drop and affect the performance of the AC
Drive. Air-gap flux density is dependent on both the frequency and the magnitude of the
supply voltage.
So the speed control of AC motors is complicated by the fact that both voltage and
frequency need to be controlled simultaneously, hence the name variable voltage, variable
frequency (VVVF) converter.

x In a way similar to the DC motor, the output torque of the AC motor depends
on the product of the air-gap flux density and the rotor current R. So, to
maintain constant motor output torque, the flux density must be kept constant
which means that the ratio V/f must be kept constant.

Output Torque, v ) R Nm
x The direction of rotation of the AC motor can be reversed by changing the
firing sequence power electronic valves of the inverter stage. This is simply
done through the electronic control circuit.
x Output power of the AC motor is proportional to the product of torque and
speed.

Output Power, v n kW

The basic construction of a modern AC frequency converter is shown in the figure

below.

Figure 8.17
ain components of a t pical t pe C dri e
 Motor Control 215

The mains AC supply voltage is converted into a DC voltage and current through a
rectifier. The DC voltage and current are filtered to smooth out the peaks before being fed
into an inverter, where they are converted into a variable AC voltage and frequency. The
output voltage is controlled so that the ratio between voltage and frequency remains
constant to avoid over-fluxing the motor. The AC motor is able to provide its rated torque
over the speed range up to 50 Hz without a significant increase in losses.
The motor can be run at speeds above rated frequency, but with reduced output torque.
Torque is reduced as a result of the reduction in the air-gap flux, which depends on the
/f ratio. The locus of the induction motor torque–speed curves are at various frequencies
are shown in the figure below. At frequencies below 50 Hz, a constant tor e output from
the motor is possible. At frequencies above the base frequency of 50 Hz, torque is
reduced in proportion to the reduction in speed.

Figure 8.18
oc s of the motor tor e speed c r es at ario s fre encies

One of the main advantages of this VVVF speed control system is that, whilst the
controls are necessarily complex, the motors themselves can be of squirrel cage
construction, which is probably the most robust and maintenance free form of electric
motor yet devised. This is particularly useful where the motors are mounted in hazardous
locations or in an inaccessible position, making routine cleaning and maintenance
difficult. Where a machine needs to be built into a flame-proof or even water-proof
enclosure, this can be done more cheaply with a squirrel cage AC induction motor than
for a DC motor.
On the other hand, an additional problem with standard AC squirrel cage motors, when
used for variable speed applications, is that they are cooled by means of a shaft mounted
fan. At low speeds, cooling is reduced, which affects the loadabilit of the drive. The
continuous output torque of the drive must be derated for lower speeds, unless a
separately powered auxiliary fan is used to cool the motor. This is similar to the cooling
requirements of DC motors, which require a separately powered auxiliary cooling fan.
216 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

From the equations above, the following deductions can be made about an AC drive:
x The speed of an AC induction motor can be controlled by adjusting the
frequency and magnitude of the stator voltage. Motor speed is proportional to
frequency, but the voltage must be simultaneously adjusted to avoid over-
fluxing the motor.
x The AC motor is able to develop its full torque over the normal speed range,
provided that the flux is held constant, (V/f ratio kept constant). A standard
AC motor reaches its rated speed, when the frequency has been increased to
rated frequency (50 Hz) and stator voltage V has reached its rated magnitude.
x The speed of an AC induction motor can be increased above its nominal 50
Hz rating, but the V/f ratio will fall because the stator voltage cannot be
increased any further. This results in a fall of the air-gap flux and a reduction
in output torque. As with the DC motor, this is known as the field weakening
range. The performance of the AC motor in the field weakening range is
similar to that of the DC motor and is characterized by constant power,
reduced torque.
x The output power is zero at zero speed. In the normal speed range and at
constant torque, the output power increases in proportion to the speed.
x In the field weakening range, the motor torque falls in proportion to the speed
and the output power of the AC motor remains constant.

Figure 8.19
or e and po er of an C dri e o er the speed range
 Motor Control 217

8.10. Slip Control AC Variable Speed Drives

When an AC induction motor is started direct-on-line, the electrical power supply
system experiences a current surge which can be anywhere between 4 to 10 times the
rated current of the motor. The level of inrush current depends on the design of the motor
and is independent of the mechanical load connected to the motor. A standard squirrel
cage induction motor has an inrush current typically of 6 times the rated current of the
motor. The starting torque, associated with the inrush current, is typically between 1.5 to
2.5 times the rated torque of the motor. When the rotor is stationary, the slip is 100% and
the speed is zero. As the motor accelerates, the slip decreases and the speed eventually
stabilizes at the point where the motor output torque equals the mechanical load torque, as
illustrated in Figures 8.20 and 8.22.
As discussed in earlier chapters, the basic design of a squirrel cage induction motor
(SCIM) and a wound rotor induction motor (WRIM) are very similar, the main difference
being the design and construction of the rotor. In AC induction motors, the slip between
the synchronous rotating stator field and the rotor is mainly dependent on the following
two factors, either of which can be used to control the motor speed:

x Stator voltage: Affects both the flux and the rotor current.
x Rotor current: For a SCIM, this depends on the rotor design. For a WRIM,
this depends on the external rotor connections

8.10.1. Stator voltage control

The reduction of the AC supply voltage to an induction motor has the effect of
reducing both the air-gap flux ()) and the rotor current (IR). The output torque of the
motor behaves in accordance with the following formula:

Output Torque v ĭ R Nm

Since both ) and R decrease with the voltage, the output torque of the motor falls
roughly as the square of the voltage reduction. So when voltage is reduced, torque
decreases, slip increases and speed decreases. The characteristic curves in Figure 8.20
show the relationship between torque and speed for various values of the supply voltage.
218 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 8.20:
or e speed c r es of an ind ction motor ith red ced s ppl oltage
1 o le el of s ppl oltage
4 igh le el of s ppl oltage
5 ll rated s ppl oltage

From this figure, the speed stabilizes at the point where the motor torque curve, for that
voltage, intersects with the load–torque curve. The application of this technique for speed
control is very limited because the resulting speed is dependent on the mechanical load
torque. Consequently, speed holding is poor unless speed feedback is used, for example
by installing a shaft encoder or tachometer on the motor.

8.10.2. Rotor current control

Rotor current control is another effective method of slip control that has successfully
been used with induction motors for many decades. With full supply voltage on the stator,
giving a constant flux ), the rotor current R can be controlled by adjusting the effective
rotor resistance R.
For this method of control, it is necessary to have access to the 3-phase rotor windings.
A special type of induction motor, known as a o nd rotor ind ction motor ,
sometimes also called a slipring motor, is used for these applications. In a WRIM, the
connections to the rotor windings are brought out to terminals via 3 slip-rings and
brushes, usually mounted at the non-drive end of the shaft. By connecting external
resistance banks to the rotor windings, the rotor current can be controlled. Since output
torque is proportional to the product of ) and R, with a constant field flux, the rotor
current affects the torque–speed characteristic of the motor as shown in Figure 8.21.
Increasing the rotor resistance reduces the rotor current and consequently the output
torque. With lower output torque, the slip increases and speed decreases.
 Motor Control 219

Figure 8.21
or e speed c r es of a ith e ternal rotor resistance
1 igh e ternal rotor resistance connected
6 o e ternal rotor resistance connected
ormal rotor resistance

As with stator voltage control, this method of speed control has a number of
limitations. The speed holding capability, for changes in mechanical load, is poor. Again,
this method of control is more often used to control starting torque rather than for speed
control. In contrast to stator voltage control, which has low starting torque, rotor c rrent
control can provide a high starting torque with the added advantage of soft starting.
The following devices are commonly used in industry for rotor current control:
x Air-cooled resistor banks with bypass contactors
x Oil-cooled resistor banks with bypass contactors
x Liquid resistor starters with controlled depth electrodes
x Thyristor converters for rotor current control and slip energy recovery

Some of the characteristics of rotor current control are as follows:

x Starting current inrush is reduced in direct proportion to the rotor resistance.
x Starting torque, for certain values of rotor resistance, is higher than DOL
starting torque and can be as high as the breakdown torque.
220 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

x Starting with a high external rotor resistance, as resistance is decreased in

steps, the starting torque is progressively increased from a low value up to the
breakdown torque.
x This type of starting is ideal for applications that require a high pull-away
torque with a soft start, such as conveyors, crushers, ball mills, etc.
x Rotor current control is not ideal for speed control because of poor speed
holding capability. However, it can be used for limited speed control,
provided the speed range is small, typically 70% to 100% of motor rated
speed. Motor speed holding is improved with the use of a shaft encoder or
tachometer.

Figure 8.22
pical connections of a ith rotor resistance starter

When the rotor current is controlled by external rotor resistors, a considerable amount
of heat, known as the slip energy, needs to be dissipated in the resistor banks. In practice,
rotor resistors are used for starting large induction motors and to accelerate heavy
mechanical loads up to full speed. At full speed, the resistors are bypassed by means of
contactors and the motor runs with a shorted rotor. Consequently, these losses occur for
relatively short periods of time and are not considered to be of major significance.
However, when rotor resistors are used for speed control over an extended period of
time, the energy losses can be high and the overall efficiency of the drive low. At
constant output torque, the energy losses in the resistors are directly proportional to the
slip. So as the speed is decreased, the efficiency decreases in direct proportion. For
example, a WRIM running at 70% of rated speed at full load will need to dissipate
roughly 30% of its rated power in the rotor resistors.

8.10.3. Slip energy recovery system

The slip energy recovery (SER) system is a further development of rotor current
control, which uses power electronic devices, instead of resistors, for controlling the rotor
current. The main components of the slip energy recovery system are shown in Figure
 Motor Control 221

8.23. The rotor current is controlled by adjusting the firing angle of the rectifier bridge.
With the rectifier bridge turned off, the rotor current is zero and with the thyristor bridge
full on, the rotor current approaches the rated current. The rectifier bridge can be
controlled to provide any current between these outer limits. Instead of dumping the slip
energy into a resistor, it is smoothed through a large choke and converted back into 3-
phase AC currents, which are pumped back into the mains at 50 Hz through a matching
transformer. The thyristors of the rectifier bridge are commutated by the rotor voltage,
while the thyristors of the inverter bridge are commutated by the supply voltage. The DC
link allows the two sides of the converter to run at different frequencies. The tacho is used
for speed feedback to improve the speed holding capability of this variable speed drive.
Using SER technique, the slip energy losses can be recovered and returned to the
power supply system, thus improving the efficiency of the drive.

Figure 8.23
he main components of a slip energ reco er s stem

Some interesting aspects of the slip energy recovery system are as follows:
x The rotor connected SER converter need only be rated for the slip energy,
which depends on the required speed range. For example, for a speed range of
80% to 100% of rated motor speed, the SER converter should be rated at
roughly 20% of motor power rating. If the speed range needs to be broadened
to 70% to 100%, the rating of the SER converter needs to be increased to
roughly 30% of motor power rating. In contrast, stator connected VVVF
converters, commonly used for the speed control of squirrel cage induction
motors, need to be rated for >100% of the motor power rating.
x Because the SER converter rating is lower than motor rating, the slip power at
starting would exceed the rating of the converter. It has become common
practice to use an additional rotor resistance starter, selected by contactors
from the control circuit, for the starting period from standstill. These resistors
can be air-cooled, oil-cooled or the liquid type. Once the WRIM motor has
been accelerated up to the variable speed range, the SER converter is
connected and the resistors disconnected. These resistors have the added
222 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

advantage of providing a standby solution in the event of a SER converter

failure, when the motor can be started and run at fixed speed without the SER
system.
x For additional flexibility, a bypass contactor is usually provided to short
circuit the rotor windings and allow the motor to run at fixed speed.

The slip energy recovery system is most often used by large water supply authorities
for soft starting and limited speed control of large centrifugal pumps, typically 1 MW to
10 MW. In these applications, they are a more cost effective solution than the equivalent
stator connected AC or DC drives. Another increasingly common application is the
starting and limited speed control (70% to 100%) of large SAG mills in mineral
processing plants, typically 1 MW to 5 MW.

8.11. Cycloconverters
A cycloconverter is a converter that synthesizes a 3-phase AC variable frequency
output directly from a fixed frequency 3-phase AC supply, without going via a DC link.
The cycloconverter is not new and the idea was developed over 50 years ago using
mercury arc rectifiers.

Figure 8.24
he main components of a c clocon erter

The low frequency AC waveform is produced using two back-to-back thyristors per
phase, which are allowed to conduct alternatively. By suitable phase angle control, the
output voltage and load current can be made to change in magnitude and polarity in cyclic
fashion. The main limitation of the cycloconverter is that it cannot generate frequencies
higher than the AC supply frequency. In fact, a frequency of about 30% of the supply
 Motor Control 223

frequency is the highest practically possible with reasonable waveforms. The lower the
frequency, the better the waveform. The system is inherently capable of regeneration
back into the mains.
The cycloconverter requires a large number of thyristors, and the control circuitry is
relatively complex but, with the advent of microprocessors and digital electronics, the
implementation of the control circuits has become more manageable.
Because of the low frequency output, cycloconverters are suited mainly for large slow
speed drives, where it is used to drive either a large induction motor or a synchronous
motor. Typical applications are SAG or ball mills, rotary cement kilns, large crushers,
mine-winders, etc.

8.12. Servo-drives
er o dri es are used in those drive applications which require a high level of
precision, usually at relatively low powers. This often includes rapid stop-start cycles,
very high acceleration torques, accurate positioning with controllable velocity and torque
profiles.
The use of servo-drives for industrial manufacturing and materials handling has also
become far more common, particularly for accurate positioning systems. This type of
drive differs from a normal open loop VVVF drive in the following respects:
x Accuracy and precision of the motor speed and torque output are far in excess
of what is normally possible with AC induction motors
x A servo-motor is usually designed to operate with a specific servo-converter
x Response of the servo-drive system to speed change demand is extremely fast
x Servo-drives provide full torque holding at zero speed
x Servo-drive inertia is usually very low to provide rapid response rates
Servo-drives are beyond the scope of this book and will not be covered here.

8.13. Reversing in Induction Motors

In certain application like lifts and cranes, it is required that the motor be capable of
reversing. This requires a reversible motor, i.e., one in which the shaft has a bi-directional
rotation both clockwise and anti-clockwise. In induction motor, this is quite simply
achieved by changing over any two of the leads.
In figure 8.25, the direction of an induction motor with DOL starter is reversed. Phases
L1 & L2 are interchanged; you can always change direction of the induction motor by
interchanging any two phases. This can be achieved by changing the leads either at the
motor terminals or at the starter end connection
However, it is always advisable to make changes to the lines going to the starter as
there may be some confusion in case of motors arranged for Star-Delta starting while
making changes at the motor terminals.
224 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

In figure 8.26, reversing connections of a 3-Phase induction motor with star delta
starter are shown. The phases L1 & L2 have been interchanged.

Forward Reverse

A B C Motor A B C

A B C A B C

Starter

L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3

Figure 8.25
e ersing a three phase motor
 Motor Control 225

Reverse
Forward

A1 B1 C1 Motor A1 B1 C1

A2 B2 C2 A2 B2 C2

A1 B1 C1 Starter A1 B1 C1

A2 B2 C2 A2 B2 C2

L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3

Figure 8.26
e ersing a star delta motor
226 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance
 9

Control System for AC Variable

Speed Drives

9.1. Introduction
Selection of an AC Variable Speed Drive, also known as Variable Voltage Variable
Frequency (VVVF) Electrical Drive, has become the natural choice of the modern day
drive designer for any variable speed application. The main driving force behind this
selection process is the Squirrel Cage Induction Motor (SCIM) that can be used as the
prime mover. This because a SCIM is the most cost effective motor that can be designed
for any kind of environment. The advent of IGBTs and the tremendous growth in the
quality of AC power electronic components & great strides in the development of high
power micro controllers have fuelled this paradigm shift. The booming market for AC
Variable Frequency Drives serves as a testimony to this. However there are certain
associated complexities that are to be properly addressed while selecting the components
and engineering the systems, otherwise the benefits will not accrue to the end user as
envisaged. This needs an understanding about the basic control system, various types of
controls and components of such a system.
Any VSD consists of three principal elements:

1. The drive controller is the brain that converts the fixed voltage and frequency of
the AC power into an adjustable power output to control the drive motor over a
wide speed range. It includes sensing circuits to hold or regulate the motor at the
desired speed with variations in the source voltage and changes in motor load. It
also includes protective circuitry and devices to prevent damage from overloads,
power source transients and output power faults. It forms a major part of the
overall control system.
228 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

2. The drive motor is the muscle that translates electrical energy into mechanical
motion. The output is a shaft rotation, which varies in proportion to the power
enabled by the drive controller. The motor shaft is normally coupled to a gear
reducer or other mechanical power transmission device to further reduce the
motor speed to a level useable by the driven machine.

3. The operator control is the interface meant for integrating the drive with its
operational control system like DCS – Digital Control System, meant for process
control employing distributed digital controls. It sets the reference for the speed
of the drive at which the process requirement is felt.

9.2. The Overall Control System

Although the main function of the control system for modern PWM-type AC VVVF
(Variable Voltage Variable Frequency) converters is to control the semiconductor
switches of the PWM Inverter, there are a number of other important functions, which
need to be controlled.
All these functions, as shown in Figure 9.1 are organized in a modular construction in
most of the modern day AC ariable peed ri es (VSDs).

Figure 9.1
ain components of an C ariable speed dri e

The overall control system can be divided into 4 main areas:

x Inverter control system

x Speed feedback and control system
x Current feedback and control system
x External interface, which includes the following:
 Control Systems for AC Variable Speed Drives 229

 Parameter settings by the user

 Operator information and fault diagnostics
 Digital and analog inputs to receive control signals (start, stop, etc)
 Digital and analog outputs to pass on status information (running,
faulted, etc)

With the rapid advances in digital electronics over the last decade, modern VSD
control systems are able to utilize one or more microprocessors to realize various
functionalities very effectively.
The control systems are designed to achieve the following main objectives:
x High level of eliabilit
x High in erter performance to ensure that the output current waveform
provides sufficient motor torque, at selected speed, with minimum of motor
losses
x inimi ed n erter losses
x Possibility to integrate the control s stem into the o erall process control
s stem with facilities for external control and communications interfaces
x High tolerance to po er s ppl fl ct ations and

9.3. Power Supply For The Control System

For reliable operation of a VSD, it is essential that a reliable power supply is available
to provide power to the control circuits of the AC converter, even under abnormal
situations, such as a power dip, high levels of interference etc. The general requirements
for power in a modern VSD are set out in the table below.

Functional block Approximate load Common potential Voltages

Control Circuits 20VA independent of Usually referenced to Earth ±5V for μP

drive size ±12V or ±15 V
Power Interface 20VA, depends on current Usually referenced to ±12V or ±15 V
Circuits feedback method Earth, may have auxiliary
isolated supply at bus
potential
User Interface 5VA for logic inputs Earth referenced if using 5V or 12V if
Circuits 20VA for opto inputs logic inputs. logic inputs
Isolated (floating) if using 12V or 24V if
opto inputs opto inputs
Power Device 0.2VA-1VA per kW 4 or 6 separate isolated ±12V, 15V, 24V
Drivers Depends on power device outputs, Turn on ... plus
Highest for GTO 3 at motor phase potential, Turn off ... minus
Less for BJT 1 or 3 at -ve dc bus wrt power device
230 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Functional block Approximate load Common potential Voltages

Lowest for FET/IGBT potential
DC Bus Charging 0.1VA per drive kW Earth referenced or floating 12VDC, 24VDC
Circuits 110V, 240V or
415V AC
Cooling Fan 0.5VA per drive kW Earth referenced or floating 12VDC, 24VDC
Power 110V, 240V or
415V AC

Table 9.1
eneral re irements for po er in a ariable speed dri e

The simplest method of providing auxiliary power to the converter control circuits is
from an auxiliary transformer connected to the mains. Multiple secondary windings are
necessary to provide isolation for the control circuits and the device drivers.
The major problem with this approach arises when there is an interruption of the mains
power. Control of the inverter is lost and the VSD has to be stopped, even for short dips
in the supply. In many drive applications, there is a requirement for VSDs to 'ride
thro gh' voltage dips of short duration.
Consequently, most modern AC converters use itched ode o er pplies
(SMPS), fed directly from the DC Link, to provide the auxiliary power to the control
system. These are essentially DC-DC converters. The main advantage of this approach
is that control power can be maintained right up to the time that the motor stops,
irrespective of the condition of the mains supply. When the mains power fails, auxiliary
power is maintained initially from the large capacitors connected across the DC Link and
later from the inertia of the motor itself. When mains power is interrupted, most AC
converters are programmed to reduce frequency and retrieve (regenerate) power from the
motor, which behaves as an AC induction generator when the frequency is reduced.
There are many types of switched mode power supplies, including fl back converters,
for ard converters and bridge converters. They can be isolated or non-isolated and have
single or multiple outputs. Since they operate at high frequency (10 kHz to 100 kHz),
they are physically much smaller than conventional mains frequency transformer based
power supplies and despite the added complexity of SMPSs, they are of comparable cost.
Due to the modular nature of modern drives, it is common to have multiple auxiliary
power supplies, each of which is dedicated to a single module of the VSD, such as the
control module, the pulse amplifier driver stage, the cooling fans, etc. These different
SMPSs may operate independently from the DC Link or from a central SMPS that
converts the DC Link voltage to a single isolated low voltage supply, such as 24 VDC.
Each module may then take its power requirements from this 24 VDC power supply.
As shown in Table 9.1, the e ice ri er o er pplies need to be provided with 4
or 6 isolated power outputs. These need to be isolated because the three power electronic
switches connected to the Positive terminal of the DC Link have their Emitter (IGBT &
BJT), Source (MOSFET) or Cathode (GTO) terminals connected to the output phases to
the motor. This terminal is the reference terminal for the driver stage, while the Base or
Gate terminal must be driven positi e to t rn on or negati e to t rn off. The power
 Control Systems for AC Variable Speed Drives 231

supply reference point for each of these three devices is at a different potential, therefore
requiring isolation.
The three power electronic switches connected to the Negative terminal of the DC Link
all have their Emitter, Source or Cathode terminals connected to the Negative bus, and so
a single power supply could be used for all three device driver circuits. This explains why
a minimum of 4 isolated power supplies shown in the table. However, it is more common
to use 6 identical power supplies to operate the device driver stages, as there are benefits
in terms of modularity and commonality of wiring.
There are two main methods for deriving these device driver power supplies. The first
is to provide the six isolated supplies from either a mains frequency transformer or a
SMPS, in the same way all other control power is produced. An alternative is to provide
a single high frequency square wave supply, which is coupled directly into the six driver
circuits through dedicated high frequency (usually toroidal) transformers that are part of
each driver circuit. Separate rectifier and regulation circuits then provide the necessary
plus and minus supplies for each driver stage.
The cooling fans for the converter heat sinks can be powered from the SMPS or
directly from the mains, whichever is a cheaper solution. The major drawback of the
mains supply is the inability to deal with the different mains voltages and frequencies
which are found throughout the world. This can usually be solved by supplying the fan
through an auxiliary transformer with several primary connections to match the most
common voltage options.

9.4. DC Bus Charging System

A modern PWM-type AC Drive operates with a fixed voltage DC bus. The fixed DC
bus voltage is normally obtained from via a 6-pulse Diode Rectifier Bridge from a 3-
phase power supply. This voltage is usually 415 Volts, 3-Phase, 50Hz while in some
countries, the voltage is 380 Volts, 3-Phase, 50Hz.
When the mains power is first connected to the input terminals of the AC Drive, very
high inrush currents would occur as the bank of filter capacitors across the DC bus
charge. While the diodes in the rectifier module and the capacitors may be able to
withstand these high currents, it is quite possible that upstream fuses or circuit breakers
would operate to trip out the VSD. Therefore, some provision needs to be made to limit
this inrush current. The C b s pre charge circ it is normally provided for this purpose.
There are two main approaches to solving the problem of inrush current:
x Pre-charge resistors, with a bypass contactor, either on AC side or DC side of
the AC/DC rectifier bridge
x The AC/DC rectifier can be a controlled rectifier bridge instead of an
uncontrolled diode bridge

The first method is the most common method, an example of which is shown in Figure
9.2. Charging resistors are inserted between the input supply and the capacitor bank to
limit the current when power is first applied. Once the capacitors are charged, these
resistors would introduce additional losses in the VSD and therefore need to be bypassed
232 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

during normal operation. A relay (small VSDs) or contactor (large VSDs) is used to
bypass the charging resistors and carry the full rated current of the drive.
The control of the relay may be either via a simple timer circuit with a fixed time delay
between power being applied and the inverter stage being enabled. A better method is to
monitor the DC bus voltage and the bypass relay is closed after a certain voltage level has
been attained. In the better quality VSDs, feedback may be provided from each of the
power supplies in the central controller to verify their status.

Figure 9.2
ample of a C b s pre charging circ it

Some form of interlock needs to be provided to ensure that the relay is closed before
allowing the inverter stage to operate. If not, the high load current through the VSD will
heat up and burn out the charging resistors. In addition, it is critical that all power
supplies have had the opportunity to stabilize and establish regulation. As a result, most
VSDs have a start p lock o t circuit that delay starting for a short period after the VSD
is powered up.
There are many variations on this theme, for example, the resistors and relay can be
either in the DC link or the 3-phase supply lines. There may be a single set of large
resistors and one large relay or there may be multiple sets of smaller resistors and relays.
Other variations of this technique include the use of semi-conductor bypass switches.
The main ad antages of this method are:
x Simplicity of the control circuit
x Cheap and easy to implement

The main disad antages of this method are:

x The losses associated with the relay contacts and coils
x The physical size of these components
 Control Systems for AC Variable Speed Drives 233

x The reliability of these electromechanical devices, particularly when the

motor control system requires a high number of energisation and de-
energisations

The second, less common, approach is to replace the normal diode rectifier with a
phase- controlled rectifier bridge. This allows the capacitor voltage to be increased
gradually, by controlling the firing angle, and thereby controlling the inrush current. This
method is most often used on VSDs with larger power ratings above about 22kW.
The main ad antages of this method are:
x Conduction losses are lower
x Physical size is reduced by not having the relay

The main disad antages of this method are:

x Power thyristors are more expensive than power diodes
x The control circuit is more complex in comparison with the relay circuit
x There is potential for false triggering of the phase control circuit due to
notching and other disturbances on the mains
x Overall reactive power requirements are slightly higher

Figure 9.3
C b s charging sing a phase controlled th ristor bridge

9.5. VSD Control Loops

An AC frequency converter is designed to control both the oltage and fre enc fed
to the motor and is therefore often called a Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF)
controller. The digital control system automates this process. For example, when an
operator selects a speed setting on a potentiometer, the VSD control system implements
this selection by adjusting the output frequency and voltage to ensure that the motor runs
at the set speed The accuracy of the control system and its response to the operator's
command is determined by the t pe of control s stem used on that particular VSD.
234 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

The type of control used in VSD control systems follows an approach similar to that
used in normal industrial process control The level of control can be:
x imple pen oop Control with no feedback from the process
x Closed oop Control with feedback of a process variable
x Cascade Closed oop Control with feedback from more than one variable

9.5.1. Open-loop control

The purpose of an electrical VSD is to convert the electrical energy of the mains power
supply into the mechanical energy of a load at variable speed and torque. In many
applications, VSDs are simply required to control the speed of the load, based on a
setpoint command provided by an operator or a process controller.
Conventional VVVF converters are voltage source devices which control the
magnitude and frequency of the output voltage The current that flows depends on the
motor conditions and load. These are not controlled by the AC converter, but are a result
of the application of voltage. The only current control that is exercised is to limit the
current when its magnitude reaches a high level, for example at 150% of full load current.
There is no provision made for feedback of speed information from the motor to check
if it is running at the required speed or if it is running at all. If the load torque changes,
and slip increases or decreases, the converter would not adjust its output to compensate
for these changes in the process.
This method of open-loop control is adequate for controlling steady-state conditions
and simple applications, such as centrifugal pumps & fans or conveyors, which allow a
lot of time for speed changes from one level to another and where the consequences of
the changes in the process are not severe.

9.5.2. Closed-loop control

In industry, there are also those more difficult applications, where speed and/or torque
must be continuously and accurately controlled The required accuracy of the control is
important and can have a large influence on the choice of drive technology. For those
drive applications that require tight dynamic control, closed-loop control is necessary.
This type of performance can be achieved with Closed Loop Vector Control AC Drives
and standard DC Drives
Standard VVVF AC Drives can be used in closed-loop control systems, such as
pumping systems which regulate pressure or flow, but in general these applications are
not capable of high performance
The typical configuration of a Closed oop s stem is shown in figure 9.4 and
consists of the following main components:
x The motor whose role is to convert the electrical energy of the supply into the
mechanical energy necessary to affect the load
x A ransd cer for meas ring the load quantity, which is to be controlled. This
is used as a feedback signal to the control system. Where speed is important,
the transducer can be a tachometer (analog system) or an encoder (digital
 Control Systems for AC Variable Speed Drives 235

system). Where position is important, the transducer is a resolver (analog

system) or an absolute encoder (digital system). However, there are less
expensive means for measuring speed and position, depending on the required
accuracy. Where c rrent is important, the transducer is a current transformer.
x A con erter which controls the flow of electric power to the motor. This is
achieved with a po er electronic con erter involving solid state devices
switching at high frequency under the control of a digital circuit.
x A controller which compares the desired value of speed or position, called
the et oint with the measured value, called the rocess ariable
and then gives a Control tp t which adjusts the speed and torque to reduce
the error (SP-PV) to zero. Previously, controllers were implemented by
analog circuits, using operational amplifiers (Op-Amps). Modern controllers
are implemented using microprocessors and digital circuits.

Figure 9.4
chematic of a closed loop control s stem

The desired value of the load, such as the speed, can be set manually by an operator
turning a potentiometer (analog system) or by dialling up a value on a keypad (digital
system). If the VSD is part of a complex control system, the desired value can be passed
down from the rocess Control stem C or C , either by means of a 4-20mA
signal (analog system) or by means of a serial data link (digital system).
If each quantity in the control loop was directly proportional to the quantity before it,
simple open-loop control of speed would be adequate, without the need for feedback of
the Process Variable (PV). In AC drives, if accurate speed control is required, then
feedback of the torque and speed variables is necessary. In particular, the motor current
responds to an increase in motor frequency with a rise time dependent on its leakage
inductance. On the other hand, the motor speed follows the torque with a rise time
dependent on its inertia. While these inaccuracies may be acceptable in simple
applications, such as pump speed control, it may not be acceptable for other difficult
applications, such as the variable speed drives in a paper machine, where several drives
operate in tandem. In these difficult applications, improved performance can be obtained
with the use of several closed-loop control systems working together, known as multi-
loop or cascade control.
This type of closed-loop control system has been redrawn in figure 9.5 to emphasize
the most important control aspects. The term closed loop feedback control emphasizes
the nature of the control system, where feedback is provided from the output back to the
input of the controller.
236 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 9.5
closed loop feedback control s stem

In a closed-loop Variable Speed Drive, the following takes place:

x Measurement of the rocess ariable using an encoder

x Comparison of the rocess ariable (measured speed) with the et oint
(desired speed) to give an error signal, where error signal
x This error signal is then processed by the controller to adjust the Output
signal to the process, in this case, the AC converter, motor and speed
transducer

Figure 9.5 could be misleading because, in practice, the error point is usually part of the
controller.

9.5.3. Cascaded closed-loop control

For the difficult applications, which require very close speed and torque control, with a
fast response to changes in the process, a single-loop controller may not be adequate to
anticipate all the delays in the process. These make the controller difficult to design and
difficult to setup during commissioning. Fortunately, a technique that deals with the
problem in several smaller steps has evolved from past experience with DC Drives. The
solution consists of two Cascaded Closed-loop Controllers. The basic setpoint is the
Speed Set-point, which is set by an operator via a potentiometer or from a PLC. Rather
than attempting to calculate the desired inverter frequency directly to meet these speed
requirements, a DC Drive achieves this in two stages.
x The first peed Control oop uses the speed error to calculate the desired
torque setpoint to either increase speed (accelerate) or decrease speed
(decelerate). The speed control loop only has to allow for one of the time
delays in the system, which is the delay between the torque and the measured
speed. This compensates for the mechanical transients in the system, mainly
load inertia
x The second or e Control oop compares this set torque, the output of the
speed controller, with the actual measured value and calculates the desired
output frequency. The measured process variable in this case is the measured
motor current, which is proportional to the motor torque. Therefore, this
control loop is often called the C rrent oop
 Control Systems for AC Variable Speed Drives 237

A Vector Control Drive uses a similar strategy. In the design of the or e Control
oop, it is assumed that the rate of change of c rrent is m ch faster than the rate of
change of speed This is equivalent to assuming that the motor is running at a constant
speed. Consequently, the Current Loop only has to allow for the time delay between the
output frequency and the current. As well as giving the desired inverter output frequency,
it also gives the desired inverter voltage since the two are related. Both quantities are
passed to the PWM switching logic, which controls the inverter switching sequence and
speeds (see Figure 9.6).
The C rrent Control oop compensates for the electrical transients, mainly the
winding inductance and resistance.
The block diagram of the cascaded loop controller comprises:
x An outer (major) Speed Control Loop
x An inner (minor) Torque Control Loop

Figure 9.6
Cascade controller for speed and tor e

A major advantage of the cascaded controller is that it is possible to impose a current

limit on the drive output by placing a limit on the input to the current/torque loop. This is
usually set to prevent the speed control loop from asking for any more than about 150%
of rated current from the current loop.
The current loop can respond quickly in less than 10ms. The speed loop responds more
slowly because motor and load inertia are usually substantial. A response time of about
100ms is typical for the speed control loop.
The response of the amplifier for the speed or current controller to a step change is
shown in figure 9.7. The simplest type of controller amplifier is one whose output is
proportional to the input, called a Proportional amplifier or P-control. P-control is not
used in speed and current control loops because it does not respond well to the
requirements for high accuracy and a fast dynamic response. It is more common in high
performance VSDs to use Proportional-Integral Control, or control. The step response
for PI-control consists of combination of the step output of the P-control and a ramp due
to the integral control.
238 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 9.7
esponse of and controllers to a step inp t
a tep inp t control change
b roportional Controller tp t
c roportional ntegral Controller tp t

9.6. Vector control

The term ector Control is probably one of the more abused terms in industrial control
and consequently has caused considerable confusion amongst users of VS drives. ector
Control for AC Variable Speed Drives has been available from some drive manufacturers
since the mid-1980s. The technique of ector Control has only become possible as a
result of the large strides made in solid state electronics, both with microprocessors and
power electronics.
It has been promoted as an AC drive equivalent to DC drives and claimed to be
suitable for even the most demanding drive applications and this is where the confusion
arises. The statement is true, but only to the extent that the principles of Vector Control
are implemented. There are degrees to which this enhanced type of control can be
applied to AC Variable Speed Drives. Some manufacturers have encouraged this
confusion in an effort to attribute higher performance characteristics to products that only
partially apply the technology of Vector Control. The meaning of the various terms is
covered later in this chapter after the fundamental principles of Vector Control are
explained. Today, the term "Vector Control" has become a generic name applied to all
drives which provide a higher level of performance (compared to the fixed V/f drives).
Electric motors produce torque as the result of the interaction of two magnetic fields -
one in the fixed part (stator) and the other in the rotating part (rotor/armature) and their
interaction across the air-gap. The magnetic fields are produced by the c rrent flowing in
the windings of the stator and rotor. The motor torque depends on the strength of both of
these magnetic fields In fact, the torque is proportional to the product of the currents
producing these two magnetic fields.
In a DC Drive it is fairly well understood that the output torque is proportional to the
product of two current vectors, the armature current IA (torque producing current) and the
field current IF(flux producing current) at 90o to one another. In practice, the field current
is normally held constant. Consequently, the armature current IA is directly proportional
to output torque of the motor. The armature current (IA) can be used as the torque
 Control Systems for AC Variable Speed Drives 239

feedback in the cascaded closed loop controller. Both these currents can readily be
measured and accounts for the simple control of the DC Drive.
In an C nd ction otor (refer to equivalent circuit in Figure 9.8), the flux producing
current (IM) and torque producing current (IR) are "inside" the motor and cannot be
measured externally or controlled separately. As in the DC drive, these two currents are
also roughly at 90o to one another and their vector sum makes up the tator C rrent
which can be measured (Figure 9.9). This is what makes the vector control of an AC
motor more difficult than its DC counterpart. The challenge for the AC Flux-Vector
drive is to distinguish and control these two current vectors without the benefit of two
separate circuits and only being able to measure and control the stator current.
The strategy of an AC Vector Control drive is to calc late the indi id al c rrent
ectors to eventually enable separate control of the flux current and/or the torque current
under all speed & load conditions. As in the DC drive, the aim is to maintain a constant
flux current in the motor.
The calculation of the current vectors involves the measurement of the available
variables (such as the stator current (IS), stator voltage (VS), phase relationship,
frequency, shaft speed, etc) and applying them to a "Motor Model", which includes the
motor constants (such as the stator resistance & inductance, the rotor resistance &
inductance, the magnetizing inductance, number of poles, etc). Because of the many
variables, there are many possible applications of a motor model, from simple estimation
of motor conditions to those which are very comprehensive and very accurate. The more
detailed the motor model, the more processing power is required.

Figure 9.8
implified e i alent circ it of an C ind ction motor

Under motor no load conditions almost all the no-load stator current IS comprises the
magnetising current. Any torque-producing current is only required to overcome the
windage and friction losses in the motor. Slip is almost zero, stator current lags the
voltage by 90o, so power factor is close to zero (CosI = 0).
At lo motor loads the stator current IS is the ector s m of the magnetizing current IM
(unchanged), with a slightly increased active torque-producing current. Stator current
lags the voltage by a large angle I, so power factor is poor (CosI << 1). Slip is still
small.
At high motor loads the stator current IS is the ector s m of the magnetising current
IM (unchanged), with a greatly increased active torque-producing current, which increases
240 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

in proportion to the increase in load torque. Stator current lags the voltage by an angle I,
so the power factor has improved to be close to the full load power factor (CosI = 0.85).

Figure 9.9
C rrent ectors in an C ind ction motor

Therefore, the central part of the vector control system is the cti e otor odel
which continuously models the conditions inside the motor. It does the following:
x Continuously calculates in real time the Torque-producing current by
implementing the following activities:
 Stores the motor constants in memory to be used as part of the
calculation
 Measures stator current and voltage in each phase
 Measures speed (with encoder) or calculates speed (no encoder)

x Continuously calculates in real time the Flux-producing current

x Implements the Speed Control Loop by comparing the speed feedback with
the Speed Setpoint to provide an error output to the Torque Control Loop
x Implements the Torque Control Loop by comparing the active torque,
calculated from the current and speed feedback, to provide an error output to
the PWM switching logic controller
x Constantly updates this information and maintains tight control over the
Process

For adequate dynamic response of the drive, the model calculations need to be done at
least more than 2,000 times per second, which gives an update time of less than 0.5 ms.
Although this is easily achieved with modern high speed processors, the ability to
continuously model the induction motor at this speed only became viable within the last
10 years or so with the development of 16-bit microprocessors. Initially, sufficient
processing power for Vector control was quite expensive, but over a period of time, the
cost of the processors has come down and processing speed has increased significantly.
The main difference between a traditional fixed V/f ratio VVVF Converter and a
modern Vector Control drive is almost entirely in the control system and the extent to
 Control Systems for AC Variable Speed Drives 241

which the Active Motor Model for Vector control is implemented to control the switching
pattern of the IGBTs of the Inverter.
The power circuit for a Vector converter is almost identical to that used by a VVVF
drive:
x ectifier to convert 3-phase AC to a DC Voltage
x nd cti e choke to reduce harmonics on the supply side
x C link with capacitor filter to provide a smooth and steady DC voltage
xA semicond ctor in erter bridge to convert the DC to a PWM variable
voltage variable frequency output suitable for an AC induction motor
x A microprocessor based digital control circ it to control the switching,
provide protection and provide a user interface

Today, standard AC Variable Speed Drives from most reputable manufacturers

implement vector control to some degree. For example, Sensorless Vector Control is
advertised as a performance feature with almost all modern AC drives.
There are essentially 3 basic types of control for AC Variable Speed Drives today:
x Basic Fixed V/f drive - provides fair speed control at a reasonable price and is
suitable for the control of centrifugal pumps and fans
x V/f Sensorless Vector drive - provides better speed regulation, better starting
torque and acceleration by implementing more/better control of the flux
producing current vector (flux-vector)
x Closed Loop Field Oriented Vector Control drive - provides excellent speed
and torque control with DC like performance using cascaded PI control over
speed, torque as well as flux regulation. The dynamic performance is
excellent.

9.7. Basic Fixed V/f Drives

The control strategy of a fixed V/f drive is essentially open loop control as shown
below:
x The peed eference is taken from an external source and controls the
Voltage and Frequency applied to the motor
x The speed reference is first fed into a ramp circuit to convert a step change in
the speed request to a slowly changing signal. This prevents electrical and
mechanical shock to the speed control system. The acceleration and
deceleration ramp times can be set by the user
x The signal is then passed to a section that sets the magnitude of both the
Voltage and frequency fed to the motor. The V/f ratio between the Voltage
and Frequency is kept constant at all times. It also sets the rate of change of
these two values, which determines the motor acceleration
242 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

x The base voltage and base frequency used for this ratio are taken from the
motor nameplate
x Finally, the signal passes to the PWM Switching Logic module, that controls
the switching pattern of the IGBT switches to provide the voltage pattern at
the output terminals according to the PWM algorithm (sine-coded, etc)
x There is usually no speed feedback from the motor. It is ass med that the
motor is responding to and following the output frequency (open-loop control)
x The current feedback from the current transducer is there mainly for
protection, indication and to set a current limit. It is not used as part of the
control strategy

It is necessary to monitor the stator current flowing to the motor. The drive usually
monitors total current and cannot distinguish between Im and Ir.

Figure 9.10
lock control diagram of fi ed f dri e

This current is not used to control torque, but is aimed at the following functions:
x Measures actual current for the I2t overload protection of the motor
x Provides protection of the power electronic components
x Provides a C rrent imit The control system reduces the frequency command
signal when the current exceeds a predetermined value. Usually, current limit
is set to 150% of the rated motor current
x Some newer V/f drives provide lip Compensation as a strategy for improving
the speed holding capability in an attempt to maintain relatively constant
motor speed even with changes in the motor load torque. As the output torque
increases, the motor current increases, which can be used to adjust the output
frequency of the converter. For example, at full rated load, the full slip value
can be added to the output frequency. With slip compensation, improved
speed regulation can be obtained from an induction motor without a speed
feedback device

This method of open loop fixed V/f control is adequate for controlling steady-state
conditions and simple applications, such as pumps, fans and conveyors, which allow a lot
 Control Systems for AC Variable Speed Drives 243

of time for speed changes from one level to another and where the consequences of the
changes in the process are not severe.
This type of drive is not well suited to the following:
x Applications where motors run at low speeds (below 5Hz). The torque at low
speed is generally poor because the stator volt drop significantly affects the
magnitude of the flux-producing current. Many V/f drives include a "Start
Boost" when allows the V/f ratio to be boosted at starting in an attempt to
improve the flux and consequently the starting torque
x Applications which require higher dynamic performance
x Applications that require direct control of motor torque rather than motor
frequency
x The dynamic performance of this type of drive with shock loads is poor

9.8. V/f Sensorless Flux-Vector Drives (Open Loop Vector)

The development of Sensorless Flux-Vector drives was aimed at overcoming the main
shortcomings of the fixed V/f drives, mainly the loss of torque at low speeds.
This type of drive is often also called an Open Loop Vector drive because its basic core
is still the fixed V/f ratio controller. But wrapped around this core are several additional
control components:
x A C rrent esol er mathematical model that uses the measured stator
current to calculate (in real time) the two separate current vectors which
represent the flux-producing current (IM) and the torque-producing current (IR)
x A igh erformance C rrent imiter which uses the torque-producing
current (IR) to rapidly adjust the frequency command to limit current
xA l eg lator which continuously adjusts the V/f ratio to maintain an
optimum control of the flux-producing current (IM)
x A lip stimator that provides accurate estimation of the rotor speed based on
the known motor parameters without the use of an encoder. This provides
improved slip compensation under all conditions of speed and load

The result is a greatly improved torque, particularly at low speeds, to provide high
breakaway and acceleration torque and an improved dynamic response to shock loads.
However, this type of drive does not provide torque control, it is still a only speed control
device. In addition, speed holding capability is substantially improved.
This type of drive can also be operated with an encoder, providing closed loop control
of the speed. This substantially improves the speed holding capability of the VS drive
with speed regulation of 0.1%.
244 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

9.9. Closed-loop Field Oriented Vector Drives

Up to the end of the 1980s, high performance drive applications inevitably required the
use of a DC drive. However, the high maintenance requirements of DC drives have
encouraged the development of alternative solutions. Vector controlled AC drives have
evolved to provide a level of dynamic performance that has now exceeded that of DC
drives.
Closed Loop Vector control is not required for every AC VSD application, in fact only
on a minority of applications. But there are a number of applications that inherently
require tight closed-loop control, with a speed regulation better than 0.01% and a
dynamic response better than 50radians/sec. This dynamic response is about 10 times
better than that provided by standard V/f drives.
The control block diagram for a high performance Vector Control AC drive system is
essentially a Cascaded Closed loop type with speed and torque control loops:
x There are two separate control loops, one for peed and the second for
C rrent This control strategy is similar to that used for the control of a DC
Drive.
x peed oop controls the output frequency, which is proportional to speed
x or e oop controls the motor in-phase current, which is proportional to
torque
x The peed eference command from the user is first fed into a comparator,
from where the error controls the speed regulator
x The Speed error signal becomes the setpoint for the torque (current) regulator.
This signal is compared to the calc lated current feedback from the motor
circuit and the error signal determines whether the motor is to be accelerated
or decelerated.
x There is a separate control loop for the flux current (V/f regulator)
x Finally, the signal passes to the PWM and Switching Logic section, that
controls the IGBTs in such a way that the desired voltage and frequency are
generated at the output according to the PWM algorithm (Sine-coded, Star
modulation, VVC, etc)
 Control Systems for AC Variable Speed Drives 245

Figure 9.11
lock diagram of the fl ector con erter control circ it

Although a shaft mounted incremental encoder can be used to measure speed in an AC

drive, it is often considered to be an additional expense. In some cases it is difficult to
mount on the motor, for example when motors have integral brakes. Even when an
encoder is not used, the cascaded closed loop control can still be implemented because
speed can be calculated by the Active Motor Model, but with a lower level of accuracy
due to the difficulty of calculating slip, particularly at very low speeds. Vector controlled
drives which do not use an encoder are usually referred to as ensorless ector dri es
The dynamic response of Vector control drives which do not use an encoder is usually
inferior to those that do.
The following are some interesting figures that have been presented by one of the
leading manufacturers of Variable Speed Drives:

DC Drive V/f Flux V/f Flux Field Field

with Vector Vector Oriented Oriented
encoder Sensorless with Sensorless with encoder
encoder

Speed 0.01% 1.0% 0.1% 0.5% 0.001%

Accuracy
Torque 10-20msec 100msec 10-20msec 1-10msec 1-10msec
Response

Table 9.2

peed acc rac or e response of different s

Typical applications for this type of high performance VS drive are:

x Crane and Hoist drives
x Rewinders on paper and steel-strip lines
x Paper machines
x Printing machines
x Positioning systems for automated manufacturing lines, etc.
246 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

When setting up high performance VSD controllers, a modest roportional gain gives
a good transient response, while the ntegral gain gives high steady state accuracy. PI-
controllers have the advantage that they can maintain a non-zero output to drive the
converter although their input is zero. This is an advantage in closed-loop control
because high accuracy should lead to zero error at the controller input.
Suitable values of P and I determine the step and ramp parts of the response
respectively and have to be calculated for each Inverter-Motor-Load combination.
x The al es of and for the speed loop are dependent on the motor flux, load
friction and inertia as they influence the response of speed to current
x The al es of and for the c rrent loop depend on the inverter gain, motor
resistance and leakage inductance, since they influence the response of current
to the motor frequency

In modern digital drives, the P and I values for both current and speed loops can be set
by keypad or, alternatively, most modern digital drives usually include an algorithm for
self t ning. This removes the difficulties of 'tuning the loops', which was traditionally
necessary with older analog DC Drives. The P and I gains of the speed loop can be set up
during commissioning to meet application requirements and seldom need to be changed.
There are a number of disadvantages of the Vector controlled AC drive, when
compared to a DC Drive:

x The Vector controller is far more complex and expensive when compared to
the simple cascade controller of a DC Drive
x Encoder speed feedback is usually necessary to obtain accurate feedback of
the motor shaft speed. Fitting these encoders to a standard squirrel cage AC
induction motor is often difficult and makes the motor more expensive. In
recent years, 'Sensorless' Vector Control has been developed where an
encoder is not required. The approximate speed is calculated by the processor
from the other available information, such as voltage and current. However,
the speed accuracy and dynamic response of these drives is inferior to those
using encoders
x The nature of the drive itself often requires the AC motor to operate at high
torque loadings at low speeds. The standard squirrel cage AC induction
motor then requires a separately powered cooling fan, installed at the ND end
of the motor
x Regenerative braking is more difficult with a Vector drive than with a DC
drive. Resistive type d namic braking systems are most often used with AC
Vector control drives
 Control Systems for AC Variable Speed Drives 247

9.10. Current Feedback In AC Variable Speed Drives

9.10.1. Methods of measuring current in variable speed drives
Current Feedback is required in AC Variable Speed Drives for a number of purposes:
x rotection from short circuit, earth fault and thermal overload in motor
circuits
x etering for metering and indication for the process control system
x Control for current limit control and current loop control

Several methods have been developed over the years to measure the current and
convert it into an electronic form suitable for the drive controller. The method chosen
depends on the required accuracy of measurement and the cost of implementation. The
main methods of measurement are as follows:
x C rrent h nt where the current is passed through a link of pre-calibrated
resistance. The voltage measured across the link is directly proportional to
the current passing through it. This method was often used in drives with
analog control circuits
x all ffect ensor where the output is a DC voltage, which is directly
proportional to the current flowing through the sensor. High accuracy and
stability over a wide current and frequency range are amongst the main
advantages of this device. This device is commonly used with modern digital
control circuits

The performance of a normal core type current transformer is usually not adequate for
power electronic applications because its performance at low frequencies is poor and
accuracy of measurement of non-sinusoidal waveforms is inadequate. The main methods
of current measurement are described in detail in Appendix B.

9.10.2. Current feedback in general purpose VVVF drives

The primary need for current feedback in general purpose VSDs is inverter switching
device protection. During short circuit or earth fault conditions, the device current will
rise rapidly. If the power electronic switching device, such as an IGBT, BJT, GTO or
MOSFET is not switched off quickly, it will be damaged and will fail. VSD reliability
depends on the fast and accurate sensing of over-current conditions.
The secondary need for current feedback is to perform c rrent limiting. Early versions
of AC VVVF converters did not have a current limiting feature and would simply shut
down if the load became too high, requiring manual reset by an operator. This increased
downtime and gave VVVF converters a poor reputation in many industries, where
overload trips were common. Modern VSDs use current feedback to limit the output
current when high loads are encountered.
C rrent limiting is not the same as c rrent control Current control means that the
current is being controlled at all times, whether it is high or low. Current limiting means
248 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

that some action is taken to stop the current exceeding the desired limit point. This action
may be only indirectly related to current, such as a change in frequency or voltage.
A third need for current feedback is to provide a current signal roughly proportional to
load. This signal may be used internally by the drive to optimize motor Volts/Hertz or
provide slip compensation, where the frequency is increased slightly as load increases to
improve speed regulation. The signal may also be made available for external use by the
user as a load indication signal. As outlined earlier in this chapter, the stator current of
the motor is only roughly proportional to the mechanical load, since the stator current is
the vector sum of the magnetising current IM and the torque-producing current IR.
Motor current feedback can also be used to provide thermal protection of the motor.
This requires a thermal model of the motor to be implemented in the drive control system,
using frequency and current feedback and motor parameters to estimate the internal
temperature of the motor, using an I2t replica in the converter. If current level exceeds a
set point for a period of time, the motor protection will trip the drive and give an
indication of a motor thermal overload.

9.10.3. Current feedback in high performance vector drives

High performance drives, such as Vector controlled drives, employ field oriented
control and require current feedback as an integral part of their control loops. In these
cases motor current is not simply limited at a pre-defined level. It is controlled to match a
continuously changing torque demand. The vector components of the stator current in
each phase is calculated, which requires current from all 3-phases. This can be achieved
preferably with one Hall Effect CT in each output phase or alternatively two in the output
phases and one on the DC Bus. If only two phase sensors are used, the third phase can be
calculated from them; however, the bus current sensor is still required for device
protection.
High accuracy motor current feedback is also necessary to provide control of motor
torque. Torque control is necessary in applications such as rewind/unwind systems,
hoists, winches, elevators, positioning systems, etc.

9.11. DC Bus Current Feedback

DC Bus current feedback is suitable for switching device protection and current
limiting in most AC VSDs. To a lesser extent, it can provide some load indication if
suitably scaled. However, this is usually only accurate over a narrow range of speeds and
loads as the signal must be s nthesi ed from the bus current waveform. It is the preferred
method in general purpose drives, as it only requires a single current feedback device,
reducing complexity and cost.
Robust performance for a large variety of load types can be achieved through careful
implementation of DC Bus current limiting. This is achieved by controlling the motor
frequency to maintain the bus current at or below the preset limit point. For example,
excessive loads may be encountered if a high inertia load is accelerated too quickly. This
may occur if the acceleration time on the VSD is set without regard to the load dynamics.
 Control Systems for AC Variable Speed Drives 249

For example, consider an application where a 22kW motor would take 10secs to
accelerate a high inertia load at 150% rated torque and current. If the operator sets the
acceleration time to 5 seconds, this would require 300% rated torque and around 500%
current to accelerate the load. Clearly, a drive rated at 150% current overload will not be
able to achieve the desired acceleration time. In this situation, a modern, well-designed
VSD will not trip, but will modify its acceleration time to maintain the DC Bus current at
the current limit point. While the operator may not have been able to achieve the desired
acceleration time, this is clearly preferable to the drive tripping on over current every time
it starts.

9.12. Speed Feedback From Motor

In closed-loop speed control of electric motors and positioning systems, the speed and
position feedback from the rotating system is provided by transducers, which convert
mechanical speed or position into an electrical quantity, compatible with the control
system.
The following techniques are commonly used today:
x nalog speed transd cer such as a Tachometer Generator (Tacho-generator),
which converts rotational speed to an electrical Voltage, which is proportional
to the speed, and transferred to the control system over a pair of screened
wires
x igital speed transd cer such as a Rotary Incremental Encoder, which
converts speed into a series of pulses, whose frequency is proportional to
speed. The pulses are transferred to the control system over one or more pairs
of screened wires
x igital position transd cer such as a Rotary Absolute Encoder, which
converts position into a bit code, whose value represents angular position.
The code is transferred digitally to the control system over a screened parallel
or serial communications link

Analog speed transducers are increasingly being replaced by digital devices, which are
more compatible with modern digital control systems.
The main methods of speed measurement are described in detail in Appendix C.
250 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance
 10

Installation and Fault Finding

10.1. General Installation And Environmental Requirements

Modern power electronic AC VVVF converters, which are used for the speed control
of electric motors, are usually supplied as stand-alone units with one of the following
configurations:
x IP00 Rating
x Designed for chassis mounting into the user's own enclosure, usually as part
of a otor Control Centre (MCC)
x IP20/IP30 Rating
x Designed for mounting within a "clean en ironment", such as a weatherproof,
air-conditioned equipment room. The environment should be free of dust,
moisture and contaminants and the temperature should be kept within the
specified limits
x IP54 Rating
x Designed for mounting outside in a partially sheltered environment, which
may be dusty and/or wet
The first two are the most common configurations.
252 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

10.2. General Safety Recommendations

The manufacturer's recommendations for installation should be carefully followed and
implemented. The voltages present in power supply cables; motor cables and other
power terminations are capable of causing severe electrical shock.
In particular, the local requirements for afet which is outlined in the wiring rules and
other codes of practice should always take priority over manufacturer's recommendations.
The recommended safety earthing connections should be carefully installed before an
po er is connected to the Variable Speed Drive equipment.
AC Variable Speed Drives have large capacitors connected across the DC link. After
a VSD is switched off, a period of several minutes must be allowed to elapse before any
work commences on the equipment. This is necessary to allow these internal capacitors
to fully discharge. Most modern converters include some form of visual indication when
the capacitors are charged.

10.2.1. Hazardous areas

In general, power electronic converters should not be mounted in areas which are
classified as Hazardous reas, even when connected to an Ex rated motor, as this may
invalidate the certification. When necessary, converters may be mounted in an approved
enclosure and certification should be obtained for the entire VSD system, including both
the converter and the motor.

10.2.2. Environmental conditions for installation

The main advantage of an AC Variable Speed Drive (VSD) is that the TEFC squirrel
cage motor is inherently well protected from poor environmental conditions and is
usually rated at IP54 or better. It can be reliably used in dusty and wet environments.
On the other hand, the AC converter is far more sensitive to its environment and should
be located in an environment that is protected from:
x Dust and other abrasive materials
x Corrosive gases and liquids
x Flammable gases and liquids
x High levels of atmospheric moisture

When installing an AC Converter, the following environmental limits should be

considered:
x Specified Ambient Temperature: d 40oC
x Specified Altitude: d 1000 metres above sea level
x Relative Humidity: d 95%
 Installation and Fault Finding 253

10.2.3. De-rating for high temperature

Figure 10.1
pical temperat re de rating chart for Con erter

In regions or environments where there is a high ambient temperature above the

accepted 40oC specified in the standards, both the motor and the converter need to be de-
rated, which means that they can only be run at loads that are less than their 40oC rating
to avoid thermal damage to the insulation materials.
The manufacturers of AC converters usually provide de-rating tables for high
temperature environments that are above 40oC. The design of AC converters is different
from various manufacturers, so the cooling requirements are never the same. The cooling
requirements of different models from the same manufacturer may also be different.

10.2.4. De-Rating For High Altitude

At high altit des, the cooling of electrical equipment is degraded by the reduced ability
of the air to remove the heat from the motor or the heatsink of the converter. The reason
is that the air pressure falls with increased altitude, air density falls and consequently, its
thermal capacity is reduced.
In accordance with the standards, AC converters are rated for altitudes up to 1000
metres above sea level. Rated output should be de-rated for altitudes above that.
The manufacturers of AC converters usually provide de-rating tables for altitudes
higher than a 1000m. A typical characteristic is given in Figure 10.2 for a modern IGBT-
type AC converter. Note that this table is applicable to all C con erters The de-
rating of converters with high losses, such as those using BJTs or GTOs, will be much
higher than the de-rating required for low loss IGBT or MOSFET converters. The higher
efficiency of the latter requires less cooling and would therefore be less affected by
altitude changes.
254 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 10.2
ltit de de rating chart for t pe con erter Compliments of llen radle

10.3. Power Supply Connections And Earthing

In accordance with accepted practice, power is normally provided to a VSD from a
istrib tion oard (DB) or a otor Control Centre (MCC). Adequate arrangements
should be made to provide safety isolation switches and short-circuit protection in the
connection point to the power supply. The short-circuit protection is required to protect
the power cable to the AC converter and the input rectifier bridge at the converter. The
converter provides down-stream protection for the motor cable and the motor itself.
Adequate safet earthing should also be provided in accordance with the local iring
les and Codes of ractice. The metal frames of the AC Converter and the AC Motor
should be earthed as shown in figure 10.3 to keep touch potentials within safe limits. The
chassis of the AC converter is equipped with one or more rotecti e arth (PE)
terminals, which should be connected back to common safety earth bar.
 Installation and Fault Finding 255

Figure 10.3
o er s ppl motor and earthing connections

10.3.1. Power supply cables

The variable speed drive should be connected to the power supply by means of a cable
that is adequate for the current rating of the VSD. The AC converter requires a 3-phase
supply cable (red/white/blue) and a protective earth conductor (green/yellow), which
means a 4-core cable with copper or aluminium conductors. A neutral conductor is not
necessary and is usually not brought to the frequency converter.
The AC converter is a source of harmonic currents that flow back into the low
impedance of the power supply system. This conducted harmonic current is carried into
other electrical equipment, where it causes additional heat losses and interference.
Sensitive electronic instrumentation, such as magnetic flow-meters, thermocouples and
other microprocessor based equipment, ideally should not be connected to the same
power source, unless via a filtered power supply.
In addition, interference can be radiated from the power supply cable and coupled into
other circuits, so these cables should be routed well away from sensitive control circuits.
The power supply cable should preferably be laid in a metal duct or cable ladder and
shielded in some way to reduce the radiation of EM fields due to the harmonic currents.
Steel Wire Armoured (SWA) cables are particularly suitable for this purpose. If the
power cable is unshielded, control and communications cables should not be located
within about 300mm of the power cable.
The conductor sizes should be selected in accordance with normal economic cable
selection criteria, which take into account the maximum continuous current rating of the
VSD, the short-circuit rating, the length of the cable and the voltage of the power supply
system. The relevant local safety regulations should be strictly observed.
However, when selecting the cable cross-sectional area for the power supply cables
and upstream transformers, a de-rating factor of at least 10% should be included to
accommodate the additional heating due to the conducted harmonic currents. If a supply
side harmonic filter is fitted at the converter, this may not be necessary. Three-phase
systems composed of three single-conductor cables should be avoided if possible. Power
cables with a trefoil configuration produce a lower radiated EM field.
256 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

10.3.2. Cables between converter and motor

The cable from the AC converter to the motor carries a switched PWM voltage, which
is modulated at high frequency by the inverter. This results in a higher level of harmonics
than the power supply cable. Harmonic frequencies are in the frequency spectrum of
100kHz to 1MHz. The motor cable should preferably be screened or located inside a
metal duct. Control and communications cables should not be located close to this cable.
The level of radiated EM fields is higher for cables with 3 separate single cores, laid
horizontally on a cable ladder, than a trefoil cable with a concentric shield.
The recommended size for the cable between the AC converter and the motor should
preferably be the same as the power supply cable. The reasons are:

x It will be easier to add a bypass device in parallel with the frequency

converter at a later date, using the same cable, cable lugs and connections
x The load-carrying capacity of the motor cable is also reduced by harmonic
currents and additionally by the capacitive leakage currents

It should be borne in mind that the AC converter VSD provides short-circuit and
overload protection for the cable and motor.
A separate earth cond ctor between the converter and motor is recommended for both
safety and noise attenuation. The earth conductor from the motor m st be connected back
to the PE terminal of the converter and should not be connected back to the distribution
board. This will avoid any circulating high frequency currents in the earth system.
When armored or shielded cables are used between the converter and motor, it may be
necessary to fit a barrier termination gland at the motor end when the cable is longer than
about 50m. The reason is that the high frequency leakage currents flow from the cable
through the shunt capacitance and into the shield. If these currents return via the motor
and other parts of the earthing system, the interference is spread over a larger area. It is
preferable for the leakage currents to return to the source via the shortest route, which is
via the shield itself. The shield or teel ire rmo r (SWA) should be earthed at both
the converter end and to the frame of the motor.

10.3.3. Control cables

The control cables should be provided in accordance with normal local practice. These
should have a cross sectional area of at least 0.5 mm2 for reasonable volt drop
performance. The control and communications cables connected to the converter should
be shielded to provide protection from EMI. The shields should be earthed at one end
onl at a point remote from the converter. Earthing the shield to the PE terminal of the
drive should be avoided because the converter is a large source of interference. The
shield should preferably be earthed at the equipment end.
Cables which have an individual screen for every pair provide the best protection from
coupled interference. The control cables should preferably be installed on separate cable
ladders or ducts, as far away from the power cables as possible. If control cables are
installed on the same cable ladder as the power cables, the separation should be as fast as
possible, with the minimum distance being about 300mm. Long parallel runs on the same
cable ladder should be avoided.
 Installation and Fault Finding 257

10.3.4. Earthing requirements

As mentioned earlier, both the AC converter and the motor must be provided with a
safety earth according to the requirements of local standards. The main purpose of this
earthing is to avoid dangerous voltages on exposed metal parts under fault conditions.
When designing and installing these earth connections, the requirements for the
reduction of EMI should also be achieved with these same earth connections. The main
earthing connections of an AC converter are usually arranged as shown in Figure 10.3.
The PE terminal on the converter should be connected back to the system earth bar,
usually located in the Distribution Board. This connection should provide a low
impedance path back to earth.

10.3.5. Common cabling errors

The following are some of the common cabling errors made when installing VSDs:
x The earth conductor from the AC converter is run in the same duct or cable
ladder as other cables, such as control cables and power cables for other
equipment. Harmonic currents can be coupled into sensitive circuits. Ideally,
instrument cables should be run in separate metal ducts or steel conduit
x Running unshielded motor cable next to the supply cable to the AC converter
or the power cables for other equipment. High frequency harmonic currents
can be coupled into the power cable, which can then be conducted to other
sensitive electronic equipment. Other cables should be separated from the
motor cable or converter power cable by a minimum of 300mm
x Running excessively long cables between the AC converter and the motor.
These should be no longer than 100m. If longer cables are necessary, motor
filters are necessary to reduce the leakage current. Alternatively, the
switching frequency may be reduced. In the recent past, there is considerable
improvement regarding this point. Some of the Manufacturers are supplying
inverters where there is no bar on the length of this cable.

10.4. Installing Contactors In Power Circuit

Contactors are used to switch a large amount of electrical power through their contacts.
Contactors typically have multiple contacts, and those contacts are usually (but not
always) open. Power to the load will be normally routed through those contacts so that
the power gets shut off when the coil is de-energized. The most common industrial utility
for contactors is the control of power supply to electric motors.

As a practical example let us consider the case of a current source inverter, as shown in
Figure 10.4, feeding an electrical motor, driving a pump, requiring typically power up to
500 kW. Since the cost of a LV / MV frequency converter is much cheaper as compared
to that of a HV, the motor is selected to be a LV motor. Hence the power circuit starts
with a step down transformer, typically a Dy11 transformer. For the sake of its protection
from over temperature, a Pt100 RTD (resistance temperature detector) is embedded in the
transformer core and is connected to the Transformer protection relay.
258 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Figure 10.4
ingle line diagram of a t pical c rrent so rce in erter

The secondary of the transformer is connected to an isolator, which is used only for
the sake of maintaining the inverter panel. This power, through appropriately rated fast
acting fuses, branches out into power circuit, auxiliary fans & auxiliary circuits. The
contactor, being used for extending power, is in the power circuit between such fuses and
the inverter assembly. The output of the inverter is connected to the motor through power
cables.
It has to be appreciated that the contactor’s position cannot be in the downstream of the
inverter as the opening out of the contactor for some reason will subject the inverter to a
sudden, step load throw off situation which will create over voltage on the inverter
output.
Similarly, the contactor cannot be in the upstream of the power fuse, as the dropping of
the contactor will result in total powering down of the controller even.
 Installation and Fault Finding 259

10.5. Installation Of AC Converters Into Metal Enclosures

If the environmental conditions are likely to exceed these accepted working ranges,
then arrangements should be made to provide additional cooling and/or environmental
protection for the AC converter. The temperature limits of an AC converter are far more
critical than those for an electric motor. Temperature de-rating needs to be strictly
applied. However, it is unlikely that a modern PWM converter will be destroyed if the
temperature limits are exceeded. Modern AC converters have built-in thermal protection,
usually a silicon junction devices, mounted on the heat sink. The main problem of over-
temperature tripping is associated with n isance tripping and the associated downtime.
Although the efficiency of a modern AC converter is high, typically ± 97%, they all
generate a small amount of heat, mainly due to the commutation losses in the power
electronic circuits. The level of losses depends on the design of the converter, the PWM
switching frequency and the overall power rating. Manufacturers provide figures for the
losses (Watts) when the converter is running at full load. Adequate provision should be
made to dissipate this heat into the external environment and to avoid the temperature
inside the converter enclosure rising to unacceptably high levels.
Converters are usually air-cooled, either by convection (small power ratings) or
assisted by cooling fans on larger power ratings. Any obstruction to the cooling air flow
volume to the intake and from the exhaust vents will reduce efficiency of the cooling.
The cooling air volume flows and the power loss dissipation determine the air-
conditioning requirements for the equipment room.
The cooling is also dependent on there being a temperature differential between the
heat sink and the cooling air. The higher the ambient temperature, the less effective is the
cooling. Both the AC converter and motor are rated for operation in an environment
where temperature does not exceed 40oC.
When AC converters mounted inside enclosures, care should be taken to ensure that
the air temperature inside the enclosure remains within the specified temperature limits.
If not, the converters should be de-rated in accordance with the manufacturer's de-rating
tables.
In an environment where condensation is likely to occur during the periods when the
drive is not in use, anti-condensation heaters can be installed inside the enclosure. The
control circuit should be designed to switch the heater on when the drive is de-energized.
The heater maintains a warm dry environment inside the enclosure and avoids moisture
being drawn into the enclosure when the converter is switched off and cools down.
AC converters are usually designed for mounting in a vertical position, to assist
convectional cooling. On larger VSDs, cooling is assisted by one or more fans mounted
at the bottom or top of the heatsink.
Many modern converters allow two alternative mounting arrangements:
x rface mo nting where the back plane of the converter is mounted onto a
vertical surface, such as the back of an enclosure
x ecessed mo nting where the heat sinks on the back of the converter project
through the back of the enclosure into a cooling duct. This allows the heat to
be more effectively dissipated from the heat sinks.
260 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Sufficient separation from other equipment is necessary to permit the unrestricted flow
of cooling air through the heat sinks and across the electronic control cards. A general
r le of th mb is that a free space of mm should be allowed around all sides of the
VSD. When more than one VSD are located in the same enclosure, they should
preferably be mounted side by side rather than one above the other. Care should also be
taken to avoid locating temperature sensitive equipment, such as thermal overloads,
immediately above the cooling air path of the VSD.
Adequate provision must be made to dissipate the converter losses into the external
environment. The temperature rise inside the enclosure must be kept below the
maximum rated temperature of the converter.

10.5.1. Calculating the dimensions of the enclosure

The enclosure should be large enough to dissipate the heat generated by the converter
and any other electrical equipment mounted inside the enclosure. The heat generated
inside an enclosure is transferred to the external environment mainly by radiation from
the surface of the enclosure. Consequently, the surface area must be large enough to
dissipate the internally generated heat without allowing the internal temperature to exceed
rated limits.
The surface area of a suitable enclosure is calculated as follows:

k Max mb

Where,
A Effective heat conducting area in m2 (Sum of surface areas not in contact with
any other surface)
P Power Loss of heat producing equipment in Watts
TMax Maximum permissible operating temperature of Converter in oC
TAmb Maximum temperature of the external ambient air in oC
k Heat transmission coefficient of enclosure material

Example
Calculate the minimum size of an IP54 Cubicle for a typical PWM type Frequency
Converter rated at 22kW.
The following assumptions are made:
x The converter losses are 600 Watts at full rated load
x The converter is to be mounted within an IP54 cubicle made of 2mm steel.
x The enclosure is effectively sealed from the outside and heat can only be
dissipated from the enclosure by conduction through the steel and by
radiation from the external surface into the outside air
x The cubicle stands on the floor with its back against the wall in an air-
conditioned room with a maximum ambient temperature 25oC
x The converter can operate in a maximum temperature of 50oC
x The Heat transmission coefficient is 5.5 (typical for painted 2mm steel)
 Installation and Fault Finding 261

The first step is to calculate the minimum required surface area of the enclosure. This
can be done by applying the formula for surface area.

If the cubicle is standing on the floor against a wall, this area applies only to the top,
front and two sides of the enclosure. A suitable cubicle can be chosen from a range of
standard cubicles or could be fabricated for this installation. In either case, it is important
to take into account the dimensions of the converter and to ensure that there is at least
100mm space on all sides of the converter.
With these requirements in mind, the procedure is to choose or estimate at least two of
the dimensions and the third can be derived form the above equation. This calculated
dimension must then be checked to ensure that the required 100mm clearance is
maintained.
For a cubicle with dimensions H x W x D standing on the floor against the wall, the
effective heat conducting area is
A = HW + 2HD + WD

Assuming that a standard cubicle is chosen with a height of 2.0m and a depth of 0.5m,
the width is derived from:
A = 2.0W + 2 + 0.5W
A = 2.5W + 2

Using the required heat dissipation area from the above calculation
4.36 = 2.5W + 2
or,
2.5W = 2.36
W = 0.94

Based on the requirements of heat dissipation, the width of the cubicle would have to
be larger than 0.94m. In this case a standard width of 1.0m would be selected.
Clearances around the sides of the converter should be checked. With typical
converter dimensions of H x W x D = 700 x 350 x 300, the cubicle chosen would provide
more than 100mm of clearance around all the converter and also leave sufficient space for
cabling and other components.
From this calculation, it is clear that the overall dimensions of the cubicle can be
reduced by the following changes:
x Standing the cubicle away from the wall, at least 200mm
x Reducing the ambient temperature by turning down the air-conditioning
x Providing ventilation to the cubicle to improve heat transfer
262 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

10.5.2. Ventilation of the enclosures

The enclosure can be smaller if some additional ventilation is provided to exchange air
between the inside and outside of the cubicle. There is several ventilation techniques
commonly used with converters, but they mainly fall into two categories:

Natural ventilation
This type of ventilation relies on the convectional cooling airflow through vents near
the bottom and top of the cubicle and is normally called the "chimney" effect.

Figure 10.5
at ral entilation of a con erter in a c bicle

Forced ventilation
This type of ventilation relies on cooling airflow assisted by a fan located either near
the top or the bottom of the cubicle. It is difficult to maintain a high IP rating with
ventilated cubicles, so ventilated cubicles need to be located in a protected environment,
such as a dust-free equipment room.
For cooling purposes, a certain volume of airflow is required to transfer the heat
generated inside the enclosure to the external environment. The required airflow can be
calculated from the following formula:

Max mb

Where,
V Required airflow in m3 per hour
P Power Loss of heat producing equipment in Watts
TMax Maximum permissible operating temperature of Converter in oC
TAmb Maximum external ambient temperature in oC
 Installation and Fault Finding 263

Figure 10.6
orced entilation of a con erter in a c bicle

Example
Calculate the airflow ventilation requirements of the 22kW Converter used in the
example above, using the same assumptions.
The required airflow to maintain adequate cooling:

3
m h

An airflow of 75 m3/h is necessary to remove the heat generated inside the enclosure
by the converter and to transfer it to the outside. In this case, the dimensions of the
cubicle are based purely on the minimum physical dimensions required for the converter
and any other equipment mounted in the cubicle.
This airflow could be achieved by the convectional flow of air provided that the size of
the top / bottom openings is large enough and the resistance to airflow is not
unnecessarily restricted by dust-filter pads. Alternatively, a fan assisted ventilation
system would be necessary to deliver the required airflow.

10.5.3. Alternative mounting arrangements

One of the main problems associated with the ventilation of converter cubicles is that it
is very difficult to achieve a high IP rating with a ventilated cubicle. In addition, if filters
are used, an additional maintenance problem is introduced, as the filters need to be
checked and replaced on a regular basis.
A solution which is rapidly gaining popularity is the recessed mounting. This
technique has now been adopted by many of the converter manufacturers.
Most of the heat generated by a converter is associated with the power electronic
components, such as the rectifier module, inverter module, capacitors, reactor and power
supply. These items are usually mounted onto the heatsink base of the converter and
most of the heat will be dissipated from the surfaces of this heatsink. The digital control
circuits do not generate very much heat, at the most a few watts.
264 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

If the heatsink is recessed through the back mounting plane of the enclosure, most of
the heat will be dissipated to the environment external to the cubicle. The portion of the
converter with the control circuits remains within the enclosure. With a suitable seal
around the converter, the enclosure can be relatively small and rated at >IP54 without the
need for forced or convectional airflow ventilation.
The heatsink portion projecting outside the enclosure can be exposed to the
environment with a lower IP rating (eg IP20) or it can be arranged to project into a
cooling airduct system, which ducts the heat outside the building. Figure 10.7 shows a
typical mounting arrangement of this type of converter with the heatsinks projecting into
a cooling duct.

Figure 10.7
on erter mounted it e tsin outside t e cu ic e
 11

11.1. Introduction
A plant designer has always been under tremendous pressure while estimating the
power requirements of a drive, as any overrating will result in high running costs. This is
because, the efficiency of standard motor used to dwindle at lower loads resulting in
higher losses and loss of more energy. The technological developments in the motor
manufacturing industry have introduced “Energy efficient motors” with due importance
given to the reduction in the operational costs of motors irrespective of their loading.
Another great development of modern day motor protection systems is the deployment
of digital protection relays with lot of capabilities and versatility of operation. A simple
cost benefit analysis reveals that they are highly economical for medium & high rating
motors. Also they can be used to provide a reliable cover for critical motors against a vast
variety of faults.
Intelligent controllers have revolutionized the way motors are utilized for various types
of applications causing a paradigm shift from DC to AC for variable speed drive
applications. This is especially a boon for maintenance professionals as AC motors,
especially squirrel cage induction motors, having the most robust construction of all
motors, can be used in place of maintenance intensive DC motors. As a result the
equipment availability has obviously been enhanced.
As the causes of motor failures are associated mostly with improper lubrication, focus
on lubrication techniques has witnessed great developments and new varieties of greases
& calibrated grease guns are available in the market.
Another thrust given to extending bearing life by the new innovative technologies is
the availability of bearing isolators that effectively seal the bearing internals from the
external environment.
266 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Improvised condition monitoring techniques are the result of the great strides made by
the instrumentation engineering, resulting in the availability of handheld, highly
sophisticated tools.
Reliable on-line diagnostics are the result of the great developments in the field of
electronics and computer sciences.
Improved testing methods are the result of constant research and development and the
enhanced understanding about the concepts of the electromagnetic concepts and provide
better methods for proper analysis of the incipient faults. All these things put together has
helped the industry in shifting the focus to a reliability-centered approach of maintenance,
instead of just preventive or predictive.

11. . n r ici nt d i n t od rn tr nd
The drive for conservation of energy has been scaling new heights in every field and
the electrical motor manufacturers are contributing their part by continually improving
the design aspects of motors. Developing new line of energy efficient motors is one such
major milestone in this journey. The key advantage of employing these motors is that the
efficiency achieved can be very high and remains almost constant throughout the normal
loading range from 100 % to even 50 % - unlike the standard motors wherein it can drop
drastically for such a loading range.
The following features employed in the motor manufacturing arena have improved the
efficiencies of motors over the standard type motors:
x Usage of more copper in the stator winding has greatly reduced the copper
losses.
x Increased length of stator and rotor core has reduced the magnetic flux density
in the air gap of the machine. This in turn has resulted in reduced magnetic
saturation and core losses.
x More steel used in the stator enhances the heat transfer rate ensuring reduced
operating temperature of such motors.
x Shaft mounted cooling fans are re-designed to have reduced windage losses.
x Special, high grade sheet steel used in the stator reduces the hysterisis losses.
x Thin gauge of the sheet steel used in the stator ensures close bonding of the
laminations and very high internal resistivity of the steel thereby reducing the
eddy current losses.
x Careful, close machining of the rotor is allowing the air gap to reduce and to
be more uniform thereby reducing the stray load losses.
Due to the ever increasing competition, motor manufacturers are adopting different,
better designs and specific techniques (apart from all those mentioned above) like better
quality materials etc., to minimize the losses in their motors.
 New Technologies and Developments 267

11.2.1. Digital protection

A great boon to electrical industry through the recent developments in the field of
electronics is the commercial availability of microprocessor based protection relays.
These relays offer lot of protections integrated into one assembly with a wide variety of
protective logics that can be incorporated in a motor control system. The versatility of the
algorithms residing in them and the universality of the settings that can be made, make
them adaptable to a large range of motors without any botheration about suitability.
Earlier, solid-state relay manufacturers used to seek lot many data for supplying a
motor protection relay. Now the advent of these universal relays has relieved the user of
all such burdens – before placement of orders. All the settings, even the critical ones, can
be made at site and hence lot of interchangeability is available for realizing the
protections for a wide variety of motors. This is helpful in maintaining little inventory as
not too many spares are to be stored.
Also these relays are very compact in size, as a result of surface mounted technology of
the PCB components installation, and require very little power thereby putting little stress
on the station power backup facility. Accordingly the heat dissipation will also be lower.

11.2.2. Intelligent controllers

The connectivity between various electrical machines’ instruments, their protective
functions & control systems is getting enhanced, day after day, to meet various
requirements. An energy management system – the natural choice of many, modern day
process industries – would practically require lot of data to flow on a data bus. All the
connected equipments communicate through such a bus, typically a PROFIBUS or a
MODBUS. This kind of system obviates the need for physical monitoring, apart from
avoiding any possible human errors. This results in saving a lot of human effort and
further advantage can be derived out of this by making the entire sub-station equipment
communication friendly. With such facilities, all the parameters can be monitored and
settings can be manipulated through the HMI (Human Machine Interface). Especially in
the case of motors, these ideas are no more a dream; all these can be realized by using the
new generation, intelligent controllers for the motors.
The contribution from intelligent controllers is being realized by various applications
like variable frequency variable voltage drives, regulation circuits of generators, to name
a few. This is the key factor behind the application of squirrel cage induction motors, the
most rugged motors requiring little maintenance, in most of the upcoming variable speed
applications. In the earlier days, all variable speed applications used to be powered by DC
motors, because of less complicated circuitry required for their regulation. However, the
advances in the electronics and computer sciences fields have unveiled a new generation
of highly sophisticated, reliable controllers that can take care of the mind-boggling logics
required for the control of AC motor’s speed. Also, these can be easily integrated with the
higher end control systems without any hassles.
268 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

11.2.3. Focus on Lubrication techniques

When a decision is to be taken regarding the quantity of grease to be injected, several
parameters are to be considered. This is because most of the motors may not have information
about this particular aspect. Even if it is there, maintenance personnel may not consider it to
be valid, may be out of their past experience.
A close analysis about the facts goes like this. Motor manufacturer normally consider, if
not really ideal, good operating environmental conditions for the motors. This may not be true
in practice. To account for such deviations, it is advisable to increase the greasing frequency,
say instead of a specified 4000 running hours, motor needs to be re-greased may be every
2000 hrs. The greasing quantity can be the same. But normal tendency would be to retain the
greasing frequency and increase the quantity injected. This can be detrimental to the life of
the bearing and the details are covered in Chapter 6. An experienced maintenance
professional would support the idea of greasing the bearings more frequently, may be even
with reduced quantity.
Hence the issue of fixing the greasing frequency and quantity needs close evaluation by the
plant personnel themselves. Here it is worthwhile to mention the developments being
witnessed by adopting the Japanese concept of Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) Teams
comprising of cross functional personnel study the individual plant equipment in detail – right
from procurement specification, design data, plant operating conditions, past failures,
increasing demands etc. – and recommend the operating and maintenance procedures specific
to the equipment. Using such inputs re-greasing intervals can be followed. When it comes to
injecting the desired quantity of grease, it would be ideal to use the new generation grease
guns, presently available in the market, which are capable of measuring the injected quantity
of grease.
In some special applications, where the heat in the environment may damage the properties
of conventional Lithium based greases, synthetic greases, like aluminum complex based ones,
can be used. These are high temperature tolerant and such a high-quality grease pays off for
its additional cost by reduced motor downtime and repair costs. The advantage can be
appreciated better after gaining an understanding about their basics as outlined below:
Fortifying compounds are added to the lubricants so that the resultant compound will have
good load bearing capacity, which is not inherently present in the grease / oil.
In the normal class of lubricants, chemicals are being used as these fortifying agents. But
they provide temporary load support and will slowly transform into compounds of abrasive
character, thereby debilitating the very basic purpose of the lubricant. Hence they need to be
replaced from time to time as they age. This aging process, further gets accelerated with the
presence of moisture and high temperature. The chemicals react with water and heat to
produce acids. These acids result in corrosion, pitting, wear etc. The resulting friction
damages the bearings.
Synthetic greases, on the other hand, use chemically and thermally stable fortifying
compounds as base stock, typically MoS2 (Molybdenum Dusulfide). A complete film of
MoS2 can support a load of 500,000 PSI and operating temperatures of 1185 deg C. These
metallic fortifiers serve as self-lubricating solids as they are blended / suspended with the oil /
grease at micron and sub-micron particle level gaining good homogeneity. This is soluble
only in sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and aquarega. Hence it is very difficult to gall or
score the bearing surface under normal environmental conditions. All these factors give these
synthetic greases a life (re-grease interval) of about 5 - 20 times that of normal greases
presently in vogue.
 New Technologies and Developments 269

11.2.4. Bearing Isolators

With historical evidence, it can safely be concluded that proper bearing lubrication and
maintenance result in improved motor reliability. This can be easily achieved by keeping
the possibilities of bearing grease contamination at bay.
Preventing water contamination is a major challenge to bearing housing design. Close
shaft-to-end bell clearances cannot stop the movement of humid air. Contact seals will
quit contacting, resulting in large gaps that allow movement of air and water vapor across
the bearing.
One of the best ways to control moisture contamination is to install bearing isolators,
which keep the rolling element clean and well lubricated.
It would be illogical and ineffective to repair rotating equipment, especially those
witnessing repetitive failures, precisely to the same specifications that it had when it
failed in service. Repair and / or replacement should be made incorporating upgrades,
most importantly to the bearing system that was involved in the failure mode. This is
mainly because, motors over their useful lives consume much more maintenance and
power costs than their original price tags.
Bearing isolators of the heavy-duty, metallic type offer permanent bearing protection,
at a little extra cost. They can even be useful, for short periods, as emergency sleeve
bearings in the event of a failure of primary bearing in service. The radial limit of a
bronze bearing isolator is 0.010 in., while the rotor-stator air gap in the motor is generally
0.030 in. or so.

11.2.5. Improvised condition monitoring

Motor condition monitoring, in the good old days, used to be based on monitoring the
surface temperatures, SPM values of bearings and monitoring of absolute values of
electrical parameters only. Now a variety of vibration monitoring tools are available,
especially the FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) analysers and very sophisticated software to
collect, retrieve & analyse the data about various vibration parameters. Fast Fourier
Transform is a mathematical method of separating the frequencies of a ‘sine wave’ and
presenting them as frequencies and amplitude. The vibration monitoring techniques are
scaling new heights with the advent of many sophisticated vibration equipment
supporting accurate analysis and are very much useful pin pointing the cause of a
problem.
Infra red thermography, a temperature measurement technology useful for the
detection of hot spots in an object, in a non-contact manner, has simplified the process of
finding a overheated section. This can be used for identifying precisely where the
problem is residing - without taking the equipment out of service. Taking an equipment
out of service may not only result in downtime, but also, many a times, no useful
conclusion can be made as the heat generating source cools down.

11.2.6. Reliable on-line diagnostics

Nowadays, there are various on-line diagnostics that are available in the market to
identify the health of stator winding, rotor, air gap eccentricities etc. Motor Current
Signature Analysis (MCSA) is one such system used for analyzing or trending dynamic,
270 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

energized systems. It is a method of viewing demodulated current and current FFTs to

evaluate the condition of machinery downstream of the point being tested. The concept
behind their application is that each component of the drive system and the defects in
them has an unique way of drawing / influencing the power drawn from mains. Recent
insights gained into the aspects of electrical signatures have introduced diagnosing
various types of faults in a motor system, which includes supply, control, motor,
coupling, load and process.
On-line partial discharge (PD) measurements have been recognized as an effective,
reliable method of assessing stator insulation condition to forewarn plant personnel of
possible machine failures. The measurements are obtained with the machine in normal
operation and thus form an integral part of a condition-based maintenance program.
Regular condition monitoring of the stator winding insulation can give users the
confidence to safely operate machines, even ones that have suffered some degree of
insulation degradation. However, its service lifetime can be extended with the condition
monitoring technology. New higher sensitivity sensors can detect partial discharges in
stator winding insulation at an earlier stage

11.2.7. Improved Testing methods

New ways of testing & detecting various problems associated with motors are
presenting a promising future. One such testing method is slated to revolutionize the
maintenance field is Motor Circuit Analysis (MCA).
MCA techniques involve low voltage tests and hence avoid the occurrence of possible
damages to the motor components. For instance a surge comparison test or a HiPot test
expose the motor winding to high voltages and any minor weakness can lead to a
permanent failure during the testing process itself. Hence such tests are to be conducted
very cautiously. On the other hand, MCA tests utilize resistance, inductance, phase angle,
current / frequency response etc. to detect various defects like winding defects by exciting
the electric dipoles and surrounding magnetic steel dipoles in both stator and rotor. Also,
the progress in a defect can be trended and impending failures can be predicted.
 Actuator: A device that creates mechanical motion by converting various forms of
energy to rotating or linear mechanical energy.
Air-Over (AO): Motors for fan or blower service that are cooled by the air stream
from the fan or blower.
Alternating Current (AC): The standard power supply available from local electric
utility companies.
Ambient Temperature (AMB): The temperature of the space (air) around the motor.
Most motors are designed to operate in an ambient not to exceed 40°C (104°F).
Ampere (Amp): The standard unit of electric current. The current produced by a
pressure of one volt in a circuit having a resistance of one ohm.
Angular accuracy: The measure of shaft positioning accuracy on a servo or stepping
motor.
Armature: The rotating part of a brush type direct current (DC) motor. In an induction
motor, the rotating part is called a rotor.
Back EMF: The voltage generated when a permanent magnet motor is rotated. This
voltage is proportional to motor speed and is present regardless of whether the motor
winding(s) are energized or de-energized.
Bearings: ee es Common in home appliances. Normally used in blower
applications where low noise levels are important.
: Used when high shaft load (radial or axial thrust load) capacity is
required. Ball bearings are usually used in industrial and agricultural motors.
Occasionally, roller bearings may be used on larger horsepower motors for
maximum radial load capacity.
272 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Bipolar chopper driver: A class of step motor driver, which uses a switch mode
(chopper) technique to control motor current and polarity. i o r indicates the capability
of providing motor phase current of either polarity (+ or -).
Breakaway torque: The torque required to start a machine in motion. Normally it is
greater than the running torque.
Brush: Current conducting material in a DC motor. Usually graphite or a combination
of graphite and other materials. The brush rides on the commutator of a motor and forms
an electrical connection between the armature and the power source.
Brush less motor: Class of motors those operate using electronic commutation of
phase currents, rather than electromechanical (brush-type) commutation. Brushless
motors typically have a permanent magnet rotor and a wound stator.
Canadian Standards Association (CSA): The agency that sets safety standards for
motors and other electric equipment used in Canada.
Capacitance: As the measure of electrical storage potential of a capacitor, the unit of
capacitance is the farad, but typical values are expressed in microfarads (MFD).
Capacitor: A device that stores electrical energy. It is normally used on single phase
motors.
Capacitor Start Motor: Capacitor-Started, induction-run motors. They provide high
starting and break-down torque, medium starting current and are used on hard starting
applications such as compressors, positive displacement pumps, farm equipment, etc.
Capacitor-Start, capacitor-run: Similar to capacitor-start motors, except that they
have higher efficiency. They are generally used in higher HP single phase ratings.
Centrifugal Start Switch: A mechanism that disconnects the starting circuit (start
winding) when the rotor reaches approximately 75% of operating speed (usually in 2 or 3
seconds).
C-face mounting: A standard NEMA mounting design, where the mounting holes in
the face are threaded to receive the mating mounts.
Class B insulation: A NEMA insulation specification. Class B insulation is rated to an
operating (internal) temperature of 130°C.
Class F insulation: A NEMA insulation specification. Class F insulation is rated to an
operating (internal) temperature of 155°C
Class H insulation: A NEMA insulation specification. Class H insulation is rated to an
operating (internal) temperature of 180°C.
Closed loop: A broadly applied term, relating to any system in which the output is
measured and compared to the input. The output is then adjusted to reach the desired
condition. In motion control, the term typically describes a system utilizing a velocity
and/or position transducer to generate correction signals in relation to desired parameters.
Cogging (Cogging torque): A term used to describe non-uniform angular velocity.
Cogging appears as a jerkiness, especially at low speeds.
Commutation:
1. A term which refers to the action of steering currents or voltages to the proper motor
phases so as to produce optimum motor torque. In brush type motors, commutation is
 Appendix A: Terminology Associated with Electric Motors 273

done electromechanically via the brushes and commutator. In brushless motors,

commutation is done by the switching electronics using rotor position information
obtained by Hall sensors, a Tachsyn, or a resolver.
2. Commutation of step motors is normally done open loop. Feedback from the motor
is not required to hold rotor position precisely.
Commutator: The part of a DC motor armature that causes the electrical current to be
switched to various armature windings. Properly sequenced switching creates the motor
torque. The commutator also provides the means to transmit the electrical current to the
moving armature through the brushes that ride on the commutator.
Continuous rated current: The maximum allowable continuous current a motor can
handle without exceeding the motor temperature limits
Continuous rated torque: The maximum allowable continuous torque a motor can
handle without exceeding the motor temperature limits
Continuous stall current: Amount of current applied to a motor (at locked rotor
conditions), which results in rated temperature rise. Refer also to definition of
"Continuous stall torque"
Continuous stall torque: The amount of torque at zero speed, which a motor can
continuously deliver without exceeding its thermal rating. Determined by applying DC
current through two windings with rotor locked, while monitoring temperature. Specified
with motor windings at maximum rated temperature, with motor in 25 degrees C ambient,
mounted to a heat sink. Refer to individual specs for heat sink size.
Current at peak torque: The amount of input current required to develop "peak
torque". This is often outside the linear torque/current relationship.
Current, Rated: The maximum allowable continuous current a motor can handle
without exceeding motor temperature limits.
DC Current: The power supply available from batteries, generators (not alternators),
or a rectified source used for special purpose applications.
D-flange mounting: This type of mount has clearance holes on the flange, and the
mounting bolts stick out through the flange from the motor side. This mount is common
in cases where the motor is integral to the machine.
Demag current: The current level at which the motor magnets will start to be
demagnetized. This is an irreversible effect, which will alter the motor characteristics and
degrade performance. Also known as peak current.
Detent torque: The maximum torque that can be applied to an unenergized step motor
without causing continuous rotating motion.
DPBV – Drip proof Blower Ventilated: Type of motor cooled by blowing air through
the inside of the motor using an attached blower.
Drive: An electronic device that controls torque, speed and/or position of an AC or
brushless motor. Typically a feedback device is mounted on the motor for closed-loop
control of current, velocity and position.
Driver: Electronics which convert step and direction inputs to high power currents and
voltages to drive a step motor. The step motor driver is analogous to the servomotor
amplifier's logic.
274 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Duty cycle: For a repetitive cycle, the ratio of on time to total cycle time.
Duty cycle (%) = [On time / (On time + Off time)] x 100%
It is the relationship between operating time and the resting time of an electric motor.
Continuous Duty: The operation of loads for over one hour.
Intermittent Duty: The operation during alternate periods of load and rest. Usually
expressed as 5 minutes, 30 minutes or one hour.
Dynamic braking: A passive technique for stopping a permanent magnet brush or
brush less motor. The motor windings are shorted together through a resistor, which
results in motor braking with an exponential decrease in speed.
Efficiency: The ratio of power output to power input. The ratio of the useful work
performed and the energy expended in producing it.
Electrical time constant: The time required for current to reach 63.2% of its final
value for a fixed voltage level. Can be calculated from the relationship te=L/R where L is
inductance (henries) and R is resistance (ohms).
Encoder: A feedback device which converts mechanical motion into electronic
signals. The most commonly used, rotary encoders, output digital pulses corresponding to
incremental angular motion. For example, a 1000-line encoder produces 1000 pulses
every mechanical revolution. The encoder consists of a glass or metal wheel with
alternating transparent and opaque stripes, detected by optical sensors to produce the
digital outputs.
Enclosure: Term used to describe the motor housing.
ODP: Open Drip Proof, housing has openings in end shields and shell to allow air to
cool the motor. Normally used in “clean" applications.
TEFC: Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled, housing has no openings. Motor is cooled by an
external fan on the non-drive end of the motor shaft. (motor is not air tight or water
proof). Normally used in dirty, oily or damp applications.
TENV: Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated. Not equipped with an external cooling fan,
depends on convection air for cooling.
TEAO: Totally Enclosed Air Over. Air flow from the driven or external device
provides cooling air flow of the motor.
Endshield: Also referred to as "End Bell". The part of the motor that houses the
bearing supporting the rotor, and acts as a protective guard to the internal parts of the
motor.
Excitation: The act of creating magnetic lines of force from a motor winding by
applying voltage.
Feedback: A signal which is transferred from the output back to the input for use in a
closed loop system.
Ferrite: A type of permanent magnet consisting of ceramic compounds made up of
oxides of iron, barium and strontium.
Field: The stationary part of a DC motor, commonly consisting of permanent magnets.
Sometimes used also to describe the stator of an AC motor.
 Appendix A: Terminology Associated with Electric Motors 275

Form factor: The ratio of RMS current to average current. This number is a measure
of the current ripple in a SCR or other switch-mode type of drive. Since motor heating is
a function of RMS current while motor torque is a function of average current, a form
factor greater than 1.00 means some fraction of motor current is producing heat but not
torque.
Four quadrant: Refers to a motion system which can operate in all four quadrants;
i.e., velocity in either direction and torque in either direction. This means that the motor
can accelerate, run, and decelerate in either direction.
Frame: Standardized motor mounting and shaft dimensions as established by NEMA
or IEC.
Frequency: An expression of how often a complete cycle occurs. Cycles per second
describe how many complete cycles occur in a given time increment. Hertz (hz) has been
adopted to describe cycles per second so that time as well as number of cycles is
specified. The standard power supply in North America is 60hz. Most of the rest of the
world has 50hz power.
Friction: A resistance to motion caused by contact with a surface. Friction can be
constant with varying speed (Coulomb friction) or proportional to speed (viscous
friction).
Full Load Amperes (FLA): Line current (amperage) drawn by a motor when
operating at rated load and voltage on motor nameplate. Important for proper wire size
selection, and motor starter or drive selection. Also called full load current.
Full Load Torque: The torque a motor produces at its rated horsepower and full-load
speed.
Fuse: A piece of metal, connected in the circuit to be protected, that melts and
interrupts the circuit when excess current flows.
Generator: Any machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Hall sensor: A feedback device which is used in a brush less servo system to provide
information for the amplifier to electronically commutate the motor. The device uses a
magnetized wheel and hall effect sensors to generate the commutation signals.
Hertz: Frequency, in cycles per second, of AC power. Named after H.R. Hertz, the
German scientist who discovered electrical oscillations.
High Voltage Test: Application of a voltage greater than the working voltage to test
the adequacy of motor insulation. Often referred to as high potential test or "hi-pot".
Holding torque: Sometimes called static torque, holding torque specifies the
maximum external torque that can be applied to a stopped, energized motor without
causing the rotor to rotate. Generally used as a figure of merit when comparing motors.
Horsepower: An index of the amount of work a machine or motor can perform. One
horsepower is equal to 746 watts. Since power is equal to torque multiplied by speed,
horsepower is a measure of a motor's torque and speed capability; e.g., a 1 HP motor will
produce 36 lb-in. at 1,750 rpm.
Formula:
HP = Torque (lb-in.) x Speed (RPM) / 63,025
276 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Or,
HP = Torque (lb-ft.) x Speed (RPM) / 5,252
Or,
HP = Volts x Amps x Efficiency / 746
A measure of the rate of work. 33,000 pounds lifted one foot in one minute, or 550
pounds lifted one foot in one second. Exactly 746 watts of electrical power equals one
horsepower.
Hybrid step motor: A motor designed to move in discrete increments of steps. The
motor has a permanent magnet rotor and a wound stator. Such motors are brushless.
Phase currents are commutated as a function of time to produce motion.
Idle current reduction: A step motor driver feature that reduce the phase current to
the motor when no motor motion is commanded (idle condition) for a specified period of
time. Idle current reduction reduces motor heating and allows high machine throughputs
from a given motor.
Indexer: Electronics which convert high level motion commands from a host
computer, PLC or operator panel into step and direction pulse streams for use by the step
motor driver. Indexers can be broadly divided into two classes. A preset indexer typically
accepts distance, velocity and ramp time inputs only. The more sophisticated
programmable indexer is capable of complex motion control and includes program
memory.
Inductance: The electrical equivalent to mechanical inertia; that is, the property of a
circuit, which has a tendency to resist current flow when no current is flowing, and when
current is flowing has a tendency to maintain that current flow. Pacific Scientific
measures inductance (line-to-line) with a bridge at 1000 Hz and with the rotor positioned
so the back-EMF waveform is at the peak of the sinusoid.
Inductance (mutual): Mutual inductance is the property that exists between two
current carrying conductors or coils when magnetic lines of force from one link with
those of the other.
Inertial match: For most efficient operation, the system coupling ratio should be
selected so that the reflected inertia of the load is equal to the rotor inertia of the motor.
Insulation Class: The rating assigned to the maximum temperature capability of the
insulating components in a motor or other piece of equipment.
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC): The worldwide organization that
promotes international unification of standards or norms. Its formal decisions on technical
matters express, as nearly as possible, an international consensus.
Impedance: The total opposition in an electric circuit to the flow of an alternating
current. Expressed in ohms.
Induction Motor: The simplest and most rugged electric motor, it consists of a wound
stator and a rotor assembly. The AC induction motor is named because the electric
current flowing in its secondary member (the rotor) is induced by the alternating current
flowing in its primary member (stator). The power supply is connected only to the stator.
The combined electromagnetic effects of the two currents produce the force to create
rotation.
 Appendix A: Terminology Associated with Electric Motors 277

Insulation: In motors, classified by maximum allowable operating temperature.

NEMA Classifications include:
Class A=105 °C, Class B=130 °C, Class F=155 °C and Class H=180 °C.
Integral Horsepower Motor: A motor rated one horsepower or larger at 1800RPM.
By NEMA definitions, this is any motor having a three digit frame, for example 143T.
Kilowatt: A unit of power equal to 1000 watts and approximately equal to 1.34
horsepower.
Load: The work required of a motor to drive attached equipment. Expressed in
horsepower or torque at a certain motor speed.
Locked Rotor Current: Measured current with the rotor locked and with rated voltage
and frequency applied to the motor.
Locked Rotor Torque: Measured torque with the rotor locked and with rated voltage
and frequency applied to the motor.
Magnetic Polarity: Distinguishes the location of North and South poles of a magnet.
Magnetic lines of force emanate from the North pole of a magnet and terminate at the
South pole.
Mechanical time constant: In a simple first order system, the time required for the
motor's speed to attain 63.2% of its final value for a fixed voltage level. Can be calculated
from:
Where:
J is inertia in lb-in./s2
R is resistance in ohms
KT is torque constant in lb-in./amp.
8.87 is a conversion factor
tM is calculated in seconds
Micro stepping: An electronic technique for increasing a step motor's position
resolution and velocity smoothness by appropriately scaling the phase currents.
Microstepping is also a technique used to reduce or eliminate the effects of system
resonance at low speeds.
Mid-range instability: A phenomenon in which a step motor can fall out of
synchronism due to a loss of torque at mid-range speeds. The torque loss is due to the
interaction of the motor's electrical characteristics and the driver's electronics. Some
drivers have circuitry to eliminate or reduce the effects of mid-range instability.
Mounting, Basic Types: The most common motor mounts include: rigid base,
resilient base C face or D flange, and extended through bolts.
Mush Coil: A coil made with round wire.
National Electric Code (NEC): A safety code regarding the use of electricity. The
NEC is sponsored by the National Fire Protection Institute. It is also used by insurance
inspectors and by many government bodies regulating building codes.
278 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

NEMA (National Electrical Manufactures Association): A non-profit trade

organization, supported by manufacturers of electrical apparatus and supplies in the
United States. Its standards alleviate misunderstandings and help buyers select the proper
products. NEMA standards for motors cover frame sizes and dimensions, horsepower
ratings, service factors, temperature rises and performance characteristics.
NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturer's Association): Acronym for an
organization which sets standards for motors and other industrial electrical equipment.
NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient): A negative temperature coefficient
thermistor is used to detect and protect a motor winding from exceeding its maximum
temperature rating. Resistance of the device decreases with an increase in temperature.
Open Circuit: A break in an electrical circuit that prevents normal current flow.
Open-loop: A system in which there is no feedback. Motor motion is expected to
faithfully follow the input command. Stepping motor systems are an example of open-
loop control.
Output Shaft: The shaft of a speed reducer assembly that is connected to the load.
This may also be called the drive shaft or the slow speed shaft.
Overhung load: Is the perpendicular force pushing against the side of an output shaft.
This force is either from a weight hanging on the output shaft or from a sprocket, pulley
or gear being used on the shaft.
Overload capacity: The ability of a drive to withstand currents above its continuous
rating. It is defined by NEMA as 150% of the rated full-load current for "standard
industrial DC motors" for one minute.
Peak torque: The maximum torque a brush less motor can deliver for short periods of
time. Operating PacTorq motors above the maximum torque value can cause
demagnetization of the rare-earth magnets. This is an irreversible effect that will alter the
motor characteristics and degrade performance. This is also known as peak current.
Not to be confused with system peak torque, which is often determined by amplifier
peak current limitations, where peak current is typically two times continuous current.
Permanent Split Capacitor (PSC): (Single Phase) Performance and applications
similar to shaded pole motors, but more efficient, with lower line current and higher
horsepower capabilities.
Phase: The number of individual voltages applied to an AC motor. A single-phase
motor has one voltage in the shape of a sine wave applied to it. A three-phase motor has
three individual voltages applied to it. The three phases are at 120 degrees with respect to
each other so that peaks of voltage occur at even time intervals to balance the power
received and delivered by the motor throughout its 360 degrees of rotation.
Plugging: A method of braking a motor that involves applying partial or full voltage in
reverse in order to bring the motor to zero speed.
Polarity: As applied to electric circuits, polarity indicates which terminal is positive
and which is negative. As applied to magnets, it indicates which pole is North and which
pole is South.
 Appendix A: Terminology Associated with Electric Motors 279

Poles: Magnetic devices set up inside the motor by the placement and connection of
the windings. Divide the number of poles into 7200 to determine the motor's normal
speed. For example, 7200 divided by 2 poles equals 3600RPM.
Poles: Refers to the number of magnetic poles arranged on the rotor of the brushless
motor. Unlike an AC motor, the number of poles has no direct relationship to the base
speed of the motor.
Power factor: Ratio of true power (kW) to apparent power (kVA).
PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient): A positive temperature coefficient
thermistor is used to detect and protect a motor winding from exceeding its maximum
temperature rating. Resistance of the device increases with an increase in temperature.
Pull-out torque: The maximum friction load, at a particular inertial load, that can be
applied to the shaft of a synchronous motor (running at constant speed) and not cause it to
lose synchronism.
Pulse rate: The frequency of the step pulses applied to a step motor driver. The pulse
rate, multiplied by the resolution of the motor/driver combination (in steps per
revolution), yields the rotational speed in revolutions per second.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): 1. A PWM controller (amplifier) switches DC
supply voltage on and off at fixed frequencies. The length of the on/off interval or voltage
waveform is variable.
2. Pulse width modulation (PWM), describes a switch-mode (as opposed to linear)
control technique used in amplifiers and drivers to control motor voltage and current.
PWM offers greatly improved efficiency compared to linear techniques.
Regeneration: The action during motor braking, in which the motor acts as a generator
and takes kinetic energy from the load, converts it to electrical energy, and returns it to
the amplifier.
Relay: A device have two separate circuits, it is constructed so that a small current in
one of the circuits controls a large current in the other circuit. A motor starting relay
opens or closes the starting circuit under predetermined electrical conditions in the main
circuit (run winding).
Reluctance: The characteristics of a magnetic field which resists the flow of magnetic
lines of force through it.
Repeatability: The degree to which a parameter such as position or velocity can be
duplicated.
Resistance, Hot (RH): The motor's terminal resistance value specified at the hot
winding temperature, which is at the motor's maximum rated temperature.
Resolution: The smallest increment into which a parameter can be broken down. For
example, a 1000 line encoder has a resolution of 1/1000 of a revolution.
Resolver: An electromagnetic feedback device which converts angular shaft position
into analog signals. These signals can be processed in various ways, such as with an RDC
(resolver-to-digital converter) to produce digital position information. There are two basic
types of resolvers; transmitter and receiver. A transmitter-type is designed for rotor
primary excitation and stator secondary outputs. Position is determined by the ratio of the
sine output amplitude to cosine output amplitude. A receiver-type is designed for stator
280 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

primary excitations and rotor secondary output. Position is determined by the phase shift
between the rotor output signal and one of the primary excitation signals.
Resonance: Oscillatory behavior caused by mechanical limitations.
Restart torque: The maximum friction load, at a particular inertial load, that can be
applied to the shaft of a synchronous motor without causing it to lose synchronism when
accelerating to a constant speed from standstill.
Resistor: A device that resists the flow of electrical current for the purpose of
operation, protection or control. There are two types of resistors-fixed and variable. A
fixed resistor has a fixed value of ohms while a variable resistor is adjustable.
Ringing: Oscillation of a system following a sudden change in state.
RMS Current (Root Mean Square Current): In an intermittent duty cycle
application, the RMS current is equal to the value of steady state current which would
produce the equivalent motor heating over a period of time.
RMS Torque (Root Mean Square Torque): In an intermittent duty cycle application,
the RMS torque is equal to the value of steady state torque which would produce the
equivalent motor heating over a period of time.
Rotor: The moving part of the motor, consisting of the shaft and magnets. These
magnets are analogous to the field winding of a brush-type DC motor.
Rotation: The direction in which a shaft turns is either clockwise (CW) or
counterclockwise (CCW). When specifying rotation, also state if viewed from the shaft
end or the opposite shaft end of the motor.
Rotor: The rotating component of an induction AC motor. It is typically constructed of
a laminated, cylindrical iron core with slots of cast-aluminum conductors. Short-
circuiting end rings complete the "squirrel cage," which rotates when the moving
magnetic field induces current in the shorted conductors.
Service Factor: A measure of the overload capacity built into a motor. A 1.15 SF
means the motor can deliver 15% more than the rated horsepower without injurious
overheating. A 1.10 SF motor should not be loaded beyond its rated horsepower. Service
factors will vary for different horsepower motors and for different speeds.
Settling time: The time required for a parameter to stop oscillating or ringing and
reach its final value.
Shaded Pole Motor: (Single Phase) Motor has low starting torque, low cost. Usually
used in direct-drive fans and small blowers, and in small gearmotors.
Shock loading: A load that produces extremely high peak torques for very short
durations. This type of load is associated with conveyorized grinding, crushing and
separation processes.
Short Circuit: A fault or defect in a winding causing part of the normal electrical
circuit to be bypassed, frequently resulting in overheating of the winding and burnout.
Split Phase (or more specifically Split-Phase start-induction run): (Single Phase)
Motor has moderate starting torque, high breakdown torque. Used on easy-starting
equipment, such as belt-driven fans and blowers, grinders, centrifugal pumps, gearmotors,
ect.
 Appendix A: Terminology Associated with Electric Motors 281

Split-Phase Start-Capacitor Run: (Single Phase)

Stall Torque: The amount of torque developed with voltage applied and shaft locked,
or not rotating. Also known as locked-rotor torque.
Stator: The non-moving part of the motor. Specifically, it is the iron core with the wire
winding in it that is pressed into the frame shell. The winding pattern determines the
voltage constant of the motor.
The fixed part of an AC motor, consisting of copper windings within steel laminations.
Step angle: The angular distance the shaft rotates upon receipt of a single step
command.
Stiffness: The ability to resist movement induced by an applied torque. Stiffness is
often specified as a torque displacement curve, indicating the amount a motor shaft will
rotate upon application of a known external force when stopped.
Synchronism: A motor rotating at a speed corresponding correctly to the applied step
pulse frequency is said to be in synchronism. Load torques in excess of the motor's
capacity (rated torque) will cause a loss of synchronism. This condition is not damaging
to a step motor.
Temperature Rise: The amount by which a motor, operating under rated conditions, is
hotter than its surrounding ambient temperature.
Temperature Tests: These determine the temperature of certain parts of a motor,
above the ambient temperature, while operating under specific environmental conditions.
TENV (Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated): Acronym describing a type of motor
enclosure, which has no outside air going into it. It is cooled only by convection to the
frame, which is usually finned.
Thermal protection: A thermal sensing device mounted to the motor to protect it from
overheating. This is accomplished by disconnecting the motor phases from the drive in an
over temperature condition.
Thermal Protector: A device, sensitive to current and heat, which protects the motor
against overheating due to overload or failure to start. Basic types include automatic rest,
manual reset and resistance temperature detectors.
Thermal resistance: An indication of how effectively a unit rids itself of heat; a
measure of temperature rise per watts lost. In Pacific Scientific literature, it is the
specified value from the motor windings to the ambient, under locked rotor conditions.
Thermal time constant: The time required for a motor to attain 63.2% of its final
temperature for a fixed power input.
Thermostat: A protector, which is temperature-sensing only, that is mounted on the
stator winding. Two leads from the device must be connected to control circuit, which
initiates corrective action. The customer must specify if the thermostats are to be
normally closed or normally open.
Thermocouple: A pair of dissimilar conductors joined to produce a thermoelectric
effect and used to accurately determine temperature. Thermocouples are used in
laboratory testing of motors to determine the internal temperature of the motor winding.
282 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Torque: The turning effort or force applied to a shaft, usually expressed in inch-pounds or
inch-ounces for fractional and sub-fractional HP motors.
t rting or ue Force produced by a motor as it begins to turn from standstill and
accelerate (sometimes called locked rotor torque).
u o d or ue The force produced by a motor running at rated full-load speed at
rated horsepower.
re do n or ue the maximum torque a motor will develop under increasing load
conditions without an abrupt drop in speed and power. Sometimes called pull-out torque.
u or ue The minimum torque delivered by a motor between zero and the rated
RPM, equal to the maximum load a motor can accelerate to rated RPM.
Torque Constant: An expression of the relationship between input current and output
torque. For each ampere of current, a fixed amount of torque is produced.
Torque-to-inertia ratio: Defined as the motor's holding torque divided by the inertia of its
rotor. The higher the ratio, the higher a motor's maximum acceleration capability will be.
Transformer: Used to isolate line voltage from a circuit or to change voltage and current
to lower or higher values. Constructed of primary and secondary windings around a common
magnetic core.
Underwriters Laboratories (UL): Independent United States testing organization that sets
safety standards for motors and other electrical equipment.
Unipolar driver: step motor driver configuration that uses a unipolar power supply and is
capable of driving phase current in only one direction. The motor phase winding must be
center tapped (6 or 8 lead) to operate with a unipolar driver. The center tap is used instead of
providing the current reversal of a bipolar driver.
Viscous Damping: Inherent losses are present in all motors which result in lower torque
delivered at the output shaft than developed at the rotor. Losses which are proportional to
speed (i.e. speed dependent terms such as windage, friction, eddy current) are related through
the motor's "viscous damping" constant, measured as the slope of the damping curve.
Voltage: A unit of electromotive force that, when applied to conductors, will produce
current in the conductors.
Voltage constant: May also be termed back-EMF constant. When a motor is operated, it
generates a voltage proportional to speed, but opposing the applied voltage. The shape of the
voltage waveform depends upon the specific motor design. For example, in a brushless motor,
the waveshape may be trapezoidal or sinusoidal in nature. All Pacific Scientific brushless
motor designs have a sinusoidal voltage constant. For a sine waveform, the voltage constant
can be measured from line-to-neutral or line-to-line and expressed as a peak value or "RMS"
value.
Watt: The amount of power required to maintain a current of 1 ampere at a pressure of one
volt when the two are in phase with each other. One horsepower is equal to 746 watts.
Winding: Typically refers to the process of wrapping coils of copper wire around a core,
usually of steel. In an AC induction motor, the primary winding is a stator consisting of wire
coils inserted into slots within steel laminations. The secondary winding of an AC induction
motor is usually not a winding at all, but rather a cast rotor assembly. In a permanent magnet
DC motor, the winding is the rotating armature.
 T

Typical fficiencies of squirrel cage induction motors ( Ms)

(in ratings broadly divided into categories)
nergy nergy
oading of fficient tandard fficient tandard nergy
the motor motor ( motor ( motor ( motor ( fficient tandard
(in ) ) ) ) ) motor ( ) motor ( )
100 74.00 68.00 88.60 83.50 94.00 93.80
99 73.90 67.84 88.57 83.48 94.00 93.80
98 73.80 67.68 88.54 83.46 94.00 93.80
97 73.70 67.52 88.52 83.44 94.00 93.80
96 73.60 67.36 88.49 83.42 94.00 93.80
95 73.50 67.20 88.46 83.40 94.00 93.80
94 73.40 67.04 88.43 83.38 94.00 93.80
93 73.30 66.88 88.40 83.36 94.00 93.80
92 73.20 66.72 88.38 83.34 94.00 93.80
91 73.10 66.56 88.35 83.32 94.00 93.80
90 73.00 66.40 88.32 83.30 94.00 93.80
89 72.90 66.24 88.29 83.28 94.00 93.80
88 72.80 66.08 88.26 83.26 94.00 93.80
87 72.70 65.92 88.24 83.24 94.00 93.80
86 72.60 65.76 88.21 83.22 94.00 93.80
85 72.50 65.60 88.18 83.20 94.00 93.80
84 72.40 65.44 88.15 83.18 94.00 93.80
83 72.30 65.28 88.12 83.16 94.00 93.80
82 72.20 65.12 88.10 83.14 94.00 93.80
81 72.10 64.96 88.07 83.12 94.00 93.80
284 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Typical fficiencies of squirrel cage induction motors ( Ms)

(in ratings broadly divided into categories)
nergy nergy
oading of fficient tandard fficient tandard nergy
the motor motor ( motor ( motor ( motor ( fficient tandard
(in ) ) ) ) ) motor ( ) motor ( )
80 72.00 64.80 88.04 83.10 94.00 93.80
79 71.90 64.64 88.01 83.08 94.00 93.80
78 71.80 64.48 87.98 83.06 94.00 93.80
77 71.70 64.32 87.96 83.04 94.00 93.80
76 71.60 64.16 87.93 83.02 94.00 93.80
75 71.50 64.00 87.90 83.00 94.00 93.80
74 71.40 63.72 87.82 82.88 93.96 93.73
73 71.24 63.44 87.74 82.76 93.92 93.66
72 71.08 63.16 87.66 82.64 93.88 93.58
71 70.92 62.88 87.58 82.52 93.84 93.51
70 70.76 62.60 87.50 82.40 93.80 93.44
69 70.60 62.32 87.42 82.28 93.76 93.37
68 70.44 62.04 87.34 82.16 93.72 93.30
67 70.28 61.76 87.26 82.04 93.68 93.22
66 70.12 61.48 87.18 81.92 93.64 93.15
65 69.96 61.20 87.10 81.80 93.60 93.08
64 69.80 60.92 87.02 81.68 93.56 93.01
63 69.64 60.64 86.94 81.56 93.52 92.94
62 69.48 60.36 86.86 81.44 93.48 92.86
61 69.32 60.08 86.78 81.32 93.44 92.79
60 69.16 59.80 86.70 81.20 93.40 92.72
59 69.00 59.52 86.62 81.08 93.36 92.65
58 68.84 59.24 86.54 80.96 93.32 92.58
57 68.68 58.96 86.46 80.84 93.28 92.50
56 68.52 58.68 86.38 80.72 93.24 92.43
55 68.36 58.40 86.30 80.60 93.20 92.36
54 68.20 58.12 86.22 80.48 93.16 92.29
53 68.04 57.84 86.14 80.36 93.12 92.22
52 67.88 57.56 86.06 80.24 93.08 92.14
51 67.72 57.28 85.98 80.12 93.04 92.07
50 67.56 57.00 85.90 80.00 93.00 92.00

ote
is t e ser es s er gener com rison guide et een energ e icient motors nd
st nd rd motors under rious o ding conditions
b) or e ct det i s in orm tion is to e o t ined rom t e m nu cturer concerned
 Appendix B: A Study of Efficiencies of Motors 285

omparative tudy of the efficiency of nergy fficient motors by their peeds

M
Pole Pole Pole Pole
T
0.50 89.30 89.80 88.50 88.00
0.51 89.34 89.84 88.58 88.04
0.52 89.38 89.88 88.66 88.08
0.53 89.42 89.92 88.74 88.12
0.54 89.46 89.96 88.82 88.16
0.55 89.50 90.00 88.90 88.20
0.56 89.54 90.04 88.98 88.24
0.57 89.58 90.08 89.06 88.28
0.58 89.62 90.12 89.14 88.32
0.59 89.66 90.16 89.22 88.36
0.60 89.70 90.20 89.30 88.40
0.61 89.74 90.24 89.38 88.44
0.62 89.78 90.28 89.46 88.48
0.63 89.82 90.32 89.54 88.52
0.64 89.86 90.36 89.62 88.56
0.65 89.90 90.40 89.70 88.60
0.66 89.94 90.44 89.78 88.64
0.67 89.98 90.48 89.86 88.68
0.68 90.02 90.52 89.94 88.72
0.69 90.06 90.56 90.02 88.76
0.70 90.10 90.60 90.10 88.80
0.71 90.14 90.64 90.18 88.84
0.72 90.18 90.68 90.26 88.88
0.73 90.22 90.72 90.34 88.92
0.74 90.26 90.76 90.42 88.96
0.75 90.30 90.80 90.50 89.00
0.76 90.34 90.84 90.50 89.00
0.77 90.38 90.88 90.50 89.00
0.78 90.42 90.92 90.50 89.00
0.79 90.46 90.96 90.50 89.00
0.80 90.50 91.00 90.50 89.00
0.81 90.54 91.04 90.50 89.00
0.82 90.58 91.08 90.50 89.00
0.83 90.62 91.12 90.50 89.00
0.84 90.66 91.16 90.50 89.00
0.85 90.70 91.20 90.50 89.00
0.86 90.74 91.24 90.50 89.00
0.87 90.78 91.28 90.50 89.00
0.88 90.82 91.32 90.50 89.00
0.89 90.86 91.36 90.50 89.00
286 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

omparative tudy of the efficiency of nergy fficient motors by their peeds

M
Pole Pole Pole Pole
T
0.90 90.90 91.40 90.50 89.00
0.91 90.94 91.44 90.50 89.00
0.92 90.98 91.48 90.50 89.00
0.93 91.02 91.52 90.50 89.00
0.94 91.06 91.56 90.50 89.00
0.95 91.10 91.60 90.50 89.00
0.96 91.14 91.64 90.50 89.00
0.97 91.18 91.68 90.50 89.00
0.98 91.22 91.72 90.50 89.00
0.99 91.26 91.76 90.50 89.00
1.00 91.30 91.80 90.50 89.00
1).

a). Which kind of motor requires a commutator?

b). What is the purpose of employing it?

c). Why it is not required for other types of motors?

288 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

2).

a). Which is the most widely used motor in the industrial environment?

b). What are its advantages over other types of motors?

c). Why can't it be used for all applications?

3).

a). What are the possible symptoms of a rotor bar failure?

 Appendix C: Self-Help Questions 289

b). How do you confirm it on-line?

c). What are the probable causes for rotor bar failures?

3).

a). What kind of stresses result in the deterioration of an electrical insulation?

b). Is an electrical insulation system supposed to be capacitive or resistive? Why?

290 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

4).

a). What is the significance of Tan delta for an insulator?

b). What kind of Tan delta trend (increasing or decreasing) is considered to be dangerous to
the equipment? Why?

5).

a). What does FFT stand for?

b). Where is it used as a good application with regard to motors?

c). What is the benefit of employing it in such analysis?

 Appendix C: Self-Help Questions 291

6).

a). What is the most essential protection to be provided for an electrical motor, irrespective
of its size and rating?

b). What are the typical protections to be provided for a large sized (above 1000 HP)
Induction motor?
292 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance
.1. ro 1

Consider an induction motor of 1.10 kW, 415 V, 50 Hz, 4-pole with a rated slip of 2 %.
What is the synchronous speed of the motor? What is the rated speed of the motor?

What will be the frequency of the rotor induced voltage?

(a). At the instant of starting?

(b). At the rated speed?

Hint: Slip is a reflection of the difference of the speed of the synchronous, revolving
magnetic field and the speed of the motor.

. . ro

While testing a motor, it is recommended to take the inductance values of all the three
phases. With the stator alone, the three phase windings show a considerable degree of
balance. However, in assembled condition of the motor a set of 24 or 36 readings need to
be taken with the rotor in different positions, equally shifted, to detect any kind of
eccentricity of the rotor. Following inductance values were observed with the rotor in
various positions and the readings (some of the typical values capturing the trend) are as
follows:
294 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Angle 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

L of ‘U” phase in mH 86 145 124 102 86 72 85
L of ‘V” phase in mH 40 61 82 138 140 71 62
L of ‘W” phase in 84 64 41 62 84 114 83
mH

What is the probable cause for such readings? What kind of remedial actions will you
recommend?

. . ro
Calculate the shaft power output of a 6 pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor with the
rated torque as 160 N-m and slip of 4 %.

. . ro

In the above case, if the torque loss in windage and friction is 12 N-m and the all
inclusive stator losses are 1000 W calculate efficiency of the motor.

. . ro
A test specimen of 11 / 3.3 kV Transformer’s insulation, when applied a voltage of
1.5 kV, was found to be drawing a resistive current of 0.96 mA and a total current of
48 mA. What is the approximate Tan delta of the insulation at this particular
condition? What will be the PF at this point?

. . ro
A 22 kW, 3-phase, 415 V, 40 A, 50 Hz, 960 rpm. 0.88 PF squirrel cage induction
motor drives a pump. The total inertia of the drive system is 1.2 kg-m2.
Determine the number of starts per minute this drive can be subjected to without
exceeding the total power dissipated in the motor under rated conditions. Assume a
ratio of stator to rotor resistance of unity and neglect magnetizing current and
rotational losses.
int nerg ost t e motor during st rting under no o d    Zs
t tor resist nce otor resist nce
 Appendix D: Problems 295

. . ro
Considering the same 22 kW of the above problem and the same assumptions, what
will be the effect on the no. of starts restriction if the motor is of 2 pole construction?

. . ro

Consider a motor of 1000 kW, 996 rpm rating with an inertia of 80 kg-m2; driving a
fan of Load Inertia: 1875 kg-m2. Load Torque required at 650rpm can be assumed to
be 45%; Frictional Torque can be assumed to be 10%. Calculate the acceleration time
of the motor up to 650 rpm assuming that the motor has to accelerate without driving
the load (solo).

int ngu r cce er tion in s eed r s niti s eed r s cce er tion

ime

. . ro
The above referred drive system is engineered such that the motor gets coupled to the
load at 650 rpm. What is the torque available for the motor to accelerate in this loaded
condition? Calculate the acceleration time to reach a speed of 700 rpm.

.1 . ro 1

One of the turbine driven pumps is facing repetitive failure at the turbine. Also due to
the energy savings potential involved with an electric motor, it was decided to replace
the turbine with an electric motor that can develop a shaft power of 30 kW. Typically
a standard 30 kW motor has efficiencies of 92.90, 92.40 & 91.40 % corresponding to a
loading of 100 %, 75 % & 50 % respectively. While procuring the new motor it was
realized that at a premium (in the price) new generation, energy efficient motor can be
bought that has a promised efficiency of 94.5 % for 100 % & 75 % loading. At 50 %
loading, its efficiency is 93.8 %. The Plant normally runs for 120 days at 100 %
capacity and for 130 days & 100 days at 50 % and 75 % respectively. It can be
assumed that the motor loading is proportional to Plant capacity utilization.

Take the unit rate of power and price of a standard motor & an energy efficient motor
from the Instructor. Find out the pay back period of the additional cost, if the energy
efficient motor is opted.
296 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance
 tud 1

What kind of Tan delta trend (increasing or decreasing) is considered to be dangerous to

the equipment? Why is it so? What measurement would you like to use for regular on-line
monitoring of the equipment’s healthiness if the Tan delta trend is alarming?

Case Study 2

There are two identical motors M1 & M2 with the perennial problem of high bearing
temperatures, crossing 75 deg C even at an ambient temperature of 30 deg C and hence
suffering from premature failure. Both of them are of class F insulation but loaded
differently. Their winding temperatures are 135 deg C and 95 deg C for M1 and M2
298 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

respectively. By using synthetic grease (temperature tolerant one), problem for one of the
motors was resolved.
Which motor's problem could be solved this way and what was the root cause? What will
kind of problem can be there with the other motor?

Case Study

What is the most essential protection to be provided for an electrical motor, irrespective
of its size and rating? Substantiate your idea.
 Appendix E: Case Studies 299

Case Study

A 3.3 kV, 700 kW motor of 0.90 PF (with a CT ratio of 200 / 1 A in the breaker) is being
used for a prolonged start application to run a fan. A newly procured digital protection
relay needs to be programmed. How do you set the basic protections using this data?
What kind of information would you seek from the motor manufacturer / fan supplier?

Case Study

What can be the effect on a motor’s acceleration with reduced voltage applied to it?
Consider a motor taking 48 sec to accelerate full speed with normal voltage applied. If the
voltage is reduced by 10 % how much time it may require for the same conditions?
300 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Case Study

What are the parameters to be considered while engineering a drive for variable speed
application?
 Appendix F

Answers to the Problems

Consider an induction motor of 1.10 kW, 415 V, 50 Hz, 4 pole with a rated slip of 2 %.
What is the synchronous speed of the motor? What is the rated speed of the motor?

What will be the frequency of the rotor induced voltage?

(a). At the instant of starting?

(b). At the rated speed?

Hint: Slip is a reflection of the difference of the speed of the synchronous, revolving
magnetic field and the speed of the motor.

S ut

Step-1: Calculation of the synchronous speed

As given in Chapter 1, Section 1.3.2

60 X Frequency
Synchronous Speed (rpm) =
No. of Pole pairs
302 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

No. of Pole pairs in this motor = 4 / 2 = 2

n0 = (60 * 50) / 2 rpm

= 1500 rpm

Step-2: Calculation of the actual speed

As given in Chapter 2,

( no - n)
Slip = s = per - unit
no

From the above equation,

Actual speed, n = n0 X ( 1 – s) rpm

= 1500 (1 – 0.02) rpm

= 1470 rpm

Step-3: Calculation of the frequency of rotor induced voltage

Frequency of the rotor induced voltage, fr = sXf

( no - n)
Slip = s = per - unit
no

(a). Speed of the motor at the instant of starting is Zero.

Hence the slip at the time of start = (1500 – 0) / 1500 pu

= 1 pu

Frequency of the rotor induced voltage in this case = 1 X 50 Hz

= 50 Hz

(b). At the rated speed, the slip of the motor is given as 0.02.

Hence, rated frequency of the rotor induced voltage = 0.02 X 50 Hz

 Appendix F: Answers to the Problems 303

(after attaining the full, rated speed*)

= 1 Hz

* Note that the slip of an AC induction motor is a load dependent instantaneous value
and varies dynamically.

e 2
While testing a motor, it is recommended to take the inductance values of all the three
phases. With the stator alone, the three phase windings show a considerable degree of
balance. However, in assembled condition of the motor a set of 24 or 36 readings need
to be taken with the rotor in different positions, equally shifted, to detect any kind of
eccentricity of the rotor. Following inductance values were observed with the rotor in
various positions and the readings (some of the typical values capturing the trend) are
as follows:
Angle 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
L of ‘U” phase in mH 86 145 124 102 86 72 85
L of ‘V” phase in mH 40 61 82 138 140 71 62
L of ‘W” phase in 84 64 41 62 84 114 83
mH
What is the probable cause for such readings? What kind of remedial actions will you
recommend?

S ut

Step-1: Developing the pattern

Plotting the curve against the rotor angle captures the pattern of the inductance values
in a particular phase, in the best possible manner. Hence draw the curves one for each
of the phase showing the inductance values against the corresponding rotor angle.
304 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Inductance values with the rotor in various positions

160

140

Inductance value in mill Henry

120

100

80

60

40 L of ‘U” phase in mH
L of ‘V” phase in mH
20
L of ‘W” phase in mH
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Rotor Angle

Figure F.1
Curves depicting the Inductance values

Step-2: Analysis of the curves gives probable cause

It can be seen from the above curves that all the three exhibit a variation that can be
approximated to sinusoidal waveform. However the peak values of each phase are
differing from each other.
This is a clear case of rotor eccentricity but there can be two types of eccentricity as
outlined in Chapter 2, static and dynamic. In case of the latter, the inductance values
will not exhibit sinusoidal pattern and all of them are up or down, depending on which
phase is closest to the rotor at a given degree rotation
Hence, this particular case is due to static eccentricity. This type of eccentricity is
caused by problems like a misaligned end bell or the shaft sitting low in the bearing.
The physical result is that the shaft is always in the same place out of the electric
center as shown below:
 Appendix F: Answers to the Problems 305

Figure F.2
A case of Static Eccentricity

Step-3: Remedial actions

This case of static eccentricity gives a diagnosis that the rotor is not positioned
centrally. Hence all steps to bring the rotor to its appropriate position must be taken.
This may include ensuring one or more of the following conditions till the situation
improves:
x The end shields are properly aligned or,
x The alignment with the load is done properly or,
x Proper shimming of the motor is done.

e
Calculate the shaft power output of a 6 pole, 50 Hz, 3 phase induction motor with the
rated torque as 160 N-m and slip of 4 %.

S ut

Step-1: Calculation of the synchronous speed

As calculated in problem-1, Synchronous speed = (60 50) / 3
= 1000 rpm

Step-2: Calculation of the rated speed

Rated speed of the given motor = (1 - s) (Synchronous speed)
= 0.96 1000
= 960 rpm
306 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Step-3: Calculation of angular velocity

Angular velocity = 2 S rps s-1
= 2 S (rpm / 60) s-1
= 100.57 s-1

Step-4: Calculation of rated power

As given in Chapter 1, Section 1.4.4,

Power developed on the shaft in Watts = Torque Angular velocity
Rated* shaft power output of the motor = 160 100.57 Watts
= 16.1 kW.

* Please note that the generic usage of such terms like torque, power, speed etc. implies
the value corresponding to the rated conditions, unless otherwise specified.

In the above case, if the torque loss in windage and friction is 12 N-m and the all
inclusive stator losses are 1000 W calculate efficiency of the motor.

S ut
Step-1: Calculation of rotor copper losses:

Power loss of the motor in its rotor = 12 100.57 Watts

= 1.21 kW

Step-2: Calculation of total losses

All inclusive Stator losses = 1.0 kW

Total losses = 1.0 + 1.21 kW
= 2.21 kW

Step-3: Calculation of efficiency

Efficiency of a motor = Shaft power output / Power Input

In this case, Shaft power output and losses are known, hence the efficiency can be
calculated using the equation:

Shaft power output 100

Efficiency of a motor = %
Shaft power output + Total Losses
= 16.1 100 / (16.1 + 2.1) %
= 87.94 %
 Appendix F: Answers to the Problems 307

e
A test specimen of 11 / 3.3 kV Transformer’s insulation, when applied a voltage of
1.5 kV, was found to be drawing a resistive current of 0.96 mA and a total current of
48 mA. What is the approximate Tan delta of the insulation at this particular
condition? What will be the PF at this point?

S ut
Step-1: Vectorial representation

Refer to Figure 5.4 where a specimen of insulation is represented as a parallel RC

circuit.

The currents drawn by various components can be represented as shown in Figure 5.5
(reproduced here as F.3)

Here, IT = 48 mA
IR = 0.96 A

Step-2 Calculation of resistive component of current

From the vector diagram, IR = (IT2 – IC2) ½

Figure F.3
Vector components of test voltage and current
308 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

From the above equation, using Pythagoras theorem, IC = 47.99 mA

Step-3: Calculation of Tan G & Power Factor

From the vectorial representation at Figure F.3,

Tan G of the Transformer’s insulation with an applied voltage of 1.5 kV * can be
calculated as = IR / IC
= 0.96 / 47.99
Tan G = 0.020004

Power factor of the test specimen with an applied voltage of 1.5 kV *,

PF = IR / IT
= 0.96 / 48
= 0.02

* It needs to be understood that the dissipation factor (Tan G) and power factor of a
specimen under test varies with the applied voltage. Also it should be noted that both
the values are close to each other. This holds good for a good quality insulator –
where the resistive component is very less. As the resistive component keeps rising,
the Tan Gvalue rises drastically, but the power factor rises gently. The theoretical
extremities for Tan G vary between 0 and Dinfinity whereas for power factor it is
between 0 and 1. Hence most of the analysts prefer the power factor instead of the
dissipation factor

e
A 22 kW, 3-phase, 415 V, 40 A, 50 Hz, 960 rpm. 0.88 PF squirrel cage induction
motor drives a pump. The total inertia of the drive system is 1.2 kg-m2.
Determine the number of starts per minute this drive can be subjected to without
exceeding the total power dissipated in the motor under rated conditions. Assume a
ratio of stator to rotor resistance of unity and neglect magnetizing current and
rotational losses.
Hint: Energy lost by the motor during starting under no load = ½ J Zs2 (1 + Stator
resistance / Rotor resistance).

S ut
Step-1: Calculation of energy lost under full load condition

Input power = 1.732 * 415 * 40 * 0.88 Watts

= 25301.06 Watts
Full load losses = 25301.06 – 22000 Watts
= 3301.06 Watts
Energy lost per minute under full load conditions = 3301.06 60 Joules
= 198063.6 Joules
 Appendix F: Answers to the Problems 309

Step-2: Calculation of the energy lost during start conditions

Energy lost by the motor during start under no load

= ½ 1.2 (2 S 100060)2 * 2 Joules
= 13170.07 Joules

Step-3: Calculation of allowable number of starts

Number of starts that can be made in a specified period (here 1 minute)

= 198063.6 / 13170.07
= 15.03, say 15

e
Considering the same 22 kW of the above problem and the same assumptions, what
will be the effect on the no. of starts restriction if the motor is of 2 pole construction?

S ut
Step-1: Calculation of the energy lost during start conditions

Energy lost by the motor during start under no load

= ½ 1.2 (2 S 300060)2 * 2 Joules
= 118530.61 Joules

Step-2: Calculation of allowable number of starts

Number of starts that can be made in a specified period (here 1 minute)

= 198063.6 / 118530.61
= 1.67, say 5 in 3 minutes span

e
Consider a motor of 1000 kW, 996 rpm rating with an inertia of 80 kg-m2; driving a
fan of Load Inertia: 1875 kg-m2.
Load Torque Required at 650rpm can be assumed to be 45%; Frictional Torque can be
assumed to be 10%.
Calculate the acceleration time of the motor up to 650 rpm assuming that the motor
has to accelerate without driving the load (solo).
Hint: Angular acceleration = (Final speed, rps – Initial speed, rps) / Acceleration
Time.
310 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Step-1: Calculation the rated torque of the motor

As given in Chapter 01, Section 1.4.4,

Power developed on the shaft in Watts = Torque Angular velocity Watts
=> Rated Torque = (Power / Angular velocity) N-m
= (1000 1000) / (2 S (rpm / 60))
= (1000 1000) / (2 S (996 / 60))
= 9583.79 N-m

Step-2: Calculation of acceleration torque in de-coupled condition

Motor torque available for acceleration of the motor from zero speed, in de-coupled
(no load) condition is the torque motor is capable of delivering, after overcoming the
frictional loads.

In this case, the frictional losses are given to be 10 %. Hence the motor is capable of
using only 90 % of its rated torque to accelerate.

Hence the acceleration torque in no-load condition = (9583.79 * 0.90) N-m

= 8625.41 N-m

Step-3: Calculation of acceleration time in de-coupled condition

As given in Chapter 1, Sec 1.4.3,

Torque (N-m)
Moment of Inertia, J (kg-m2) =
Angular acceleration (rad / m2)

Inertia to be overcome in no-load condition = Motor’s inertia alone

= 80 kg-m2

Hence Angular acceleration that can be imparted = 8625.41 / 80

= 107.82 s-2

Acceleration time from zero speed to the required speed is the ratio between the
required speed in rps and the angular acceleration that can be imparted to the motor
shaft. Hence,

Acceleration time in de-coupled condition from zero speed to a speed of 650 rpm
= (2 S 650 / 60) / 107.82 seconds
= 0.63 second
 Appendix F: Answers to the Problems 311

The above referred drive system is engineered such that the motor gets coupled to the
load at 650 rpm. What is the torque available for the motor to accelerate in this loaded
condition? Calculate the acceleration time to reach a speed of 700 rpm?

Step-1: Calculation of acceleration torque in coupled condition

Motor torque available for acceleration of the motor in coupled condition is the torque
the motor is capable of delivering, after overcoming the frictional losses and the load
requirements.

In this case, the frictional losses are given to be 10 % and the load torque required at
650 rpm is given to be 45 % of the ratted torque. Hence, the motor is capable of using
only 45 % of its rated torque to accelerate in loaded condition.

Hence the acceleration torque in no-load condition = (9583.79 * 0.45) N-m

= 4312.70 N-m

Step-2: Calculation of acceleration time in coupled condition

Inertia to be overcome in loaded condition = Motor’s inertia +

The Fan’s Inertia

= (80 + 1875) kg-m2

= 1955 kg-m2

Hence, angular acceleration that can be imparted = 4312.70 / 1955

= 2.206 s-2

Acceleration time from 650 rpm to the required speed of 700 rpm is
= (2 S 700 – 650) / 60) / 2.206 sec
= 2.375 seconds

If the motor has to start from zero speed in no-load condition and gets coupled at 650
rpm, the motor requires 3.005 seconds to reach 700 rpm.

e
One of the turbine driven pumps is facing repetitive failure at the turbine. Also due to
the energy savings potential involved with an electric motor, it was decide to replace
the turbine with an electric motor that can develop a shaft power of 30 kW. Typically
a standard 30 kW motor has efficiencies of 92.90, 92.40 & 91.40 % corresponding to
a loading of 100 %, 75 % & 50 % respectively. While procuring the new motor it was
realized that at a premium (in the price) new generation, energy efficient motor can be
bought that has a promised efficiency of 94.5 % for 100 % & 75 % loading. At 50 %
loading, its efficiency is 93.8 %. The Plant normally runs for 120 days at 100 %
312 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

capacity and for 130 days & 100 days at 50 % and 75 % respectively. It can be
assumed that the motor loading is proportional to Plant capacity utilization.
Take the unit rate of power and price of a standard motor & an energy efficient motor
from the Instructor.
Find out the pay back period of the additional cost, if the energy efficient motor is
opted.

S ut
Step-1: Calculation of the units consumed with a standard motor in a year

The amount of energy to be supplied to the drive based on the loading pattern has to
be worked out, as shown in the following table. This is common for both the motors.
Based on the efficiency applicable for each loading condition, the energy that will be
drawn by the motor is calculated, in the case of standard motor as shown below:

Loading No. of units No. kWh required Efficienc kWh absorbed

pattern (kWh) of by the load for y at the by the Motor
of the required by days the particular particula in the
motor the load / day period r load corresponding
period
100 % 720 120 86400 92.9 93003.229
75 % 480 100 48000 92.4 51948.052
50 % 360 130 46800 91.4 51203.501
181200 196154.78

Step-2 Calculation of the energy savings in a year

Based on the efficiency applicable for each loading condition, the energy that will be
drawn by the motor is calculated, in the case of the energy efficient motor as shown
below:

kWh required by the load Efficiency at the kWh absorbed by the Motor
for the particular period particular load in the corresponding period
86400 94.5 91428.571
48000 94.5 50793.651
46800 93.8 49893.39
181200 192115.61

Based on this data, energy savings of around 4039 kWh can be expected per annum
by putting the energy efficient motor into operation.

Step-3 Pay back period for the additional cost of the energy efficient motor

Pay back period in the event of selecting the energy efficient motor, for this particular
case is given by:
Additional cost of the energy efficient motor
= ------------------------------------------------------------- Years
(Average cost per kWh of electrical energy* 4039)
 Appendix G

Answers to the Self-help

Questions

1).

a). Which kind of motor requires a commutator?

Motor having armatures requiring constant / DC supply to create stationary

magnetic field in the air gap.

b). What is the purpose of employing it?

To transmit electrical current to the moving armature through the brushes that ride
on the commutator.

c). Why it is not required for the other type of motors?

It is not required for the other type of motors, induction type of motors, because
they do not need any external, solid supply.

2).

a). Which is the most widely used motor in the industrial environment?

Squirrel cage induction motor (SCIM) is the most commonly used motor in
industries.
314 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

b). What are its advantages over other type of motors?

It is totally concealed from the external environment, commonly known as totally

enclosed thereby making it the least affected by the surrounding environment.

c). Why can't it be used for all applications?

Speed control & torque control are complicated for this type of motor.

3).

a). What are the possible symptoms of a rotor bar failure?

Excessive vibration and overheat in the rotor as well as stator.

b). How to confirm it on-line?

By carrying out Electrical Signature Analysis

c). What are the probable causes for rotor bar failures?
Casting defects, loose laminations, frequent starts, incorrect fitting, incorrect alignment,
rubbing with stator, eccentricity of the rotor resulting out of bent shaft or improper air gap.

4).

a). What kind of stresses result in the deterioration of an electrical insulation?

Electrical, Mechanical, Thermal & Environmental stresses result in the deterioration of
insulation material.

b). Is an electrical insulation system supposed to be capacitive or resistive? Why is it so?

Insulation systems are supposed to be capacitive. This is because, as an infinitesimal
element, an insulation is variably a dipole. Such dielectric media basically work on
polarization, just alike a capacitor.

5).

a). What is the significance for the Tan delta for an insulator?
Tan delta for an insulator reveals the capacitive characteristic of the material.

b). What kind of Tan delta trend (increasing or decreasing) is considered to be dangerous
to the equipment? Why is it so?
 Appendix G: Answers to the Self-help Questions 315

Increasing trend needs to be regularly monitored. It indicates the dilution of the dielectric
nature of the insulator.

6).

a). What does FFT stand for?

Fast Fourier Transform.

b). Where does it find good application with regard to motors?

It finds wide application in the vibration analysis of an equipment.

c). What is the benefit of employing it in such analysis?

In the identification of the vibration source in an equipment.

7).

a). What is the most essential protection to be provided for an electrical motor, irrespective of its
size and rating?
Thermal Overload protection.

b). What are the typical protections to be provided for a large sized (above 1000 HP) Induction
motor?
x Negative sequence current
x Over current
x Earth fault
x Stalling
x Too frequent starts
x Unbalanced voltage
x Under voltage
x Over voltage
316 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance
 Appendix H

Answers to the Case Studies

Case Study

What kind of Tan delta trend (increasing or decreasing) is considered to be dangerous

to the equipment? Why is it so? What measurement would you like to use for regular on-
line monitoring of the equipment’s healthiness if the Tan delta trend is alarming?
An increasing trend of TanG causes concern, though there are no absolute limits for it
to be considered as a demarcation for a cut-off of operation.

The logic of interpreting the trend goes like this:

318 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

x Tan G, as shown in the figure is IR / IC.

x A good insulation at the beginning of its life will behave like a capacitor with
little resistive current drawn.
x Theoretically the Tan G of an insulator is supposed to be ZERO.
x As the insulation system decomposes, the value of resistive component
increases.
x Hence the Tan G value increases as the insulation weakens.

Once these values are felt to be causing concern, regular close monitoring would be
warranted. Since the equipment will be in operation, these measurements cannot be taken.
In such a case Partial Discharge measurements, which can be taken on-line, will act as
saviors. A regular, close monitoring is possible only with these on-line measurement kits.

Case Study 2

There are two identical motors M1 & M2 with the perennial problem of high bearing
temperatures, crossing 75 deg C even at an ambient temperature of 30 deg C and hence
suffering from premature failure. Both of them are of class F insulation but loaded
differently. Their winding temperatures are 135 deg C and 95 deg C for M1 and M2
respectively. By using synthetic grease (temperature tolerant one), the problem for one of
the motors was resolved.
Which motor's problem could be solved this way and what was the root cause? What
will kind of problem can be there with the other motor?

x Motors M1 and M2 are identical in all aspects.

x However their winding temperatures are different. It means that one of them
is lightly loaded, M2, in this particular case.
x The bearing picks up heat from the surroundings because the body of the
motor M1 is hot. Hence high temperature tolerant grease may make it to
endure the harshness of the environment. Hence the problem must have been
solved in this case.

Regarding Motor M2 the following points need close attention:

x Even though lightly loaded, the motor is having the bearing running very hot.
x It means that the problem may be emanating from the internals, may be due
to:
 High vibrations or
 Cooling ineffectiveness or
 Appendix H: Answers to the Case Studies 319

 Problems connected with rotor bars.

So proper vibration analysis and if possible electrical signature analysis may gibe a
proper diagnosis and the problem can be solved forever.

Case Study

What is the most essential protection to be provided for an electrical motor, irrespective
of its size and rating? Substantiate your idea.
Irrespective of the size / rating, every motor requires a protection to safeguard the
machine against overloading.
x This is because, every motor has got a very high probability of getting overloaded at
some point of time, which can be at any time.
x Overload relay, if not perfectly, has a capability to respond to even other types of
faults like, under voltage (resulting in overload), over current, single phasing etc.
x Overload protection is the only one which safeguards a motor almost close to the
thermal capability curve, with very few exception points like stalling cases with the
starting time greater than the allowable stalling time etc.

Case Study

A 3.3 kV, 700 kW motor of 0.90 PF (with a CT ratio of 200 / 1 A in the breaker) is
being used for a prolonged start application to run a fan. A newly procured Digital
protection relay needs to be programmed. How do you set the basic protections using this
data? What kind of information would you seek from the motor manufacturer / fan
supplier?
Digital (Microprocessor based) Motor protection relays require very few inputs /
settings and provide a vast variety of protections.
With the available information, the thermal characteristic can be programmed for the
basic protections without going for a protection characteristic close to the thermal
capability curve of the motor (thermal withstand characteristic).
Rated current of this motor works out to 136 A. Hence, the following can be fed into
the relay:
x CT primary current: 200 A
x CT secondary current: 1 A
x Motor rated current: 136 / 200 = 0.68 A (Thermal protection)
x Over-voltage: + 10 %
x Under voltage: - 10%
x Earth fault: 200 mA
x Negative sequence currents: 0.27 A (40 % of rated current).

The following data needs to be collected from the motor manufacturer / fan supplier:
320 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

x Acceleration time
x Motor stall withstand current & time
x Motor thermal capability curve
x Motor starting current
x Motor locked rotor current
x No. of starts allowable / hr.

Case Study

What can be the effect on a motor’s acceleration with reduced voltage applied to it?
Consider a motor taking 48 sec to accelerate full speed with normal voltage applied. If the
voltage is reduced by 10 % how much time it may require for the same conditions?
Considering a squirrel cage induction motor, a motor’s starting torque reduces by 19 %
as the torque is proportional to the square of the voltage. Motor when started with 90 %
voltage will have the torque at 81 % of that available with full voltage.
The acceleration time of a motor is
x Directly proportional to the inertia and
x Inversely proportional to the torque.
Hence, after considering the frictional & load torque requirements to be negligible as
compared to the acceleration torque – as no data is available* – the acceleration time may
be approximately increased by 25 %. It means that the acceleration time will be more
than 60 seconds.
* Since the acceleration time is more than 48 seconds, the load is absorbing most of the motor
torque. Hence the load torque can’t be ignored comfortably, but the assumption is made due to
lack of information.

Case Study

What are the parameters to be considered while engineering a drive for variable speed
application?
The characteristics (especially the speed - torque curves) of both the driven machine
and the driving machine play very important role in the selection of a VSD.
The speed / torque / power characteristics developed at the motor shaft and how well
these characteristics suit the driven machine must be considered.
The four essential parameters that must be considered are:
x Breakaway Torque, the torque required to put the machine into motion.
x Process Torque or Load torque
 Appendix H: Answers to the Case Studies 321

x Accelerating Torque, the torque required to bring the machine to its operating
speed within a given time.
x Running Torque
322 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance
 Appendix I
Practical Exercises

The problems covered below are to be solved using the demo software tools
developed by Electric Motor Engineering & Consulting. The instructors may re-
build on the problems below, to refine the training module and to demonstrate the
basic principles discussed during the lecture sessions on the respective topics.

It may please be noted that studying the design problems by varying certain
characteristics at a time, for a particular model, gives a deeper insight into the
fundamentals and hence such an approach is adopted here.

e s t e des C t s S t a et used
C

While designing a DC motor to be run on a supply of 100 VDC and developing a load
torque of 216 oz-in at 1000 rpm the following data was taken as the basis:
Armature OD 3 inch 76.2 mm
Armature Stack ID 0.24 inch 6.1 mm
Armaturer Stack Length 2 inch 50.8 mm
No.Of Laminations 80 80
Lamination Thickness 0.025 inch 0.6 mm
Winding Lap Winding
Turns/Coil 81 81
Wire gage (AWG) 24 24
Copper Weight 20.85 ounce 591.09 gms
Armature length over co (Shaft
not included) 4.236 inch 107.6 mm
324 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Lead Wire Gage 16 AWG 1.29 mm

Lead Wire Length 12 inch 304.8 mm
Housing OD 3.906 inch 99.2 mm
Housing ID 3.711 inch 94.3 mm
Housing Thickness 0.098 inch 2.5 mm
Housing Axial Length 4 inch 101.6 mm
Magnet Type Arc FERRITE #7 TDK
Magnet Length 2.25 inch 57.2 mm
Magnet Angle 65.3 degrees 65.3 gms
Magnet OD 3.711 inch 94.3 mm
Magnet ID 3.051 inch 77.5 mm
Magnet Thickness 0.33 inch 8.4 mm
Magnet Weight 16.1 oz 456.43 gms
No. Of Poles 4 4
Commutator OD 0.99 inch 25.1 mm
Commutator ID 0.24 inch 6.1 mm
Commutator Length 0.432 inch 11.0 mm
No.Commutator Bars 21 21
Brush Width 0.148 inch 3.8 mm
Brush Axial Length 0.182 inch 4.6 mm
No.Brush 2 2
Brush Material Silver Graphite
Motor Length 5.686 inch 144.4 mm
Motor OD 3.906 inch 99.2 mm
Shaft OD 0.24 inch 6.1 mm

Consider designing a DC motor with the same physical dimensions running on a supply
of 100 VDC, but suitable for running at 3000 rpm. What will be the impact on the
winding characteristics such as the number of turns to coil?

e 2

In the above example of designing motors of different speeds, of 1000 rpm and 3000 rpm,
how will the armature resistance, no load current, power output & efficiency be
influenced?

Considering the same situation as in the above examples of two designs of 1000 rpm and
3000 rpm DC motors, how will the Frictional, eddy current, hysterisis & copper losses be
different?

Continuing with the same example check the variations that are to be incorporated in the
Brush & commutator dimensions.
 Appendix I: Practical Exercises 325

du t t S t a et used

While designing an AC induction motor, the following data was taken as the basis:
Armature OD 3 inch 76.2 mm
Armature Stack ID 0.24 inch 6.1 mm
Armaturer Stack Length 2 inch 50.8 mm
No.Of Laminations 80 80
Lamination Thickness 0.025 inch 0.6 mm
Winding Lap Winding
Turns/Coil 81 81
Wire gage (AWG) 24 24
Copper Weight 20.85 ounce 591.09 gms
Armature length over co (Shaft
not included) 4.236 inch 107.6 mm
Lead Wire Gage 16 AWG 1.29 mm
Lead Wire Length 12 inch 304.8 mm
Housing OD 3.906 inch 99.2 mm
Housing ID 3.711 inch 94.3 mm
Housing Thickness 0.098 inch 2.5 mm
Housing Axial Length 4 inch 101.6 mm
Magnet Type Arc FERRITE #7 TDK
Magnet Length 2.25 inch 57.2 mm
Magnet Angle 65.3 degrees 65.3 gms
Magnet OD 3.711 inch 94.3 mm
Magnet ID 3.051 inch 77.5 mm
Magnet Thickness 0.33 inch 8.4 mm
Magnet Weight 16.1 oz 456.43 gms
No. Of Poles 4 4
Commutator OD 0.99 inch 25.1 mm
Commutator ID 0.24 inch 6.1 mm
Commutator Length 0.432 inch 11.0 mm
No.Commutator Bars 21 21
Brush Width 0.148 inch 3.8 mm
Brush Axial Length 0.182 inch 4.6 mm
No.Brush 2 2
Brush Material Silver Graphite
Motor Length 5.686 inch 144.4 mm
Motor OD 3.906 inch 99.2 mm
Shaft OD 0.24 inch 6.1 mm
What is the implication on the values of various leakage / magnetizing reactance
and power factor of an induction motor when a motor is designed with an enhanced
rating (from 100 W to 300 W) - keeping the same rated voltage, frequency, no. of
poles etc.?
326 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

While up-rating a design model of an induction motor, what can happen with the
characteristics of winding such as the value wire gauge, turns per coil, copper ratio, stator
slot fill, etc.?

e
How do the values of stator iron & copper losses, rotor copper losses, % slip and
efficiency vary with the power rating of an induction motor, keeping the same rated
voltage, frequency, no. of poles etc.?

For a particular design of motor, how do the values of torque and current corresponding
to full load and stall conditions vary when the power output of the motor is to be revised,
say from 100 W to 300 W?
 Appendix J
Solutions to Practical Exercises

While designing a DC motor that is to be run on a supply of 100 VDC and developing a
load torque of 216 oz-in at 1000 rpm, the following data was taken as the basis:
Armature OD 3 inch
Armature Stack ID 0.24 inch
Armature Stack Length 2 inch
No. of Laminations 80
Lamination Thickness 0.025 inch
Lamination Material 0
Lap
Winding Winding
Turns/Coil 81
Wire gage (AWG) 24
No.Of Wires In Hand 1
Copper Weight 20.85 ounce
Armature length over co (Shaft not included) 4.236 inch
Lead Wire Gage 16 AWG
Lead Wire Length 12 inch
Housing OD 3.906 inch
Housing ID 3.711 inch
Housing Thickness 0.098 inch
Housing Axial Length 4 inch
Magnet Type Arc FERRITE #7 TDK
Magnet Length 2.25 inch
Magnet Angle 65.3 degrees
Magnet OD 3.711 inch
Magnet ID 3.051 inch
328 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Magnet Thickness 0.33 inch

Magnet Weight 16.1 oz
No. Of Poles 4
Commutator OD 0.99 inch
Commutator ID 0.24 inch
Commutator Length 0.432 inch
No.Commutator Bars 21
Brush Width 0.148 inch
Brush Axial Length 0.182 inch
No.Brush 2
Brush Material Silver Graphite
Motor Length 5.686 inch
Motor OD 3.906 inch
Shaft OD 0.24 inch

Consider designing a DC motor with the same physical dimensions running on a supply
of 100 VDC, but suitable for running at 3000 rpm. What will be the impact on the
winding characteristics such as the number of turns to coil and the gauge of the winding?

s t e s eed eases t e u a es a s ease t e e y esu t e

a et at a d e ee t a et t ue e e de t a ta t e
sa e t ue e e t e u e tu s e a e edu ed

e e t s a t ua ase t a e see t at t e tu s e s edu ed

t 2 t

ue t t e e s eed t e t a d t e sa e t ue t e t ea et
de e e e e e t e t d ss se t as t e
a d y e t s a t u a ase t e au e s u d t a e edu ed t
2 2 2

e 2

In the above example of designing motors of different speeds, of 1000 rpm and 3000 rpm,
how will the armature resistance, no load current, power output and efficiency be
influenced?
Sl. No. Attribute, Units 1000 rpm 3000 rpm
1 Armature Resistance, Ohm 7.015 1.096
2 No load current, Amps 0.051 0.16
3 Power output, Watts 162 387
4 Efficiency 77% 89%

ue t t e e ss se t t e a atu e d e ate a t e
es sta e a e e e ted t edu e a d t e data s at S a e
s t e sa e
 Appendix J: Solutions to Practical Exercises 329

ad u e t t e t s su sed t eet t e sses due t a et at

a d t e sses due t t t a da e sses ease t t e s eed
t e t a d e e e e t e t as s at S 2
a e

e ut ut a t s t a t t e du t s eed a d t e t ue
de e ed y t S e t e t ue de e ed s e u ed t e sta t t s ase
t e e ut ut s e e ted t e e t e as s at S
a e

ee e y a t s de eased y t e eas sses t e sa e ay

e t e sses a e a ta ed at a sta t e e a et sses a e
sta t a a t ua ta e a d ut ut a a ty s eased e e yas
eases e ease sses due t e s eeds s e e as a ed
t t e ease t e ut ut e a d e ee e y s e at e s eeds

Considering the same situation as in the above examples of two designs of 1000 rpm and
3000 rpm DC motors, how will the Frictional, eddy current, hysterisis and copper losses
be different?
Sl. No. Attribute, Units 1000 rpm 3000 rpm
1 Armature total friction loss, Watts 0.23 1.25
2 Eddy Current loss Watts 0.55 4.81
3 Hysterisis loss Watts 3.73 11.04
4 Copper loss Watts 41.96 28.33

t a eddy u e t a d yste s s sses ease as t e s eed t e t

eases as t e t s e u ed t eet e es sta e a d as t e e
t e da e sses t at a e e at e s eeds ddy u e t a d yste s s
sses ease due t t e eased u e y es a et at

e t u t e t dea s t e u e ts e u t e
s eed t se a e t s a u ed y t e e ss se t t e du t s
esu t e es sta e t u e ta d e e sses

du t t S t a et used

While designing an AC induction motor, the following data was taken as the basis:

e
Armature OD 3 inch 76.2 mm
Armature Stack ID 0.24 inch 6.1 mm
Armaturer Stack Length 2 inch 50.8 mm
No.Of Laminations 80 80
Lamination Thickness 0.025 inch 0.6 mm
330 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Winding Lap Winding

Turns/Coil 81 81
Wire gage (AWG) 24 24
Copper Weight 20.85 ounce 591.09 gms
Armature length over co (Shaft
not included) 4.236 inch 107.6 mm
Lead Wire Gage 16 AWG 1.29 mm
Lead Wire Length 12 inch 304.8 mm
Housing OD 3.906 inch 99.2 mm
Housing ID 3.711 inch 94.3 mm
Housing Thickness 0.098 inch 2.5 mm
Housing Axial Length 4 inch 101.6 mm
Magnet Type Arc FERRITE #7 TDK
Magnet Length 2.25 inch 57.2 mm
Magnet Angle 65.3 degrees 65.3 gms
Magnet OD 3.711 inch 94.3 mm
Magnet ID 3.051 inch 77.5 mm
Magnet Thickness 0.33 inch 8.4 mm
Magnet Weight 16.1 oz 456.43 gms
No. Of Poles 4 4
Commutator OD 0.99 inch 25.1 mm
Commutator ID 0.24 inch 6.1 mm
Commutator Length 0.432 inch 11.0 mm
No.Commutator Bars 21 21
Brush Width 0.148 inch 3.8 mm
Brush Axial Length 0.182 inch 4.6 mm
No.Brush 2 2
Brush Material Silver Graphite
Motor Length 5.686 inch 144.4 mm
Motor OD 3.906 inch 99.2 mm
Shaft OD 0.24 inch 6.1 mm
What is the implication on the values of various leakage / magnetizing reactance
and power factor of an induction motor when a motor is designed with an enhanced
rating (from 100 W to 300 W) - keeping the same rated voltage, frequency, no. of
poles etc.?

100 W 300 W
Stator resistance/phase 5.23 5.34
Equivalent rotor resistance, Ohms 5.25 5.76
Stator reactance, Ohms 12.73 12.6
Equivalent rotor reactance, Ohms 11.67 10.71
Magnetizing reactance, Ohms 185 171
Power Factor 0.56 0.80

e e at a du t t a s e u e s
a d e u u d st ut a d e e edu ed ea a e ea ta e
s tu esu ts a ette e a t
 Appendix J: Solutions to Practical Exercises 331

While up-rating a design model of an induction motor, what can happen with the
characteristics of winding such as the value wire gauge, turns per coil, copper ratio, stator
slot fill etc.?
100 W 300 W
Turns/coil 42 40
Wre gage AWG American Wire Gage
(Magnet Wire) 24 23.5
Cu Ratio Copper Ratio or Copper fill in
Slots(50%-90% 81% 87%
St slot Fill Ratio of actual copper in stator
slot / Gross slot area 0.28 0.3

u s e edu es t e at e ss se t as t e
e a d e et ee e a edu ed au e e e at as t e
e de t e t e sses due t eased u e ts as a
esu t t e e e at

e
How do the values of stator iron and copper losses, rotor copper losses, % slip and
efficiency vary with the power rating of an induction motor, keeping the same rated
voltage, frequency, no. of poles etc.?
100 W 300 W
Stator iron / core loss
(Watts) 27.88 27.61
Stator copper loss (watts) 7.93 29.23
Rotor copper loss (Watts) 1.63 19.69
%slip @ full load 1.606 6.158
Efficiency % 72.80% 79.70%

C e sses ease as a esu t e at e e a

esse t as a ed t t e e ut ut as see a e

For a particular design of motor, how do the values of torque and current corresponding
to full load and stall conditions vary when the power output of the motor is to be revised,
say from 100 W to 300 W?
100 W 300 W
Full Load Torque in-lb 0.71 2.25
Full Load Torque kg-m 0.0082 0.026
Full Load Current-Ampere 0.71 1.35
Stall Torque in-pound 1.96 2.44
Stall Torque in kg 0.889 1.107
Stall Current (Ampere) 4.2 4.47
332 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

Sta t ue a s eases a t t e u ad t ue as a esu t t e

e e at a t S e u e t as a d e t t t as
eases
 Appendix K

Bibliography

C du t t s

1.1 Leroy Somer Moteurs: 3-Phase TEFC Cage Induction Motors Technical
Catalogue
1.2 Sprecher+Schuh: "Contactor Selection Made Easy", Publication 2200T, 1985
1.3 Rockwell Allen-Bradley: "A comprehensive Guide to Understanding Electric
Motor Fundamentals", Publication 150-2.7, June 1994.
1.4 Odendal EJ, Harley RG : "AC Variable Speed Drives for Engineers"
1.5 I J Nagrath, D P Kothari: Electric Machines
1.6 S K Pillai: A First Course on Electrical Drives

2 e ee t s

2.1 Thorborg K, Teknik S: "Power Electronics", 2nd Edition 1985

2.2 Notes from the Energy Efficient Research Centre, Wollengong, 1995

a a e s eed d ea at s

3.1 Control Techniques Drives PLC: "Drives and Servos Yearbook 1990-1",
ISBN 0 9515101 0 X
3.2 Danfoss: "Facts worth knowing about Frequency Converters", 1990,
Publication D-0192-3
3.3 Reliance Automation: "AC Drive Application Training Manual"
3.4 Allen-Bradley: "Soft Starting - Safe Driving", seminar notes
334 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

3.5 Odendal EJ, Harley RG: "AC Variable Speed Drives for Engineers", 2nd
edition
3.6 "Electrical Control Technology", Tafe External Studies College, WA.
3.7 Reliance Electric: "Vector Drive Basics", Publication D-7161
3.8 ABB Drives: ABB Brochures and Application Guides
3.9 Fuji Electric: Fuji Brochures and Application Guides
3.10 PDL Electronics: PDL Brochures and Application Guides

a sa d

4.1 Schaffner Elektronik AG : "Output Filters for use with Frequency Converters
in Motor Drive Applications", Publication 690-364A, 1994
4.2 Janiszewski GM, "AC Line Harmonics and Variable Speed Drives
Explained", Electrical Focus, February/March 1994
4.3 Sanders G, "Supply Harmonics caused by AC Variable Frequency Drives",
Pacific Power Centre for Energy Efficiency, 1992
4.4 Alex Gosman, "Electromagnetic Compatibility - What faces our
Manufacturers", EA Electrical Engineering Review, February 1995
4.5 van Coller JM, "Recommended Limits for Voltage Waveform Distortion",
EPCC, 1992

Sta da ds tat ee t a a es

The International Standards for Rotating Electric Machines, which includes AC

electric motors, are the IEC Standards IEC-34 and IEC-72. With the exception of USA
and Canada, the national standards for electric motors in most industrialized countries,
including Australia, are based on these IEC standards.

IEC Title of Standard Australia Germany U.K.

France

34-1 Ratings and AS 1359-1 NFC 51 DIN/ BS 4999

Operating AS 1359-4 111 VDE 0530 BS 5000
Characteristics AS 1359-30 NFC 51
AS 1359-31 120
AS 1359-32 NFC 51
AS 1359-69 200
34-2 Determination of AS 1359-33 NFC 51 BS 4999-33
Losses 112
 Appendix K: Bibliography 335

IEC Title of Standard Australia Germany U.K.

France
and Efficiency
34-5 Classification of AS 1359-20 NFC 51 DIN/ BS 4999-20
Degrees AS 1939 115 IEC 34-5 BS 4999
of Protection
34-6 Cooling Methods AS 1359-21 DIN/ BS 4999-21
IEC 34-6
34-7 Mounting AS 1359-22 NFC 51 DIN/ BS 4999-22
Arrangements 117 IEC 34-7
and Assembly
Layouts
34-8 Terminal Markings AS 1359-3 NFC 51 DIN/ BS 4999-3
and 115 VDE 0530-8
Direction of Rotation
34-9 Noise Limits AS 1359-51 NFC 51 DIN/ BS 4999-51
(also ISO 1680) AS 1081 119 VDE 0530-9
34-12 Start Characteristics AS 1359-41 DIN/ BS 4999-41
for VDE 0530-12
Single Speed Motors
powered from d
660Volt
34-14 Mechanical Vibration AS 1359-50 NFC 51 DIN/ BS 4999-50
in AS 2625-1 111 ISO 2373
Machines of Frame AS 2625-2
size > 56mm (also
ISO 2373)
72 Dimensions and AS 1359-2 NFC 51 DIN 748 BS 4999-2
Output AS 1359-10 104 DIN 42672 BS 4999-10
Ratings of Rotating NFC 51 DIN 42673 BS 5000
Electrical Machines 105 DIN 42631
• Frames 56 to 400 NFC 51 DIN 42676
• Flanges 55 to 1080 110 DIN 42677
- Characteristics of AS 1359-40 BS 4999-40
Synchronous
Generators
85 Evaluation and AS 2768 NFC 26 DIN/ BS 5000
Thermal 206 VDE 0530
Classification of
Electrical Insulation

Table I.1
List of important IEC Rotating Electrical Machines Standards with the equivalent national
standards in Australia, France, Germany and U.K.
336 Motor Protection, Control & Maintenance

t e ass ated sta da ds

Other International Standards which are relevant to Variable Speed Drives are:
IEC 529: Classification of Degrees of Protection provided by Enclosures
IEC 721 : Classification of Outdoor Environmental Conditions - Temperature and
Humidity
IEC 892 : Effects of an imbalance in the voltage system on the characteristics of three-
phase squirrel-cage induction motors
IEC 1000: Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
ISO 281 : Bearings - Basic Dynamic Loadings and Nominal Bearing Life
ISO 1680: Acoustics - Test code for measuring airborne noise emitted by electrical
rotating machines
ISO 8821: Mechanical Vibration - Balancing conventions on shaft keys and related
parts

Other Australian Standards which are relevant to Variable Speed Drives are:
AS 1000 : The International System of Units (SI) and its application
AS 1023 : Low Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear - Protection of Electric Motors
Part 1: Built-in Thermal Detectors and Associated Control Units
Part 2: Thermal Overload Protective Devices
Part 3: Inherent Overheat Protectors
AS 1029: Low Voltage Contactors
AS 1136 : Switchgear and Controlgear Assemblies for Voltages up to 1000 VAC
AS 1202 : AC Motor Starters (Up to and including 1000V)
Part 1: Direct-on-line (full voltage) Starters
Part 2: Star-delta Starters
Part 3: Autotransformer Starters
Part 4: Rheostat Rotor Starters
Part 5: Semiconductor (solid state) Starters
AS 1360-10: Rotating Electrical Machines of Particular Types or for Particular
Applications
Part 11: Dimensions and Performance of Small Power Electrical Machines
Part 60: Stepping Motors
AS 1359.102.3: Determination of losses and efficiency of three-phase cage induction
motors
AS 1852: International Electrotechnical Vocabulary
AS 2279: Disturbances in Mains Supply Networks
 Appendix K: Bibliography 337

AS 2700: Color Standards for General Purposes

AS 3000: Electrical Installations - Buildings, Structures and Premises (known as SAA
Wiring Rules)
SAA HB45: Handbook on Electromagnetic Compatibility Standards and Regulations

The following USA Standards (de facto international standards) are usually used for
serial Data Communications with Variable Speed Drives:
EIA-232(Also sometimes called RS-232): Interface between Data Terminal Equipment
(DTE) and Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) employing Serial Binary Data
Interchange
EIA-422(Also sometimes called RS-422 or TIA-422): Electrical Characteristics of
Balanced Voltage Digital Interface Circuits
EIA-485(Also sometimes called RS-485 or TIA-485): Electrical Characteristics of
Generators and Receivers for use in Balanced Digital Multipoint Systems
IEEE 518: IEEE Guide to the Installation of Electrical Equipment to