Sociology: The word sociology is derived from two latin words.

Socius
means “associate or companion” and logos means “Science or Study”.
Definition: Sociology is the scientific study of society, including patterns of
social relationships, social interaction, and culture.
It is the branch of philosophy which treat with the constitution,
phenomena and development of human society and social science.
It may also be defined as the study of the development, structure, and
functioning of human society.
Branches of sociology:
1. Historical sociology: It is the study about every historical aspect of any
event. A new civilization or any war has some effects on human beings
and the society. It studies ancient, medieval and modern historical
aspects related to Sociology.
2. Religion Sociology: Sections or subgroups of society follow a particular
religion which definitely imparts an effect on them. For example, a Hindu
person does not touch non-veg during Durga Pooja but a Muslim person
celebrates Bakra Eid by meat cutting. Society is governed by the religion
they follow .
3. Educational Sociology: The aims and objects of educational institutions
are studied in this field. The activities of institutions and problems arisen,
and relationship with other institutions in a society are also important
topics of inquiry.
4. Political Sociology: The origin, development, functions and problems of
the Govt. and various social implications in political movements are
studied in this field.
5. Sociology of Knowledge: It is the study of relationship between human
thought and social context within which it arises, and the affect prevailing
ideas on society.
6. Sociology of Family: In this branch, we study different methods of
parenting found in families. How different families can bring different
changes in a child is studied under this branch.
7. Sociology of Community: It analyzes the organization of both two
different rural and urban types of communities.
8. Sociology of Terrorism: The sociology of terrorism seeks to understand
terrorism as a social phenomenon and how individuals as well nation
states address it.
9. Sociology of Psychology: It deals with the mental activity of humans,
practical reasons for becoming a part of the society.
10. Sociology of Psychiatry: It deals with the conflict between society and
individual and its impacts on the individual organization re sulting in his
mental disorders and anti-social behavior.
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11. Sociology of Economics: It studies the rate of production of any product
or growth rate of any product. Every person has a different economic
status in society. Due to the different economy, consumption of any
product differs.
12. Sociology of Law: Sociology of law looks at law and legal system as a
part of society and also as social institutions and changing with them. It
regards law as one means of social control.
It analyzes social roles of the lawyers and judges and how they relate
to structure of society. It also details with sociological analysis of legal
codes in long standing. Study of social norms central to sociology are
falls under this branch.
Relationship between Sociology & law:
Sociology and law are two interwoven topics. Sociology is directly
related to society and every society follows certain laws, therefore, laws
are related to and are essential part of society. The law is important to
regulate a society. Norms, customs and traditions, all these come under
the law, and if law did not exist, the society would not be less than a
jungle.
Laws are made and put into action through difference societal
processes. Social institutions such as family, polity, as well as legal
institutions comprise of different laws.
Law is essential for regulating human conduct and social control.
Change in one can affect other: As law regulates the
society, so the law changes with change of society. In other words,
change in society brings change in law.
For example: As the world is modernizing and usage of internet and
social media has increased, but along with this rate of social crime is also
increasing. This resulted to make Cyber Law, so the need of society
brings new laws as well.
Social Law: Social law refers to the interactions of organisms with
each other. The interaction between organisms may be irrespective of
whether they are aware of it or not, or whether the interaction is voluntary
or involuntary.
 Economics: The branch of knowledge concerned with the production,
consumption and transfer of wealth. OR Economics is a science, which
studies about unlimited human wants, limited resources and making a best
possible choice out of it.
For example: If you have 100rs and you want to buy a book worth 99rs and
a chocolate worth 50rs, you'll have to prioritize which is important for you. If
you choose to buy the book, then you're giving up the chocolate. This kind of

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 utilization of our limited resources (here money) to meet our unlimited
desires is called economics.
 Socio-economics: It is the relationship between someone’s wealth
and their social status. It is studied by looking at a person’s wealth and their
assets. For example: a person's class in society based on how much money
he makes.
 Socio-economic factors: It is mainly based on income of a
person. The income of a person can affect many aspects of social life, as
under:-
o Housing and residing area: it fully depends on our income.
o Education: education whether school or college, fully based on how
much income a person have.
o Food and Diets: a person’s eating food depends on his income.
o Medical treatment: a person’s income will decide the type of treatment
he can afford.
o Hobbies and Holidays: like other factors, our income affects our hobbies
and holiday’s activity as well.
o Bringing up of child: a child is brought up as per the income of their
guardian.
 Socio-economic changes: Socioeconomics is the social science
that studies how economic activity affects and is shaped
by social processes. In general it analyzes, how societies progress or
regress because of their local, regional or global economy.
o Rise in income level: The tendency of old people to live separate from
their children varies their income as well as the income of their sons.
o Rise in Divorce Rate: The divorce ratio is increasing day by day and
causing the married couple to live without their life partner.
o Rapid Urbanization and Concentration in major cities: The increase in
migration of young ones from rural to urban areas has alternatively
separated the aged parents from their children, and the ratio of old
people living independent has increased.
 Socio-economic issues: Socio-economic issues are factors that
have negative influence on an individuals' economic activity. They may also
be called as Social Problems. Main socio-economic issues of Pakistan are
lack of education, poverty, health problems, cultural and religious
discrimination, overpopulation, unemployment and corruption, etc.
Poverty: Poverty is a curse. Poverty is about not having enough money
to meet basic needs including food, clothing and shelter . Poverty may also
be defined as a standard of living that is lower than what a given society
thinks is adequate for meeting basic needs. Social causes of poverty consist
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 of lack of education, the family, too low of wages, and minimal job
opportunities.
Lack of Education: Education is the most essential ingredient for
the development of a nation. It is a global fact that nations who have
reached the heights of the development and prosperity have done it by using
education and information as a tool to do it. Education is simply an
investment to achieve both human and economi c development. But
unfortunately it is one of the biggest problems in Pakistan. The education
system of Pakistan is rotten to the core. The factors that made the education
poor are English and Urdu medium schools, gender discrimination,
incapability of teacher, poverty, etc. Lack of Education gives birth to
unemployment, child labour, etc.
Corruption: Corruption is an evil. It has ruined the economy of
Pakistan. It is also the cause of unemployment in our country. People who
have power can snatch the rights of anybody and everybody. Corruption
causes inequity in society and the gap between the rich and the poor
increases. It is also regarded as the murder of merit.
Unemployment: Unemployment is one of the major problem of
Pakistan. The present state of unemployment is caused by “safarish”. The
deserving candidates do not get jobs and the persons with “safarish” easily
get jobs of their choice. Mostly people are unemployed they do not find any
proper framework to utilized their skills for the progress of the country that is
why the huge amount of talent is lost.
 Social Process: Man is a social being and it is difficult for him to
live in isolation. Man lives in groups and associations. The behavior of an
individual is affected by the behavior of the other. However, interaction is
essence of social life.
Definitions: “The terms social process refers to the representative firms of
behaviour which are commonly formed in social life (Horton & Hunt). ” &
“Social process means the various modes of interactions between
individuals or groups including cooperation and conflict, social differentiation
and integration, development, arrest and decay” (Moris Ginsberg).
Social process is products of social interaction which can be classified
into two groups.
The process of social interaction is either associative or dis -
associative.
A) Associative: Associative patterns are those patterns in which people
help one and another. They share in one or more aspects of social life.
B) Dis-associative: Dis-associative process apart people from one and
another. They differ in one or more aspects of social life.
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1. Cooperation: “Cooperation is a form of social interaction wherein two
or more persons work together to gain a common end.” (F.E. Merill).” OR
“Cooperation is the continuous and common endeavor of two or more
persons to perform a task or to reach a goal, that is commonly cherished.
(A.W. Green)” OR “Cooperation is the process by which individual combine
their efforts, in a more or less organized way for the attainment of common
objective. (Fairchild).”
The basic form of human conduct and association is society is
cooperation. This is the simplest of all social behavior. The customer
cooperates with the shopkeeper, the patient with doctor, the student with the
teacher, the child with and mother, husband and wife, the Imam and his
followers. People in society cooperate with one another and get themselves
associated together.
No society can develop its social organization and social system
without cooperation, we find cooperation in family, agriculture, industry,
business and trade, political activities of a party and religious sect.
In our Pakistani Society we see that in rural areas people cooperate
with their neighbours in watering the crops, p loughing the field and
harvesting the crops.
Types of Cooperation: There are two types of cooperation.
1) DIRECT COOPERATION: The task unable to be performed by an individual
needs cooperation of other people. Those thing which are common to the
people and they share in such things is call direct cooperation. All the
activities of social life in which interest of a group of people is involved fall in
direct cooperation.
Examples:
1. In watering the fields the neighbouring farmers cooperate in giving and
taking extra water for their fields.
2. The people cooperate in carrying the ill person to the doctor with his cot on
their heads in rural areas of Pakistan.
3. The people cooperate on marriage, birth, Eids and other occasions of
celebrations.
4. In urban areas, the people of a political party cooperate with one another in
general walks of social life.
5. In urban areas, the people of a religious sect cooperate with one another
with special interest.
6. The neighbours cooperate on the sad and happy occasions in both urban
and rural areas.
7. The people of same profession cooperate with one another in general.
2) INDIRECT COOPERATION: People do unlike thing for the achievement of
similar goals. In this field, people of one category cooperates with the
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 people of other categories. People belonging to various casts and classes
have to cooperate with each other.
Examples:
1. The owner of a mill and its workers cooperate with one another.
2. The businessman and the customers cooperate on the selling rates of the
product.
3. The system of marriage is a marriage between two families of different casts
and Biradris.
4. The people living in urban communities cooperate in different acts of social
life, even they belong to different professions, casts, classes, s ects and
political parties.
5. Cooperation among the people of different professions is a nice example of
this kind as they fulfil needs of one another.
6. The people of different classes cooperate in the same political, religious and
familial affairs. The rich and the poor share the slogans of their political
parties. They cooperate in religious gathering, processions, ceremonies like
Eids and other activities.
 Competition: Competition is one of the dissociative from of social
processes. It is actually the most fundamental form of opposition or social
struggle is competition. People compete for power, name, fame, glory,
status, money, luxuries and other things which are not easily available.
People compete with each other in elections. The students compete for
better achievements and better jobs.
Definitions: “Competition is the striving of two or more persons for the same
good which is limited so that all cannot share” (Beisanz).
“Competition is a contest to obtain something which does not exist in
quantity sufficient to meet the demand” (E.S. Bogardus).
“Competition is an interaction without social contract” (Park & Burgess).
FORMS OF COMPETITION:
(1) Absolute and Relative Competition: Competition for only one item
among all the people is Absolute competition, as in Presidential
Elections, there is one candidate to be elected as President of Pakistan.
While the competitions ranging along the continuum of wealth, prestige
and fame are called Relative competition.
(2)Personal and Impersonal Competition: In personal competition, the
competitor strives to defeat his rival in various filed of life, as people fight
in court for retribution of their rival’s harmful acts. While the competition
in which collective instead of personal interest is involved , is called
impersonal competition. For example, fight of labourers and employees
for their collective interest.
Examples of Competition:
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 1) The students compete with one another for better performance in
examination.
2) The rural people compete one another in running their horses and
camels.
3) Competition in wrestling, Kabbadi and other local games is found.
4) Competition is growing more crops and getting highest yields.
5) In urban areas, competitions for better houses, higher education and
better service is found.
6) Higher competition is found among the players of games.
7) Competition is found among industrialists for better production.
 Conflict: In the process of conflict, people work against one another
for the attainment of the same objective.
DEFINITIONS: “The deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerc e the will of
another or others” (A.W. Green). “Conflict is a social process in which
individuals or groups seek their ends by directly challenging the opponent by
violence or threat of violence” (Gillin & Gillin).
TYPES OF CONFLICT : Direct Conflict: In direct conflict people seek to
attain some objective by restraining, injuring or destroying one other.
Revolution and street fights are the examples of street fights.
Indirect Conflict: In indirect conflict obstruction in rival’s goals is created.
Talking ill of others and backbiting is also indirect conflict.
EXAMPLES OF CONFLICT: 1) fighting, killing, beating and quarrelling. 2)
Litigation on disputes in courts. 3) Killing, injury, theft and all other crimes of
property violation. 4) In rural areas, two farmers get into conflict on dis pute
of water channel, on division of land and crops. 5) Ward of 1965 was conflict
between India and Pakistan. 6) Family disputes lead to divorce and
separation of husband and wife. 7) Sectarian conflicts at various occasions.
8) Rival political parties get into conflict during elections.
 Accommodation: Accommodation is the suspension of rivalry
between the parties for temporary or permanent period. In this process, the
issue may not be settled, but for some time parties terminate their rivalrous
activities to face the situation.
Definitions: “The term accommodation refers particularly to the process in
which man attains sense of harmony with his environment” (Maclver and
Page). “Accommodation is a term used by sociologist to describe the
adjustment of hostile individuals or groups” (Ogburn and Nimkoff).
Accommodation is of the two categories, as under:-
1) Adjustment with new Natural Conditions: People change their residence,
city or country and adjust themselves in new climate, geophysical and
geographical conditions, and they change their mode of living according to

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 those conditions. The adjustment with these natural conditions is a type of
accommodation.
2) Adjustment with new Social Conditions: In this case, an individual
migrating to another cultural area adopts cultural conditions of th at society.
He learns language, customs, norms, techniques of everyday social life, etc.
this type of adjustment with new socio-cultural life is a type of
accommodation.
FORMS OF ACCOMMODATION:
1) Truce: in this process, the rivalries are stopped for a definite or indefinite
period while issues are not settled.
2) Compromise: In this process, the parties come to an agreement and create
mutual understanding to face the problem jointly.
3) Temporary Sub-Ordinate: In this process, in case of conflict a super-
ordination of the dominant party is recognized by both sides. In the family
the relationships among parents and children are based on this method.
4) Arbitration: In this process, the conflict is resolved by the efforts of a third
person.
5) Toleration: Tolerance is working toward joining the conflicting parties in
cooperation. By tolerance, we reduce tension and minimize conflict and
differences in our social life. Patience and tolerance play important role in
keeping peace in the world.
 Assimilation: Assimilation is a social process in which group of
individuals belonging to different cultures are united and completely merged
into one single group or body, gradually with the passage of time. For
Example, during the partition of India the Muslim refugees migrating from
India to Pakistan were different in customary ways of life, but after living for
a decade together, they become assimilated into one another.
Definitions: “Assimilation is the fusion or blending of two previously disti nct
groups into one” (Young & Mark). “Assimilation is the social process
whereby attitudes of many persons are united, and thus develop into a
united group” (Bogardus).
Examples: some common examples of assimilation are:
1) Muslim refugees migrating to Pakistan in 1947 assimilated to local Muslim
population.
2) All the Muslims of the world have assimilation of believes in Holy Quran, the
Hajj, Zakat, Namaz, the Kalima and the Fast of Ramzan.
3) People migrating from rural areas to urban areas get assimilated into urban
culture.
4) The societies of Arab countries have assimilation in dressing, language,
marriage, religion, education, etc.

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 Acculturation: Assimilation is a social process in which
transmission of cultural traits from one to another takes place, so as to make
both the cultures similar to each other.
TYPES OF PROCESSES: In this process of acculturation, two types of
processes may result. (1) The acculturation process may be completed with
the achievement of assimilation. In other words, absorption of cultural traits
by diverse groups as their own, this synthetic process is called assimilation.
(2) Borrowing of traits reciprocally by diverse groups is there, but the
process does not attain the degree of synthesis (combination) for both
cultures. On the other hand, they retain their identical cultural traits . It
means they do not mix into each other to amalgamate a new culture.
Examples: 1) English Language in our society. 2) Some dresses of western
culture are popular in our society. 3) Industrial machinery of western
societies are getting popular in Pakistani society.
 Amalgamation: Fusion of two different groups and cultures into one
in such a manner that they lose their respective identity.
Examples: 1) People from local population of Pakistan entered into
marriage with refugees from India, this intermarriage between them is a
stage of amalgamation. 2) Wearing trousers, Pajamas, Kurtas, etc by the
people of Pakistan have been amalgamated in its all regions . 3) The use of
chemical fertilizers in farming has been amalgamated in our culture. 4) The
use of modern technologies have been amalgamated in our society from
western culture. 5) Scientific education, technology, and industrial
development have been adopted by us from western society.

 AUGUST COMTE (1798-1857):

August Comte was a French professor of physics. During his lifetime,
there was French revolution. Disorganization is society has resulted in
creation of new problems. Expansion of industry affected institutions,
especially the peace of family vanished. Though, the whole French was in
the grip of these conditions.
August Comte thought on these problems deeply and came upon a
solution, which he presented in the form of a new science theories of Comte,
later called Sociology.
THEORIES OF AUGUST COMTE:
1. BIRTH OF SOCIOLOGY: August Comte was influenced by the social
conditions of the French people. He said that how foolish is the man who is
busy in the study of the new things around him but little he knows about
himself. He further said that there is a need of a knowledge which may
deliver the principles of social life to man, which may solve his pro blems and
help him in understanding the conditions of social life.
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 With the advancement of industry and technology in France, society
was being revolutionized. People become wealthy but lost their peace of
mind, they were enjoying all sorts of luxuries but no calmness in life, there
were numberless social problems with no solution. Due inventions and
discoveries, there was industrial progress but society was on the same
traditional ways. However, there was no science available which could solve
social problems and may help in understanding the conditions . August
named such science as Social-Physics, later it was named as Sociology. In
this was sociology become social science.
2. TYPES OF SCIENCE: According to Comte, science is of two types:
a. Theoretical Science: Theoretical science deals with the principles,
hypotheses, concepts and facts. Theories after test of time become
principle. This knowledge of theoretical science is transmitted from one
generation to another through education. This knowledge is preserved in
books which are stored in libraries.
Theoretical knowledge or science is expanding day by day as new
researches and facts are rejecting and amending the old ones. Thirty
years before today, we have no such knowledge and information which
we have today.
b. Applied Science: Applied science converts theoretical knowledge into
practical shape. New inventions and advancement of industries is result
of application of theoretical science. Human progress is due to the
application of the theoretical knowledge.
3. THE LAW OF THREE STAGES: The law of three stages also known as Law
of Human Progress is the three stages of mental and social development.
Comte’s ideas relating to the law of three stages reveal that man is
becoming more and more rational and scientific in his approach . He defined
the all the human life from its start in three stages. According to Comte, the
sciences emerge in a chain system. One science develops and the others
follow it. The first discovered subject to man was Mathematics followed by
Mechanics. Later Physics came which was followed by Chemistry. After
these, Biology was the major science applied in the treatment of diseases of
human beings and animals. After these physical and natural sciences, a lot
of social science came and sociology was one of them. According to Comte,
sociology is the youngest social science developed in 19 th century. Comte
said all these sciences develop with three principles/ stages:
a. Theological: It is also known as era of myth. Man of this stage was a
priest and he used to prey for his survival. This stage deals with religious
and supernatural explanation of the science an d social phenomenon, in
which we have little explanation. We had no question about its validity

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 because it was religious and spiritual in nature which was accepted by
the people without any question.
b. Metaphysical: In this stage, religion came to exist and there was rule of
religious institutions. This second stage has philosophical characters. In
this stage, we explain the observed facts and bring them into writing. This
stage requires discussion and the knowledge gained is found in the form
of books.
c. Positive: The third stage is industrial stage which is currently going on
and being practiced nowadays. This third stage is practical in nature and
is actually scientific. It is related to experiments, observation, deduction,
induction, measurement, and deriving interferences. This stage is result
of modern scientific method. Here, nothing is believed without
experimentation and observation. This stage is found in all the natural
sciences. According to Comte, Sociology being a new social science has
not reached this stage of positivism.
The more a knowledge is simple, the more rapidly it will pass through
these stages of progress. Vice versa, the more a knowledge is complex, the
more slowly it will pass through these stages.
4. THEORY OF SOCIAL STATIC AND SOCIAL DYNAMIC: According to
Comte, Social system is controlled by natural laws and society works like an
organization. The parts of society function at their position.
a. Social Static OR Static Sociology: It is the study of human society. The
groups, institutions and the individuals function their roles as according to
their status. They are engaged in their activities in an organized form
setting them in social order. In this way, social order and social structure
get organized into one another. This whole setup is based on division of
labour in the society, which sets the whole society in order. The study of
society in this condition is called social static or static sociology.
b. Social Dynamic OR Dynamic Sociology: Dynamic sociology is the study
of human society in a condition of social change. Society changes from
one condition to another. Its natural condition is called social evolution . If
change is brought by force, it is called revolution and if it is brought
according to social will and requirement of the people, it is called social
progress. People get changes through change in mind and ideas, after
which, moral, political and economic changes follow. The study of this
changing condition of society is called social dynamic or dynamic
sociology.
 Positivism and August Comte: August Comte is known as the
father of positivism as it was first introduced by him in 19 th century.
Positivism is a philosophical doctrine or perspective which tends to study the
society on the basis of natural sciences by using scientific methodology in
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 social researches. In simple words, positivism means to observe the entire
social phenomenon on scientific basis. It does not believe in the knowledge
or theories which cannot be proved scientifically.
According to Comte, it is a product of a systematic reclassification of
the sciences and a general conception of the development of man in history:
the law of the three stages.
Positivism is a way of thinking, based on the assumption that it is
possible to observe social life and establish reliable, valid knowledge about
how it works. This knowledge can then be used to affect the course of social
change and improve the human condition. Positivism also argues that
sociology should concern itself only with what can be observed with the
senses and that theories of social life should be built in a rigid, linear, and
methodical way on a base of verifiable fact.
For Comte, positivism is the belief that societies have their own
scientific principles and laws, just like physics or chemistry. Positivism
assumes there are truths about society that can be discovered through
scientific studies and that our understanding of society should be based on
actual data and evidence.
Finally, Comte believed that positivism could advance science (theory)
and change the ways people live their lives (practice).

HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903):

Herbert Spencer was a prominent British Social Thinker of the 19 th
Century. He is known as “the second founding father of sociology”. He was a
great Social philosopher, a famous evolutionist, a strong defender of
individualism and a prolific writer.
 Concept of law of Social Evolution: The term Evolution
is derived from latin word “evolvere” which means “to develop” or to “unfold”.
Evolution gradually means “unfolding” or “unrolling”.
The expression “social evolution” is used to explain the evolution of
human society and man’s social relations. The theory of social evolution
analyses the genesis, development, evolution and finally the decay of the
society. Herbert Spencer treated human society as a social organism and
applied evolutionary principle to the human society. Both the society and
organism grow from simple to complex.
As Abraham and Morgan have pointed out “Spencer’s Theory of
Evolution” involves two essential but interrelated trends or strains of
thought: (i) Change from simplicity to complexity or movement from simple
society to various levels of compound societies; and (ii) Change from
military society to industrial society.

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1) Change from simplicity to complexity OR movement from simple
society to various levels of compound societies: Society also undergo
evolutionary stages of development and proceed from simplicity to
complexity. Spencer identified four types of societies in terms of stages of
their evolutionary development: Simple, Compound, Doubly Compound and
Trebly compound.
a. Simple: This is the most primitive (ancient) society without any
complexities and consisting of several families.
b. Compound Society: A large number of above mentioned simple societies
make a compound society. This is clan (tribe) society.
c. Doubly Compound Society: These consist of several clans (tribes)
compounded into tribes or tribal society.
d. Trebly Compound Society: Here the tribes are organized into nation
states. This is the present form of the world.
Spencer went ahead of Darwin’s theory of evolution in which change
goes on automatically as a natural process. Like a plant grows into a tree,
with flower and fruit, ultimately dries into wood for burning. Spencer applied
this theory of evolution on human society. He said the base of primitive
societies is found in the industrial societies of the modern world.
2) Change from Military [Militant] Society to Industrial Society:
According to Spencer, evolution proceeds from military society to
industrial society. The type of social structure depends on the relation of a
society to other societies in its significant characteristics.
i) The military society is characterized by compulsory co -operation, industrial
society is based on voluntary co-operation.
ii) The military society has a centralized government, while the industrial
society has a decentralized government.
iii)Military society has economic autonomy (liberty) whereas it is not found in
industrial society.
iv) There is the domination of the state over all other social organizations in the
military society, whereas in the industrial society the functions of the states
are very much limited.

 Concept of SOCIETY: Herbert Spencer cleared the concept of the

nature of society and developed models to classify and compare societies,
which are as under:-
1) Classification of society on the bases of the “Degree of Competition”:
Herbert Spencer’s evolutionary law suggested that societies could be
classified on the basis of their “degree of competition”. On this basis he
classified societies into four types: (1) Simple Society, (2) Compound
Society, (3) Double Compound Society and (4) Trebly Compound Society.

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2) Classification of society on the Method of constructing “Models” or
“Types” of society:
Herbert Spencer also classified societies into (i) Military Society and
(ii) Industrial Society. Spencer constructed two extremely dissimilar “types”
or “Modals” to classify the societies into two categories as (i) Military Society
and (ii) Industrial Society. The first was a type in which the “Regulating
system” was dominant over all the other aspects of society. The second was
one in which the “Sustaining system” was dominant over all the other
aspects of society. He described his two types of societies as follows:
a. The Militant (Military) Society: Military society is any form of society
which in which the military exerts a dominant role. Its main characteristics
are as under:-
i. The military society is characterized by compulsory co -operation.
ii. The military society has a centralized government.
iii. Military society has economic autonomy (liberty).
iv. There is the domination of the state over all other social organizations in
the military society.
b. The Industrial Society: The concept of industrial society refers to the
form of society in which industrialization and modernization have occurred.
Its main characteristics are as under:-
i. Industrial society is based on voluntary co-operation.
ii. Industrial society has a decentralized government.
iii. There is no economic autonomy (liberty) found in industrial society.
iv. In the industrial society, the functions of the states are very much limited.
 Laissez Faire & Spencer: The term Laissez-Faire is a French term,
which literally means “let (them) do”. Laissez Faire is an economic
environment in which transactions between private parties are free from
Government restrictions, tarrifs and subsidies, with only enough regulations
to protect property rights.
Laissez Faire is a theory or system of Govt. that upholds the
autonomous character of the economic order, believing that Govt. should
intervene as little as possible in the direction of economic affairs and it
should be lead by market forces. In other words, the economy should be free
from the restraints of Government interference.
According to Adam Smith, Scottish economist, human beings are
naturally motivated by self-interest and when they are not interfered within
their economic activities, a balanced system of production and exchange
based on mutual benefit emerges.
By the mid 19th century, opposition to laissez -faire economics began
and governments in all industrialized countries intervened on behalf of
workers and general population. Factory laws and consumer protection laws
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 were enacted and growth of monopolies (domination) was checked. But,
from 1970's, the pendulum swung back to laissez -faire economics (market
economy) and brought deregulation of business, and progressive removal of
trade barriers, which is continuing.

 Social System:
An organization of individuals into groups or structures that have
different functions, characteristics, origin or status. OR the patterned series
of interrelationships existing between individuals, groups, and institutions
and forming a coherent whole is called social system.
For example: The main examples of social structure in Sociology are
the family, religion, economic, political and education institutions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL SYSTEM:
Social system refers to the way a society is organized. Main elements
of social system are as under:-
 Institutions: These include the things like family and politics and their
relationship with one another.
 Social Groups: These are the smaller groups that have something in
common with one another. This could be something as small as family
or as large as a religion.
 Status: Within each social group people have different statuses. For
example you can be the child in a family or you can be the husband.
 Roles: These are the expectations that go with your family. For
example, a child in a family is expected to obey parents, but a child in
not expected to support the family.
 Social Structure:
Social structure means the relationships or bonds between groups of
individuals in a society. A society always consists of social groups.
Individuals always associate themselves in groups according to their
interests, occupation, social status etc.
For example: The family unit is the universal social structure. The head of this social
structure is parent, and the children are cared for and directed via that structure. OR
One example of a social structure is social class i.e. upper-class, middle-class, and
poor.
Subject Matter of Sociology:
Man’s all such behaviours which are termed as “social” lie in the field of sociology.
The subject covers a large number of areas in its study. The specialized areas of
inquiry include problems, phases of social life and institutional structure.
Social problems : Poverty, crime and delinquency, vice, sectarianism,
physical and mental diseases.

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LLB (HONS) 1 S T SEMESTER
GSLC, HYD.
DIFFERENCES:
Sr. Sociology Economics
1. Sociology is the study of social Economics is the study of the
relationships or social activities. economic activities of man.
2. Sociology is abstract in nature. Economics is concrete in nature.
3. The scope of Sociology is wider. The scope of economics is narrower.
4. Sociology is a general social Economics is a special social
science. science.
In Sociology, the society is In Economics the individual is the
5. regarded as target of study. target of study.
6. Sociology studies man as a Economics studies man as an
social animal. economic being.
7. Sociology is the youngest of all Economics is older than sociology.
the social sciences.

Sr. Cooperation Competition

1. Co-operation is a process of Competition is a process in which
working together of two or more individuals or groups struggle for
persons to gain a common end. some goal or end, beating all the
rivals.
2. The qualities like natural For competition self-confidence,
awareness, understanding, strong aspirations, the spirit of
helpfulness and selfless attitude adventure and readiness to suffer
are necessary for cooperation. and to struggle are needed.
3. Co-operation is limitless. Competition has limitations as it
Because one can go to any bound by norms.
extent to help other.
4. Co-operation is always beneficial Constructive competitions are always
as it brings normally positive beneficial but uncontrolled
results. competition is always harmful or
dangerous.
5. Co-operation provides Competition may cause satisfaction
satisfaction and contentment to as well as dissatisfaction.
people.
6. Cooperation solutions many Competition may contribute to socio-
international problems and economic progress as well as to
disputes. general welfare, but there is no
chance for solution of international
problems and disputes.

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Sr. Competition Conflict
1. Competition is a process of Conflict is a process of seeking to
seeking to monopolize a reward possess a reward by weakening or
by overtaking all the rivals. eliminating the rivals.
2. Competition is Conscious or Conflict is always conscious activity.
unconscious.
3. Competition is universal as well Conflict is universal but not
as continuous. continuous. It is intermittent
(irregular).
4. The concentration is on the The concentration is on the person
object or goal. Hence, it is rather than the object. Hence, it is
impersonal. personal in nature.
5. Competition may lead to positive Conflict mostly brings negative
as well as negative result. results.
6. Competition when become Competition when becomes
rigorous (strict), results in personalized, leads to conflict.
conflict.

Sr. Accommodation Assimilation

1. Accommodation takes place Assimilation is a slow and gradual
suddenly by bringing radical process.
changes.
2. It may or may not provide Assimilation provides a permanent
permanent solution to group solution to inter-group disputes and
differences and disputes. It may differences.
only provide a temporary
solution.
3. It may be both, conscious and It is mostly an unconscious process.
unconscious process. In most of Individuals and groups involved in it
the instances it takes place are often not aware of what actually
consciously. happens within themselves or in their
group.
4. Accommodation takes place just Assimilation takes place only after
after conflict is over. accommodation.
5. Accommodation takes place Assimilation is based upon friendly
between conflicting parties. and cordial relationship.

AHSAN ALI (44)

LLB (HONS) 1 S T SEMESTER
GSLC, HYD.