Geography Notes 2
Geography Notes 2
Geography Notes 2
Geography Lectures
Plate Tectonic Theory
1. Came in 1960s
2. Based on 2 scientific evidences:
1. Sea-Floor Spreading
2. Palaeo-Magentism Theory
3. Plates
Continental Crust (40-60 km deep), Oceanic Crust (1-2 km deep) and Upper
part of the mantle are all three together known as lithosphere
Various chunks and parts of lithosphere are known as lithosphere
Hence plate consists of oceanic crust, oceanic crust and upper part of the
mantle
Floats over the Asthenosphere (unique mechanical rigidity, semi-molten and
plastic)
Lithosphere floats over Asthenosphere
Lithosphere is not continuous and broken and spread around
Three Types of Plates:
Oceanic
Continental
Oceanic-Continental
Plates can be entirely oceanic, continental or oceanic-continental
15 Major Plates:
Plate Interactions
1. Divergent Boundary
Mid Oceanic Ridge formation (Oceanic)
Rift Valley Formation (Continent)
Nascent Sea formation (Continental)
2. Convergent Boundary
Ocean-Ocean
Island Arcs are formed
Ocean-Continental
Volcanic Mountains along the continental margins
C-C
Fold Mountains are formed
3. Transverse Boundary
Two plates slip past each other
No vulcanism but only seismic activity
Knot of Plates
Mountains
Types of Mountains
1. Fold Mountains
2. Block Mountains
Fold Mountains
Block Mountains
Plateaus
Higher than surrounding region and the top of plateaus is flat as opposed to the
mountains with conical top
Formation of Plateaus:
1. Inter-montane plateau: Formed during the formation of the mountains
itself
2. Deposition of lava
3. Deposition of winds
4. Eroded due to glaciers — upland’s top region eroded, flattened and hence
plateau is formed
Eg:
Inter-montane:
Bolivia Plateau
Tibetan Plateau
Highest plateau of the world
Indian Rivers:
Biggest rivers like Brahmaputra (Mt. Kailash), Sutlej
(Mansarovar), Indus (Mansarovar) etc. originating here
Also, Kosi, Ghaggar also originate in Tibetan plateau
China, Burma Rivers etc:
Salween River (flows in China, Burma and Thailand) —
cows through Shan Plateau
River Mekong (Lassagongma Spring in Tibet) — flows
through China, Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and
Vietnam
Ozark (USA)
Ethiopian Highlands
Glacial:
Garhwal Plateau
Laurentian Plateau (In Canada)
Lava Plateau:
Columbia-Snake Plateau (USA)
Deccan Plateau
Shan Plateau (Myanmar)
Crossed by Salween River
Lead, Zinc and Silver found
Teak Forest (Deciduous forest)
Loess Plateau (Wind):
China — deposition of loess, sands etc. in Central China region
(Siberian winds carrying these sands)
Plains
Flat areas with low heights
Best for human habitation
Most populated
Alluvial deposits make them fertile and good for agriculture
Depositional Plains
Due to deposits of rivers
Also created due to depositions of sea (sub-merged
coast)
Erosional plains
Wind erosion of plateaus
Also due to river erosion
Important Rivers of the World
Yangtze River:
Mouth — Shanghai Port (East China Sea)
The Three Gorges Dam lie on its path
Biggest port of China, traffic is equivalent to top 12 ports of
India combined
Important industrial cities located on this river
Navigable river
35% of China lives around the river
Sichuan Region — rice cultivation centre
Wuhan — Iron and Steel
Nanjing — Textile, Iron and Steel
Chengdu — Oil and Gas
Yun Ho Canal — Connect Yangtze with Hwang Ho River
Euphrates and Tigris Rivers:
Baghdad (Iraq) — on Tigris River
Historical Importance — Mesopotamia civilization and
Babylonian civilizations originated here
Petroleum also found
Lake Van — Turkey (very saline)
Lake Uremia — Iran (very saline)
Amazon River
Forests known as Selvas (known as lungs of the world)
Eucador —
petroleum found below the huge bioreserve known as
YASUNI national park
compensation demanded for not destroying it
biodiversity greater than entire North America
Serrate forest found here in Amazon basin
Petroleum Reserve at the mouth
Mato Grasso Plateau — gold reserves
Mississippi River Basin
Temperate Grasslands — Praires
Wheat, Cotton and Corn cultivation
New Orleans — chip building, port
St. Pittsburg — Iron and Steel
Kansas — Agriculture
Australia — Murray-Darling Basin
Wheat Cultivation
Dairy production
Agriculture main activity
Wool and Dairy and sheep rearing
GeoPhysical Phenomenon — Volcanism,
Earthquakes, Tsunami
1. Volcanism
1. Completesequence of creation of magma, and then movement
of magma, and eventually creation of volcanic landforms is
known as volcanism.
2. Volcanism is found according to patterns —
3. Distribution:
1. Pacific Ocean Ring of Fire (pacific ocean ocean
spreading fastest)
O-O Convergence
O-C Convergence
2. Mid Oceanic Region Volcanism [MOR]
O-O Divergence
Basaltic eruption — peaceful
3. Mediterranean Volcanism
Mediterranean Sea is residual part of Tethys Sea
Tethys sea was located between Laurasia and Gondwana
landmasses
Collision of Africa to Laurasia caused breaking up of the
plates of Mediterranean sea
Many plates found here and they are mostly broken into small
pieces
Breaking up of these mediterranean plates into multiple blocks
and their interaction is causing volcanism here
This is mostly Andesitic eruption (O-O and O-C)
Eg: Mt. Etna, Mt Vesuvius etc.
4. Hot Spot Volcanoes
Not related to the plate tectonics
Magmas come directly from interior of the earth through pipe openings
known as Plumes
The location of the plumes remains fixed, however the plate above
the plume moves.
If the plate has oceanic region above it, the plume release of magma
causes Island formation
If the plate has continental landmass above it, the plume release
of magma cuts through the landmass and basaltic plateaus are
formed
Examples:
Aleutian Islands — formed due to Hotspot activities (between
Alaska and Russia)
Chain of islands formed as plate of ocean above moves
across
Also indicates the direction of movement of plate
Basaltic Eruption
Occur at mid-oceanic ridge and hot spot volcanism
Basalt is highly fluid and mobile — therefore landforms from
these don’t develop like cones and spread around
Spread across easily
Quite eruption
Andesitic Eruption
Occur at at Volcanic Arcs (Islands), Volcanic mountains
Andesite is less fluid and less mobile
Solidfies at short distance — therefore landforms from these
develop like cones and don’t spread around
Explosive due to intense pressure inside
5. Volcanic Landforms
Extrusive
1. Volcanic Plateau
Created by Hot Spot Volcanoes (under continental plain)
and eruption of Basaltic magma due to cracking of the
continental crust
Eg: Deccan Trap
Formation of Deccan Trap
Indian plate passed over a hot spot near the
Reunion Islands
Basaltic Eruption took place during this time
from the hotspot area near Reunion Island
area
Layers of layers of basaltic magma was
formed eventually the Deccan trap was
created
Soil — “Black Soil” or “Regur” — Cotton soil
2. Volcanic Cones
1. Shield
Due to Hot Spot activity under the Oceans
Highly Fluid and Basaltic — therefore not very high
and only dome shaped
Gentle slope
Eg: Hawaiian
Small volcanoes
2. Cinder
Formed due to O-C Collision
Volcanic mountains
Less fluid (Andesitic)
Viscous lava solidifies at short distance
Dust and Ashes deposition — not very high, more
than shield but medium range height
Small volcanoes
Eg: Mt. Paricutin, Mexico
Parasite Cones:
Several branches of pipes coming out from
therein central pipe
Volcanic cones are enlarged
Lava comes out from several minor pipes —
multiple cones are found due to these
multiple pipes
Fumaroles:
A vent through which gasses and water
vapor comes out
When emission of lava terminated from an
active volcano — magma called inside (last
sign of active volcano)
CO2, Sulphur, Nitrogen Oxide comes out
Crater:
When volcano becomes extinct then at the
mouth of the volcano a depression is formed
known as crater
Depression at the mouth of volcanic vent
Mostly in cinder cones
Crater Lake formed if filled with water
Caldera:
Enlarged form of crater is known as caldera
Two view on formation:
1. Formed Due to subsidence of crater
naturally
2. Formed Due to violent explosion of
volcano — which caused the
subsidence
Lava Plugs:
When active volcano becomes extinct,
plugging of volcanic pipes and vents takes
place.
These plugs are known as lava plugs
Geysers:
Fountains of hot water
Ground water heated by shallow source of
magma
Pressure is created due to steam formation
in chambers under ground along the vent
More rare than hot springs
Get different colors due to hot water mixed
with silica accumulated on surface
Eg: Old Faithful at Yellow Stone National
Park in USA
Hot Springs:
Water reaches deep enough and heated by
interior of the earth (magma)
Pressure is not created as chambers are not
found
Found everywhere
They get different colors in water due to
Cyanobacteria
Medicinal values
Can be useful for harnessing geo-thermal
energy
Geo-Thermal Energy
Difficult to locate a good source of
geothermal energy with current
technology
Difficult to dig a deep well with hard
and hot bedrock
Harmful gases are also released while
exploration — these can be toxic for
workers as well as bad for the
atmosphere
3. Composite
Volcanic Mountains
Highest
New layers of ashes, dust, and lava come out
(composite materials)
Mt. Stromboli, Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji
Violent
Large volcanoes
Intrusive (inside earth’s surface)
Dykes etc.
Phacoliths
Laccoliths
Lupoliths
Sill
Batholiths
2. Earthquakes
Sudden vibration or movement in earth’s crust
Release of energy due to intense pressure + active internal
dynamism of the earth
Types:
1. Shallow focus EQ
2. Intermediate focus EQ
3. Deep focus EQ (at O-C Convergence plates greater
than depth of 300 km)
A deep-focus earthquake in seismology is an earthquake with
a hypocenter depth exceeding 300 km. They occur almost
exclusively at oceanic-continental convergent boundaries in
association with subducted oceanic lithosphere.
They occur along a dipping tabular zone beneath the subduction
zone known as the Wadati–Benioff zone.
Deep-focus earthquakes give rise to minimal surface waves. Due
to their focal depth, the earthquakes are less likely to
produce seismic wave motion with energy concentrated at the
surface. The path of deep-focus earthquake seismic waves from
focus to recording station goes through the heterogeneous
upper mantle and highly variable crust only once. Therefore, the
body waves undergo less attenuation and reverberation than
seismic waves from shallow earthquakes, resulting in sharp body
wave peaks.
Shallow-focus earthquakes are the result of the sudden release
of strain energy built up over time in rock by brittle fracture and
frictional slip over planar surfaces.
However, the physical mechanism of deep focus earthquakes is
poorly understood. Subducted lithosphere subject to
thepressure and temperature regime at depths greater than
300 km should not exhibit brittle behavior, but should rather
respond to stress by plastic deformation.
O-O Subduction
Case of Japan:
Japan is located at the junction of three plates (Eurasian plate, Pacific
plate, and Philippine plate)
Both Pacific and Philippine plates subducting under the
Eurasian plate
Reasons of Earthquakes:
1. Collision of Plates boundaries
O-O
O-C
C-C
2. Divergent Plate Boundaries
O-O Divergence
3. Transverse Plate Boundaries
Friction between two plates
San Adreas fault in California
4. Frequent interaction of other plates as well — e.g.: Mediterranean
area
5. Craton
Stable Part of crust is known as craton (no vulcanism etc.)
Re-emergence of old cracks causes earthquakes
6. Human induced
Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS)
Mining
Nuclear testing
3. Tsunami
Tsunami is a marine earthquake — caused due to creation of massive waves
Caused due to sudden disturbances in the ocean crust
Speed: 700 km/hr vs. normal waves of 100 km/hr
Wavelength: normal waves have wavelength of 100 meters; while wavelength
of Tsunami is long as much as 150 km
Phase 1:
Water is lifted upward —> Tsunami wave is generated in this region —
> since the wavelength of tsunami is long, it is smooth and hence not
even recognized by boats and ships in mid-ocean area where it
originates.
Phase 2:
Receding of water: Water in coast areas accumulates and recedes
backwards when an earthquake occurs in ocean in nearby area
Accumulation: Due to receding, the height of waves increased and
wavelength reduced drastically
Enormous energy is formed and released at the coast — these are
multiple waves — their 4th and 8th wave is most dangerous
Time lapse between Tsunami waves is 15 minutes to 50 minutes.
Oceanography
Three divisions of ocean
MOR
Oceanic crust is created at the mid oceanic ridge due to constant release of
magma from the crack along the MOR
It is basaltic in nature and the entire ocean floor is made of Basalt
Oceanic crust has thickness of 1-3 km
This oceanic crust is destroyed at the trenches
Not flat, and has a lot of landforms
Continental Margins
Abyssal Plains
Occupy 40% of the ocean floor
Deposits from continents — terrigenous, deposits from dead marine life —
biogenous and also salts and minerals (inorganic)
Resources:
PMN (Poly Metallic Nodules) or Manganese nodules
Concentration of metals around this
Found at the depth of 4000-6000m
30% Manganese
Iron
Silicon
Al
Nickel
Cobalt
India got permission from International Sea Authority to explore PMN
India has been granted as a “Pioneer Investor” for 15 years
India has secured huge tracts in Indian ocean to extract PMN
India RV Samudra Ratnakar + equipment from South Korea sourced
NIOT (National institute of ocean technology) developing technology
China has also got permission from ISA in Indian ocean to explore PMN
International Sea Authority
Formed by UN Convention on Laws of the Seas (UNCLOS)
1983
60 countries signed
Came into force in 1993
Laws regarding sea:
Decides the maritime boundary
Deep Sea Mining (Intl. Sea Bed Authority, HQ@ Kingston,
Jamaica) rules
Environment Protection
Dispute Settlements
Territorial Extent of Countries:
UNCLOS decides the Territorial extent of countries
EEZ up to 200 miles
Contiguous Zone — to protect from smugglers and criminals
Territorial Sea — Can have its navy etc.
Islands
Types of Islands
Volcanic — By O-O plate convergence and also by Hot Spot Volcanic
activity
Eg: Japan, Philippines, Kurile, Aleutian
Continental — once part of the continent
Eg: Madagascar island, Vancouver, Sri Lanka, Baffin Island
Large in size than other three types of islands
Landforms etc. very similar to the continent
Coral — Formed due to coral reef accumulation
Formation of coral reefs around islands
Eg: Lakshadeep, Maldives, Mauritius, Bahamas, Bermuda
Sand-bar islands — Accumulation of sand near the coast
Wave action results in erosion of rocks and deposition of the minerals
and sand there itself.
If the continental shelf is shallow, the islands are formed over time
Eg: Long Island in New York
Coral Reefs:
Coral Reefs are complex ecosystems in marine environments. These are
formed by tiny corals that secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons — these also
function as habitats for polyps, that live in these calcium carbonate
structures.
Coral are also known as “rainforests of the ocean”
Indicator species
Primary food-chain
Source of great biodiversity
Corals live in symbiotic relationship with Zooxanthaele — Zooxan..has
photosynthetic capabilities
Zooxanthaele lives inside the skeleton of the corals, and in turn
the Zooxanthaele provides food to the corals
Conditions for growth of corals:
1. Need submarine shallow platform (50 meters deep) — must be able to
receive sun light
2. Temperature: 25-27 degrees
3. Warm, tropical, and low latitude waters
4. Moderate Salinity — 33 ppt
5. Not at mouth of the rivers, not turbulent water
6. Need circulatory and nutrient rich water
Coral Bleaching
Due to stress in improper conditions, the corals release
their Zooxanthaele
This causes color of corals to lose as Zooxanthaele provides the
colors to corals
Ultimately, without food, corals die out
Reasons: Due to global warming, ozone depletion, ocean
acidification, algal blooms, Increase in sedimentation from rivers,
marine pollution, diseases.
Marine Pollution
Oil Spills
Run-off from land (eutrophication)
Atmospheric input (makes oceanic water acidic)
Dumping of toxic elements
Ballistic water issue (on ports, water is filled in the sea vessels for
loading and unloading of these sea vessels. This water that is filled
into ports is known as ballistic water. It gets released in other climatic
regions when the vessels reach other ports. Eg: water filled in ship in
Bombay port may be released on NY port — living organisms also
carried and threat of invasive species)
Tar Balls — lumps of petroleum, due to oil spillage from tankers, lumps
caused due to oil reaction with the sea water
Very sticky and greasy
Climatology
Early atmosphere had abundance of Hydrogen and Helium — these light gases
escaped from the atmosphere
As earth cooled down, the heavier elements of earth went towards the core, and
the lighter ones left on the outside layer.
Many gases were released during this time — Nitrogen, Sulphur, Water Vapor,
Argon, and CO2
Continuous rain on the surface from the water vapor.
The oceans were formed due to this rain.
The rain pushed the CO2 in atmosphere to the bottom of the ocean with water and
only 0.03% of ocean left in the atmosphere.
Oxygen formed due to the respiration of anaerobic bacteria — cyanobacteria
Gases
Nitrogen — 78%
Oxygen — 21%
Argon — 0.93%
CO2 — 0.03%
Neon
Helium
Ozone
N, O, H, Argon are permanent gases — quantity is constant across regions
Water vapor, CO2, and Ozone are variable gases — GHG gases
Argon and Nitrogen are inert gases — they don’t have chemical reaction with other
elements of the atmosphere
Structure: TSMITE
Troposphere
Its height is more near the equator (18km) and less near the Poles
(8km)
Why?
Because air is cool and descends down the pole area,
hence the atmosphere is thinner
At Equator, the evaporation causes high clouds to cause
air to rise high and hence thick troposphere layer
90% of atmosphere of earth is in troposphere
Temperature decreases as we go up in the troposphere
Atmosphere is heated only upward from the earth’s surface
Stratosphere
Temperature increases as we go up here in this layer
Due to the Ozone layer
There are clouds and water vapor here
Jet aircrafts fly here
Because:
There are no vertical winds in lower stratosphere (the air from
troposphere is limited till tropopause and hence no vertical
winds in the stratosphere)
Mesosphere
Absence of GHGs
Temperature decreases as we go up
Noctilucent Clouds:
Found during summer season in higher reaches of Mesosphere
Condensation of mixture of meteoric dust and some moisture in
this region
Ionosphere
Positively charged ions present here
Ionization:
Sun’s high energy rays break the atoms of air molecules
—> become ionized (+vely charged)
Behave as free particles
These reflect the radio waves of low frequency
Layers of Ionosphere:
Thermosphere
Temperature increases as we go up like Stratosphere
Molecules of gases are ionized here (positively charged)
Due to ionization of gases, the layers of sun’s heat are trapped here
The molecules are super heated here
Exosphere
High temperature — not felt in heat due to vacuum
Aurora is formed in this region
Sun emits solar wind or storm from its corona
It interacts with the Earth’s magnetosphere
This interaction causes the ions of the magnetosphere collide
with the solar wind’s ions
This collision causes ionization — these highly charged particles
release energy and emit light
These ions get discharged only along the magnetic lines of the
earth, which are along the poles and hence the aurora is seen
only in the polar region
Heat Budget
Avg. temp. of earth is 15 degrees celsius
35% absorbed by the Ozone layer
15% energy absorbed/reflected by the Clouds
50% of energy reaches the earth’s surface
Earth reflect some, absorbs some and then eventually radiates back
this absorbed also
20% is lost in evaporation process
10% is lost in sensible heat
15% absorbed by GHGs
5% Remaining goes back to the space
Albedo effect:
Ratio between the total amount of solar radiation falling on the earth’s
surface and the amount reflected back
Earth’s avg. is 35%
Dark soil has lowest albedo
Snow has the highest albedo
1. Fresh Snow: 80%-90%
2. Desert: 35%-45%
3. Grasses: 26%
4. Crops: 15%
5. Brick/Concrete: 10%-20%
Movement of the Air:
Horizontal Movement
Due to pressure gradient movement
From high pressure area to low pressure area always —> known
as advection
Vertical Movement
When air gets warm, it gets lighter and rises up vertically and
moves upwards —> known as convection
“Instability” — when the rising air causes rainfall, instability in
atmosphere is caused.
“Stability” condition — when air sinks downward as it is cooler
and heavy. It comes down and stabilizes the area.
Low Pressure System: Cyclonic
High Pressure System: Anti-cyclonic
Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR):
The rate at which air packet cools while rising.
6.4 degree per kilometer
Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR):
If air is highly moist, then it keeps rising and does not get
cooled very fast
Wet air can reach higher altitudes
Lapse rate is low (<ALR. i.e. 3 degree per km)
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR):
Dry air does not have much moisture and gets cooled up
very fast
Lapse rate is low (>ALR i.e. 10 degrees per km)
Temperature Inversion
Normally with height, the temp. decreases as we go up in the
atmosphere
However, if the temperature increases instead of decreasing higher up
in the atmosphere
Example: Happens after the Tropopause region also (Stratosphere, the
temp. increases with height)
Valley Inversion:
Cold and heavy air descends down the valley slopes in the
evening, thereby making the valley bottoms cooler than its
higher region
The warmer bottom air rises up in the higher altitude of the
valley
Tropical Deserts
Due to trade winds moving east to west, they lose all the
moisture by the time they reach interior of the continent.
Additionally, cold currents in the adjoining western coasts
(western margins) of the regions causes further dry air to flow
over the region, not bringing any rain.
Westerlies:
Southern Hemisphere:
Stronger due to absence of much landmass
Known as Roaring 40s, Furious 50s, Screaming 70s, and
Shrinking 60s
Apparent Movement of Sun
The apparent motion of the sun, caused by
the rotation of the Earth about its axis, changes the
angle at which the direct component of light will strike
the Earth. From a fixed location on Earth, the sun
appears to move throughout the sky.
Summer: Sun appears to move northwards
Causes ITCZ to move northwards
Winter — vice-versa
2. Variable Winds
Seasonal Winds
Monsoon winds — seasonal reversal of these winds in different
seasons (summer and winter)
Local Winds
Cold winds
Gragale — Greece
Tremonta — Italy
Bora — Adriatic Sea
Buran — Siberia (land cold winds)
Warm winds
Fohn — Alps
Chinook — Rockies
Zonda — Andes
Desert warm winds:
Sirocco — Sahara
Khamsin — Egypt
Gibli — Libya
Harmattan — Gulf of Guinea
Loo in summers in India
Pre-monsoon thunderstorm
Kalbaisakhi — Bihar, WB, Assam
Blossom Shower — KN
Mango Shower — Kerela
Mt. and Valley breeze
Mt Breeze:
Only during Night time
Cooler air descends down the valley from higher reaches
in the Mountain and uplifts the warm air
This wind is known as Mountain breeze
Frosting of the agriculture — bad for it
Valley Breeze:
Only during Day time
Top air in the day time gets heated up and hence moves
towards the valley to the HP area
So the cooler wind moves from valley to the top of the
mountain
This is known as Valley Breeze
Land-sea breeze
Differentiating cooling and warming of land and surrounding sea
area
In d
Map
Jh e
us
lu m
Pangong
Ch Tso
ena
32 º Tso Fresh Water Lake
b Moriri
R a vi River
Coastline
Salt Water Lake
as
Be Gobind
Sagar
S u tle j
28 º
Sa
Ga
nga
rd a
Sambhar Ya Gh
Lake m un ag
Luni bal h ra
G an
am
a
Ch a
Brahmaputr
Go
da
Ba
a ma
gh
k
tw ti ati Ko
B anas
m
si
ra
ip
Be
24 º
Sagar
Gandhi
23.5 º
Sagar S on
i S in d h
ti
rb a ti
rm a
Gobind Ballabh
Pant Sagar D am oda
Ri r
S a ba
Pa
h an d
H u g h li
K al
Gulf of Kutch
ahi
da as
rm a Sub
K
Na a ai
M
adar
rn
rek
Bh
a
ha
etrunjaya
i
Tap
Sh
Bra
Hirakud
Gulf Reservoir
hm
Wa
Baita
20 º
M ah
in g a n g a
P en
Wa
Khambhat ni
ra
ga dh an
ad i
r
ng a
G od
a
a v ari P
Va
In d ra v a ti Chilika Lake
ranhita
msa
Man
dhara
a i
ar
jr
Nizam
Sagar
Bh
b
Sa
im
a G
oda
K rish K ris h n
var
16 º
Bay
Tammileru
na
i
Reservoir
a
Nagarjuna
Sagar
b h a d ra
n ga
Arabian unga
Tu
Tungabhadra
Reservoir
Pe
n n ar
T
Of
B h a d ra
Linganmakki
Sagar
Bhadra
Reservoir Pulicat Lake
P ala
12 º
Bengal
Reservoir
B ey p
ore a v an i
Bh Bhavani Ka Andaman
m
Sagar ll id a
v e ri Ko
Per
i Vaig
Sea
ai
ya
Palk
r
8º ni Gulf
of
Mannar
Great Channel
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