Berghahn Books

Lesbian Mythology
Author(s): Christine Downing
Source: Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques, Vol. 20, No. 2, Lesbian Histories (Summer
1994), pp. 169-199
Published by: Berghahn Books
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 LesbianMythology

Christine
Downing

Ovid tellsthe storyof a woman's love fora woman,a storywhich

suggestshow isolating,confusingand terrifying lesbian desirecan be
when thereare no myths,no models, to follow. In this storythe
heroine,Iphis,wantsto be a male because she has fallenin love with
anotherfemaleand longsto be able to consummatethatlove.
The storybeginswitha poorCretanpeasanttellinghis pregnantwife
thathe hopes theirchildwillbe a son, foriftheyhave a girltheywill
be forcedto expose her. The man weeps no less bitterlythan the
woman,butremainsadamant.The wifeis in despairuntilthegoddess
Isis comes to herand, tellinghernot to worry,advises her thatif she
has a daughter,she shouldsimplydeceiveherhusbandand raiseheras
a boy.The womangivesbirthto a girland rearsheras thegoddesshad
advised.All goes well untilIphisturnsthirteen and thefatherarranges
a marriagewithIanthe,themostbeautifulgirlon theisland. The two
had gone to school togetherand alreadylove one another.Iantheis
happyand looksforwardtomarrying theboyshe alreadyloved,butfor
Iphis things are more complicated.
"A girlherself,she was in love withone ofherown kind,and could
scarcelykeep backhertears,as she said: 'Whatis to be theend of this
forme, caughtas I am in the snareof a strangeand unnaturalkindof
love, whichnone has knownbefore?... No guardian,no precautionson
the partof an anxioushusband,no sternfatherkeeps you fromthe
embraceswhichyoulongto enjoy;theone youlove does notrefuseher
favorswhenyouask. Still,she cannotbe yours,norcan yoube happy."
The mother,too, is in despair;she cannotpostponethe wedding
forever.Finallythe two go to the templeand the motherasks Isis to
cometoheraid again.As theywalkhometogether, Iphisbeginsto take

ChristineDowning,EmeritusProfessor is the
ofReligiousStudiesat San Diego State University,
authorofninebooksincludingMyths and Mysteriesof Same-Sex Love, Women's Mysteries,
and most recently,The Long Journey Home: Revisioning the Myth of Demeter and
Persephone forOur Time.

° 1994 HISTORICAL REFLECTIONS/REFLEXIONS HISTORIQUES, Vol. 20, No. 2

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270 Historical Historiques
Reflections/Reflexions
longerstrides,herfeaturessharpen,she becomesa man. The wedding
is held and "theboy Iphis gainedhis own Ianthe."1
FromOvid's perspective thestoryendshappily.Frommineitreveals
how withoutstories,withoutmodels, a woman's discoverythatshe
loves anotherwoman may be bewilderingand frightening. The myth
recognizesthe love the two girlsfeel forone anotherand shows the
confusionthisengendersin Iphiswho does notknowthatwomenhave
everbeforebeen drawntowomen.She cannotimaginehow sucha love
mightbe livedout exceptbyherbecominga man,beinggivena penis.
The desireis acknowledgedbutnot thepossibilityoffulfillment.
Partof my interestin lesbianhistoryarises out of my longingfor
imagesand languagewhichmayhelp illuminemyown experienceas a
lesbian.Whatwe can learnaboutwomenin othertimesand places for
whom the love of women has been a centralforcein theirlives
challengesand enrichesourself-understanding. I havebeenparticularly
interested in thetestimony ofclassicalGreekmythology and literature
because it derivesfroma culturewhere same-sexlove was not only
acceptedbut givenreligiousvalidationand important educationaland
socialfunctions, and becausewhenwe call ourselveslesbianswe imply
that a historicalGreek woman, Sappho of Lesbos, serves as our
foremother, as a nearmythicalprototype.
In the ancientworld "lesbian" referredto fellationot to female
homosexuality; its modernmeaningdid not gain currency untillate in
thenineteenth century (at about thesame timethat "homosexuality," a
termcoined by a Germanphysicianin 1869, was introducedinto
English)."Lesbianism"was inventedas a label by theearlysexologists
to representlove between women as an abnormal condition,a
pathology.
The presentpaperarisesout ofa hope thatby returning ourway of
loving to the goddesses and themortal heroinesof mythology, we may
help freelesbianism from being viewed through thelens of pathology.
Carl Jungonce wrotethatthe ancientgods and mythological figures
have becomeour diseases, our pathologiesand perversities. This may
be so, but we should rememberthat the Greeks believed that the
particulardeityresponsibleforour affliction and suffering is also the
one fromwhomwe mustseek healing.
Originallya label applied to us by others,"lesbian"has become a
name forourselvesthatmanyof us are proudto claim;yetwe do not
necessarilyagreewhatwe mean by doingso. Some amongus see it as

1. Ovid, Metamorphoses,
9.666-761. I have used the translationby Mary M. Innés
(Baltimore,1975).

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 LesbianMythology 171

signifying our commitment to women,our rejectionof a heterosexist

male-dominated society,our celebrationoftheintimacy,theemotional
closeness,and fullmutuality possibleamongwomen (and onlyrarely
betweenwomenand men),at least as muchas theparticular pleasures
associatedwithlesbian sexuality.Otherswant to affirmtheirsexual
desire for women as a self-validating reality,not as inspiredby a
reactionagainstmen or patriarchy. Fromtheirperspectiveto minimize
theimportance ofthesexualdimensionoflesbianismis to denyitsmost
vitalaspect.
Obviously,our understanding of what we mean by "lesbian" will
informwhatwe will regardas constitutive of lesbianhistory.Because
I believewe do betterto speak in theplural,to speak of "lesbianisms"
ratherthanof"lesbianism,"myown choiceis to takeintoaccountall I
can discoverabout themanyformsthatwomen's love of women has
assumed.
Erotic or sexual relationsamong women seem always to have
receivedless attentionthansuchrelationsamongmen,perhapsbecause
a sexualitywithoutpenilepenetration seems to be almostinvisibleto
themale writerswho are our primaryhistoricalsources.For themthe
mostintimatephysicalcontactbetweenwomenis oftennotrecognized
as sexual.2K. J.Doverbelievesthatthemale assumptionthatsexuality
requiresa phallosrenderedlove betweenwomen(exceptin situations
whereone woman's overdevelopedclitorisservedas an inferior penis
or a dildo was used) virtually
unimaginableto Greekmen.3
Aside fromSappho's poetrytheonlyclassicalliterary reference is in
the myth attributedto Aristophanesin Plato's Symposium which
describeshow the primordial"round people" (some of whom were
male, some female, some hermaphrodite)were cut in two as
punishmentfordaringto challengethe authority of the gods, leaving
"each half with a desperate yearning for the other." Though
Aristophanesgivesmostattention to thedesireofmales formales,his
tale makes clear thatthe same desireanimatesthe yearningof those
sliced halves cut off from the original hermaphrodites(now
heterosexuallyorientedmen and women) and that also moves the
womenwho are slicesof theoriginalfemale:"WhatI am tryingto say
is this-thatthe happinessof the whole human race, women no less

2. Thatmanyheterosexistwomenmayalso equatesexuality withphallicpenetration

is notthepointhere,whichis ratherthatalmostall therelevanttextswerecomposedby
men.
3. K.J.Dover,Greek (Cambridge,MA, 1978),p. 171.
Homosexuality

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272 Historical Historiques
Reflections/Reflexions
thanmen,is to be foundin theconsummation of our love, and in the
healingofour disseverednatureby findingeach his propermate."4
Because we know thatthe Greeksbelieved thatsexual desirefor
membersofone's own sex was somethingthatalmosteveryonewould
feel at some timeand thattherewere culturallysanctionedways of
livingthatdesire,many of us may imaginethatin theirworld our
dreams of a trulyhealthyand fullyaffirmedhomosexualitywere
realized. Closer examinationof the historicalevidence, however,
suggeststhatthoseacceptedways are not necessarilycongruentwith
our contemporary fantasiesabout how same-sex love mightmost
be lived. Confrontation
fulfillingly withthegap betweenthe''reallife"
attitudesand behaviorsof the Greeksof the classicalperiodand our
somewhatidealized fantasiesabout theirworld can be a disturbing
experience,yetitmakespossiblea morecomplexunderstanding ofthe
Greekmythological representations.It enables us to see what in their
mythsis projectionof theirown dailyexperience,what derivesfrom
theirmemoriesor imaginingsabout earlierperiods,what expresses
dreamsand fearsthattheymaynotconsciouslyhave acknowledged.
In orderto understandtheGreekattitudetowardhomosexuality in
general and lesbianism in we
particular need to recognize how radically
theirmoregeneralunderstanding of sexualitydiffers fromours. Thus
beforeturningdirectlyto Greekmythological representations of love
betweenwomen,we musttakenoteof theirviews of sex and gender.
The Greeks saw sexual desire, like other human appetites,as
entailingthe moralproblemof avoidingexcess. The moralaim with
respectto sexualityis to be free,notbe a slave to one's desires.Virtue
in thesexualrealminvolvesachievingmasteryoverself.
A important aspectoftheGreekview ofsexualitywas its emphasis
on roles.In Greecethesexualrelationship was assumedto be a power
relationship,where one participantis dominant and theotherinferior.
On one side standsthe freeadult male; on the other,women,slaves
and boys. Sexualrolesare isomorphicwithsocial roles;fortheGreeks
itwas one's rolenotone's sex thatwas salient."Sexualobjectscomein
two different kinds~notmale and femalebut activeand passive."5
Sex was notconceivedas a mutualdyadicengagementbutas what
one person(alwaysan adultmale) does to another.Sexual activity was
definedas phallicpenetration. As Eva Keuls observes,"phallus,"not
"penis," is the rightword here because the pointis not so much the

4. Plato, Symposium193c. The quotation is from the translationincluded in Edith

Hamilton and Huntingdon Cairns, The CollectedDialoguesofPlato (Princeton,1961).
5. David M. Halperin, "One Hundred Years of Homosexuality/ Diacritic16 (1986): 39.

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 LesbianMythology 173

physicalorganas theculturalmeaningattributed to it. Keuls describes

thepervasivepresenceofthisemblemofmalepowerin ancientAthens
(and suggeststhatthe insistenceon phallicsupremacymay betrayan
obsessivefearofwomen).6
The Greekscombinedan easy acceptanceof same-sexattachments
with a strongbias against effeminacy in men. "The dividingline
betweena virileman and an effeminate man did notcoincidewithour
oppositionbetweenhetero-and homosexuality; norwas it confinedto
the oppositionbetween active and passive homosexuality/'7 Male
femininity was seen as manifesting itselfin immoderatepromiscuity
directedtowardmalesorfemales,in yieldingto desireratherthanbeing
masterofit, or in takingpleasurein assuminga passive rolein sexual
intercourse.
The model of sociallyvalidatedhomosexuality was paiderastia,the
love of an olderman fora youth.(Byolderman herewe mean mostly
men in theirtwenties,while the youthswere adolescents.)The age
disparitywas what gave the relationshipits value and what made it
morallyproblematical. An elaborateritualization ofappropriate conduct
on thepartofbothparticipants was designedto givesuchrelationships
a "beautiful"form,one thatwouldhonortheyouth'sambiguousstatus.
As notyeta freeadultmale,he was an appropriateobjectofmasculine
desire.As alreadypotentially a freecitizen,his futuresubjectivitymust
be honored.Thus the Greeksbelievedthatthe relationshipshould be
designedso as to providean opportunity forthe youngerto begin to
learnthatself-mastery whichwouldbe expectedofhimas an adult.The
olderman's desirewas seen as unproblematic. Whatwas difficult was
how to live thatdesire in such a way thatits object mightin turn
become a subject. (Relations between young boys were seen as
completely naturaland as notbeingsubjectto theconstraints imposed
upon the paiderasticrelationship.)
Dover assertsthatreciprocaldesirebetweenmen of the same age
was almostunknownand thatthe distinction betweenthe man who
takes on the activepenetrating role (the erastes)and the youthwho
acceptsthe passive role (the exórnenos) was a rigidone. "Virtuallyno
male both penetratesothermales and submitsto penetrationat the
same stage of his life"8 (althougha youth engaged in a passive
relationship witha man mightat thesame timebe takingon theactive

6. Eva C. Keuls, The ReignofthePhallus (New York, 1985), p. 2.

7. Michel Foucault, The Uses ofPleasure(New York, 1986), p. 85.
8. Dover, Homosexuality, p. 16.

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174 Historical
Reflections/Reflexions
Historiques
role vis-a-visfemales).Furthermore, it is only the desire to play the
activerolethatis regardedas ''natural/'The youngermaleyieldsto the
oldeťs importunities out ofadmiration, compassionor gratitude, butis
expectedto feelneitherdesirenorenjoyment.The sexual desirefeltby
theactivepartneris callederos;theyoungeťsfriendly affection,philia.
Because it is important thatthe youngernot identify with the object
role, thathe not be seen as effeminized by the relationship,much
emphasis is placed on his reluctanceto accede and his lack of
enjoyment.A man who enjoys playing the receptivepartneris
derogatedas a prostitute and as havingforfeited his rightas a citizento
hold office.The assumptionis thata man who would willinglymake
himself available would do anything!Only slaves, women and
foreigners would willinglychoose to be treatedas objects.
The relationship betweenerastesand eromenoswas seen as having
an educationaland moralfunction, to be partof the youth'sinitiation
into full manhood. Thereforeit was a disgrace not to be wooed,
althoughalso shamefulto yield too easily. The relationshipwas
expectedto come to an end as soon as the youthwas old enoughto
growa beard,thatis, as soon as he, too,was a fullymaturemale~for
itspurposewas preciselythetransfer ofmanliness,ofphallicpotency,
fromtheolderto theyounger.The expectation was thattheeromenos
would now graduatefrompupil to friend.This conversionof the
inherently transient and unequalrelationintoa lastingand fullymutual
one dependson thecultivation of friendship havingbegun duringthe
earlier phase. Indeed, in his Symposium, Xenophon views such
its
friendship, reciprocal kindnesses and shared feelings,not so much
as a substitute forErosbutas itstelos,itsrealgoal. "It is by conducting
themselvesthus thatmen continueto love theirmutualaffection and
enjoy it down to old age."9
In trying tounderstand how same-sexeroticbondscametoplaysuch
an importantrole in classical Athens,Dover remindsus how little
intimacyor affection, how littleopportunity forsharingintellectualor
culturalinterests,therewas withinGreek marriages."Erastes and
eromenosclearlyfoundin each othersomething whichtheydidnotfind
elsewhere,"whichsatisfiedtheirlongingsforintimacy, intensity,and
emotionaldepthin a personalrelationship.10
We may envy the acceptance that a particularexpression of
homosexuality had in Greeceand yetbe saddenedby thelimitations of

9. Xenophon,Symposium,
8.3. The quotationis fromthetranslation
byJ.S.Watson,
TheMinor WorksofXenophon(London, 1884).
10. Dover, Homosexuality,
pp. 201-202.

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 LesbianMythology 175

the model, by the hierarchicalcharacterof the relationshipsand the

denigrationofenjoyment on thepartofthereceptivepartner.However,
the confrontation withthe realityand its limitationsdoes not exhaust
the significanceGreek homosexualityhas forus. Homosexualityin
Greecewas notjust sociallycondoned,it was endowed withreligious
significance.DelphicApollowas invokedto bless homosexualunions.
Homosexualitywas regardedas a sacred institution, practicedby the
gods themselvesand by theancientheroes.
Greeksexualethicswas an ethicsformen in whichwomenfigured
only as objectsnot as moralagents.Because of the emphasison the
phallosas thesexualorgan,womenwereimaginedas morelustfulthan
men, "as obsessed withan insatiablelust to fillup theirvaginalvoid
withpenises."11Sincemoderationis definedas an act of self-mastery,
immoderation is seen as deriving"froma passivitythatrelatesit to
femininity. be immoderateis to be in a stateof submissionto the
To
forcesof pleasure."12The relationof men to womenis therelationof
rulerto ruled.
What we have describedthus farmakes evidentthatthereis by
definitionno ethicalcode pertaining to women'slove ofwomen.Dover
also notes thatwhat we call lesbianismseems to have been a taboo
subjectevenforcomedy,whichrespectedfewtaboos.Thissuggeststhat
theverytopicmayhave been avoidedbecause itinspiredmale anxiety.
Whatwe do knowofErosamongwomenin theancientworldis almost
entirelybased on Sappho. Dover says thatwhatlittleevidencethereis
suggeststhatin female-female relationshipstherewas a muchgreater
emphasis on mutual Erosand that thedominance/submission patternso
centralto male-malelove was absent.
And,as we shallsee, thoughwe have littlehistoricalevidenceabout
eroticrelationships amongwomen,thereare manymythswhichtestify
to the joys and difficulties associated with such experience.Our
understanding of lesbianisms maybe expandedby becomingaware of
thefullrangeoftheGreekmythicrepresentations, and in turnwe may
also becomemoreappreciativeof elementsof our own experiencethat
theGreeksignoredor devalued.
As we turnto considerhow Greekmythology mightdeepen our
understanding of women's love of women, we findourselveshavingto
deal withthe problemthat,aside fromSappho's poetry,we have no
writtenaccountsby womenof theirown experienceof such love or of

11. Keuls, Phallus,p. 82.

12. Foucault, Pleasure,p. 84.

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176 Historical Historiques
Reflections/Reflexions
its mythicalrepresentation. What is directlyavailable reflectsmale
perspectives, communicates malefearsand fantasies,guiltand longing:
men's surfacedenialofsexualgratification thatis notphallos-centered,
theirdeeperdreadofwomen'soriginaland originating powerand self-
sufficientindependence of men. Yet empathie extrapolationand
imaginative reconstructionmayhelpus discoversomethingofwhatthe
talesand ritualsmayhave meantto thewomenoftheancientworld.I
respecttheimportance oftrying to distinguishthediscoveredfromthe
invented,but believetakingthe riskof the imaginativeelaborationis
justifiedby what it may yield: the giftof images that express the
multidimensionality, thebeautiesand theterrors, ofourownexperience
oflovingwomen.
It is easy to see, forexample,how the Greek mythsabout the
Amazons express male dread of femalepower, how theyrelate to
infantilemale separationexperience;butwe need notreducethemyths
to thatfear.I see themythsas overdetermined, as also signifying (and
perhaps even in partoriginallyderiving from)powerful female fantasies
aboutwomen'sbonds.Ifitweren'tso, womenwould nothave been so
pulled to claimthesestoriesas relevantto our own preherstory. I am
primarily interested to discoverwhat in thesemythsmight be relevant
to womenseekingto understandour own lives and thoseof our long
ago foremothers.
In examiningGreek mythological representations of love among
humanfemales,ourprimary focuswillinevitablyfallupontheAmazons
and the maenads. The Greeks imaginedthe Amazons as a society
composed entirelyof women who threatenmen and engage in war
againstthem.The AmazonswereassociatedwithAres,thegod ofwar,
because theirqueensweresaid tobe daughtersofAresbutalso because
theywere imaginedas Ares-likewomen.The Amazons' sexualitywas
mostlylived out amongthemselves,althoughonce a yeartheywould
seek out the men of neighboring tribesforintercourse, solelyforthe
sake of reproduction.They were virginsin the sense of theirself-
sufficient independenceof men, theirresistanceof any permanent
bonds. Girlchildrenwerekeptand raised;boyswere eitherexposedor
sentaway.13
A favoredsubjectforsculpturalrepresentation was the battleof
GreeksagainstAmazons, often,as at the Parthenon,paired with a
depictionof the battleagainstthe Kentaurs.Amazons and Kentaurs
wereevidentlyregardedas twinthreatstomale-dominated civilization.

13. Edward Tripp, Crowell'sHandbookofClassicalMythology

(New York, 1970), pp. 40-
41.

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 LesbianMythology 177

Thereare also talesshowingmanyofthemostcelebratedGreekheroes

testingtheirmanhoodagainstthefearsomeAmazonwarriors,seducing
them,abductingthem,rapingthem,stealingthebeltwhichrepresents
theirvirginity,theirindependenceof men. Achilleswas said to have
killedtheAmazons7mighty warriorqueen Pensthesileiaand thenmade
love to herbeautifulcorpse.To mastertheAmazonssexuallywas seen
as an essentialpartofchallengingtheirmonstrousclaimto live as self-
sufficientwomen.
The Greeksthemselvesdisagreedas to whethertheAmazonswere
historicalor purelymythologicalbeings, but the persistenceof the
legends about thesewarriorwomen who lived at the faredge of the
inhabitedworldis in no doubtand betraysthe archetypalcharacterof
the belief.Thereis disagreement about what the archetypesignifies.
Keuls sees it as embodyingmale fear of the terrifying mother,14
Bachofenas a universalphenomenonexpressingfemaleresponseto an
earlierdegradationof womenand representing an intermediary social
of
stage "mother-right" which was later a
supersededby society based
on "father-right/'on the"spiritual"bond ofmonogamyratherthanon
hate!15
Many besides Bachofenhave imagined these fiercelybrave and
"manlike"women in "matriarchal" terms.The Amazons are seen as
persistent remnants of early matriarchal societies-oras attempting to
restoregynocracy in theface of the establishment rule-
of patriarchal
thatis, as reactingagainstmale domination.But I believe thatPhyllis
Chesleris rightin seeingthemas presenting notmother-rule butsister-
rule~anattempt by women themselves to form a woman-shapedsociety
based noton therelationofdaughtersto theall-powerful motherbuton
egalitariansisterlyrelationships.1
Whereas the Amazons constituteda group of women who lived
beyondcivilizationas a separatewoman-onlysociety,the Dionysian
maenadswereenvisionedas womenwho temporarily lefttheirconjugal
livesfora ritualperiodduringwhichtheywerefreeto releaseenergies
ordinarily suppressed.The womenlefttheirdomesticresponsibilities,

14. Keuls,Phallus,p. 4.
15. J.J.Bachofen,
Myth,Religion, andMother
Right(Princeton,1967),pp. 104-107,131-
139.Bachofensaw themythsabouttheAmazonsas representing evidenceofa vaguely
remembered periodwhen women were dominantovermen. The suggestion thata period
characterizedbymatriarchal is generallyrecognizedas his most
ruleprecededpatriarchy
importantcontributionto classicalstudies.
16. PhyllisChesler,"The Amazon Legacy,"in ThePoliticsof Women'sSpirituality,
CharleneSpretnak,ed. (GardenCity,NY, 1982),p. 102.

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178 Historical
Reflections/Reflexions
Historiques
theirhusbandsand theirchildrento be with one another.Maenadic
enthusiasmwas notan individualexperiencebut a communalone; the
maenadsbecomea temporary community, thethiasos.
The god is presentin theirmidstbut no man is. We knowlittlein
detailabouttheecstaticritesofthemaenads,thoughtheywereclearly
recognizedas havinga sexual dimension.We know thatthemaenads
are usuallyshown carrying a thrysus,a fennelstalktoppedby a pine
cone, which on vase paintingstheysometimesaim at male genitals
muchas theAmazonsaimedtheirspears.I would agreewithKeuls that
this hardly suggests sexual longing for a male penis but rather
aggressionagainsttheparadigmatic emblemofmale power.We do not
knowwhat role thebasket-hidden phalli so prominently displayedin
Dionysianprocessionalsmighthave playedin maenadicrites.Perhaps
themaenads used dildos to stimulateand gratify one anotheras they
explored a sexualitydevoted to female pleasure. Or perhaps the
presenceof the dismemberedgod served as an invitationto explore
thosepleasuresforwhichnoteven a substitute phallosis needed. We
knowalmostnothingof thesemysteries except that theyseem to have
representedan initiationof women by women into women's own
sexuality,intoarousalforits own sake.
The maenadsrepresenttruthsaboutwomenthatwe can experience
onlyapartfrommen and onlyin thecompanyof otherwomen.These
truthsare "lesbian"truthsin the sense thattheyare truthsabout our
bodies, about our sexuality,about our passion, thatwe learn not in
isolation nor throughheterosexualencountersbut only through
engagement withotherwomen.Not thatthesetruthsare simplysexual
-but thattheway to themis throughknowingour bodies as our own
and thus our souls as well, throughecstasyand not throughdutiful
obedience.
The maenads foundaccess to a whollydifferent value system,one
that becomes available only when we separate ourselves from
patriarchalconstraint.The excesses associatedwithmaenadicfrenzy
expresswhathappenswhenwomenare cutofffromaccess to ourown
sexuality,desireand power,and fromone another.The Greeksseem
rightlytohave seen themaenadsas in manywayseven moreterrifying
thantheAmazons,fortheylivedin theirown midstratherthanat the
faredge oftheworld.Theyare terrifying-and notonlytomen.Forthey
representwhatis terrifying in ourselves,beingin touchwithour own
rawinstinct and itscompulsivepower-andtheimportance ofaccepting
thatin ourselves.
TheDionysianinitiation does notseem tohavebeen a pubertyritual;
thewomenparticipants werenotunmarried virginsbutwives,matrons

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 LesbianMythology 179

(thoughwithinthe thiasoswhere such social role definitionsdid not

apply theywere simplywomen, sexuallymaturefemales).17Indeed,
thereis no clearevidencethattherewere anyritualsin ancientGreece
wherepubertalgirlswereinitiatedintofemalesexualityand identity by
older women in a way that might parallel paiderasteia,nor any
unmistakable mythological ofsuch initiation.Yet there
representations
arehintsthatArtemismighthave been associatedwithfemaleinitiation
as herbrotherApollowas withmale initiation. We know,forinstance,
thatgirlswere sent to Artemis'templeat Brauronfor an extended
initiationjust beforetheyreachedmarriageableage, thoughlittlehas
comedown tous ofwhattheyexperienced.We do notknowifArtemis,
thegoddessinvolvedwithall themysteries offemaleembodiment, was
also imaginedas the goddess who mightinitiateyounggirlsinto the
mysteries oftheirown sexuality.Did thegirlssacrificetheirvirginity
to
thevirgingoddess-and thuskeep it?Thatis, did theylearnthattheir
sexualitywas theirown, that it existed neitherprimarilyfor male
gratificationnor forproducingchildrenso thatthe ongoinglifeof the
polis mightbe assured? We know that Greek girls sacrificedtheir
childhoodtoys and theirmaidenlygarb to Artemisas part of their
marriagerites.This symbolizedthesacrificeoftheirmaidenhood,their
farewellto thegoddess. I believeit mayalso have signifieda plea that
thegoddess notdesertthebrides,thatshe stillbe availableto themin
the pains and dangersparticularto the new stage of femalelifeupon
which they were entering,especially in the risks associated with
childbirth, and thatshe helpthemstayin touchwiththeirrealvirginity,
theirin-one-self-ness, even as theybecomewives and mothers.
The girlsinitiatedat Brauronwereknownas "thebearsofArtemis/'
a designationwhichsuggestsan importantmythassociatedwith the
goddess,theone involvingthenymphKallisto."Nymph"refersbothto
the minor female deities of brook and forestwho in mythology
accompanyArtemisin the forestand to "youngwomen in theirfirst
encounterwith love," particularly as theyjoin togetherto dance at
festivalsin honorof the goddess. Thus, nymphsare both mythand
reality.Although,at least on the surface,these maidenlygroupsare
moreinnocentand serenethanthemaenads,theyrepresentanotherall-
femalecommunity and one wheremale intrusionis met withviolent
response. The maenads weremarriedwomentakinga "timeoff"in an
all women'sworld.The nymphswerenot-yet-married femalesenjoying

17. JaneHarrison, Prolegomena to theStudyofGreekReligion(New York, 1957), p. 395.

Maidens participatedin Dionysian processionals but were not included in the organized
bands.

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180 Historical Historiques
Reflections/Reflexions
theirinviolatefemininity in an all-femaleenvironment. In bothgroups
thereis a clearlysexual ambiance to the relationshipsamong the
women-thoughthereis also a recognition thatthemaenadswillreturn
to theirhusbands,thatthe girlswill become brides.The nymphsof
mythology were dedicatedto stayvirgins,to staytrueto the virginal
goddess-but almost everymythabout such a nymphdescribesher
beingpursuedand rapedbya god (ordyingin theattemptto escape his
pursuit).
Kallisto'sname signifiesthatshe was the"mostbeautiful"ofall the
nymphs;she was also Artemis'favorite.One day, so the storygoes,
Zeus cameupon thislovelycreaturealone in theforestand desiredher
butknewthegracefulyounghuntresswould notacceptadvancesfrom
a man. So he disguisedhimselfas Artemisand was warmlywelcomed.
Kallistorespondedto his firstkisses and his initialembracebut then
drew back in horrorwhen the god "betrayedhimselfby a shameful
action."Ovid tellsus thatshe foughthimoffwithall herstrength, "But
whatgod is weakerthana girl?"Zeus had his way withherand lefther
with her shame and guilt-and pregnant,too. Althoughthe other
nymphsmayhave guessedwhathad happenedby herpainfuldis-ease
whenshe returnstojoin them,Artemisherselfis slow topickup on the
cluesuntilone day,monthslater,as Kallistohesitatestoundresstojoin
Artemisand the others as they bathe, Artemissees the clear-cut
evidenceand forthwith banishes the nymphfromher company.All
versionsofthemythagreethatKallistois thentransformed intoa bear,
althoughtheydisagree whether this is Hera's doingor Zeus' ora further
act ofretribution inflicted
by Artemis herself.18
The storysuggests that Kallisto had already been initiatedby
Artemis,thattheywere lovers,as witnessKallisto'sreadyacceptance
ofintimaciesshe believescomefromthegoddess.It is herrapebyZeus
thatleads to herexclusionfromArtemis'circleand fromhumanity(for
notonlyis she transformed intoa beastbut,thoughhermindremains
unchanged, she is deprivedofspeech and cannotsharehergrief).
AlthoughamongtheGreekgoddesses onlyArtemisis represented
as lovingonly othersof her own sex, all of themare involvedwith
women in ways thatillumineour own experienceof same-sexlove.
None are shown as fittingeasily into the normativepatternof
heterosexualrelationship.No goddess is representedas a contented
wife.As WalterBurkert explains,"In thecase ofgoddesses,therelation
to sexualityis moredifficultsincethefemaleroleis generallydescribed

18. Ovid, Metamorphoses,

2.409-531.

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 LesbianMythology 181
as passive, as being tamed,it accordsill with the role of divinity/'19
The one accountwe have of Hera (theonlywifeamongtheOlympian
goddesses) and Zeus makinglove shows her takingthe initiative,
seducinghiminordertodiverthis attention fromtheTrojanWar.When
goddesses are involvedwithmortalmen, theyact like a male erastes
withhis eromenos.The particular powersassociatedwithArtemisand
Atheneare correlatedwiththeirbeinguntamedvirgins.In relationto
hermale protégés,althoughthereis nothingsexualin therelationship,
Atheneoftenassumes male disguiseand figureslike a wise erastes,
mentoring and encouragingtheiryouthful efforts.
Given the problematicsinherentin the relationshipbetween
goddessesand males,itis notsurprising thatinvolvements withwomen
shouldbe so important. Yet ifwe look at thetraditionsabouttheGreek
goddesses primarilyfor stories of overtlysexual connectionswith
women, we will find little. If what we are interestedin is an
illuminationof the multidimensionality and diversityof the erotic
relationships that existbetween women, we willfindmuch.The myths
bring into view the beauty and power inherent in femalebonds-and
some of the darker,morefearful aspects as well.
Demeteris represented as a determinedly woman-identified goddess.
Having been separated from her own mother at birthwhen herfather,
Kronos-fearful thatone ofhischildrenmightgrowup tooverthrow him
as he had overthrown his father-swallows her,she seems to epitomize
an idealizationof motherlove. She longs to have a daughterto whom
she mightgive the maternaldevotionshe had herselfneverreceived.
Representinga generationof goddesses who no longer had the
parthenogenetic capacityof the originalmotherearthgoddess, Gaia,
Demetercannotconceivewithouta male. She allows Zeus to fatherher
child but refuseshim any participationin the child's rearing.Her
daughter,Persephone,is tobe hersalone and to be theobjectofall her
love. Althoughitwould go beyondthemythto say thatDemeterrapes
Zeus who rapedso manydivineand mortalwomen,one could say that
in the mythshe uses him (almost like a sperm bank!). She also
deliberately chooses her brotherto be her lover,a male as like her as
any she could find.She is a motherbut emphatically not a wife;she
chooses to be a single mother,solely responsibleforher daughter's
upbringing.
The bond betweenmotherand daughteris a bond of fusion-that
intimateconnectionprecedingthe recognitionof separate existence
whichwe all imagineto have been there"in thebeginning."Demeter

19. Walter Burkert,GreekReligion(Cambridge, MA, 1985), p. 183.

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182 Historical Historiques
Reflections/Reflexions
hopes to maintainthis closeness forever,to keep her daughterfor
herself,and seeks especiallyto protecttheirbond fromany male
intruder.Almostinevitably, herdaughterendsup beingabductedbythe
male god oftheunderworld, Hades, and Demeterends up devastated.
Afterherdaughter'sdisappearance,she is so overtakenbygriefand
rage thatshe no longerattendsto thegrowthof thegrainon whichall
humanlifedependsbutwandersdesolateovertheearthdisguisedas an
old woman.Duringthistimeshe spendsan eveningin thecompanyof
an aged drynurse,Baubo,who succeeds(even ifonlymomentarily) in
gettingthe goddess to smileand even to laugh aloud. She does so by
entertaining her with a lewd dance; she takes offher clothes,she
spreads her legs, she displaysher vulva. Long past her childbearing
years,withered, wrinkledandprobablyflabby, Baubocommunicates her
joyin herown body,herpridein herfemaleorgans,herconviction that
hersexualityis hers,definedneitherby themen who mightonce have
desiredhernorthechildrenshe mayhave borne.Conventionalbeauty,
youth,reproductive capacityare all beside thepoint;she celebratesthe
pleasure her body can receiveand give.The Greeksacknowledgedthat
Baubo was a goddess, that the self-sufficient female sexualityshe
represents is a sacred reality.
Demeteťs laughsuggeststhatshe catcheson, ifonlyfora moment,
thatthereis life,femalelife,even afterone is no longermother.It is
thatinsightthatpreparesherto be able to accepta new relationship to
Persephone after Zeus arranges for the maiden's return. For
henceforward, Persephonewill spend some timewithhermothereach
year but some timeaway, in her own life,in the underworldrealm
whichis now her domain.Demeterhas been initiatedintoa mode of
relationshipwhich can tolerateseparationand change, and into an
understanding ofselfnotdependenton theother.Butto Greekwomen
Demeterremainsassociatedprimarily withthelove thatflowsbetween
mothersand daughtersand withthe griefsand losses thatseem to be
an inevitablecorollaryofmotherhood.
The Thestnophoria, themajorritualassociatedwithDemeter,was an
extremely ancient all-women rite,preservedintolateclassicaltimein its
archaic form."At the core of the festival/'Burkertsays, is "the
dissolution of the family,the separation of the sexes and the
constitution of a societyof women. The ritualprovidedwomen an
occasiontoleave theirfamilyand homeforthreeentiredaysand nights.
Men were rigorouslyexcludedas were childrenand (most scholars
believe)virgins.Muchaboutthisgathering remindsus ofthemaenads.

20. Burkert,Religion,p. 105.

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 LesbianMythology 183

Sexual abstinence-i.e.,abstinencefromintercoursewith men-was

demandedbeforeand duringthe festival.21 The Thesmophoriagave
theparticipants an opportunity to venttheirangeragainstmen and to
sharewitheach otherthedifficulties and sorrowsassociatedwiththeir
own experiencesof motherhood, confidentthatDemeter,the grieving
mothergoddess,would empathizewithand dignifytheirlot. The rite
was one that encouraged abandonment-notonly to anger and
tribulationbut to "obscenity,"thatis, to a self-indulgent sexuality.22
It provideda culticinversionof everydayrealitywhichparadoxically
may have served to maintaineverydaynorms and structures;the
temporary dissolutionofmaritalbondsmayhave strengthened marriage
by providing a ritual
outlet forexpressing frustration,
grief and anger.
But duringthe ritualthe violationof taboos ordinarilyin effect
symbolizesthat,in the templeof the mother,all is permitted.Thus
Demeter connectsher worshippersto a time when therewere no
boundaries,when loverand belovedwere one. Much of theintensity,
theemotionalintimacy, womendiscoverin one anothercomesfromthe
Demeter-Persephone dimension of theirbond. I believe thatall close
bonds betweenwomen inevitablyconjureup memoriesand feelings
associated with our firstconnectionto a woman, the all-powerful
motherofinfancy.The pulltoreexperience thatbondoffusion,ofbeing
totallyloved, totallyknown, totallyone with anotherand thefearofre-
experiencing that bond of fusion, of being swallowed up by a
of
relationship, losing one's own hard-won identityenterpowerfully
into all woman-womanrelationships.This does not mean thatin a
relationship betweentwowomen,one willnecessarilyplay themother
role, the otherthe daughterrole, but thatboth will experiencethe
profoundlongingto be fullyembracedonce again and the imperious
need tobreakaway. The particular beautyand powerand theparticular
danger and limitation oflove between womenare heremade manifest.
For it is questionablewhetherthis love really allows for personal
relationshipbetweentwo individuals.CertainlybeforeDemeterloses
Persephoneshe has allowed her no identityof her own-the daughter
existsonlyas an extensionof themother.
The connectionto themotheris alwaysalso a connectionto ourown
mysteriousoriginsand in this sense Demeteris also relevantto the
particularpower thatthe sexual dimensionof women's love forone
anothermayhave. Because all intimatetouchingbetweenwomenmay

21. Burkert,Religion,p. 244.

22. Burkert,Religion,pp. 243-244.

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184 Historical Historiques
Reflections/Reflexions
invokea sense ofreturning towoman,to source,to origin,itmayseem
formanywomena moresacredexperiencethanheterosexual intercourse
(no matterhow physicallypleasurable)can provide.I believe thisis
especiallytrueofthealmostoverwhelming sense oftouchingupon the
wholemystery ofourown beginningsthatis sometimesexperiencedin
enteringanotherwoman's vagina, with fingeror with tongue.Even
thoughwomen'slovemakingwithwomenis notliterallyconnectedto
reproduction, it inescapablycalls forththatmystery, thereturnto the
place oforigin.
To bringHera intoan exploration ofwomen'slove ofwomenmayat
firstsightseem ridiculous;she is so clearlya goddess who focusesall
her love on her husband Zeus, who prides herselfon her conjugal
faithfulness,is passionatelyjealous of his infidelities, and actively
persecuteshis mistressesand theirchildren.Hera's response to the
earlyseparationfromtheirmotherRhea is utterlydifferent fromher
sister's.UnlikeDemeter,she seems to have learnedfromthe years
spentin herfather'sstomachtoexpectnurturance frommenratherthan
women.Thusherfemaleexistenceis livedin relationtoherspouse; she
lives definedby her marriageand its difficulties. Though she has
children,thatis almostincidentalto her being a wife; she is never
invokedas a mother.She seems to like neitherwomen,nor being a
woman,at all.
Hera is opposed not onlyto Demeterwho gives thebond to one's
childtheprivilegedplace thatHera accordsthebond to one's partner,
she is also seen as strugglingagainst Dionysos who seeks to lure
womenfromtheirmarriagebeds. For Hera is identified withbonding
notpassion;fromherperspectivesexualityis dangerous.She is furious
withTeirisias(whohad livedas bothmanand woman)whenhe asserts
thatwomengetmorepleasurefromlove-making thanmen.Aphrodite's
warmthand gracemaybe, as Hera knows,a necessaryelementin any
sustainedrelationship, but Hera is more concernedwithhow easily
sexual desiremovesus to betrayour commitments.
The jealous,possessiveHera ofmythis Hera as men describedher,
thewifeas experienced byhusbands.Thisalmostcomicportrait ofHera
maybe connectedto thefactthatthepassive rolesimplydoes notfita
goddess-whichmeans,as we notedabove, thatnone ofthegoddesses
fitsinto the heterosexualmodel as the Greeksunderstoodit. Each
representssome formofprotestagainstthatmodel;each in some way
representsthevisionofa different kindofrelationship.
Hera, as womenworshippedher,as she functioned in hercult,was
not the unhappy,frustrated wifeof literature but a woman identified
withall thelongings,satisfactions and difficulties
relatedto thewishfor

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 LesbianMythology 185
a permanent,committed primaryrelationship.One mythrelatesthat
eventuallyshe gives up on Zeus, decides thathe will never be the
faithfulhusband of her dreamsnor able to providethe intimacyfor
which she yearns.She leaves him and makes her way to a magical
springin Argoswhichrestoresthevirginity ofwomenwho bathein it.
Thus she recoversherin-one-selfness and no longerlooks to marriage
forself-completion. She is readyfora different kindofrelationship,one
less dominatedby the strugglefor supremacyor by fantasiesof
possessingand beingpossessed.
Thoughin Hera's case she returnsto Zeus but on a new basis, we
could see thestoryas relevantto thelifeexperienceof "late blooming
lesbians/7womenwho turnto primary relationships withwomenafter
discovering that heterosexualmarriage does not answer theirdeepest
needs.23WhatHera seems mostessentiallyto signifyis not a sexual
bond withmen but a sustainedand mutualbond with another;the
genderof thatotherseems almostbeside thepoint.
Reflection on Hera bringsintoview bothwelcomeand unwelcome
ways in which bondsbetweentwowomenmaybe similarto thebond
of heterosexualmarriage.For marriagein her realmmeans not only
loyaltyand stability butoftenalso, consciouslyorunconsciously, power-
definedroles,strugglesover dominanceand submission.Hera's own
obsessionwithsocially-sanctioned bonds,hercrueltytowardunmarried
mothersand illegitimate children,mightalso serveas a reminder ofhow
dependent the of
permanence marriage is on social support,how
difficultit is to maintainrelationships in its absence.
WhilewomenworshippedHera as close to themin theirown marital
struggles, we need also to lookdirectly at themanymythswhichrelate
hermalevolentabuse ofthewomenwhomZeus seduced or raped (the
difference seemed to be irrelevant to her).Thatherangerwas directed
against these women rather than at Zeus suggeststhatit mayhave its
in a of
origin feeling having been abandoned byhermotherand thather
relationtoherfemaleparentmayplaya muchmorepowerfulrolein her
lifethan she would acknowledge.Hera's apparenthatredof women
remindsus how persistentself-disparagement and disparagementof
womenare in thepsychesofall ofus raisedin a male-dominated world

23. Some may always have been more drawn to women sexuallybut entered
heterosexualrelations othersmayfind,particularly
becauseofsocietalexpectations; after
theirchildrenare gone, thattheynow long foran emotionalintimacythatonlylesbian
Lesbian,"in
relationsseem able to provide.Cf. myessay "ComingHome: The Late-Life
RobertH. Hopckeet al., Same-Sex (Boston,1993),pp. 28-37.
LoveandthePathtoWholeness

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186 Historical
Reflections/Reflexions
Historiques
irrespective of our feminismor our sexual preference, remindsus of
how thisphenomenonis, indeed,encouragedby patriarchy.
Whatis reallystriking is thedegreeto whichHera's libidinalenergy
reallyseems to be directedtowardthe women. The many mythsof
Hera's persistentjealousyof thewomen withwhom Zeus made love
make me think of Freud's notion that jealousy is a mask of
homosexuality. Her attackson Zeus' mistressesseem to be the most
activeexpressionofherotherwisequiterepressedsexuality.
At firstglanceevenmoremale-identified thanHera initiallyappears
to be is Pallas Athene,thegoddesswho could say:

Thereis no motheranywherewho gave me birth

and, butformarriage,I am alwaysforthemale
withall myheart,and stronglyon myfather'sside.24

BornfromZeus' head, a goddessofwar,notedforhercourageand self-

sufficiency, her calm and collectedreason, Athene is depicted as
suspicious of sexual entanglement and emotionalintensity,and as
mentorand patronof such Greekheroes as Herakles,Perseus, and
Bellerophon.She seemsto denyherown femininity and toidentify with
theseGorgon-and Amazon-battling men.Thatshe mightin anyway be
relevantto theself-understanding ofwomenwho love womenseems,
at first,
preposterous. Andyetwe mustrecallthatAthenewas a goddess,
that the Greeks saw her self-assuranceand bravery,her practical
wisdom,hergiftforsustainedfriendship notonlyas divinebut also as
feminine attributes.Athene serves as powerfultestimony to a view of
women as strong,active and creativeratherthan as by definition
passive and weak. By remindingus that such qualities are not
exclusively masculinebutas muchpartofourown femalebeingas our
vulnerability, opennessto feeling,Athenemay help us to
receptivity,
recognize the obvious:that contemporary lesbianwomenwho choose
or are giventhedesignation"butch"are fully,indeedquintessentially,
women-notmasculine,notmenin women'sbodies.Theirrefusalto be
"femme,"to conformto conventionalexpectationsaboutfemaledress
and demeanor,body image,and lifestyleis a celebrationof women's
strength and ofindependenceofmale-defined values.
AlthoughAthenemayin patriarchal mythidentify withherfather,
she is, as even thosemythsstilllet us see, not onlyhis daughterbut
also the daughterof Metis, the goddess of wisdom, the goddess

24. Aeschylus, Eumenides,pp. 736-738. The translationis from David Grene and
Richmond Lattimore,The CompleteGreekTragedies(Chicago, 1959).

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 LesbianMythology 187

swallowedbyZeus fromwhomhe acquiredhis own wisdom(metis).So

Athenehas a mother,receivesher own giftsfromher and yetrefuses
to identifywitha motherswallowedup and silencedby thefather,by
patriarchy. She also refusesto be a mother,choosingvirginity instead
ofmaternity, culturalratherthanreproductive creativity.
Atheneis not onlya goddess at ease in the companyof men, but
also closely associated with women. She befriendsand supports
Penelope and Nausicaa. She seems to spend her "offhours" in the
companyof otheryoungmaidens like herself:she is playingin the
meadow with Persephone when Hades suddenly appears; when
Teirisiasunexpectedly comesupon her naked,she is bathingwithher
favorite nymph, Chariclo.
SeveralAthenefestivalswere reservedforgirlsand women. In the
mysterious nocturnal Arrhephoria younggirlsunderwentan initiation by
thegoddessand herpriestessesintothemysteries oftheirfemalesexual
identity.The Skirawas anotheroftherareoccasionswhenwomencould
leave theirsecludedquartersand assembletogether. In celebrating
this
ritualtheyeven leftthecityto carrya statueof Atheneto a sanctuary
dedicatedto Demeterand Kore on the road leading towardEleusis.
There they,not the priests,took charge of the ceremony,of the
purifications and sacrifices.This ritualof inversion-inwhichthe city
goddess left the city, in which women take power-was deeply
unsettling tomen, as evidencedbyAristophanes makingthisfestivalthe
setting fora scene depictingwomen plotting seize politicalpower.
to
Athenewas raised with Pallas, daughterof the seagod Tritonto
whom Zeus had entrustedhis daughter'seducation.The girlsbecome
close friendsand especially delight in the challenge of athletic
competitionwith one another.One day when theyare testingtheir
skillsat fencing,Atheneinadvertently killsher playmate.(The faultis
Zeus'; he had happened to look down to watch theirsport and,
his
mistakenlythinking daughter threatened by her friend'sthrust,
intervenedand upset the delicatebalance of theirparrying.)Grief-
stricken, Athenemade a wooden statueofher friend(copies ofwhich
stand at the heart of her templesand come to representAthene's
protective care forthesanctityofhercities)and tookhername as part
of her own: Pallas Athene.The parallelsto some of the mythsabout
Apolloand his belovedsare striking: thelove betweengod and mortal,
theinadvertent deathso likeApollo's accidentalkillingof Hippolytos,
thelateridentification betweenthedeityand thehuman.Yet thereare
significant differences,too:in thefemaleexamplethereis moreequality
and more mutuality.Athene'slove of Pallas is love of anotherlike
herself,not love of her own youngerself,nor love of a daughteror a

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188 Historical Historiques
Reflections/Reflexions
mother.Her love has the qualityof philia, thatbond of friendship
towardwhichmenhopedtheirpaiderasticErosmightdevelop.Athene's
relationships withwomen do not emphasizesexuality,passion or the
renewalof infantile fusion,but close friendship.Her love is warmbut
notcompulsive.
Athene'sfriendly rivalrywithPallas is emblematicof a connection
betweenwomenwherewe challengeone anotherto achieve,bless one
another'screativeaccomplishments, encourageone another'spower.
Athene signifiesrelationshipswhere the emphasis is not on the
expanded narcissismof the dyad, not on what happens in "the
between,"but on theworkwe help one anotherdo. Athenedoes not
expectherprotégéstoaccomplishtasksshe imposeson thembutsubtly
supportsthemin therealizationof theirown dreams.
Of all thegoddesses,Artemisis mostevidentlytheone who models
women'slove ofwomen.The goddessworshippedbytheAmazons,she
shuns theworldofmen and spends hertimein thewild. Refusingall
associationwith men (exceptforher twinbrotherApollo and their
huntingcompanion,Orion), she spends her time alone or in the
companyofhernymphs,minordeitiesofbrookand forest.She is both
fearlesshuntressand kindnurseto orphanedor woundedbeast.
Hervirginity represents a defiantclaimthathersexualityis herown,
notpossessableby any man. WhenActaeoncomes upon herbathing,
she turnshim intoa stag whichhis own hounds thenhuntand kill.
Artemiscan be decisiveand cruel;she is as goal-directed as thearrows
she shootsfromherbow. Artemisis notwillingto hidehersexualityas
Athenedoes nor to yieldit. She will not let herselfbe raped (as her
motherLeto was by Zeus) nor will she be co-optedinto denyingher
sexualityso as to makethingseasierforthemenwho mightfeeldesire
forher.She is neitherseductivetowardmennorprotective ofthem.Her
passion is not repressed like Hera's nor sublimated like Athene'snor
lived out in relationships like Aphrodite's.Artemisis the Lady of the
WildThings,includingthewildnesswithinherself.She is goddess of
the instinctual not the rationalor the civilized.To know one's body,
one's instincts,one's emotionsas one's own-thatis Artemis.
The goddess mostintimately associatedwithfemaleembodiment,
Artemismakesvisiblethesacralsignificance ofthoseaspectsoffemale
experience connected to our specific physiology: menstruation,
conception, childbirth,nursing,menopause.Artemisis associatedwith
maiden initiationand maiden sacrifice.Death and vulnerability are
always nearby.Marriageis a kind of death and menopauseanother.
Childbirth is always painfuland oftendangerous.ThoughArtemisis
strongand decisive and sometimescruel,she is solicitouslytender

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 LesbianMythology 189
toward the young and vulnerable,and acutely sensitive to the
paradoxicalintertwining ofstrengthand vulnerabilityin women'slives.
She is committed to womenand herlove towardthemclearlyhas a
sexual dimension,as the storyabout Kallistomakes clear. Kallisto's
unsurprisedresponsivenessto what she takesto be Artemis'embrace
makes evidentthatthe nymphconsideredphysicalcontactwith the
goddesscomfortable and familiar.
GivenArtemis'identification withthe
femalebodyand withtheinstinctual it would seem "offkey" to tryto
transposetherelationship betweenher and the nymphsintoa purely
spiritualbond. On the otherhand to understandthisbond in primarily
erotictermsis also to misunderstandArtemis.For Artemisis "the
goddess who comes fromafar,"a goddess who is essentiallychaste,
virginal,solitary,who does not give herselfto any other,male or
female.WhereasAphrodite,the goddess of love, is herselfin giving
herself,Artemisis herselfin herself-containment.
Thereis a kindof crueltyin Artemis,an unflinching single-minded
commitment to herown integrity as a woman,herown self-sufficiency
that becomes evident in the many mythsin which she disowns
membersof her retinuewho were not strongenoughto defendtheir
ownvirginity, theirselfhood.In Artemis'realmwhatthelove ofwomen
mostdeeplysignifiesis thelove ofourwomanlyselves. Her refusalto
give herselfexpressesher respectnot her rejectionof the other.Her
essentialchastityexpressesnot frigidity butpassion. She givesherself
to herown passion,herown wildness,notto another,and encourages
us to do the same. She does not say: Choose me, or: Choose women,
but:Choose yourself.
WhatArtemisrefusesto give,Aphroditegivesfreely.To thedegree
thatwhenwe say "lesbian"we wanttoincludeas essentialan explicitly
erotic,physical,orgasmicdimension,we are imaginingan Aphroditic
lesbianism.It is in thesphereofAphroditethatwe learnto celebratethe
particularmodes of sexual gratification thatonlywomen can give one
anotherand that women can receive only fromone another.The
intensityof connection,the intimacyof touch, which come from
knowingtheother'sbodybecause ofour deep knowledgeof our own,
whichcomes fromdiscoveringour own body throughour exploration
of anotherwoman's; the joyfulexperiencing of a love-makingwhose
pace is fully governed by female rhythms,whose climaxes are
profoundly familiar- these are Aphrodite'sgifts.
Aphroditeis thegoddess of all eroticlove, all sensual pleasure,all
delightin beauty-a goddessofsexualityand farmore.ThoughArtemis
mayhavebeen thegoddessoftheAmazons,Aphrodite was thegoddess
of Sappho. She blesses all lovemakingthat is dedicated to mutual

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190 Historical Historiques
Reflections/Reflexions
enjoyment(ratherthan to dominationof anotheror to procreation)
whetherit be maritalor adulterous,heterosexualor homosexual,
betweenmen or betweenwomen.
Aphroditeembodiesthe ripe self-sufficiency of a femalesexuality
thatis itselfin beingdirectedtowardothers.Thereare no accountsof
Aphrodite losinghervirginity, beinginitiatedintosexualitybyanother-
forher sexualityis alwaysalreadyfullyher own. Yet she is herselfin
turning towardothers;she represents thefreegivingand receivingand
returning oflove. She givesherselfspontaneously butin responsetoher
own desire.She cannotbe possessedby another.Thoughshe maytake
theactiverolewithAnchisesor Adonis,she can also be thereceptive
partneras withAres.In herrealmlove generateslove-notprogeny,not
permanentbonds,notart-butlove.
Aphrodite also signifiesa particular
modeofconsciousness:notbeing
overwhelmedby passion,by unconsciousfeeling,but a consciousness
offeeling,one's own and theother's;nota consciousnessaboutfeelings
and relationships butcreativeand responsibleawarenessofthem.Truth
in Aphrodite'srealm means truthto genuine feeling,to desire,
spontaneity, themoment.To reallyknowwhatI am feelingnow and to
be led bythatratherthanbyhabitor thepast or another'sexpectation-
thatis Aphrodite'schallenge.
Aphroditethusrepresents a celebration
ofourown feelings,ourown
desires-theimportance ofknowingthem,thelightnessofactingupon
them.Thoughnot specifically a goddess of women she is a goddess
who models women's affirmation of our own sexualityas powerful,
beautifuland sacred.Of all thegoddessesAphroditeis theonlyone not
ashamedto be seen unclothed,notshyofmakinglove out in theopen
underthe middaysun. Her own divineshamelessnessmay make us
moreaware of whatevershame we may feelabout our way of loving
and help us movebeyondit. A genuinelyAphroditic lesbianismcould
notbe a closetedlesbianism!
Aphrodite is also associatedwiththedangersofan understanding of
love that focuses on its physical dimensions. Her own natural
consciousnessin lovingis something we humansmustlearn,and seem
to learn, the mythssuggest,only throughexperience,only through
suffering,onlythrough inAphrodite'srealmcomesnot
loving.Initiation
throughsome establishedritual,not by associationin a designated
community, but onlythroughour actualengagementswithparticular
others,only throughthe risk of exposingour feelingsand opening
ourselvesto theirs,theriskofopeningourbodyto another'stouchand
theriskofrespondingto theotheťs longingto be touched.

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 LesbianMythology 191

The mythsassociated with Aphroditeremindus of the dangers

inherentin reallygivingourselvesto our love~the pain of unrequited
love,ofabandonment, oftheebbingofpassion,offeelingfrigidand cut
offfromfeeling,orofbeingso takenoverbyourfeelingthatwe neglect
ourselves(what Artemiswarns against) or our childrenand former
mates (what Hera fears). Above all, Aphroditeremindsus of the
inescapabletransienceofall mortalbonds,ofhow all love means loss,
ofhow themostdifficult challengeoflove is reallyto know that,from
havinglivedit,and yetbe readyto love again.
Sappho and Platovalue in Aphroditeherassociationwitha love that
is not just physicalbut also is dedicatedto themutualencouragement
and cultivationof a more subtle and matureconsciousness. They
imagineherin connection witha lovingthatis trulydirectedtowardthe
other'sbeing, a love directedtowardpsyche,soul. They see her as
perhapsmoretrulypresentin same-sexlove thanin heterosexuallove
because thelatterwas in ancientGreeceviewedprimarily in relationto
physical reproduction,not to emotional intimacyor intellectual
stimulation, notto thepsychological individuation ofloveror beloved.
Sappho's poetrysuggeststhatitis Aphrodite'senteringintotheself
thatbringsawarenessofbeinga self.The primacyofSappho's devotion
toAphrodite and thedirectness and intimacy ofherbondto thegoddess
is what gives her poetry,which communicateswhat it is like to
experiencethegoddess at workin one's own soul, its unique power.
In Sappho's poetrywe hear the voice of an individualwoman, the
earliestsuch voice whose words are available to us. Hers is the first
extanttestimony thatcomes to us directly froma woman of what it is
liketobe a woman,ofwhatitis liketo experiencelove,ofwhatwomen
mean to one another.It is astonishingthathervoice is also almostthe
firstof any,male or female,to describeinnerfeeling,to speak of the
human soul as known fromwithin,in the firstperson. Sappho's
awarenessofherresponseto Aphrodite'sinterventions-her feelingsof
her
helplessness, recognition of obstructed love and blockeddesire, her
experience of inner conflict, of the simultaneous coexistence of
contradictory feelings-made her aware of her personalfeelings as hers
in a way thatwas utterly new.25
Sappho's "I" speaks to us directlyfromher poems, yet we know
littleofherlife.She was bornon Lesbos about612 b.c.e. intoa well-to-
do familyand mayhave spentsomeyearsin politicalexilein Sicily.She
was married,at least for a time, and had a daughter.She was a
respectedpoet and sureofherown fame.Youngerwomencame from

25. See Bruno Snell, The DiscoveryofMind (New York, 1982), pp. 53-65.

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192 Historical
Reflections/Reflexions
Historiques
elsewhereto live in hercompanyfora timeand thenreturnedto their
homelands.Accordingto a Hellenistictradition Sappho ended herlife
byleapingfroma cliffin despairoverherunrequitedlove forhandsome
Phaon-a clear attemptto implythatSappho must in the end have
turnedto thelove ofmen.
The mythmaking about Sappho began early.She has served ever
since as a kind of touchstonefor attitudestoward creativeand
independent womenandwoman-identified women.Herloveforwomen
has been denied,castigated,and celebrated.
Eva Stigersremindsus how radicallyinnovativeSappho was in her
representation of a woman as an eroticsubject.Because Greekculture
did not permitwomen to assume the role of désirervis-a-vismen, it
may have been almost inevitablethat a poetry dedicated to the
articulation
ofwomen'seroticimpulsewould representthatimpulseas
directedto otherwomen.26Thus StigersexplainsSappho's emphasis
on love among women as explicableon formalgrounds and not
necessarilyrevelatory ofherown eroticorientation.
The poems presentSappho as associatedwith a circleof women
companionsto some ofwhomshe was passionatelyattachedand some
ofwhomshe regardedas rivals.In thenineteenth century she was most
oftenviewed as havingbeen a teacherin a girl'sacademyor thehigh
priestessofa women'scult,a description put forwardby scholarswho
valued her poetryand made her into a priestessto protecther from
being seen as a lesbian seductress.In the twentiethcenturymany
scholarshave acceptedDenysPage's claimthatSappho's poetryrecords
nothingbut the personal loves and jealousies of Sappho and her
companionsand thatthereis absolutelyno evidenceofSappho having
had anypubliceducationalor religiousrole.Page insistson thelesbian
"inclination"whichhis predecessorshad soughtto deny (thoughhe,
too, seems to wantto protestthatshe didn'tpracticeit) and obviously
believesthatthisacknowledgment impliesno diminution ofthepower
of thepoetry.Yet he clearlyviews Sappho's women-oriented sexuality
withsome distaste.27
J.P.HalletbelievesSappho'sfunction consistedin instilling
"sensual
awarenessand sexualself-esteem" in theyounggirlswho came under
hercareand teachingthemthattheemotionalintimacy whichtheywere
unlikelyto receive fromtheirhusbands was available fromother
women.Thus she identifiesSappho as a teacherwho initiatedyoung

26. E.S. Stigers, "Sappho's PrivateWorld," Women'sStudies8 (1981): 47.

27. Denys Page, Sapphoand Alcaeus(Oxford, 1955), pp. 140-142.

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 LesbianMythology 193

girlsintotheirown sensuality-but wantstoinsistthatthisdid notentail

the practiceof actual sexual intimacies.Her vision of Sappho is of a
woman-identified woman who is not a lesbian; thatis, not a woman
who engagesin physicallovemakingwithotherwomen.28
Others believe thatritualizedinitiatory homosexualitymay have
an
played important role in Sappho's Theypositan initiation
circle. into
femalesexualitywhichwould help preparea younggirlformarriage-
like the initiationthat we speculatedmighthave been part of the
Artemiscultat Brauronand thatsome have said was acceptedpractice
in Sparta.29
There can be no question that the "I" of the poems, Sappho's
persona,expressespassionateattachment to particularwomen,and no
of
way knowingexactly how that"Sappho" is relatedto Sappho herself
orhow thatpassionwas lived.The disagreements werealreadypresent
in the ancientworld.One Hellenisticwritertellsus: "Sappho's kisses
would be sweet,sweettheembracesofhersnowythighsand sweetall
herbody.Buther soul is ofunyieldingadamant.For herlove stops at
herlips and therestshe keepsvirgin.And who can standthis?Perhaps
one who could stand thiscould easilyendurethe thirstof Tántalos."
Anothersays: "Sappho was a whorishwoman, love-crazy,who sang
aboutherown licentiousness."30
Like a mythologicalfigureSappho serves as an object of many
different projectionsabout creative,self-affirming, avowedly sexual
women, but as an historicalfigureshe eludes our grasp. Therefore,
when we speak ofSappho we mostlymean thepersonaof thepoems.
The poems are available;she, apartfromthem,is not. Most are love
poems,passionatelove poems. Most are directedto women.
Her voice comes to us fromso long ago-this woman, the first
woman whose name and words we know. She speaks to us about
herself.She retellssome ancientmyths;she invokesan ancientdeity.
She tellsthemythsbecause she believestheyillumineherlifeand prays
to the goddess as to an energythatentersherbody and her soul and
revealsherto herself.
ManyofSappho's poemsinvokeAphrodite'spresenceand aid. The
poet's focuseddevotionto thisone deityexpressesherconvictionthat
the mostimportantdimensionof humanlifefallswithinAphrodite's

28. J. P. Hallett, "Sappho and Her Social Context," Signs 4 (1979): 460-471.
29. Jeffrey M. Duban, Ancientand Modern¡magesofSappho (New York, 1983), p. 40.
30. Both quotations are fromWillisBamstone, Sappho:Lyricsin theOriginalGreekWith
Translations(New York, 1965), pp. 178, xxi.

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194 Historical
Reflections/Reflexions
Historiques
domain.As Sappho freelyadmits,she sees love as theonlyrealsubject
worthyofherpoetry.

Thereare thosewho say

an arrayofhorsemen,
and othersofmarchingmen,
and othersofships,is
themostbeautifulthingon thedarkearth.

ButI say it is whateverone loves.

It is veryeasy
to show thisto all:
of Helen,
by farthemostbeautifulofmortals,
leftherhusband
and sailed to Troy
givingno thoughtat all
to herchildnordearparents
butwas led...
[byherlove alone.]

Now, faraway, Anactoria

comes to mymind.
ForI would ratherwatchher
movingin herlovelyway,
and see herface,flashingradiant,
thanall theforceofLydianchariots
and theirinfantry
in fulldisplayof arms.31

Valuingpersonallove above heroicgloryseparatesSappho notonly

fromthe epic traditionbut fromher onlyimportant lyricpredecessor,
Archilochus.The firstwoman poet is the firstpoet to give love this
centralplace. Though she takes the figureof Helen fromthe epic
tradition,she refusesto castigateheras thewomanwho betrayedher
husband.Rathershe honorsheras a womanstrongenoughtobe led by
love, by her own feeling.We may also note how easilySappho shifts
fromHelen, a mythologicalfigurewhose life was shaped by her
passionatelove fora man to herown personalexperience,herlove of

31. Suzy Q. Groden, The PoemsofSappho(Indianapolis, 1966), p. 7.

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 LesbianMythology 195

a woman. She beginsby sayingthatthemostbeautifulthingon earth

is "whatever"one loves butproceedsto theveryspecific"who" ofher
own love~a woman witha name. This woman is now faraway. The
poem expressesSappho's longingforher and also communicates how
Sappho's memory of her particular way of moving and of her radiant
facebringshervividly,specifically, to mind.
The poems reveal how closely Sappho attends to physical and
emotionalstatesassociatedwitheroticexperience.Manycommunicate
herawarenessoflove's close associationwithpainfulexperiences,loss
and abandonment,unrequitedlove or jealousy,withinnerconfusion
and division,with the ambivalencethat is so oftenpart of deep
emotionalexperience,withlove's "sweetbitterness."
The simplepowerofSappho's confident acknowledgment ofdesire,
of women's desire,comes across even in so simple a fragment as "I
want and yearn."32Her own desire, the poems suggest,was most
oftendirectedtowomen,thoughthepoemsalso suggestthatthedesire
forwomen did not make her immuneto the desirability of men. Nor
does Sappho see the impulsethatpulls her to women as inherently
different fromthe impulsethatpulls women to desiremen. She feels
comfortable comparing lovebetweenwomentoHelen's desireforParis,
Andromache'sforHektoror Aphrodite'sforAdonis.Whenshe speaks
oflove betweenwomenand men,her emphasisfallson thewoman's
activedesirenother desirability to men.
Many poems describe the beautyand appeal of anotherwoman;
some communicate Sappho's sense ofthedaughterlinessofthewomen
who surroundher. This intertwining of themes of sexualityand
maternallove, of the divine powers associated with Aphroditeand
Demeter,mayhavebeen evenmoreshockingthanSappho's claimtobe
a womanwho feelsactivesexualdesire.Paul Friedrichs believesitmay
be "one reasonfortherageshe has arousedin some mindsforovertwo
thousand years."33It is the particularcharacterof love between
women~theways in whichit differs fromheterosexuallove, theways
in whichso muchmoreis different thansimplythechoiceofobject-that
makeit so threatening to patriarchy and so powerfulto us.
In theonlycompletely preservedpoem(oftenreferred toas Sappho's
to
"Hymn Aphrodite"34) Sappho's grief that another woman seems
impervious to her love suggests how important to Sappho's

32. Groden, Sappho,p. 15.

(Chicago, 1978), pp. 109-110.
33. Paul Friedrichs,TheMeaningofAphrodite
34. See Edgar Lobel and D. Page, PoetarumLesbiorumFragmenta(Oxford, 1968), p. 1.

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296 Historical Historiques
Reflections/Reflexions
understanding of love amongwomenis the themeof reciprocity. The
poem describeshow easilythe pursuedmay becomethe pursuer,the
recipientthe giver. Because Sappho's model of love is not the
erastes/eromenos modelofdomination/submission, shewantsonlylove
thatis spontaneouslygiven and she wants to be desiredas well as
esteemed.She doesn'task Aphroditetomakethedesiredgirlyield,but
ratherexpressesa hope thattheotherwomanmightbecomeaware of
Sappho's attractiveness and becomean initiator in turn.This imageof
lovingexpressesa profound recognition ofhow aliketheone she desires
is to herselfand thatwhatshe wantsfromheris thesame desireas that
whichstirsherown heart.35
Manyof Sappho's poems are aboutparthenia (usuallytranslatedas
"virginity" or "maidenhead")which can referto the social statusof
beingunmarried, thephysicalstateofhavingan intacthymen,or to the
hymenitself.Thoughsomeofthesepoemsaremarriage-songs (and thus
communicate thatin Sappho's circleitwas recognizedthatmostofthe
girlswilllatermarry),theydo notvoice any simplecelebrationof the
weddings about to take place, but ratherindicatehow much this
transitionrepresentsan occasionforlamentation.
There is disagreementabout how explicitSappho's allusions to
femalesexualityare. Friedrichsfindsin her poems evocationsof a
sexualitythat is slow and gentle in arousal and that is therefore
appropriatelyrendered in "a more diffuseand symbolic poetic
representation" thanis trueof muchmale eroticpoetry.He suggests
thatSapphomaybe experimenting with"a newwomen'slanguage"and
that"some of the fragments are unquestionably carnaland erotic."36
JackWinklerfindsin the poems much thatis sexuallyexplicit.He
consistentlyreads "maidenhead"where others read "maiden"; he
understands"wingsoflove" as signifying thelabia; he notesthatkleis
(whichothershave takenas thename of Sappho's daughter)mightbe
an allusionto kleitoris,theclitoris.He translatesthelast lines ofone of
thelongerfragment (lineswhichPage translatesas "no shrinewherewe
twowerenotfound")as: "We exploredeverysacredplace ofthebody-
therewas no place fromwhich we held back."37Yet Winkler,too,
agreesthatwe misreadifwe read "pornographically." Thesepoemsare
notsimplyaboutphysicalsexualexperience.Sappho's"sacredlandscape

35. See Stigers, "Private World/ p. 53.

36. Friedrichs,Aphrodite, p. 114.
37. Jack Winkler, "Gardens of Nymphs: Public and Private in Sappho's Poetry/'
Women'sStudies8 (1981): 84; Lobel and Page, Fragmenta,p. 94.

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 LesbianMythology 197

of the body is at the same timea statementabout a more complete

consciousness/'38 Some of thepoems seem clearlyto lend themselves
to a readingthatfocuseson women'ssexuality:

...like thesweet-apple
thathas reddened
at thetop ofa tree,
at thetipof thetopmostbough,
and theapplepickers
missedit there-no,notmissed,so much
as could not touch...39

Winkleťs readingwhich sees the poem as specificallyabout male

to clitoralsexualityaccords with my own immediate
insensitivity
understanding.
One wonders how much is being hinted at about the pain of
penetrationand male violationofwomen'sbodies in theselines:

The groomwho'll enter

is as big as Ares-
Far greater
thana greatbig man

and in these:

...like thehyacinth
whichtheshepherdsin themountains
40
trampleunderfoot

38. Winkler,
"Nymphs/'p. 83.
39. Groden,Sappho,p. 52.
40. Groden,Sappho,pp. 59, 53.

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198 Historical
Reflections/Reflexions
Historiques
to comparethose poems to othersin whichSappho
How irresistible
voicesherdelightin thegentlelove-making
ofwomen,thetenderness
offemalelove:

The gods bless you

May you sleep then

on some tender
41
girlfriend'sbreast

Sappho's poetryexpressesa woman's love forotherwomen,her

longing to be loved by them, her appreciationof the particular
sweetnessof woman-womansensuality,her awarenessof the bitter-
sweetness,thepain,thatopennesstolove's incursions bringsintoone's
life.Forlesbianwomen(as theverychoiceofnamesays clearly)she has
been theprecursor, our mythicforemother.
I findthather poetryand the Greekmythsabout women loving
womenhelp us see what deep humanlongingsare expressedin such
love~thelongingto re-experience thetotalunionwithone anotherthat
we knew with our mothers"in the beginning,"the longing for
relationshipsfreeof thatstrugglefordominanceso oftencharacteristic
ofheterosexualbonds,thelongingforpermanentconnectionsthatare
genuinelymutualand egalitarian, thelongingto validatefullyourown
femalebeingand to celebratethatwithothers,thelongingto be really
true to our own spontaneousfeelingsand desires, the longingto
encourageanother'screativity and findour own inspiredby it, the
longing to deal withand overcome ourown misogyny and homophobia,
thelongingtobecomeall we mightbe, thelongingto be willingto give
ourselvesto feelingsoflove, to notevade thefeelingsofloss, to go on,
the longingto discoverthe rightful place in our lives of passion and
sexuality,relationshipand solitude.The poems and mythsshow these
longingsbecomingconscious,beingassuaged, beingfrustrated. They
reveal the dark side of women's love as well as the light. They
communicatea simpleacceptanceof humanlove takingmanyforms,
amongthemthelove ofmembersofone's own sex~and thatsuch love
itselfhas manyfaces.
The traditions aboutSappho and themaidenssurrounding herand
manyof themythsalso suggestthatthereis a need forinitiation or at

41. Mary Barnard, Sappho(Berkeley,1958), p. 96.

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 LesbianMythology 199
models and myths,thatwithoutthemwe go painfully
least initiatory
astray. Thereforethe goddesses and the older members of the
community tohelptheyounglearntoknowtheir
have theresponsibility
own sexualdesiresand pleasuresand offer ways tolive themcreatively
and responsibly.

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