Diagnosis of Common Vibration

Problems
Prof. Dr. Fawkia Ramadan

Farah Tamer Abdel Hady Nasser

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1. Introduction:
Vibration analysis can identify improper maintenance or repair practices. These can include
improper bearing installation and replacement, inaccurate shaft alignment or imprecise rotor
balancing. As almost 80% of common rotating equipment problems are related to misalignment
and unbalance, vibration analysis is an important tool that can be used to reduce or eliminate
recurring machine problems. Trending vibration levels can also identify improper production
practices, such as using equipment beyond their design specifications (higher temperatures,
speeds, or loads). These trends can also be used to compare similar machines from different
manufacturers to determine if design benefits or flaws are reflected in increased or decreased
performance. Ultimately, vibration analysis can be used as part of an overall program to
significantly improve equipment reliability. This can include more precise alignment and
balancing, better quality installations and repairs, and continuously lowering the average
vibration levels of equipment in the plant.

2. Diagnosis of Common Vibration Problems

2.1 Unbalance
Vibration due to unbalance of a rotor is probably the most common machinery defect. It is
luckily also very easy to detect and rectify. The International Standards Organization (ISO) define
unbalance as:

That condition, which exists in a rotor when vibratory, force or motion is imparted to its bearings
because of centrifugal forces. It may also be defined as: The uneven distribution of mass about
a rotor’s rotating centerline.

There are two new terminologies used: one is rotating centerline and the other is geometric
centerline. The rotating centerline is defined as the axis about which the rotor would rotate if
not constrained by its bearings (also called the principal inertia axis or PIA). The geometric
centerline (GCL) is the physical centerline of the rotor. When the two centerlines are coincident,
then the rotor will be in a state of balance. When they are apart, the rotor will be unbalanced.
There are three types of unbalance that can be encountered on machines, and these are:

1. Static unbalance (PIA and GCL are parallel)

2. Couple unbalance (PIA and GCL intersect in the center)
3. Dynamic unbalance (PIA and GCL do not touch or coincide).

2.2 Eccentric Rotor

Eccentricity occurs when the center of rotation is at an offset from the geometric centerline of
a sheave, gear, bearing, motor armature or any other rotor. The maximum amplitude occurs at
1xRPM of the eccentric component in a direction through the centers of the two rotors. Here
the amplitude varies with the load even at constant speeds.

In a normal unbalance defect, when the pickup is moved from the vertical to the horizontal
direction, a phase shift of 90° will be observed. However, in eccentricity, the phase readings
differ by 0 or 180° (each indicates straight-line motion) when measured in the horizontal and
vertical directions. Attempts to balance an eccentric rotor often result in reducing the vibration

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in on direction but increasing it in the other radial direction (depending on the severity of the
eccentricity) as in Figure 1 Eccentric Rotor.

Figure 1 Eccentric Rotor

2.3 Bent Shaft

When a bent shaft is encountered, the vibrations in the radial as well as in the axial direction will
be high. Axial vibrations may be higher than the radial vibrations. The FFT will normally have 1x
and 2x components. If the:

• Amplitude of 1xRPM is dominant then the bend is near the shaft center.
• Amplitude of 2xRPM is dominant then the bend is near the shaft end.

The phase of axial vibration for a bent rotor is shown in Figure 2. Note that when the probe is
moved from vertical plane to horizontal plane, there will be no change in the phase reading.

Figure 2 Phase of Axial Vibration for a Bent shaft

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2.4 Misalignment
Misalignment, just like unbalance, is a major cause of machinery vibration. Some machines have
been incorporated with self-aligning bearings and flexible couplings that can take quite a bit of
misalignment. However, despite these, it is not uncommon to come across high vibrations due
to misalignment. There are basically two types of misalignment:

1. Angular misalignment: the shaft centerline of the two shafts meets at angle with each other.
2. Parallel misalignment: the shaft centerline of the two machines is parallel to each other and
have an offset.

2.4.1 Angular Misalignment

As shown in Figure 3, angular misalignment primarily subjects the driver and driven machine
shafts to axial vibrations at the 1xRPM frequency. Misalignment is rarely seen just as 1xRPM peak.
Typically, there will be high axial vibration with both 1xRPM and 2xRPM. However, it is not unusual
for 1x, 2x or 3xRPM to dominate. These symptoms may also indicate coupling problems (e.g.,
looseness) as well.

Figure 3 Misalignment

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Angular misalignment produces in phase axial vibration when measured in two points, on the
motor and load across coupling, but considering opposite directions for the pickups during
measurements as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Axial Vibration Across Coupling for Angular Misalignment

2.4.2 Parallel Misalignment

Parallel misalignment, as shown in Figure 3, results in 2 hits per cycle and therefore a 2xRPM
vibration in the radial direction. Parallel misalignment has similar vibration symptoms compared
to angular misalignment but shows high radial vibration that approaches a 180° phase
difference across the coupling as shown in Figure 5. As stated earlier, pure parallel misalignment
is rare and is commonly observed to be in conjunction with angular misalignment. Thus, we will
see both the 1xRPM and 2xRPM peaks. When the parallel misalignment is predominant, 2xRPM
is often larger than 1xRPM, but its amplitude relative to 1x may often be dictated by the coupling
type and its construction. When either angular or parallel misalignment becomes severe, it can
generate high amplitude peaks at much higher harmonics (3x to 8x) or even a whole series of
high-frequency harmonics. Coupling construction will often significantly influence the shape of
the spectrum if misalignment is severe.

Figure 5 Phase Relation of Vertical Vibration Across Coupling for Offset Misalignment

2.4.3 Misalignment vs. Bent Shaft

Often, a bent shaft and dominant angular misalignment give similar FFT spectrums. The
vibrations are visible in both the axial and radial vibration measurements. It is only with
phase analysis that these problems can be resolved further. In a machine with a bent
shaft, a phase difference will be noticed on the two bearings of the same shaft. In the
case of misalignment, the phase difference is visible on bearings across the coupling.

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2.5 Mechanical Looseness

If we consider any rotating machine, mechanical looseness can occur at three locations:
1. Internal assembly looseness
2. Looseness at machine to base plate interface
3. Structure looseness.

2.5.1 Internal assembly looseness

This category of looseness could be between a bearing liner in its cap, a sleeve or rolling
element bearing, or an impeller on a shaft. It is normally caused by an improper fit between
component parts, which will produce many harmonics in the FFT due to the nonlinear
response of the loose parts to the exciting forces from the rotor. A truncation of the time
waveform occurs, causing harmonics. The phase is often unstable and can vary broadly
from one measurement to the next, particularly if the rotor alters its position on the shaft from
one start-up to the next.
Mechanical looseness is often highly directional and may cause noticeably different
readings when they are taken at 30° increments in the radial direction all around the bearing
housing. Also note that looseness will often cause sub-harmonic multiples at exactly ½× or
× rpm (e.g., ½×,1½×, 2½× and further).

2.5.2 Looseness between Machine and Baseplate

This problem is associated with loose pillow-block bolts, cracks in the frame structure or the
bearing pedestal. Figures 6 make it evident how higher harmonics are generated due to the
rocking motion of the pillow block with loose bolts.

Figure 6 Mechanical Looseness Illustrations

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2.5.3 Structure Looseness

This type of looseness is caused by structural looseness or weaknesses in the machine’s feet,
baseplate, or foundation. It can also be caused by deteriorated grouting, loose hold-down bolts
at the base and distortion of the frame or base (known as ‘soft foot’) (Figure 7). Phase analysis
may reveal approximately 180° phase shift between vertical measurements on the machine’s
foot, baseplate, and base itself (Figure 7). Soft foot tends to amplify vibration problem due to
reduced stiffness for unbalance condition.

When the soft foot condition is suspected, an easy test to confirm for it is to loosen each bolt,
one at a time, and see if this brings about significant changes in the vibration. In this case, it
might be necessary to re-machine the base or install shims to eliminate the distortion when the
bolts are tightened again.

Figure 7 Structural Looseness (Soft Foot)

2.6 Resonance
Any object has a natural frequency which is determined by its characteristics of mass, stiffness,
and damping. If a gong strikes a bell, the bell rings at its own characteristic frequency known as
its natural frequency. The gong-striking event is forced vibration, whereas the ringing of bell is
free vibration. A free vibration at a natural frequency is called resonance. There is a simple
method to find the natural frequency of any object or system called the bump test. With this
method, a vibration sensor is fixed to the body whose natural frequency is required. Using an
impact hammer, a blow is struck on the body and the time waveform or FFT is collected. The
dominant frequency observed in the two graphs is the natural frequency of the body. Figures 8
and 9 show the time waveform and the FFT spectrum of a bump test conducted on a metal
study table, respectively. As seen in the time waveform, the impact occurs at approximately
100 ms. after data collection was initiated. Directly after the impact, the body exhibits free
vibrations at its own natural frequency. The amplitude of the vibration reduces logarithmically
due to damping effects. The period between 500 ms. and 1 s is long enough to count the
number of cycles. The calculation indicates that the natural frequency is approximately 990
cpm.

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To obtain the FFT, the data collector was reset, and another impact was made on the table with
a hammer. The collected spectrum shows a dominant peak at 1046 cpm. This is close to the
value calculated before with the time waveform. The bump test is simple and used extensively
in practice. It is a quick and accurate way of finding the resonance frequencies of structures
and casings. It is tempting to use the bump test on a spare pump or other rotors not supported
on bearings to obtain an estimate of their critical speeds. Take note that this can be very
inaccurate. For example, the critical speed of rotors with impellers in a working fluid and
supported by their bearings differs vastly from the critical speed obtained using a bump test off-
line on the rotor.

Figure 8 Time Waveform of a Bump Test

Figure 9 FFT Spectrum of a Bump Test

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Assume that a multistage pump rotor has a natural frequency of 2500 cpm when pumping a
fluid. Assume that the rotor has a slight unbalance, which generates tolerable amplitudes of
vibration at 1×RPM. In this example, the unbalance causes the forced vibration frequency at 1×
RPM. When the pump is started, the speed begins to increase and along with it also the
amplitude and frequency of the vibration due to unbalance. At a particular instant, the forced
frequency of vibration due to unbalance will be 2500 cpm. This frequency also happens to be
the natural frequency of the rotor.

Whenever the forced vibration frequency matches the natural frequency of a system, the
amplitude rises significantly, much higher than expected compared to unbalance effects. This
condition is called a critical speed. Rotor critical speeds are confirmed using a Bode plot as
shown in Figure 10. As the rotor approaches its critical speed, the amplitude rises. It reaches a
maximum and then drops again. The phase changes steadily as well and the difference is 90°
at the critical speed and nearly 180° when it passed through resonance.

The high-vibration amplitudes at critical speeds can be catastrophic for any system and must
be avoided at all costs. Besides the example of the natural frequency of a rotor, structural
resonance can also originate from support frame foundations, gearboxes or even drive belts.
Natural frequencies of a system cannot be eliminated but can be shifted to some other
frequency by various methods. Another characteristic of natural frequencies is that they remain
the same regardless of speed, and this helps to facilitate their detection.

Figure 10 Bode Plot for a Rotor Response

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2.7 Electric Problems

Vibrations of electrical machines such as motors, generators and alternators can be either
mechanical or electrical in nature. We have discussed most common mechanical problems.
Electrical problems also appear in the vibration spectrum and can provide information about
the nature of the defects. Electrical problems occur due to unequal magnetic forces acting
on the rotor or the stator. These unequal magnetic forces may be due to:
• Open or short windings of rotor or stator
• Broken rotor bar
• Unbalanced phases
• Unequal air gaps.
Generally, the vibration pattern emerging due to the above-mentioned electrical problems
will be at 1× RPM and will thus appear similar to unbalance. A customary technique to identify
these conditions is to keep the analyzer capturing the FFT spectrum in the live mode and then
switching off the electrical power. If the peak disappears instantly, the source is electrical in
nature. On the other hand, if there is gradual decrease in the 1× amplitude it is more likely to
be a mechanical problem. This technique requires caution. If there is a time lag in the analyzer
itself, it may delay the drop in vibration amplitude. It is also possible that a resonance
frequency may drop quickly as the speed changes.
Induction motors, which have electrical problems, will cause the vibration amplitude to hunt
or swing in a cyclic manner. The phase readings will show similar cycles too. Under a
stroboscope, the reference mark will move back and forth. The swinging amplitudes in
induction motor applications are due to two dominant frequencies that are very close to one
another. They continuously add and subtract to one another in a phenomenon known as
beats. It can also possibly be a single frequency whose amplitude is modulating. In fact,
hunting amplitudes are the first indication of a possible electrical problem in the motor.
Understanding the nature of these vibrations can assist in identifying the exact defects in an
electrical machine.

2.7.1 Rotor Problems

Normally, four kinds of problems can occur within the rotor:
1. Broken rotor bars.
2. Open or shorted rotor windings
3. Bowed rotor.
4. Eccentric rotor.
Along with the stator is a rotor, which is basically an iron following the rotating magnetic field.
As the magnetic field sweeps across the conductor, it creates a voltage across the length
of the rotor bar. If the bar is open-circuited, no current flows and no forces are generated.
When the bar is short-circuited, a current flow. This current is proportional to the speed at
which the field cuts through the conductor and the strength of the field. The field interacts
with the stator field to generate a force on the rotor bar. If everything else remains the same,
an equal and opposite force on the opposite side of the rotor will develop. These two forces
generate the torque that drives the load. In case anything disrupts the current or magnetic

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fields on either side of the rotor, the two forces will become unequal. This results in a radial
force, which is the cause for vibration.

2.7.2 Stator Problems

An induction motor comprises a set of stator coils, which generate a rotating magnetic field.
The magnetic field causes alternating forces in the stator. If there is any looseness or a support
weakness in the stator, each pole pass gives it a tug. This generates a 2× line frequency (2
FL) also known as loose iron. Shorted stator laminations cause uneven and localized heating,
which can significantly grow with time.
Stator problems generate high vibration at 2FL. Eccentricity produces uneven stationary air
gaps between the rotor and the stator, which produce very directional vibration. Differential
air gaps should not exceed 5% for induction motors and 10% for synchronous motors.

2.7.3 Phasing Problem

Phasing problems due to loosen or broken connectors can cause excessive vibration at 2 FL,
which will have sidebands around it spaced at 1/3 rd. of the line frequency (1/3 FL). Levels
at 2 FL can exceed 25 mm/s (1.0 in./s) if left uncorrected. This is particularly a problem if the
defective connector is sporadically making contact and not periodically.

2.8 Pumps Related Problems

2.8.1 Hydrodynamic Forces (Vanes Pass Frequency)
Blade pass or vane pass frequencies are characteristics of pumps and fans and resulting
from hydraulic or hydrodynamic forces. Usually, it is not destructive, but can generate a lot
of noise and vibration that can be the source of bearing failure and wear of machine
components.
Blade (Vanes) pass frequency (BPF, VPF) = number of blades (or vanes) × RPM
This frequency is generated mainly due to the gap problems between the rotor and the
stator. Large amplitude BPF (and its harmonics) can be generated in the pump if the gap
between the rotating vanes and the stationary diffusers is not kept equal all the way around.
In centrifugal pumps, the gap between the impeller tip and the volute tongue or the diffuser
inlet is a certain percentage (in the region of 4–6% of the impeller diameter), depending on
the speed of the pump. If the gap is less than the recommended value, it can generate a
noise that resembles cavitation. However, an FFT plot will immediately highlight the vane pass
frequency of the impeller. Also, the BPF (or its harmonics) sometimes coincides with a system
natural frequency, causing high vibrations. A high BPF can be generated if the wear ring
seizes on the shaft or if the welds that fasten the diffusers fail. In addition, a high BPF can be
caused by abrupt bends in linework (or duct), obstructions which disturb the flow path, or if
the pump or fan rotor is positioned eccentrically within the housing.

2.8.2 Cavitation and Recirculation

Cavitation normally generates random, high-frequency broadband energy, which is
sometimes superimposed with the blade pass frequency harmonics. Gases under pressure
can dissolve in a liquid. When the pressure is reduced, they bubble out of the liquid. In a
similar way, when liquid is sucked into a pump, the liquid’s pressure drops. Under conditions
when the reduced pressure approaches the vapor pressure of the liquid (even at low
temperatures), it causes the liquid to vaporize. As these vapor bubbles travel further into the
impeller, the pressure rises again causing the bubbles to collapse or implode.

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This implosion has the potential to disturb the pump performance and cause damage to the
pump’s internal components. This phenomenon is called cavitation. Each implosion of a
bubble generates a kind of impact, which tends to generate high-frequency random
vibrations in the range 9−30 x RPM. Cavitation can be quite destructive to internal pump
components if left uncorrected. It is often responsible for the erosion of impeller vanes.
Cavitation often sounds like ‘gravel’ passing through the pump. Measurements to detect
cavitation are usually not taken on bearing housings, but rather on the suction piping or
pump casing.

2.9 Fans and Blowers

Similar to hydrodynamic forces mentioned above in pumps, blowers and fans may produce
aerodynamic forces at frequency equal to Blade Pass Frequency. In blowers flow turbulence
often occurs due to variations in pressure or velocity of the air passing through the fan or
connected line-work. In fans, duct-induced vibration due to stack length, ductwork turns,
unusual fan inlet configuration and other factors may be a source of low frequency excitation.
This flow disruption causes turbulence, which will generate random, low frequency vibrations,
typically in the range of 20–2000 cpm.

2.10 Compressors Problems

In compressors, similar to hydraulic pump cavitation, surge is the rapid backward movement
of a specific volume of air through the compressor. Surge will occur when forward flow through
the compressor can no longer be maintained due to an increase in pressure across the
compressor, and a momentary flow reversal occurs. Surging is most often caused by
exceeding the design discharge pressure (high discharge pressure). Choke, on the other
hand, is simply a very high flow point on the compressor's map where the total amount of
energy available to the impeller is utilized for pumping gas, but at a very low head or pressure
ratio. Mild surge will reveal vibration at blade pass frequency or its multiples sometimes, while
severe surge will result in random vibration at broad frequency range which is system and
operating conditions dependent. Vibration characteristics of choking will be essentially similar
to those encountered in surging.
When a compressor is operated away from its design point, the gas flow into the aerodynamic
components (impellers, blades, diffusers, etc.) deviates from its design direction. If the angle
of deviation (or incidence angle) is large, flow separation occurs. At higher incidence angles,
the flow fully separates at the impeller leading edge or diffuser inlet, and the flow is said to be
stalled. The rotating stall is a special form of stall, where one or multiple flow regions in the
diffuser (or impeller) are stalled but where other regions of the same impeller or diffuser are not
stalled yet. The stall regions usually travel in the direction of the rotation at a speed that is
fractionally lower than the rotating speed of the compressor. Stall and flow separation may
be precursors to surge, but not necessarily so. Rotating stall events also increase the measured
vibration levels, but at a distinct frequency that is lower than the shaft rotating frequency
(typically between 10 50%).

2.11 Reciprocating Machines Problems

Reciprocating machines such as IC engines and compressors will have inherent vibrations
which are the results of inertia of the reciprocating parts plus varying pressure which causes
torque variation. The vibration frequencies encountered are 1x and 2xRPM. However, higher
order frequencies are also common with some designs, depending on the number of pistons
and relation between them.

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3. Conclusion
The following table lists the major vibration problems and their causes.

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