TMS3708/102/0/2021

Tutorial Letter 102/0/2021

PGCE: Teaching Economic and

Management Sciences in the senior
phase
BEd (SP & FET) Teaching Economic and
Management Sciences in the senior phase

TMS3708
Year Module

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Department of Curriculum and Instructional
Studies

IMPORTANT INFORMATION
This tutorial letter contains important
information about your module.
 TMS3708/102/0/2021

CONTENTS

Learning unit 1 4
Understanding Economic and Management Sciences (EMS) in the school
environment

Learning unit 2 12
Teaching strategies and methods of teaching Economic and Management
Sciences in the senior phase: Leaner-centred approach.

Learning unit 3 47
Teaching strategies and methods of teaching Economic and Management
Sciences in the senior phase: Teacher-centred approach

Learning unit 4 61
Teaching resources and media for Economic and Management Sciences

Learning unit 5 71
Lesson planning

Learning unit 6 87
Assessment in the classroom

Learning unit 7 110

Classroom management

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Introduction

Welcome to the TMS3708 module. I hope you will find this very interesting and
instructive. We designed and compiled this module within the framework of the
National Curriculum Statement (NCS) Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement
(CAPS) document and will meet the needs of practising EMS teachers. The primary
aim of the module is to produce competent teachers who will be able to equip learners
with the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes required to adapt, participate and
survive in an economically complex society, and to promote economic productivity,
social justice and environmental sustainability. The study guide has the learning
content that should be covered for this module.

The information in this study guide is divided into learning units. At the beginning of
each learning unit, you will find the learning outcomes for the unit. Test yourself with
activities set in the process to assist you to master the learning content.

We encourage you to do all the activities and questions in the study guide in the
course of your studies. These activities are intended to take you systematically
through the work. We hope you will find this module interesting and meaningful and
that your studies will be successful. Please do not hesitate to ask for clarity if you
have any problems or questions arising from your studies

All of the best!

Your lecturer

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Table of contents

Learning outcomes

Key concepts

1.1 Introduction

1.2 What is Economic and Management Sciences (EMS)?

1.2.1 Purpose of the EMS learning area

1.3 EMS teaching and learning enables learners to do the following

1.4 The roles and knowledge required for the EMS teacher

1.5 Knowledge of the EMS content

1.5.1 The following are the reasons we use theories

1.6 Pedagogical content knowledge and subject knowledge

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Learning Unit 1: Understanding Economic and Management

Sciences (EMS) in the school environment

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit you will able to do the following:

• Explain the place, importance and worth of the subject;

• Explain their roles of EMS teachers regarding their subject;
• Formulate and elucidate the content and concepts of the subject in
understandable ways;
• Describe different ways of presenting knowledge and facilitating learning in
the subject;
• Develop an understanding of the pedagogical knowledge (subject
methodology) combined and integrated with the subject knowledge and
contextual factors (such as varying classroom situations), which can lead to
better teaching and learning;

Key concepts:

• Economic and Management Sciences (EMS)

• Assessment
• Content
• Curriculum policy
• Pedagogy

1.1 Introduction

The South African government fully appreciates the importance of basic economic
and management skills, as indicated in several policy documents.

In the senior phase, learners should be engaged in activities that will assist them to
acquire, develop and implement a range of more advanced knowledge,
understanding and skills. Breadth, depth, access and entitlement are particularly
important to ensure that learners are given a sound and broad basis from which to
take advantage of choices in further education and training (grades 10-12).

Since grade 9 is the end of compulsory schooling, it is envisaged that some learners
will leave school at that level. It is therefore imperative that provision be made in the
EMS learning area for imparting sufficient knowledge to be used in the world of work,
and that enough opportunities be created for learners to become informed about
career opportunities. The learning content for the subject of EMS (which serves as a
basis for the development of the learning programmes) should therefore include

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sections on economic growth and development, the economic cycle, managerial

expertise, finance and administrative proficiency.

Teaching EMS is fun, dynamic and interesting as we introduce businesses practices

and the impact they have in the society on learners. You need to start by
understanding concepts, content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge in
order to bridge the gap between theory and practice. The intention of the EMS subject
is to introduce learners to the economic activities in a country and to prepare them
for the world of work. We will start by explaining what EMS is.

EMS draw from the disciplines of economics, accounting, financial management,

business management, and entrepreneurship. In the South African school context,
the subject of EMS deals with understanding business and economics principles, and
using this knowledge to critically reflect on the impact of the business activities on
society. This subject also deals with effective and efficient use of different types of
private, public or collective resources to satisfy people’s needs and wants. This
requires a great deal of effective management of scarce resources in order to
maximise profit.

The overall topics to be covered in the EMS subject include the economy, financial
literacy and entrepreneurship. These topics will be covered in grades 7, 8 and 9.

The table below indicates the business education topics and subtopics for the
senior phase.

Table 1.1 Topics and subtopics covered for senior phase

Economy (30%) Financial Literacy (40%) Entrepreneurship (30%)
1. History of money 1. Savings 1. Entrepreneurial skills
2. Needs and wants 2. Budgets and knowledge
3. Goods and services 3. Income and 2. Businesses
4. Inequality and expenditure 3. Factors of production
poverty 4. Accounting concepts 4. Forms of ownership
5. The production 5. Accounting cycle 5. Sectors of the
process 6. Source documents economy
6. Government 7. Financial 6. Levels and functions
7. The National Budget management and of management
8. Standard of living keeping of records 7. Functions of a
9. Markets business
10. Economic systems 8. Business plan
11. The circular flow
12. Price theory
13. Trade unions

Source: Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS) document (2011)

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1.2 What is Economic and Management Sciences (EMS)?

EMS is a practical subject that equips learners with real-life skills for personal
development and the development of the community. EMS in the senior phase refers
to the teaching and learning of the content prescribed in the CAPS EMS grades 7-9
curriculum policy. The policy ensures that standards are maintained, coupled with
uniformity and continuity in the education system.

1.2.1 Purpose of the EMS learning area

The Department of Education (South Africa, 2002b:4) states clearly that the EMS
learning area aims to equip learners with the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes
that will enable them to adapt, participate and survive in an economically complex
society and promote productivity, social justice and environmental sustainability. The
Department of Education foresaw that this would be achieved by enabling learners
to

● become economically literate

● understand and apply economic and management principles and concepts
in a responsible and accountable way
● understand and reflect critically on the wealth creation process
● understand and promote the importance of savings and investments for
economic development
● develop the entrepreneurial skills needed to play a vital role in transforming
the country’s socioeconomic environment and reduce the gap between rich
and poor
● understand the impact of economic activities on human, natural and
financial resources and socioeconomic systems

1.3 EMS teaching and learning enables learners to do the following:

✓ Understand the flow of money, goods and services in the economic cycle to
actively participate in the economy
✓ Acquire entrepreneurship knowledge and skills in an increasingly
competitive business world
✓ Efficiently and sustainably use resources to benefit society, the
environment and the economy
✓ Critically reflect on the wealth creation process
✓ Acquire budget literacy skills and understand the importance of saving and
investments
✓ Acquire accounting and financial literacy skills
✓ Become aware of their role as consumers

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1.4 The roles and knowledge required for the EMS teacher

An EMS teacher is expected to be knowledgeable about how business and the

economy works and to gain the required entrepreneurial and financial skills.

EMS in the senior phase offers a generalised understating of this subject. It may also
serve as a foundation for progression to the Further Education and Training (FET)
phase where learners can select specific subjects such as accounting, business
studies or economics.

The manner in which EMS is taught in the senior phase can therefore be crucial for
the successful progression of learners to the FET phase. The start of the senior phase
is usually in primary schools (grade 7) and then grades 8 and 9 follow in secondary
schools. The focus in grade 7 is on the introduction process and budgets.

Activity 1.1

Given the explanation of the role of the EMS teacher and contextualise it in your
own class environment.

1.5 Knowledge of the EMS content

As an EMS teacher, you need to be well abreast of pedagogical knowledge of the

subject. Pedagogical learning refers to the principles and practices of how to teach a
particular subject. This knowledge includes the curriculum, assessment and your
learners. Secondly, the learning theories need to be aligned with EMS.

The behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism can be used in the teaching of

EMS while taking into consideration 21st century learning and technology use.

It is important that novice teachers understand the theories relevant for EMS, and
that in education, new ideas about teaching and learning are constantly being put
forward.
In the following section we introduce you to the various theories about teaching and
learning as they can be applied in the EMS teaching context.

We are guided by theoretical orientation to the teaching of EMS that is favoured by

school curriculum policies across the world and by South Africa in particular.

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Stop and reflect

Explain the term/meaning of theory in your own words.

A theory is a collection of related statements that explain certain observations. It is
an attempt to logically explain something that can be observed. For example, if you
notice that your friend is not at every social gathering, then you might develop a
theory that he or she does not like social gatherings.

1.5.1 The following are the reasons we use theories:

• Theories help us to solve complex issues by providing acceptable

explanations so as to predict their recurrence in the future.
• Theories boost the transferring of information from one setting to another
because they provide lenses through which to look at difficult problems and
provide empirical evidence so as to produce a realistic solution.
• Theories help to design an environment to promote learning (Reeves, Albert,
Kuper & Hodges, and 2008:5).

1.6 Pedagogical content knowledge and subject knowledge

Pedagogical content knowledge is a combination of disciplinary knowledge,

pedagogical knowledge and knowledge about how the learner deals with certain
content. Good teachers draw from four categories of pedagogical content knowledge
as suggested by Barret and Hodson (2001, 433):

• Knowledge of learners’ existing understanding

• Knowledge of effective teaching / learning strategies
• Alternative ways of representing the subject matter
• Curriculum understanding

Overview of EMS topics for each grade

Topic Grade Content

The economy 7 History of money; needs and wants; goods and
services; the production process; and inequality
and poverty
Government; the National Budget; standard of
8 living; and markets

9 Economic systems; the circular flow; price theory;

and trade unions

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Financial literacy 7 Savings; budgets, income and expenses; and

accounting concepts

8 Accounting concepts; accounting cycle; source

documents; cash receipts journal and cash
payments journal of a service business; effects of
cash transactions on the accounting equation;
general ledger and trial balance
9 Cash receipts journal and cash payment journal of
a sole trader; posting to the
general ledger; preparing a trial balance; recording
transactions in the debtors journal, creditors
journal; posting to the debtors ledger and creditors
ledger
Entrepreneurship 7 The entrepreneur; starting a business; businesses;
and an Entrepreneur’s Day

8 Factors of production; forms of ownership; levels of

management; and functions of management

9 Sectors of the economy; functions of a business;

and a business plan

Conclusion

By now you should understand and appreciate the distinctive nature of the EMS
learning area and be ready to move on to the next learning unit. If you are still
uncertain about some aspects, go back and review them before you proceed to the
next learning unit.

In the next learning unit, you will learn how to use various teaching methods, learning
strategies, and teaching media that might be applicable to the teaching of the
subject in different contexts. This theoretical knowledge is of great value and you
must make sure that you will be able to implement it in the lesson plan.

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

Assess yourself to ascertain whether you have achieved the learning outcomes
for this learning unit. Be honest with yourself by answering the following questions:

• Explain the place, importance and worth of EMS.

• Explain your role as an EMS teacher.
• Formulate and clarify the content and concepts of EMS.
• Describe different ways of presenting knowledge and facilitating learning
in the subject.

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References

Bounds, M, Maila, E, Rall, C & Tonetti, R. 1999. Dynamic economic and

management sciences: grade 7. Cape Town: Kagiso.
Brubacher, JS. 1969. Modern philosophies of education. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Dreyer, JM. 1997. Curriculum 2005. Pretoria: University of South
Africa.
Jansen, J & Christie, P. 1999. Changing curriculum: studies on outcomes-based education
in South Africa. Pretoria: Juta.
South Africa. Department of Education. 1999a. Curriculum 2005. Illustrative learning
programme: Economic and Management Sciences: grade 7. Pretoria:
Government Printer.
South Africa. Department of Education. 1999b. Training manual for grade 7
educators: Economic and Management Sciences. Pretoria: Government
Printer.
South Africa. Department of Education. 2002. Overview. Revised national
curriculum statement grades R-9 (Schools): policy: Economic and Management
Sciences. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Van der Horst, H & Mcdonald, R. 2003. Outcomes-based education. Theory and practice.
Pretoria: Kagiso.

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Table of contents

Learning outcomes
Key concepts

2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 The purpose of the lesson
2.2 Strategies (approaches) and methods
2.3 What is a learner-centred approach?
2.3.1 The advantages of a learner-centred approach
2.3.2 The disadvantages of a learner-centred approach
2.4 The relevant learner-centred methods can be successfully used for EMS
2.4.1 Class discussion method
2.4.2 The small-group work method
2.4.2.1 When could you use group work?
2.4.2.2 Advantages of group work
2.4.2.3 Disadvantages of group work
2.5 Planning group work
2.5.1 Long-term planning
2.5.2 Medium-term planning
2.5.3 Short-term planning
2.5.4 Implementing group work
2.6 The role-play method
2.7 The case study method
2.8 The project method
2.8.1 Advantages of the project method include
2.9 Problem-solving method
2.9.1 When to use problem solving as a teaching method
2.9.2 Advantages of using problem solving as a teaching method
2.9.3 Limitations of problem solving as a teaching method
2.9.4 Preparations for using problem solving as a teaching method
2.9.5 Selecting problems
2.9.6 Responsibilities of learners during problem solving
2.10 Cooperative learning as a teaching strategy
2.10.1 Student teams’ achievement divisions (STAD)
2.10.2 Jigsaw
2.10.3 Group investigation (GI)
2.10.4 Role play and simulation method
2.10.5 Case study
2.10.6 Research as a teaching method
2.10.7 Teams-games-tournaments (TGT)
2.10.8 Flipped classroom pedagogy
2.10.9 Think-pair-share strategy

Conclusion
Self-assessment activity

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Learning Unit 2: Teaching strategies and methods of teaching

Economic and Management Sciences in the senior phase: Leaner-
centred approach.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you will able to do the following:

• Highlight and critically appraise the similarities and differences between the
various teaching methods, learning strategies, and teaching media
appropriate to the teaching of the subject in different contexts;
• Choose the most applicable method(s) for the teaching and learning of
different aspects of the subject in different contexts;
• Choose, adapt or design the most applicable teaching media for teaching
different aspects of the subject in different contexts; and
• Select and use appropriate technology for teaching different aspects of the
subject in different contexts.

Key concepts

• Teaching strategies
• Teaching methods
• Learning activities
• Direct instruction
• Formal lectures
• Problem solving
• Cooperative learning
• Learner-centred
• Teacher-centred

2.1 Introduction

The teaching profession expects its practitioners (teachers) to have a clear

understanding of the tasks they need to perform to create a unique learning
environment in the classroom, which will promote the most desirable learning in
learners. As a result, teachers are expected to be highly competent and to
consciously develop skills to perform these tasks. These skills/tasks and this
understanding include a well-founded knowledge of the strategies (approaches) and
methods available, an ability to select and use subject content, a knowledge of the
personal nature and capabilities of the learner, and a grasp of the learning theory and
its implementation.

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In contemporary literature there are numerous suggestions about effective strategies

and methods that teachers could use to enhance the learning of their learners. Much
of this literature is concerned with issues such as discovery learning versus
expository teaching, inductive versus deductive learning, low-structure versus high-
structure lessons, and freedom versus constraints in learning (Killen, 2006:5). Most
reviewers of this subject generally conclude that the lack of clear evidence of the
superiority of one specific strategy or method is simply due to the fact that the
processes of teaching and learning are highly complex. Other factors also play a role,
such as the teacher’s personality, beliefs, knowledge and talents. Furthermore,
factors taken into consideration include the following: learners’ abilities, level of
knowledge, attitude, level of experience and learning style; the distinctive nature of
the learning area, class size and facilities; and the purpose of the particular lesson.
This clearly shows that there is no single, ideal method of teaching; a variety of
methods may be used, even in the same lesson situation. Unfortunately, there is no
formula that prospective teachers can use to select a strategy or method for a specific
teaching situation.

Although methods are discussed separately, you should be so well-versed in the

theory that you are able to see the similarities between the various methods and
should develop the skills to use all of them, both individually and in combination. For
instance, you could use group work in conjunction with problem solving. You should
have a practical approach to the methods, but the emphasis should be on when, why
and how each method should be used. Prospective teachers who want to learn more
about effective teaching will have to read widely to gain as much information as
possible about effective teaching in their particular learning areas so that they can
improve their teaching strategies by experimenting with new ones. Teaching is not
only a science, but also an art. It not only requires a great number of skills, but also
requires teachers to be able to put these skills into new forms on the spur of the
moment as new situations arise. Thus the more techniques teachers can handle well
and the more they understand their learning area and their learners, the better their
teaching will be.

A teacher’s teaching should therefore be reflective. After each lesson a teacher

should reflect on how well the lesson has gone and how to carry out future instruction.
These decisions will be affected by the teacher’s experience and pedagogical
knowledge (Clark & Starr, 1996:6).

In this learning unit we will concentrate on some of the strategies and methods that
a teacher could select to promote learning outcomes. The teaching of EMS is about
using well-defined ways and methods of demonstrating specific lessons and teaching
plans in order to achieve teaching and learning goals. Teaching approaches in
learning plays an important role in the repertoire of the teaching skills needed by the
teacher to achieve the intended objectives of the subject. A teacher needs to plan

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accordingly in order to execute lessons effectively. There are various factors that can
have an impact on the choice of teaching approach, namely:

The teacher’s personality and competence

Learners’ abilities
Subject content knowledge
Pedagogical content knowledge
The nature of the subject
Class size, classroom environment

2.1.1 The purpose of the lesson

Teaching EMS means you must consider the most appropriate approach for you to
achieve the desired lesson objectives. In the teaching of EMS the teaching principles
need to be taken into consideration in the context of CAPS.

It is important for you to read the (National Curriculum and Assessment Policy
Statement [NCAPS], which directs the fundamental principles, derived from the
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act No. 108 of 1996, as amended),
before planning EMS lessons. The fundamental principles are as follows:

• Social transformation: ensuring that the educational imbalances of the past

are addressed, and that equal educational opportunities are provided for all
sections of the population;
• Active and critical learning: encouraging an active and critical approach to
learning, rather than rote and uncritical learning of given truths;
• High levels of knowledge and skills: the minimum standards of knowledge
and skills to be achieved at each grade are specified, and set high,
achievable standards in all subjects;
• Progression: content and context of each grade shows progression from
simple to complex;
• Human rights, inclusivity, environmental and social justice: infusing the
principles and practices of social and environmental justice and human rights
as defined in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa;
• Valuing indigenous knowledge systems: acknowledging the rich history and
heritage of this country as important contributors to nurturing the values
contained in the Constitution; and
• Credibility, quality and efficiency: providing an education that is comparable
in quality, breadth and depth to those of other countries. (Extracted from EMS
CAPS document pages 4 and 5, 2011.)

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These fundamental principles form the basis for teaching all school subjects in South
Africa (DBE, 2010). It is therefore vital to integrate these principles when teaching
EMS lessons.

The EMS curriculum for South Africa schools provides us the information on the type
of learners envisaged for the economy (NDE, 2000:9). Therefore, it is important for
you to understand your role as an agent of change. Moreover, as suggested by Van
Wyk (2010:113), as an EMS teacher you need to have an understanding of the
subject and of the fundamental principles underpinning this philosophy and practice.

2.2 Strategies (approaches) and methods

According to Killen (2006), there are two basic approaches to teaching, which
show how the teacher’s role changes from communicator to organiser to
motivator, namely teacher-centred and learner-centred approaches. Both
approaches may be used in outcomes-based education, although the learner-
centred approach is emphasised. The two basic approaches to teaching show how
the teacher’s role changes from communicator to organiser, to motivator, namely
teacher-centred and learner-centred approaches. Both approaches may be used in
the classroom, although the learner-centred approach is emphasised.

Teacher-centred approaches or strategies are concerned with direct instruction,

deductive teaching or expository teaching (Westwood, 2006:23) and are exemplified
in the lecture. In these methods of teaching, the teacher – as the active
communicator – discloses scientific knowledge to learners who are generally passive
recipients.

Learner-centred approaches involve discovery learning and inductive or inquiry

learning, and they place a much stronger emphasis on the learner. In both approaches,
the teacher plays the main role as the planner and facilitator of learner learning.

The focus is on the learner. When planning, you (teacher) first set out the desired
outcomes and then design instructional activities to match learners’ prior
knowledge, motivation, and level of interest. Teachers have to evaluate available
materials and choose presentation strategies to link where learners are with the
content and what is expected to take them there. Throughout the process, teachers
need to modify their plans continuously on the basis of feedback, striving for balance
between giving learners the guidance they need and the independence they desire.

Nowadays the ideal is to vary the pattern so that the teacher communicates and the
learner listens in lessons in which the learners are increasingly active.

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Teachers should constantly ask themselves what actions on their part and what
learner activities are most likely to help them achieve their lesson outcomes. Instead
of always telling, instructing or asking questions, give your learners opportunities to
carry out instructions, observe (listen, think) and ask questions. A teacher’s role is to
disclose, coordinate, organise and motivate. It is up to the teacher to decide on (a)
method(s); you should, if possible, choose methods that ensure that the learners do
more work on their own. Enterprising teachers experiment with new methods and
know that lack of variation makes learners bored. The abovementioned strategies and
methods will briefly be discussed. These are all methods that can stand alone, but
which are also interrelated to an extent and can thus be used simultaneously in one
lesson.
Activity 2.1

● Explain what is meant by a teaching strategy? Express it in your own

words.
● Discuss teaching methods, strategies and approaches? Express your
answer in your own words.
• List a few teaching methods that you can remember. What does each one
entail?

Teacher-centred approaches or strategies are concerned with direct instruction,

deductive teaching or expository teaching (Clark & Starr, 1996:171-198) and are
exemplified in the lecture. In these methods of teaching, the teacher – as the active
communicator – discloses scientific knowledge to learners who are generally passive
recipients.

Learner-centred approaches involve discovery learning and inductive or inquiry

learning, and they place a much stronger emphasis on the learner. In both
approaches, the teacher plays the main role as the planner and facilitator of learner
learning. Palinscar, Ogle and Carr (in Killen, 2007:58) explain the philosophy behind
the learner-centred teaching approaches (as used in CAPS) as follows:

“The focus is on the student. When planning, teachers first set outcomes and
then design instructional activities to match students’ prior knowledge,
motivation, and level of interest. They evaluate available materials and
choose presentation strategies to link where students are with where the
content is expected to take them. Throughout the process, teachers need to
modify their plans continuously on the basis of feedback, striving for balance
between giving students the guidance they need and the independence they
desire.

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Nowadays the ideal is to vary the pattern so that the teacher communicates
and the learner listens in lessons in which the learners are increasingly
active.

Teachers should constantly ask themselves what actions on their part and
what learner activities are most likely to help them achieve their lesson
outcomes. Instead of always telling, instructing or asking questions, give your
learners opportunities to carry out instructions, observe, and answer
questions, listen and think. A teacher’s role is to disclose, coordinate,
organise and motivate."

2.3 What is a learner-centred approach?

A learner-centred approach is an approach in which the learner is actively involved

in the process of learning (Curzon, 1985:89), participating in groups rather than as
individuals (Ebrahim & Hanifehzadeh, 2015:113). The aim of this approach is to place
learners at the centre of the teaching and learning experience. Learners must take
ownership and control of their own learning. Teachers are expected to support and
transfer knowledge and skills. The following are participative methods (focus on the
learners), which can be used successfully in teaching EMS in the senior phase.

2.3.1 The advantages of a learner-centred approach

A learner-centred approach is preferred because it is an approach that gives the

learners personal development and more space and flexibility so that they become
masters of their own learning (Ebrahim & Hanifehzadeh, 2015:114). The learners will
be able to direct their own learning process, ask questions and accomplish their tasks
independently, with minimal help from the teacher. The approach maximises
communicative and collaborative learning through discussions in groups (Heick,
2016:2).The learners are motivated when they interact with one another and
participate actively and freely (Heick, 2016). The learners develop a sense of
ownership of their learning and thereby increase their intrinsic motivation (Ebrahimi
& Hanifehzadeh, 2015:113). The learner-centred approach promotes increased
responsibility among the learners with regard to their learning and support
development (Stefanik & Tracy, 2015:97).

The learners are given opportunities to develop their critical thinking skills, which is a
characteristic of a developed intelligence quotient. These methods concentrate on
learners’ activity, rather than lecturing methods by teachers. Learner-centred learning
is considered an effective method that promotes learning through active participation,
which enhances understanding and captures their attention and interest. In real
terms, the learners are able to freely share their ideas, volunteer their opinions and
challenge each other, and then arrive at a common and democratic decision.

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The learning process is greatly enhanced when the learners participate in decision
making about the course to follow in the educational arena (Stringer, 2008:123). The
approach self-determines the degree to which learner behaviour can be carved or
moulded. The learners become engaged in the process of learning even when the
teacher is absent (Reddy et al., 2013:45). The learners can help each other in the
process of learning and in this way, can construct their own knowledge. There is less
reliance on the teacher (Edwards, 2015:26), which makes learners think for
themselves, solve problems and evaluate their progress.

2.3.2 The disadvantages of a learner-centred approach

A learner-centred approach poses tensions between preserving good class

behaviour and doing the class tasks (Reddy et al., 2015:16). Reddy argued that the
approach creates disorder in classes and has a tendency of promoting misbehaviour.
The learners talk and so the classrooms are often busy, noisy and chaotic, but if there
is pressure in a group for conformity, interactions will be unproductive and
unreflective of the outcome of the learning process (Woolfolk, 2010:324). One learner
may dominate in the learning process, which could lead to a passive learning process
for many learners in the group. Some learners may miss important facts. Some
learners may prefer to work alone, while others may become even more convinced
that they are unable to do what they are expected, without the support of the group.

2.4 The relevant learner-centred methods can be successfully used for

EMS

The 21st century teaching emphasises the following participative methods (focus on
the learners), which can be used successfully in teaching EMS in the senior phase:

• Class discussion
• Problem solving
• Cooperative learning techniques
• Small-group work
• Projects
• Role play and simulation
• Research

2.4.1 Class discussion method

The discussion method, defined as a substantive conversation between the teachers

and the learners with the sole aim of furthering critical thinking (Newmann, 1990), is
a learner-centred approach that favours learning in contrast to teaching. Learners are
encouraged and motivated to participate in the class. The purpose of this method is
to increase knowledge and skills by the collective sharing of ideas and expressions
of views on the topic. This method is a planned, systematic conversation between

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the teacher and the learners. It is a discussion that is shared among the learners.
This involves communication between learners and influences how they respond to
each other. This method is useful when the teacher wants to reflect on a particular
lesson; the challenge is how to engage the whole class to participate. This method
of teaching assists learners in developing their democratic ways of thinking by
developing reflective thinking, self-expression and the spirit of tolerance.

The disadvantage is that a discussion or brainstorming, as a learner-centred

approach, is not suitable for all the topics. It can be used only by learners who have
basic knowledge in the topics to be covered (Brookfield & Preskill, 2005). Some
learners may not participate because of shyness, while others may feel reluctant
because of the dominance of other learners. Teachers may end up losing control
over the learners. The best way to engage learners in a whole-class discussion is to
post properly prepared higher thinking questions. If this method is not properly
planned and structured by the teacher, it can be difficult to engage the whole class.

2.4.2 The small-group work method

This method involves two or more learners in a small-group task where active
participation of all members is required. You (teacher) are expected to make sure
that the group is small to allow members to interact equally. This method allows
learners to give and share information and explain concepts to each other. However,
the challenge may include the fact that some learners are negative and influence the
group’s learning process negatively. Group work is a teaching method that brings
learners together (Forsyth, 2016:3) to form relationships and try to find assistance
and support (Johnson & Johnson, 2003). Group work is cooperative with learners
working together as a team. An advantage of group work is that it increases
productivity, allowing for the utilisation of different resources and experiences
(Johnson & Johnson, 2003:579). Group work, however, can be seen as ineffective
because learners tend to shift dependency from the teacher to the expert learners in
the groups. Some learners become more convinced that they can teach others
without the support of the teacher, while others become convinced that they are
unable to learn without the support of the group.

2.4.2.1 When could you use group work?

You should think about the outcomes, the type of learners, availability of sources and
the academic content of the lesson before you decide which teaching strategy/meth-
od(s) to adopt. Killen (2007:60-61) believes that group work may be used
successfully when you, the teacher:

● want to increase learners’ depth and scope of understanding of study

material by them exploring it and discussing their understandings with other
learners;

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● want learners to exchange ideas and learn from one another;

● want to improve learners’ communication skills as they learn the contents;
● want to enhance learners’ motivation and increase their active participation
in learning;
● want learners to engage in a detailed analysis of at least some parts of the
lesson contents, despite the fact that time does not allow all students to
analyse all the content;

● want to improve learners’ problem-solving skills and have them discover that
there are multiple solutions to a problem;
● want to concentrate your teaching efforts on a small group of learners while
the other learners engage actively in learning;
● want learners to use the equipment that is available (because equipment or
facilities are limited and rotation of groups allows all learners to use the
equipment that is available);
● wish to encourage and develop cooperation among learners and develop
their respect for one another’s strengths and limitations;
● want to develop positive attitudes towards later use of the learning area
content; and
● want to teach your learners to be self-reliant rather than teacher reliant.

Some of the situations mentioned above also apply in whole-class discussions and
in cooperative learning, since various methods actually do encompass social
elements that render them suitable and that achieve specific types of learning
outcomes.

2.4.2.2 Advantages of group work

If the group-work method is used effectively, it has the following advantages over
direct instruction, whole-class discussion and individual learner work. According to
Killen (2007:61-62), the group-work method

● allows teachers to vary the learning tasks for different groups of learners,
thus adapting to learners’ needs, interests and abilities without making these
differences too obvious to other learners;
● encourages learners to verbalise their ideas and feelings, which can help
them to understand the subject matter. (Some learners will be very effective
at explaining ideas to others, in a language that they find easy to understand
– a process that can help both the explainer and the other group members
to master the contents.)
● gives all learners an opportunity to contribute ideas and try to master the
content in a non-threatening environment;
● engages learners actively in learning, which can enhance their achievement
and retention;

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● teaches learners to have respect for one another’s strengths and

weaknesses and to cooperate with one another;
● teaches learners to be less reliant on the teacher and more reliant on their
own ability to think and seek information from other sources;
● can increase the possibility that learners will look at problems from several
perspectives;
● allows learners to experience roles as leaders, peers and subordinates and
to experience a range of social contacts;
● can be fun (and therefore motivating) for learners;
● is a very useful way of activating learners’ prior knowledge and helping them
to reconstruct their understanding of the subject matter; and
● gives you a chance to circulate and check individual learners’ understanding,
without placing the learners in a ‘‘test” situation.

2.4.2.3 Disadvantages of group work

Killen (2006:62-63) identifies the following factors that could reduce the effectiveness
of group work:

● Learners have to learn how to learn in this environment, which may not be
easy for those who are accustomed to teacher-directed methods of
instruction.
● Some learners may initially find it difficult to be accepted as group members,
possibly because they are unpopular or somehow different from other
members of the group.
● Unless the teacher carefully monitors the learner interaction in each group,
some learners may waste time discussing irrelevant issues.
● Some learners whose first language is not English may have special
problems with group work; similarly, learners who have recently come from
cultures where learning is almost always teacher-directed may have difficulty
in changing their expectations and concept of learning. The teacher needs to
be particularly sensitive to these cultural aspects of learning.
● If the group work is a major part of the teacher’s instruction, formal
assessment of learner learning may cause some problems. It is often difficult
to assess individual learners fairly. Some learners may feel uneasy about
being judged on the basis of a group effort.
● Some learners prefer direct instruction and are not happy when the teacher
asks them to ‘‘teach themselves’’.
● Some teachers feel uneasy about handing control over to learners.
Consequently, they may structure the group work so tightly that it restricts
the spontaneity that should be a key feature of such activities.
● If it is to be used effectively, group work requires a lot of preparation, probably
more than an equivalent lesson delivered by direct instruction.

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● The physical arrangement of many classrooms is not suitable for small-group

work.

To be effective, the groups must be able to function without interfering with one
another.

2.5 Planning group work

If you wish group work to be an effective, positive learning experience in the

classroom situation, you should do the following planning (according to Killen,
2006:64):

2.5.1 Long-term planning

Sufficiently far ahead, teachers should prepare their learners for learning in this way.
The teacher should introduce them gradually to this method of learning (through a
series of short group activities) so that they can find out how to learn when working
in groups.

2.5.2 Medium-term planning

A week or so before the lesson, teachers should satisfy themselves that their learners
have the necessary prior knowledge to participate productively in the group activities.
Check that all necessary equipment and materials will be available at the required
time.

Teachers have to decide on what basis they will form the groups. It is often a good
idea to tell the learners how you reached that decision, particularly if you are not
allowing the learners to form their own groups. It will save time in future if the group
membership remains constant.

If groups are to function effectively, they need leaders. The role of leader should be
rotated among group members according to specific guidelines that the teacher
develops to meet the particular needs of the learners. The teacher might have to
engage learners in short activities that will develop their skills as group leaders.

2.5.3 Short-term planning

In the lesson prior to the group work, the teacher should revise the work that will form
the foundation for the group activities and check that the learners know what will be
expected of them. In particular, the teacher should remind learners of any prior
reading they need to do and of any equipment or materials that they need to bring to
the group-work lesson. It is a great advantage to establish the groups, select the
leaders, and establish the ‘‘rules’’ in the lesson before the group work is carried out.

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The learners will then know what is expected of them in the group-work lesson and
will be able to ‘‘get down to business” quickly.

On most occasions, it will be necessary (or at least desirable) for some record to be
kept of the group work. Teachers can make it easier for the recorder, and improve
the quality of the information that is recorded, if they provide some guidelines. A
structured hand-out on which there are spaces for specific information to be written
can be a very useful tool.

2.5.4 Implementing group work

Killen (2006:65) sees a lesson in which group work is done as proceeding as follows:

● At the start of the lesson, inform learners of the expected outcomes for the
lesson and remind them that they will be working in their previously arranged
groups. Remind students of arrangements such as time allocation and work
space.
● If necessary, the teacher should briefly revise any critical information that the
learners will need for their group work.
● Under the teachers’ guidance, the learners form their groups, collect any
necessary materials and begin to work.
● The group leaders will be either nominated by the teacher or, as the first job
of the group, elected. (Electing leaders takes time and the teacher should not
use this method unless the learners will be working in the same groups for
several lessons.) The main job of the leaders is to provide the directions
necessary to get their group working and to keep its members on task.
● The teacher must circulate around the groups to maintain an appropriate
degree of order, attend to any difficulties that arise, gain feedback on
learners’ progress, help the groups to keep on track, and encourage learners
to think more deeply about the things they are learning. The teacher must
ensure all learners are engaged actively in learning; this means that the
group tasks must be interesting and appropriately difficult, and that provision
must be made for the fact that groups will work at different rates.
● One of the teacher’s important functions is to monitor the group work and
gather evaluative data about how the learners are thinking and acting during
this process of learning. Identify those things that appear to be helping
learners to learn and those things that appear to be creating barriers to
learning. Use this information later to modify the tasks or the materials so that
learners can progress more effectively next time they are involved in group
work.
● As the end of the lesson approaches, it is important for the teacher to bring
activities to a definite conclusion. This may involve putting away equipment
or it may mean just bringing the groups back together to summarise what
learners have learnt during the lesson. A smooth transition from group

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activities to a whole-class situation must be made and the lesson must

conclude with activities such as progress reports, sharing experiences,
checking learner performance, evaluating efforts and achievement, and
indicating future activities.

2.6 The role-play method

Role play is a method of teaching where problems are solved by assuming roles and
practising what to do (McGuire, 2018:1). Role play is a learner-centred approach,
which gives the learners the chance to marry theory and practice. Pragmatism puts
emphasis on practice (Edwards, 2015:5). Skills such as acting, debating, and
negotiating can be put into practise. The role play nurtures and augments critical and
inventive reasoning. The real situation is brought into the classroom to minimise
imagination. For example, accounting learners operate in a miniature society to view
the real-life situation from an angle one would normally do; for example, in accounting
learners can take on the roles of buyers, sellers and accountants or book-keepers. It
gives the learners confidence and develops skills necessary for a particular subject
(Buelow, 2014). Thus, learners become more involved and are likely to develop a
deeper understanding of the knowledge in the arena (McGuire, 2018:1). However,
the role-play method may have its drawbacks such as the fact that not all learners
may want to participate and may cause the method to be awkward and unproductive
because of delays (McGuire, 2018).

2.7 The case study method

A case study method is a learner-centred approach that can impart critical thinking,
communication and interpersonal skills in to learners in groups (Abbey & Lloyd,
2009:27). A case study, as a teaching method, enables learners to explore and
investigate their contemporary real-life (Zainal, 2007:2) and real-world issues,
allowing the application of theoretical concepts and thus bridging the gap between
theory and practice (Davis & Wilcock, 2003). The benefits of a case study method
are that learners’ perceptions about their learning are increased and this seems to
have a positive spin-off on the examination results.

2.8 The project method

A project method is a teaching approach in which learners are engaged in solving a

practical or real-life problem over a number of days in order to reach a conclusion.
This method involves learner-oriented teaching and demands active participation. A
project is a problem or subject that is taken from real life, which is then investigated
in detail, in all possible ways. There are basically two ways of applying the project
method:

▪ During the normal course of the learning process, learners are exposed to

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the necessary skills and knowledge required in order that they can apply
them creatively and independently to appropriate projects.
▪ Learners are not exposed to the necessary skills and knowledge before the
project, but these are integrated into the execution of the project. Hence
learners are given the project, discuss what they need to know for solving the
problem, and learn the required techniques and concepts. Finally, they
execute the chosen project by themselves.

The project method creates a learning environment that gives learners an opportunity
to use their creativity in order to learn, investigate, discover, create, invent, think
independently, reason logically and work on their own. The project method
incorporates the following essential features:

✓ Learners should work on a real problem

✓ Learners are responsible for planning and carrying out the project
✓ The problem-solving activity is practical in nature
✓ The teacher provides only guidance and does not get involved in the project
implementation

2.8.1 Advantages of the project method include:

➢ Learners’ interest is stimulated.

➢ Learners’ deal with real-life problems.
➢ It encourages learners to solve problems independently.
➢ Individual differences are catered for.
➢ It fosters socialisation, especially in a group project.
➢ It incorporates the principles of motivation, individually and socially.
➢ Learners tend to identify with knowledge that they have discovered
themselves.

2.9 Problem-solving method

Problem solving as a teaching strategy is that when we analyse the nature of a

specific outcome and the content of EMS in more detail, we find that the content
used to achieve the outcomes could be reduced to a composite of problems. What
we are dealing with are actually technical solutions to specific economic,
management, entrepreneurial and financial issues. Therefore, give learners
concrete problems to which they have to find solutions. In the early phases, these
problems are concrete and simple, coming from the learners’ field of experience.

According to Killen (2007:97), using problem solving as a teaching method is about

teaching learners how to learn through problem solving, and about making problem
solving a productive learning situation for learners. It helps them to seek knowledge,
process information and apply ideas to real-world situations. Problem solving can

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also serve to motivate learners and show them practical reasons for learning.

Killen (2007:98) defines a problem as “any situation in which some facts are known
and others are needed’’. It may be something that one is uncertain about or that is
difficult to understand, a difficult task or question, or an inquiry that starts from given
conditions to investigate facts or principles. To use problem solving as a teaching
method, you must explain to the learners what you want them to learn, why you are
using the problem-solving method of teaching and how you expect them to work
with you and with one another as they learn. This learning process must focus on
learners developing their understanding, and not necessarily on their finding the
answer to the problem (Killen, 2007:99).

2.9.1 When to use problem solving as a teaching method

According to Killen (2007:100), an important reason for using the problem-solving

strategy is to help learners gain insights that will enable them to understand the con-
tent better and to look at it from different perspectives. Killen identifies the following
most appropriate times for you to use problem solving as a teaching strategy:

● when you want your students to gain a deep understanding of the subject
matter, rather than just remembering bits of it;
● when you want to develop your students’ thinking and reasoning skills, that
is, their ability to analyse situations, to apply their existing knowledge to new
situations, to recognise the difference between facts and opinions, and to
make objective judgements;
● when you want to develop your students’ problem-solving skills, that is, their
ability to assess and respond to new situations;
● when you want to challenge your students intellectually;
● when you want to encourage your students to take greater responsibility for
their own learning;
● when you want your students to understand the relationships between what
they are studying and the real world (i.e. the relationships between theory
and practice); and
● when you want your students’ learning experiences to be varied and
interesting.

Problem solving is an ideal method to use in conjunction with group work. To

achieve the benefits of group work, you need to encourage students to discuss with
one another what they understand the problem to be, how they feel about the
problem, and the various steps in their attempts to solve the problem.

2.9.2 Advantages of using problem solving as a teaching method

Killen (2006:101) summarises the following advantages:

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● Problem solving provides a challenge for students and they can experience
great satisfaction from discovering new knowledge for themselves.
● Problem solving engages students actively in learning.
● Problem solving helps students to develop new knowledge for themselves
and, in this way, to feel responsible for their own learning.
● Problem solving teaches students that their solutions should be explainable
and justifiable.
● Problem solving can show students that your subject, EMS, is a way of
thinking and doing things that should make sense to students, not just to the
teacher or the textbook author.
● Problem solving can be fun and a rewarding learning experience.
● Problem solving can develop students’ critical thinking skills and their ability
to adapt to new learning situations.
● Problem solving can help to keep alive students’ natural curiosity.
● Problem solving encourages students to talk about the concepts they are
trying to understand. It helps them to evaluate their own understanding and
to identify flaws in their thinking.
● Problem solving develops students’ ability to make informed judgements.
● Problem solving provides students with an opportunity to apply their
knowledge and to see that their knowledge has some real-world
applications.
● Real-life problems can help students to integrate the knowledge they gain
from studying several different subjects.
● Problem solving can help students to develop qualities such as
resourcefulness, independence, patience and tenacity. When they
experience success, it also develops their self-confidence and self-esteem.
● Problem solving can show students the value of exploring alternative
approaches and not always wanting to find the answer as quickly as
possible.
● Challenging practical problems can engage students in learning long after
the formal lesson is over.
● Problem solving not only helps to increase retention, but it also provides a
sound foundation from which students can transfer their knowledge to other
real-life situations.
● Problem solving can create at least three conditions that assist in
subsequent retrieval and appropriate use of new information: (1) activation
of prior knowledge, (2) similarity between the contexts in which information
is learnt and later applied, and (3) opportunity to elaborate on that
information.
● Problem solving can help students to develop the confidence to try to gain
new knowledge, even when they think they might make a mistake, and to
keep trying when they make mistakes.

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● In problem-based lessons, the common student question, ‘‘Why do we need

to know this?’’ is often replaced with “What do we need to know?’’, as
students accept responsibility for their own learning.
● Problem solving can give you a better understanding of the abilities and
special talents of your students and help them to develop these even more.

In addition to these advantages, you can achieve all the benefits of small-group work
by having students work collaboratively on problems. In fact, problem solving can
be integrated into most other teaching strategies.

Activity 2.2

What do you think are the particular advantages of problem solving as a

teaching strategy and method in the various components of the EMS learning
area?

2.9.3 Limitations of problem solving as a teaching method

Killen (2007:102-103) identifies the following limitations that may be experienced

when one is trying to use the problem-solving strategy:

● Unless the problems are motivating, students may see them simply as
‘‘busy’’ work.

● Unless students are interested and believe that they can solve the problem,
they may be reluctant to try.
● Appropriate problems take time to develop, since each problem needs to be
carefully structured to produce specific student learning outcomes.
● Unless your students understand why they are attempting to solve a
particular problem, they may not learn what you want them to learn.

2.9.4 Preparations for using problem solving as a teaching method

This method, probably more than any other, requires thorough planning. You should
use problem solving only if you believe that it is the most appropriate way to achieve
some specific learning outcomes; and then you need to create a learning
environment that will encourage problem solving. You must allow for proper teacher-
learner and learner-learner interaction, and do whatever is necessary to make it
easy for learners to take part in problem solving. Thorough planning is necessary
and Killen (1996:104) advises you to proceed as follows:

● Decide exactly what you want students to learn. (Just as for any other
teaching method, you need expected outcomes).

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● Locate or develop a suitable problem or series of problems that can be used

to help students achieve the desired learning outcomes. Normally, these
problems will be built around a key concept or principle (e.g. the concept of
nutrition, or the principle of the conservation of energy).
● Identify what prior knowledge the students will need in order to solve the
problem(s). If necessary, teach that prior knowledge.
● Decide how you will motivate the students to engage in the problem solving
(i.e. how you will make the problem one that they will be eager to solve).
● Identify the parts of the problem that are likely to cause the most difficulty for
students. Decide why this might be the case. If necessary, develop some
strategies for assisting the less capable students.
● Try to identify a number of strategies that are likely to help students learn as
they attempt to solve this problem so that you will be prepared to recognise
and encourage students who use these diverse approaches.
● Use the information above to plan your lesson or series of lessons. (Often,
problems that will help students to gain real insight into the subject matter
have to be investigated over an extended period).

2.9.5 Selecting problems

Your challenge is to find suitable problems that will lead learners to acquire the new
knowledge, skills and attitudes that you want them to develop (Killen, 1996:109).
This will happen if the problem requires learners to relate new knowledge to existing
knowledge, to state in detail what they do and do not understand, and to learn

concepts well enough to explain them to others as part of the problem-solving

process.

Killen (1996:109) recommends that if you look for challenging problems that may
engage your learners in a lengthy (extended) period of exploration (research), you
should choose real-life problems. These may be found in classic works about your
learning area, past or present debates, clever applications of important concepts to
everyday situations, current events, research literature or your own experience.

Activity 2.3

● Identify at least four topics in the EMS learning area that can be used as
problems that will lead learners to acquire the new knowledge, skills and
attitudes that you want them to develop.

2.9.6 Responsibilities of learners during problem solving

Learning by solving problems will not necessarily occur unless the learners are both
able and willing to participate actively in the learning process. The teachers can

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encourage the learners to participate by making their expectations very clear. These
expectations may differ according to the path they have structured for the problem-
solving activities. Killen (2009:112-113) explains this as follows:

(1) If you have organised the learners to work on problems individually, you should
expect them to:

(a) ensure that they know what the real problem is before they try to solve
it;
(b) ask questions on points that are not clear;
(c) develop a plan with the necessary guidance for solving the problem
before they jump into calculations, experimentation or research;
(d) keep a written record of how they attempted to solve the problem and
the results they obtained; and
(e) give a written report of what they learnt by solving the problem.

❖ If the learners have been organised to work in groups or pairs to solve

problems, they should be expected to do the things listed above, as well as
being able to:

(a) explain to one another what they understand about the problem and
how it might be solved;
(b) cooperate with one another in order to complete the tasks and
maximise their learning;
(c) explain their solutions to one another and show interest in one
another’s explanations; and
(d) persist until they agree they have solved the problem satisfactorily.

❖ If the learners work on the problem as a whole-class activity, they will:

(a) explain what they understood by the problem and how they attempted
to solve it;
(b) listen to, and try to understand the ideas and explanations of other
learners;
(c) pose questions and ask for clarification;
(d) comment on the ideas and solutions offered by another learner; and
(e) help to draw conclusions from the problem-solving experience.

2.10 Cooperative learning as a teaching strategy

Cooperative learning consists of learners working together, for one class period to
several weeks, to achieve shared learning goals and jointly complete specific tasks
and assignments (Johnson, Johnson & Holubec, 2008). Cooperative learning is an
organised and structured way to use small groups to enhance learner learning and

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interdependence. Learners are given a task, better known as an assignment, and

they work together to accomplish this task. Each individual has responsibilities and
is held accountable for adding in the completion of the assignment; therefore,
success is dependent on the work of everyone in the group.

The cooperative learning model is not the result of any single stream of educational
thought. Its roots go back to the early Greeks and contemporary developments
started with early 20th century educational psychologists and pedagogical theorists.

In 1916 John Dewey wrote a book called Democracy and Education. Dewey’s
conception of education was that the classroom should mirror the larger society and
be a laboratory for real-life learning. Dewey’s pedagogy required teachers to create
a social system characterised by democratic procedures and processes within their
learning environments. Their primary responsibility was to engage learners in inquiry
into important social and interpersonal problems. The specific classroom procedures
described by Dewey emphasised small problem-solving groups of learners searching
for their own answers and learning democratic principles through day-to-day
interaction with one another (Myers & Myers, 1990:317).

No doubt many of you will say that you often utilise cooperative learning activities in
your classroom, and this is a good sign for the future because already you are in the
process of gaining insight into the functioning of cooperative learning. If you adopt a
cooperative approach to teaching, democracy can really come into play, with the
learners contributing their experiences from their daily lives as well as having their
needs met.

Learner participation through cooperative learning not only leads to more meaningful
learning in classes, but could also provide teachers with a possible means of coping
with large classes. Cooperative learning is an instructional design that stimulates
peer interactional and learner to learner cooperation in the process of fostering
successful learning by all. This model has two primary aims. The first is to improve
learner understanding and skills in the subject being taught, and the second is for the
learners to develop cooperative group skills and to gain an appreciation of the
different individuals and cultures found in classrooms.

Cooperative learning activities share a set of common characteristics. According to

researchers, there seem to be at least three specific elements that are critical to the
success of cooperative learning. These three elements are face-to-face interaction,
a feeling of positive interdependence, and a feeling of individual accountability.

(i) Face-to-face interaction requires placing learners in close physical proximity

to one another in order to complete the assigned tasks.
(ii) Establishing a feeling of positive interdependence means that learners
believe that each individual can achieve the particular learning outcome only

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if all the learners in the group achieve the learning objective. In other words,
unless we are all successful, none of us is successful. Johnson et al. (in Levin
& Nolan, 1996:113) refer to this as sinking or swimming together and they go
on to identify the following types of interdependence, which the teacher can
work to create (Levin & Nolan, 1996:113-114).

(1) Positive reward interdependence refers to a situation in which everyone is

rewarded or no one is rewarded, and in which everyone gets the same
reward.

(2) Positive resource interdependence refers to situations in which each member

of the group has only a portion of the information or materials needed to
complete the task.
(3) Positive task interdependence refers to a situation in which a task is broken
up into a series of sub-steps and is then completed in assembly-line fashion,
with each group member completing only one section of the total task.
(4) Positive role interdependence refers to the practice of assigning roles to
individual group members, for example, writer, reader or timekeeper.
(5) Positive identity interdependence is established by allowing the group to form
its own identity by developing a group name, decorating a group folder or
flag, developing a group motto, or creating some other symbol that describes
the group.

(iii) Individual accountability refers to the feeling on the part of each group
member that he or she is responsible for completing the task individually and
cannot simply rely on the group or allow other group members to do the work
for him or her. Feelings of individual accountability can be established in a
variety of ways, including assigning individual grades, giving individual tests,
worksheets and quizzes, or structuring tasks so that they must be completed
by the group while at the same time making it clear that the teacher will call
on individual group members at random to ensure that each learner has
attained the expected learning outcomes of the task.

In addition to the above three elements, two more elements were added:
Teaching social skills and processing group functioning. The power of
cooperative learning activities to create positive group norms can be
enhanced when teachers make a concentrated effort to help learners
develop the social skills necessary to function effectively as group members
during cooperative learning activities.

(iv) Social skills and processing group functioning. Johnson et al. (in Levin &
Nolan, 1996:146) identified four sets of skills that learners need to develop
over time in order to function most effectively as a group. When these skills
are in place and groups function successfully, group norms are established

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that lead learners to

● be engaged in learning activities

● strive towards learning achievement
● interact with one another in ways that will facilitate the development of
positive self-esteem

The four sets of skills are forming skills, functioning skills, formulating skills and
fermenting skills.

(1) Forming skills are an initial set of management skills that are helpful in getting
groups up and running smoothly and effectively. These skills include:

● moving into groups quietly without bothering others

● staying with the group rather than moving around the room
● speaking quietly so that you can be heard by members of the group,
but not by others
● encouraging all group members to participate

(2) Functioning skills are group-management skills aimed at controlling the types
of interactions that occur between group members. These include:

● staying focused on the task

● expressing support and acceptance of others
● asking for help or clarification
● offering to explain or clarify
● paraphrasing or summarising what others have said

(3) Formulating skills make up a set of behaviours to help learners to do a better

job of processing material mentally. These skills include:

● summarising key points

● connecting ideas
● seeking elaboration of ideas
● finding ways to remember information more effectively
● checking explanations and ideas through articulation

(4) Provoking skills form a set of skills needed to resolve cognitive conflicts that
arise within the group. These skills include:

● criticising ideas without criticising people

● synthesising diverse ideas
● asking for justification
● extending other people’s ideas

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● probing for more information

Teachers should teach these social skills to learners just as they teach academic
material. Therefore, when you plan a cooperative learning activity, you plan not only
the academic objectives, but also the learning of social skills. Before the activity
begins, you explain the skill and make sure the learners know what the skill looks
and sounds like, as it is expressed in behaviour. Once you are convinced that the
learners understand the meaning of the skill, learners practise the skill during the
cooperative learning activity. While the learners are practising the skill, you move
from group to group, monitoring the use of the skill. When the activity has been
completed, you engage each group in reflecting on how successfully the skill had
been used and setting goals for improving their use of the skill in future (Johnson et
al., in Levin & Nolan, 1996:146-147). Although the basic principles of cooperative
learning do not change, there are several variations of this approach to enhancing
learning. The following are various cooperative learning techniques:

• Teams-games-tournaments (TGT)
• Student teams’ achievement divisions (STAD)
• Jigsaw puzzle
• Think-pair-share strategy
• Group investigation

2.10.1 Student teams’ achievement divisions (STAD)

This approach was developed by Robert Slavin and his colleagues and is perhaps
the simplest and most straightforward of the cooperative learning approaches
(Arends, 1991:325).

Teachers who use this approach present new academic content to learners each
week, through either verbal presentation or text. Learners in a given class are divided
into four or five-member learning teams, with each team representative of both sexes,
various racial and ethnic groups, and high, average and low achievers. Team
members use worksheets or other study devices to master the content and then help
one another to learn the content through tutoring, quizzing one another, or carrying
on team discussions. Individual learners take weekly or bi-weekly quizzes on the
content. These quizzes are scored and each individual is given an improvement
score. This improvement score is based not on a learner’s absolute score, but instead
on the degree to which the score exceeds a learner’s past averages.

Each week, through a short newsletter or some other device, teams with the highest
scores, learners who have high improvement scores, or those who have perfect
scores on the quizzes, are recognised (Arends, 1991:325).

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2.10.2 Jigsaw

The jigsaw method was developed and tested by Elliot Aronson and his colleagues
in 1978 and then adapted by Slavin and his colleagues (Arends, 1991:325).

With the jigsaw method, learners are assigned to five or six-member heterogeneous
study teams. Academic materials are presented to learners in text form and each
learner has to learn a portion of the material. For example, if the textual material was
on cooperative learning, one learner in the team would be responsible for STAD,
another for jigsaw, another for group investigation, and perhaps the other two would
become experts in the research base and history of cooperative learning. Members
from different teams, but with the same topic (sometimes called ‘‘the expert group’’),
meet to study and help one another learn their topic. Then learners return to their
home team and teach other members what they have learnt. Following home team
meetings and discussions, individual learners take quizzes on the content. In the
Slavin version of jigsaw, team scores are formed using the same scoring procedures
as in STAD. High-scoring teams and individuals are recognised in the weekly class
newsletter or by some other means (Arends, 1991:325).

2.10.3 Group investigation (GI)

Many of the key features of GI were originally designed by Herbert Thelen. More
recently, this approach has been extended and refined by Shlomo Sharan (in Arends,
1991:326) and his colleagues at Tel Aviv University.

GI is perhaps the most complex of the cooperative learning approaches and the most
difficult to implement. In contrast to STAD and jigsaw, in GI, learners are involved in
planning both the topics for study and the ways to proceed with their investigations.
This requires more sophisticated classroom norms and structures than do
approaches that are more teacher-centred. It also requires learners to be taught the
communication and group process skills.

Teachers who use the GI approach normally divide their classes into five or six-
member heterogeneous groups. In some instances, however, groups may form
around friendships or around an interest in a particular topic. Learners select topics
for study, pursue in-depth investigations of chosen subtopics, and then prepare and
present a report to the whole class. Sharan (in Arends, 1991:326) described the
following six steps of the GI approach:

(1) Topic selection. Learners choose specific subtopics within a general problem
area, usually delineated by the teacher. Learners then organise themselves
into small two to six-member task-oriented groups. Group composition is
academically and ethnically heterogeneous.
(2) Cooperative planning. Learners and teacher plan specific learning

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procedures, tasks and objectives consistent with the subtopics of the problem
selected in step (1).
(3) Implementation. Learners carry out the plan formulated in step (2). Learning
should involve a wide variety of activities and skills and should lead to
investigation of different kinds of sources both inside and outside the school.
The teacher closely follows the progress of each group and offers assistance
when needed.
(4) Analysis and synthesis. Learners analyse and evaluate information obtained
during step (3) and plan how it can be summarised in some interesting
fashion for possible display or presentation to classmates.
(5) Presentation of final product. Some or all of the groups in the class give an
interesting presentation of the topics they have studied in order to get
classmates involved in one another’s work and to achieve a broad
perspective on the topic. Group presentations are coordinated by the
teacher.
(6) Evaluation. In cases where groups pursued different aspects of the same
topic, learners and teacher evaluate each group’s contribution to the work of
the class as a whole. Evaluation may include either individual or group
assessment, or both.

"Planning and preparing to use cooperative learning as a teaching method. There are
some unique aspects of planning and preparing when using this approach to learning.
For example, time spent organising or analysing specific lesson skills may instead be
spent gathering resource materials, texts or worksheets so that small groups of
learners can work on their own. Instead of planning for the smooth flow and
sequencing of major ideas, the teacher may work on how to make smooth transitions
from large-class to small-group instruction” (Arends, 1991:326).

Choosing appropriate content

As with any lesson, one of the primary planning tasks for teachers is choosing the
content that is appropriate to the interests and prior learning of the learners. The
cooperative learning approach requires a substantial amount of learner self-direction
and initiative. Without interesting and appropriately challenging content, a
cooperative lesson can easily fail.

➢ There are several questions you could use to determine the

appropriateness of subject content:

● Have the learners had some prior contact with the subject matter, or will
it require an extended explanation by the teacher?
● Is the content likely to interest the group of learners for whom it is being
planned?

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● If you want to use text, does it provide sufficient information on the

topic?
● For STAD or jigsaw lessons, does the content lend itself to objective
quizzes that can be administered and scored quickly?
● For a jigsaw lesson, does the content lend itself to being divided into
several natural subtopics?
● For a GI lesson, do you have sufficient command of the topic to guide
learners into various subtopics and direct them to relevant resources?

Forming learner teams

A second important planning task in cooperative learning is deciding how learner

teams are to be formed. This task will vary according to the learning outcomes you
have for a particular lesson, the racial and ethnic mix, and the ability levels of the
learners in your classes.

The composition of learning teams has almost infinite possibilities. During the
planning phase, you must outline your expected academic and social outcomes
clearly. You also need to gather sufficient information about your learners’ abilities,
in case you want to set up heterogeneous ability teams. You also have to realise that
some features of group composition may have to be sacrificed in order to meet others
(Arends, 1991:327).

Developing materials and directions

Verbal information is usually accompanied by text, worksheets and study guides.

Text should be both interesting and at an appropriate reading level for the particular
class of learners. Good study guides and materials take time to develop and cannot
be de- signed the night before the lesson.

It is important that learners have a clear understanding of their roles and what is
expected of them as they participate in a cooperative learning lesson. An important
thing to remember for teachers who have not used cooperative learning before, and
who are using it with learners who are not familiar with the approach, is that at first it
may appear not to be working. Learners may be confused by the reward structure of
this method, or parents may be unhappy. Another possibility is that the learners may
lack initial enthusiasm for the potential of small-group interaction with their peers in
the area of academic subjects.

➢ Conducting the lesson

When you use cooperative learning, your role is not to deliver information or provide
explanations (as is often the case with direct instruction). Rather, your role is to plan,

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manage and monitor the learning environment so that learners can engage effectively
and productively in learning.

You will implement this approach by

● forming the groups

● reminding learners of the academic task (what they are to learn) and the
cooperative goal structure (the rewards for learning)
● reminding learners of your expectations of them, particularly in relation to
helping one another to learn
● providing learners with resources, if necessary
● circulating to provide assistance as required, monitoring the activities and
learning of the learners, and making notes of matters that will need to be
dealt with once the group sessions have finished
● evaluating learner achievement and helping them assess how well they have
collaborated with one another

However, teaching is never a simple task in which everything goes according to the
teacher’s plans. You will find that there are many unexpected issues that you have
to attend to when you are using cooperative learning as a teaching strategy, and you
will have to keep experimenting to find an approach that suits you and your learners
(Killen, 2006:85).

(a) Making transitions from whole-class teaching to learning teams

The process of getting learners into learning teams and getting them started on their
work is perhaps one of the most difficult steps for teachers who implement
cooperative learning as a strategy.

Three simple but important steps for making these transitions smoothly are the
following:
(1) Write key steps on the chalkboard or charts. Visual cues assist large groups
of learners as they move from one place in the room to another. Think of
these as signs similar to those provided for people lining up to purchase
theatre tickets or queuing procedures used at public events such as soccer
or rugby games. An example of such a display is given by Arends (1991:329):

Step 1: Move quickly to the location when your team’s name has been posted on the
wall.
Step 2: Choose one team member to come up to my desk to gather needed learning
materials.
Step 3: Spend 10 minutes reading your particular assignment.
Step 4: At my signal, begin your discussions.

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Step 5: At my signal, return to your learning team and start presenting your
information.

(2) State directions clearly and ask two or three learners to paraphrase the
directions. Getting several learners to repeat the directions helps everybody
to pay attention and also gives you feedback on whether or not your learners
have understood the directions.
(3) Identify a location for each learning team and have that clearly marked. Left
to their own devices, learners at any age (even adults) will not spread out
evenly around a room. They will tend to cluster in areas of the room that are
most easily accessible.
(b) Managing and helping learners during teamwork

Uncomplicated cooperative learning activities allow learners to complete their work

with little interruption or assistance from the teacher. However, when using the GI
method, you must remain constantly available to assist with resource identification.
But, never forget that too much interference and unrequested assistance can be
annoying to learners.

(c) Evaluation

The cooperative learning approach changes the reward system and, consequently,
re- quires a different approach to evaluation and recognition of achievement (Arends,
1991:330).

For STAD and the Slavin version of jigsaw, the teacher requires the learners to take
quizzes on the contents to be learnt. The items on these quizzes must, in most cases,
be of an objective type so that they may be scored in class or soon thereafter.

Slavin (in Arends, 1991:330), the developer of this scoring system, described it in this
way:
“The amount that each student contributes to his or her team is determined by the
amount the student’s quiz score exceeds the student’s own past quiz average ...”
Learners with perfect papers always receive the maximum, regardless of their base
scores. This individual improvement system gives every student a good chance to
contribute maximum points to the team if (and only if) the student does his or her
best, and thereby shows substantial improvement or gets a perfect paper. This
improvement point system has been shown to increase student academic
performance even without teams, but it is especially important as a component of
STAD since it avoids the possibility that low performing learners will not be fully
accepted as group members because they do not contribute many points.

There is no elaborate scoring system for the GI approach. The group report or
presentation serves as one basis for evaluation and learners should be re- warded

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for both individual contributions and the collective product. The teacher has to be very
careful with this evaluation procedure. Consistent with the concept of a cooperative
reward structure, it is important for you to reward the group product. However,
according to Arends (1991:331), this can cause two kinds of problems.

Firstly, a few ambitious learners might take on a larger portion of the responsibility
for completing the group project and then be resentful towards classmates who made
only minor contributions yet received the same evaluation. Similarly, learners who
have neglected their responsibilities to the group effort may develop cynicism towards
a system that rewards them for work not accomplished.

Some experienced teachers have found a solution by providing two evaluations for
learners: one for the group’s effort and one for each person’s individual contribution.
However, the latter is sometimes difficult to ascertain. This procedure also prevents
less able learners from making as significant a contribution as possible with the
scoring system of STAD and jigsaw, based on individual improvement.

In summary, cooperative learning seems to produce a variety of possible results

much of the time. These results include improvement in academic achievement,
social relationships, cooperative work skills and self-esteem (Myers & Myers,
1990:373).

2.10.4 Role play and simulation method

Role play is a teaching approach in which the learners assume or dramatise the role
of a particular individual. The role-play method uses several techniques such as
dramatisation, simulation and socio-drama. Role play requires learners to put
themselves into someone else’s shoes or stay in their own shoes and put themselves
into an imaginary situation (Budden, 2002). The teacher can decide to use a small
group or the whole group for role play.
In this regard, the role of the teacher is to explain to the learners the context of the
situation to be dramatised. Learners should then be provided with sufficient time to
prepare for their respective roles.

Learners should be assigned to act out situations that are realistic, which will require
them to react in real-world situations. At the end of the role play, the participating
learners should be prepared to answer questions from class mates who have
observed the role play. Role play assists in encouraging learners to connect
emotionally and intellectually with the subject matter being studied. The role-play
method uses several techniques such as dramatisation, simulation and socio-drama.
Role play can be divided in to four stages (Cherif & Somerville, 1998):

Stage 1: Preparation and explanation of the activity by the teacher

Stage 2: Student preparation of the activity

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Stage 3: The role play

Stage 4: Discussion or debriefing after the role-play activity

It is also important for the classroom to be well-managed to avoid chaos during the
learners’ rehearsals. Four forms of role play can be identified:

One that involves few learners (actors); the majority of the class observe and analyse
the interaction between the players.

The second form of role play requires the learner to take on a specific role, frequently
over a longer period of time, in order to gain greater experience of what it might be
like and to receive feedback.

The third form requires learners to take on specific roles, frequently over a longer
period of time, in order to gain greater experience of what it might be like working in
a particular occupation or situation.

In the fourth form, learners pretend to be anything – either living or non-living.

2.10.5 Case study

A case study method is a complex example that gives an insight into the context of a
problem as well as illustrating the main point (Fry et Al., 1999). This teaching method
requires learners to draw upon their experiences and apply theoretical concepts to
be demonstrated in order to bridge the gap between theory and practice. This method
enables a student-centred teaching approach that can support and enhance learners’
critical thinking, communication, social and interpersonal skills. Learners should
examine the cases and base their attempts to make decisions on their knowledge of
the content (Shank & Cleary, 1994).
Learners in a case study are required to analyse the case and report it in written form.
This method challenges learners to identify principles after studying the case and
then apply those principles to new situations. Case studies have the following
advantages:

✓ Learners actively participate

✓ Learners develop various critical skills (for instance, problem solving, critical
thinking, communication and group work)

Case studies can be used for several purposes: they can motivate new material, and
introduce theoretical concepts or empirical examples or applications to reinforce the
learning theory. The following steps can be followed by learners when analysing a
case study:

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❖ Scan through the case

❖ Carefully review the questions at the end of the case
❖ Re-read the case thoroughly with the questions in mind
❖ Work through the case making notes and comments that address the
questions

2.10.6 Research as a teaching method

This learner-centred approach is underpinned by the constructivist principle.

Research as a teaching method is an out-of-class activity, which focuses on learning
beyond the classroom.

In this method of teaching, learners are given a project and must search for relevant
information in the real world. The research method can be used as an individual or
group teaching strategy. The advantage of a research method is that it provides
learners with positive real-life experiences.

2.10.7 Teams-games-tournaments (TGT)

TGT is one of the effective evaluating procedures of cooperative learning. It requires

home groups or base groups that consistently function in the class for a period of
time.

The basic processes of TGT are:

1) to cooperatively complete a task,

2) to revise a unit or substantial portion of content, generally before a written
test,
3) to motivate those with test-fear to be at ease, and
4) to learn and to reinforce what is learnt.

The teacher prepares the following items:

1) a list of teams, generally made of three members, each from a different home
group (post two or three copies of the list in the room),
2) a set of question-and-answer sheets for each team,
3) a set of number cards (numbers corresponding to the number of questions)
for each team, and
4) a score sheet for each team.

The TGT procedures are as follows:

1. Looking at the team list, members form teams and sit together.
2. A material manager from each team picks up the materials for the team.
3. Write the names of team members and home group names on the score sheets.

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4. Decide on the direction of the game – clockwise or anticlockwise.

5. Number cards are shuffled and members pick up cards. The one with the
highest number is to begin the game.
6. Number cards are put back and shuffled again.
7. The first person begins the game by picking a card. He/she reads the
corresponding question from the question paper.
8. He/she will answer the question while others listen. If correct, the person gets
to keep the card. If wrong, any member may challenge and answer it, then that
person gets to keep the cards. If nobody knows the answer, the answer sheet
is checked for the right answer. Then they must verify the answer from the
answer sheet, just to be sure.
9. The game will go on in this manner, with one person getting one turn at a time.
10. The game is more fun when it is crisp and fast.
11. When all the cards are won, points are counted (may count two points for each
card) and written in the score sheet under round 1.
12. If time remains, a subsequent round may be played. During each subsequent
round, the items are reinforced, and the game goes faster too.
13. When the allotted time is complete (30 minutes or so), the teacher stops the
game. Material managers bring the tabulated score sheets (along with the rest
of the materials) to the teacher.
14. The teacher writes the scores on the board for each home group and totals the
score.
15. The team members with the highest score are declared the winners. All are
winners really, as all would have learnt something!

Students generally love this fun test! Try it out for yourselves, in your class. All the
best!

2.10.8 Flipped classroom pedagogy

The concept of the flipped classroom pedagogy was first brought up by Jonathan
Bergmann and Aaron Sams, who were both high school chemistry teachers. In their
book: Flip your classroom: Reach every student in every class every day (2012), they
discussed a couple of reasons why teachers should consider flipping (p.20-33):

The classroom is a “pedagogical approach in which direct instruction moves from the
group learning space to the individual learning space, and the resulting group space
is transformed into a dynamic, interactive learning environment where the educator
guides students as they apply concepts and engage creatively in the subject matter”
(The Flipped Learning Network, 2014).

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2.10.9 Think-pair-share strategy

Think-pair-share (TPS) is a collaborative teaching strategy first proposed by Frank

Lyman of the University of Maryland in 1981. It can be used to help students form
individual ideas, discuss, and share with the others in-group. It can be used before
reading or teaching a concept and works better with smaller groups.

TPS is a collaborative learning strategy in which students work together to solve a

problem or answer a question about an assigned reading. This technique requires
students to (1) think individually about a topic or answer to a question; and (2) share
ideas with classmates

Why use TPS? It helps students to think individually about a topic or an answer to a
question. It teaches students to share ideas with classmates and builds oral
communication skills. It helps focus attention and engage students in comprehending
the reading material.

Conclusion

In this learning unit we introduced you to some teaching strategies and methods that
can be used successfully in the classroom. Remember that active learner
involvement in the learning process is essential to effective teaching. You should
therefore concentrate on using teaching strategies, methods and techniques that
facilitate active learner participation in the lessons. We must emphasise that you, the
teacher, will ultimately decide which strategies and methods you will use, and for
what purpose.

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

Assess yourself to ascertain whether you have achieved the learning outcomes for
this learning unit.

1. Explain direct instruction in three sentences and write down the seven
advantages of direct instruction, without making use of the study guide.

2. Without consulting the study guide, write down the nine techniques for asking
questions during a lesson in order to ensure that effective learning takes
place, and discuss problem solving under the following headings:

• When to use problem solving as a teaching method

• Advantages and disadvantages of problem solving
• Preparations for using the problem-solving method

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3. Discuss the three approaches to cooperative learning and indicate the

similarities between them.

References

Network, FL. 2014. About the Flipped Learning Network. The Four Pillars of FLIP:
http://www.flippedlearning.org/cms/lib07/VA01923112/Centricity/Domain/46
/FLIP_handout_FNL_Web. pdf. Accessed 08 September 2019.
Shank, R & Clearly, C. 1994. Engines for Education. [Online]. Available at:
http://www.ils.nwu.edu/~e_for_eLearnTechLib is a development of Global U
- Learning & Technology Innovation, a non-profit, 501(c)(3) organisation.
Sponsored by the Association for the Advancement of Computing in
Education.

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Table of contents

Learning outcomes
Key concepts
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Teacher-centred approach towards teaching EMS
3.2.1 Direct instruction
3.2.2 The lecture method
3.2.2.1 Advantages of the lecture method
3.2.2.2 Disadvantages of the lecture method
3.2.2.3 Methods of improving lectures
3.2.3 Demonstrations method
3.2.3.1 Advantages of the demonstration
3.2.3.2 Disadvantages of the demonstration
3.2.4 Question-and-answer method
3.2.5 Textbook method
3.2.5.1 Advantages of the textbook method
3.2.5.2 Disadvantages of the textbook method
Conclusion
Self-assessment activity

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Learning Unit 3: Teaching strategies and methods of teaching

Economic and Management Sciences in the senior phase:
Teacher-centred approach

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you will able to do the following:

Choose the most applicable method(s) for the teaching and learning of different
aspects of the subject in different contexts;
Select and use appropriate technology for teaching different aspects of the subject in
different contexts.

Key concepts

Teaching strategies
Teaching methods
Direct instruction

3.1 Introduction

The previous learning unit helped you to understand the learner-centred approach.
In this learning unit the focus will be on the teacher-centred approach to learning. It
is one in which the teacher plans lessons that are controlled by the teacher who is in
a position of authority. It means the teacher is the main focus in acting out the lesson
to achieve lesson objectives. In this approach the teacher remains in control of the
knowledge (that to be learnt) and the learner remains a passive listener (responds
only to instructions by the teacher).

3.2 Teacher-centred approach towards teaching EMS

The approach to teaching is as important as the learning content. The learner-centred

approach was discussed in the previous section. In this section, we discuss the
teacher-centred approach.

The teacher-centred approach focuses on the teacher; this is where teacher plans
and controls lessons and is in a position of authority.

In this case, the teacher is the main focus acting out the lesson and takes control of
the lesson plan to achieve the expected learning goals. In this approach, the
teacher’s role is to transfer knowledge needed by learners because learners are
regarded as empty vessels. Hence, the most used methods of approach include
telling, lectures, and direct instruction. In this approach the teacher uses tests and
examinations to assess the progress of learners.

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The following methods are suitable for a teacher-centred approach to teaching:

• Direct instruction method

• Whole-class discussion
• Teaching large classes as a method
• Question-and-answer method
• Textbook method
• Economic cartoons as a method

3.2.1 Direct instruction

Direct instruction is also called expository teaching, or ‘‘chalk and talk’’, and
represents a teacher-centred approach. The direct instruction method is a teacher-
centred approach that is used to assist learners in the process of transferring of skills
and conceptual facts (Anderson, 2013). It makes use of other methods such as
demonstration and lecture methods. On the other hand, the approach is criticised for
lack of hands-on experimenting during the lessons, which negates learning by doing
(Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999:335). The teacher uses lecture methods and the learners
are passive listeners.

Although learner-centred approaches to teaching have been highlighted in recent

years, direct instruction is still very much in use, mainly because, according to Killen
(2006:4), it has the following advantages:

● With direct instruction you are in control of the content and sequence of the
in- formation that students receive.
● It allows you to highlight important points or possible difficulties for students
so that their exposure to these things is not left to chance.
● Generally, it is a non-threatening environment for students. Those who are
shy or lack confidence or knowledge are not forced to participate and suffer
embarrassment.
● It can be a very effective way of teaching factual information and knowledge
that is highly structured.
● It is one of the most effective approaches to teaching explicit concepts and
skills to low-achieving students.
● It allows you to present a large amount of information in a relatively short
period of time.
● It can be used equally effectively with large and small classes.
Killen (2007:5) also mentions some limitations of direct instruction:
● It relies heavily on learners assimilating information through listening. Since
not all learners are very good at this, they may not learn much from it.
● Because of the teacher’s central role in direct instruction, it will not be
successful unless the teacher is confident, enthusiastic and a skilful
presenter.

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● Because learners have limited active involvement in direct instruction, there

are few opportunities in this type of lesson for them to develop their social
and inter- personal skills.
● There is some research evidence that the high level of structure and teacher
control of learning activities characteristic of direct instruction may have a
negative impact on students’ problem-solving abilities, independence and
curiosity.
● It is very difficult to cater for the individual differences between learners’
abilities, interests and learning styles during direct instruction.
● Because this strategy is teacher-centred, and because it is used very
frequently, it can be boring for the learners.
● If used too frequently, direct instruction can lead learners to believe that it is
the teacher’s job to tell them all they need to know, thus lessening their
willingness to take responsibility for their own learning.

Activity 3.1
Explain why direct instruction is still commonly used, although learner-centred
approaches to teaching have recently become more popular.

The following methods of direct instruction are most useful for teaching facts that
learners need for further learning, as well as for teaching processes, concepts and
skills such as entrepreneurship, accounting, business management skills, elements
of the economic environment and map reading. These methods may not be so useful
in less structured areas such as problem solving, composition or evaluating ideas.

3.2.2 The lecture method

The lecture method is the oldest teacher-centred approach that originated from
idealism philosophy (O'Bannon, 2012:4). It is also known as a communication
strategy that focuses mainly on cognitive objectives set by the teachers. The main
emphasis of this teacher-centred approach is the presentation of the content. The
teacher, who plans the lecture, is active in its delivery and the learners are passive
and receptive. This teacher-centred approach does have advantages. It is believed
to be less time consuming and also flexible enough to accommodate other methods
of teaching. It is also recommended for the introduction of a new topic and helps to
achieve higher order objectives of the lessons (O’Bannon, 2012:4). However, this
method is criticised because the learners are passive and it fails to draw and hold the
attention of the beneficiaries of the learning process. Therefore, it can give rise to
boredom (O’Bannon, 2012:4).

A lecture method in the EMS class has the same function as a demonstration in the
science class. Learners are expected to listen while the teacher informs, narrates,
expounds, describes or explains, depending on the degree of difficulty of the subject

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matter. Sometimes an inductive and sometimes a deductive course is followed. For

instance, the lesson might proceed as follows:

● analysis of the problem

● solution to the problem
● summary and application

As a teaching method, the lecture is more suitable for motivated than for unmotivated
learners. The following are some of the requirements for using this method
successfully:

● Teachers must adapt their language to the learners’ level of achievement.

● The teacher must state the problem and then guide the learners towards the
solution.
● The lecture should not be too long.
● The lecture should not be an exact reproduction of what is in the textbook.
● The lecture must have a beginning and a climax.
● It is not only what the teacher says that is important, but aspects such as
tempo, emotional value and expression are also important.

You should guard against the extremes of democratic and autocratic teaching, too
strict or too lenient an attitude, and an approach that is too learner-centred or too
subject-centred.

The lecture method plays a significant part in learning, especially in exploratory

teaching in the introduction of a new theme, in summing up, and in cases where
information is not readily available or is too widely distributed, where learners are
dependent or where time is limited.

The role of the teacher

The teachers approach can generate either a passive or an active approach in

learners. An analysis has indicated that passivity is encouraged when the teacher
provides ready answers, while active learning is cultivated by a problem-stating
approach that encourages reflective participation. Studying means integrating new
facts and insights into one’s frame of reference. The teacher should pursue this ideal
by helping learners to

● acquire knowledge independently

● think and reason critically
● distinguish between relevant and less relevant information, and between
long-term and short-term effects

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The lecture method requires the teacher to have

● a thorough knowledge of the facts and to arrange them properly;

● the ability to generate interest and inspire learners;
● the ability to find suitable examples, and apply and illustrate the connection
between theory and practice

Activity 3.2
From your own experience as a learner or teacher, list what you think are the
advantages and/or disadvantages of the lecture method.
Did you think of the following advantages and disadvantages?

3.2.2.1 Advantages of the lecture method

● It generates interest and breathes life into dry facts.

● It is undoubtedly time-saving.
● It supplements information where the textbook is inadequate.
● It makes it possible to arrange the subject matter systematically, thereby
facilitating the explanation of difficult concepts and problem situations.
● It helps to improve typical business economic abilities, such as synthesis,
comparison, research, classification and decision making.
● A lecture may be given to small or large groups. The only requirement is that
the learners should be able to see and hear the teacher.
● Lectures may be given to all types of learners such as gifted and less gifted
learners, and beginners and advanced classes, provided they are motivated
by the lectures.

3.2.2.2 Disadvantages of the lecture method

The following disadvantages relate to this method:

● Learners’ powers of concentration are limited, with the result that retention is
not very high.
● Learners find it difficult to distinguish between important and less important
aspects of what is being explained.
● It does not promote initiative and independent activity in learners.
● It tends to be too formal, with the result that distance is created between
teacher and learner. Because there is a tendency for lectures to lack order,
it may give rise to boredom.
● Many lectures focus on the lowest level (knowledge) of the cognitive domain;
too much time is spent on obvious facts and too little time on higher cognitive
skills.
● Often too much material is dealt with in one period.
● Usually only one of the six senses is involved.

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● There is little opportunity for individualisation, with the result that some
learners are bored while others are baffled.

3.2.2.3 Methods of improving lectures

A teacher could do the following to improve a lecture:

● Involve the learners. They learn better if they are interested, are encouraged
instead of punished, and understand rather than memorise.
● Create opportunities for learners to take down their own notes instead of
reproducing what you are dictating. This forces learners to think and you to
present well-arranged subject matter.
● Never exhaust the subject matter. A good teacher generates interest, directs
learning, points out problems and introduces learners to sources for
research.
● Give due recognition to the characteristic structure of EMS. The classroom
approach should be consistent with the approach followed in practice, so

— identify the problem; collect data

— formulate hypotheses; test hypotheses
— state a theory
— study the subject and not the textbook

● Teaching aids such as the chalkboard (chalkboard scheme with major

points), overhead projector, documents and information from the press, radio
and television can be used to reinforce the spoken word. The lecture should
never be mere repetition of what is contained in the textbook.
● Use practical illustrations; your lecture should be both descriptive and
analytical.
● Present your lecture in such a way that it can be followed up by the study of
reference works, a class discussion, role interpretation, or other forms of
discovery learning.
● Every EMS teacher should practise what Henson (1980:117) says: ‘‘Lectures
could be vastly improved by simplifying them through

— organising the content into a few major concepts,

— ordering the concepts in a logical or natural sequence,
— limiting the lecture to 10 or 15 minutes,
— providing tasks that require all students to use the concepts,
summarising the major concepts.’’

Typically, a lesson will begin with a discussion of theory and new concepts, after
which you could move on to a demonstration and/or small-group work and/or a class
discussion. We can never overemphasise the point that you must expand your skills

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at using these teaching methods to ensure that successful learning takes place in the
classroom.

3.2.3 Demonstrations method

Since EMS has both a theoretical and a practical component, you – whether a
beginner or an experienced teacher – should always try to make connections with
what happens in practice. Teachers use media and techniques as alternative but
complementary ways of making abstract and foreign subject matter meaningful to
their learners.

Teaching through demonstrations requires proper planning according to the

objectives and outcomes that should be achieved at the end of the lesson.

In EMS teaching, the spoken work illustration is the most powerful, common and
indispensable demonstration medium. However, learners understand much better if
more than one sense is involved.

This means that, in cases where it is necessary, teachers ought not merely to convey
information, but also to develop learners’ skills.

These skills need to be demonstrated because they can be very successful in, for
example, negotiations, market research, marketing, the balancing of financial
statements, the drawing up of a budget and interviewing. And, for instance, role play
may also be used in such a way that it could serve as a form of demonstration. Skills
are easily acquired by watching/observing other people and then imitating them. By
bringing the life-world into the classroom, a teacher gives learners first-hand
experience of how to carry out a task in practice and, in this way, they master certain
skills.

Division of labour becomes a real-life concept for learners if a video, slide show,
pictures or a visit to an assembly line supplements the teacher’s explanation. You
should, however, avoid making excessive use of media because this might have a
restraining rather than a beneficial effect.

3.2.3.1 Advantages of the demonstration

● When the demonstration method is used correctly, it is an interesting and

fascinating activity that will get and retain the learners’ attention.
● The demonstration method combines principles taught in the classroom with
situations and tasks in real life.
● The demonstration method stimulates ideas and offers the learners a
challenge.

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● The pace is flexible and can be varied to adapt to the learners’ needs. Both
the demonstration and the practising of the skill can be repeated as often as
necessary (Niemand, Swanepoel, Van Niekerk & Van Koller, 1998:90).

3.2.3.2 Disadvantages of the demonstration

● It requires thorough planning and organisation. If things go wrong, the effect

is lost.
● It may happen that not all the learners can hear or see what is happening.
The demonstration method is therefore limited to small groups and, in this
respect, it can be seen as a disadvantage.
● The demonstration method is time consuming, both in terms of preparation
and presentation.

If a demonstration goes well, it is very effective. However, if things go wrong, it can

be very embarrassing for the teacher (Niemand et al., 1998:91).

3.2.4 Question-and-answer method

Through the ages, questioning has been one of the most common teaching
techniques. Nowadays, it is still regarded as a fine tool to use in spite of modern
changes in education theory and technology (Clark & Starr, 1996:179).

The question-and-answer method stems from the Socratic strategy. The philosopher,
Socrates, believed that education involved not merely the transmission of knowledge,
but also and especially the systematisation of knowledge. Today this method is
understood to comprise a series of carefully chosen questions instead of casual or
sporadic questions.

Every teacher is expected to master the question-and-answer method. The ability to

ask questions and handle answers correctly has long been regarded as one of the
most important characteristics of good teaching. There are various classifications of
questions, for example, drill, development and examination questions. Duminy and
Shnge (1985:99-101) distinguish between two main types of questions, which take
into account the intellectual activity required by the questions. They mention
reproductive and productive questions. In the case of reproductive questions, the
emphasis is on memorisation, that is, accurate reproduction of what has been said
previously. These questions require little intellectual activity, are characteristic of the
traditional school, and are indispensable in the sense that they form a basis for
productive questions.

An example of a reproductive question would be ‘‘List the main functions of

marketing”.

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Productive questions require thought and present a challenge. They encourage

learners to apply knowledge, analyse matters and make decisions. The teacher can
use them as a unique instrument of evaluation during the year. An example of a
productive question is “Explain why a lack of productivity is a contributory cause of
declining profits”.

We can summarise Duminy and Shnge’s (1985:106-113) ideas on the purpose or

function of the questions the teacher asks during a lesson as follows:

● During the actualisation of previous knowledge: The teacher determines the

level of knowledge and comprehension. The learners’ level of achievement
depends on their familiarity with the subject matter; consequently, the
questions asked during this phase partly determine the further development
of the lesson. Existing knowledge is arranged and put into perspective by
means of the questions, which thus serve as connections with familiar work.
● During the statement of the problem: Questions must generate interest in the
new theme, especially since they reveal gaps in the learners’ knowledge.
Identifying problems is the largest single factor in presenting a lesson
successfully.
● During exposition of new subject matter: The purpose of questions is to
stimulate learners to think and participate, to retain their interest, to discover
misconceptions and to get the attention of learners who are daydreaming.
This technique encourages learners to make their own discoveries. “It
transforms the student from a mere listener into an active partner in the
lesson’’ (Gartside, 1970:12).
● While controlling/actualising the new subject matter: The teacher
emphasises the main points and gives learners the opportunity to prove that
they have, in fact, mastered the subject matter. Error analysis is more
penetrating: it almost resembles remedial teaching. Learners are stimulated
to think a bit more deeply.

It is evident that questioning requires skill and preparation. Wilen (in Burden & Byrd,
1994:87) suggests the following techniques for asking questions in your lesson:

(1) Plan key questions to provide lesson structure and direction. Write them into
lesson plans, at least one for each objective, especially higher-level
questions necessary to guide discussions. Ask spontaneous questions
based on student responses.
(2) Phrase questions clearly and specifically. Avoid vague or ambiguous
questions such as “What did we learn yesterday?’’ Clarity increases the
probability of accurate responses.
(3) Adapt questions to student-ability levels. This enhances understanding and
reduces anxiety. For heterogeneous classes, phrase questions in natural,

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simple language, adjusting vocabulary and sentence structure to students’

language and conceptual levels.
(4) Ask questions logically and sequentially. Avoid random questions lacking
clear focus and intent. Consider students’ intellectual ability, prior
understanding of content, topic and expected lesson outcomes.
(5) Ask questions at a variety of levels. Use knowledge-level questions to
determine basic understanding and diagnose potential for higher-level
thinking. Higher-level questions provide students with opportunities to use
knowledge and engage in critical and creative thinking.
(6) Follow up on student responses. Develop a response repertoire that
encourages students to clarify initial responses and expand their responses.
For example, ‘‘How would you clarify/substantiate that?’’
(7) Give students time to think before responding. Increase waiting time after
asking a question to three to five seconds to increase the frequency and
duration of student responses and to encourage higher-level thinking.
(8) Use questions that encourage wide student participation. Distribute
questions to involve the majority of students in learning activities. For
example, call on non- volunteers using discretion regarding the difficulty level
of questions.
(9) Encourage student questions. This promotes active participation. Give
students opportunities to formulate questions and carry out follow-up
investigations of interest.

According to Gartside (1970:92), learners have to be encouraged to ask questions:

‘‘A question by a student in the course of a talk is an expression of his interest, and
to discourage him would be wrong.’’ If you cannot answer the question immediately,
look up the information and give the learner feedback. If you are using the question-
and-answer method, it is important that, as the lesson progresses, you make a
comprehensive summary of the correct answers on the chalkboard or overhead
projector. I have reproduced an example of a lesson using the question-and-answer
method from Lemmer” (1994:29).

3.2.5 Textbook method

The textbook method undoubtedly remains one of the most important aids in the
classroom. It offers a measure of security to both learners and teachers, especially
inexperienced teachers. A textbook is a collection of the knowledge, concepts, and
principles of a selected topic or course. It's usually written by one or more teachers,
college professors, or education experts who are authorities in a specific field. Most
textbooks are accompanied by teacher guides, which provide you with supplemental
teaching materials, ideas, and activities to use throughout the academic year.

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3.2.5.1 Advantages of the textbook method

• The textbook serves as a link with other authoritative sources that may
supplement the work done in class.
• As you visit classrooms, you probably notice that most, if not all, of those
classrooms use a standard textbook series. The reasons for this are many,
depending on the design and focus of the curriculum, the mandates of the
administration, and/or the level of expertise on the part of classroom
teachers.
• Textbooks provide you with several advantages in the classroom.
• Textbooks are especially helpful for beginning teachers. The material to be
covered and the design of each lesson are carefully spelled out in detail.
• Textbooks provide organised units of work. A textbook gives you all the plans
and lessons you need to cover a topic in some detail.
• A textbook series provides you with a balanced, chronological presentation
of information.
• Textbooks are a detailed sequence of teaching procedures that tell you what
to do and when to do it. There are no surprises; everything is carefully spelled
out.
• Textbooks provide administrators and teachers with a complete programme.
The series is typically based on the latest research and teaching strategies.
• Good textbooks are excellent teaching aids. They're a resource for both
teachers and students.

3.2.5.2 Disadvantages of the textbook method

• The learners are limited to one textbook per learner for EMS, as prescribed
by the education authorities.
• The use of one prescribed textbook can lead to content driven instruction,
which concentrates on subject content and limits the critical thinking process.
• The concentration in textbooks on subject content and subject knowledge
may lead to the exclusion of the values and attitudes that are needed in a
learner-centred approach.
• The use of textbooks encourages rote learning whereas teachers are
expected to move to an approach where learners must understand and apply
knowledge.
• The use of a textbook can discourage new ways of teaching and thinking.

Conclusion

In this chapter different teacher-centred methods were discussed. The chapter aimed
at helping you make informed decisions regarding an appropriate teaching method.
As an EMS teacher, you have a variety of teaching methods at your disposal. In EMS
it is important for the personal development of learners that they are exposed to these
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different methods. Moreover, learners differ with regard to their background, needs,
experiences, and aspirations, physical and psychological traits. Teachers provide
learners with opportunities in the classroom to express themselves.

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

Assess yourself to ascertain whether you have achieved the learning outcomes for
this learning unit.

1. Discuss and explain, without consulting the study guide, the lecture method,
the question-and-answer method and the demonstration method, each
comprising the following headings:

• Characteristics/definition of the method

• Advantages and disadvantages of the method
• Write down a list of specific steps that you would take to keep improving
your lectures

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References

O'Bannon, L. 2012. Dictionary of ceramic science and engineering. Springer Science

& Business Media.
South Africa. Department of Education. 1997. Senior phase policy document. Pretoria:
Government Printer.
South Africa. Department of Education. 1999. Training manual for grade 7 educators:
Economic and Management Sciences. Pretoria: Government Printer.
South Africa. Department of Education.1999. Curriculum 2005. Illustrative learning programme:
Economic and Management Sciences: grade 7. Pretoria: Government Printer.
South Africa. Department of Education. 2000. Educator development manual: Economic and
Management Sciences: senior phase. Pretoria: Government Printer.
South Africa. Department of Education. 2002a. Revised national curiculum statement grades R-9
(Schools): policy. Pretoria: Government Printer.
South Africa. Department of Education. 2002b. Policy: revised national curriculum statement
grades R-9 (Schools): overview: Economic and Management Sciences. Pretoria:
Government Printer.

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Table of contents

Leaning outcomes
Key concepts
4.1 Introduction
4.2 teaching media (support materials) for the EMS subject.
4.2.1 Advantages of teaching media
4.2.2 Disadvantages of teaching media:
4.2.1.1 The chalkboard
4.2.1.2 The overhead projector
4.2.1.3 The pin board
4.2.1.4 Newspapers, technical journals and documents
4.2.1.5 Worksheets
4.2.1.6 Flash cards
4.2.1.7 Posters
4.2.1.8 Films, sound recordings, slide show videos, radio and the internet
4.2.1.9 E-book
4.2.1.10 Integrating ICT in the EMS curriculum
4.2.1.11 Blogs
4.2.1.12 Wikis
4.2.1.13 Open educational resources (OERs)
Conclusion
Self-Assessment activity

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Learning Unit 4: Teaching resources and media for EMS

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit you will able to do the following:

• Choose, adapt or design the most applicable teaching media for teaching
different aspects of the subject in different contexts; and
• Select and use appropriate technology for teaching different aspects of the
subject in different contexts.

Key concepts
Teaching aids
Resources
White board

4.1 Introduction

In this learning unit, we outline the importance of using teaching resources and the
media relevant for this subject. We are in the 21st century, therefore need to use
various teaching resources and media to make the subject interesting. As a student
teacher, you should be aware of the wealth of teaching resources, which you can use
to present lessons that are as engaging as they are educational.

4.2 Teaching media (support materials) for the EMS subject

Teaching media refer to the media used by the teacher to enhance the quality, and
therefore the effect, of his or her presentation of the content. In other words, the
teacher makes use of teaching media to offer alternative, yet supplementary, ways
of meaningfully bringing the often abstract and unfamiliar content within the scope
of real life (Becker, 1989:99). The significance of teaching media is that they
complement and lighten the teacher’s instruction task and help learners in their
learning task. In the didactic situation, the teacher communicates content to the
learners who learn it. Teaching media play an important role in communicating the
content in an effective and interesting way. Besides using the environment and the
community as resources in teaching EMS, learners can be given different
opportunities to interact with written texts of different kinds, as will be discussed.

Using teaching media requires proper planning according to the expected outcomes
that have been formulated for the lesson. The media do not replace the teacher, but
serve as an aid to teaching. Gartside (1970:104) writes: ‘‘The teacher would be foolish
not to welcome any opportunity to strengthen his teaching by whatever means lie in
his power.’’

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Stronge (2018:88) explains: ‘‘The success of educational technology in the school

depends not so much upon its nature, but upon the quality of teaching planning
and preparation.’’

When choosing teaching media, you should bear the following in mind:

● The media you use should serve a specific purpose.

● All the learners should be able to see the particular media (e.g. source
documents).
● Plan carefully in advance how you are going to use the media effectively
in the classroom so that you do not waste valuable time. The media should
slot into the flow of the lesson.
● You will be able to choose the right media only if you know and have
absolute control of your subject matter (Prinsloo & Visser, 1979:92).
● Give the learners a chance to react actively to the media. Ask questions
to establish whether they have acquired the desired insight (1985:147).
● Think carefully about whether an aid will have any impact and, therefore,
whether it is really necessary.
● Do not assume that your learners are familiar with visual media that occur
in everyday life, for example, a cheque stub (or other source documents).
Learners often know nothing about things related to business economics,
simply because they are not exposed to them (Duminy & Sohnge,
1985:148).

4.2.1 Advantages of teaching media

● illustrate and cast light on difficult abstract concepts and relationships

● create interest
● promote motivation
● reinforce the power of the spoken word
● promote the powers of retention

Seeing things in real life is of great importance for effective learning (e.g. it is one
thing to hear about the sea, but quite another to actually see it). Because direct
experience cannot always be accomplished in a classroom situation, media such
as slides, videos and posters are necessary substitutes. Reality (the life-world) is
brought into the classroom by representing it with the aid of a teaching medium.

4.2.2 Disadvantages of teaching media

We need to guard against exaggerated use of teaching media because then they
may become a hindrance rather than a help. Indiscriminate use of media could

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● encourage passivity
● slow down thinking

Activity 4.1
What value do teaching media have in the teaching/learning situation?
List disadvantages of using teaching media.
List any advantages of using teaching media.

4.2.2.1 The chalkboard

Burden and Byrd (1994:37) believe that ‘‘chalkboards are so common that teachers
often forget that they can be the most versatile and useful visual aid that is available.
Teachers should not be fooled by the simplicity of the chalkboard; optimal use re-
quires thoughtful preparation’’. You should plan very carefully what you intend doing
on the chalkboard and it should develop in a fascinating way, step by step, before the
learners’ eyes. The view of Musselman et al. (1979:53) on teaching accounting,
which applies equally to EMS, says it all: “In planning a board demonstration, the
teacher should so organise the material that he may complete the demonstration
within the class period. By limiting each illustration to the development of one key
point, by stripping each illustration of all but the essentials, by preparing the
preliminary work before the start of the class period, and by planning the
demonstration so as to avoid any unnecessary delays, the teacher will be able to
demonstrate most bookkeeping procedures in one period.”

4.2.2.2 The overhead projector

Besides the chalkboard, the overhead projector is one of the most useful and effective
media you could use in the EMS classroom. To begin with, you will need to plan and
prepare your transparencies carefully, but once you have prepared them, you can use
them again and again.

Activity 4.2
Discuss five advantages of overhead projectors for the EMS learning area.

4.2.2.3 The pin board

Properly planned and used, the pin board is an effective teaching medium in the
EMS classroom for communicating information. Boynton (1970:183) writes: ‘‘Its
success as a teaching device centres on the teacher’s attitude and his
willingness and ability to see it put to good use.’’

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The value of the information on the pin board depends on how familiar the learners
are with it and whether it ties in with their area of experience. Because the business
world is constantly changing, you will have to actively encourage your learners to
read newspapers, not only to gather information, but also to see how they can relate
theory to practice. The learners can take responsibility for keeping the pin board up
to date by regularly putting up good examples found in newspaper clippings. The
information on the pin board should be changed continually. You should point out
new information to your learners and perhaps even discuss it with them. In this way
you can fully integrate the information on the pin board into your lessons. Pictures,
graphs and diagrams are useful ways of displaying information because they
summarise facts and represent them visually (Becker, 1989:106). You could display
events surrounding a particular issue as a unit, with cuttings from different
newspapers, technical journals and pamphlets. A newspaper cutting on the national
budget presented by the Minister of Finance will enable learners to understand the
importance of paying tax. Photographs, charts, pictures, posters and other visual
images send out strong educational messages when used correctly and
meaningfully. Explain these cuttings and materials to learners because it will be
futile if they do not understand the context of the data/message that should be
portrayed by the support materials

4.2.2.4 Newspapers, technical journals and documents

Because of the dynamic nature of the EMS learning area, there is not a single
newspaper that does not mention some form of business activity, financial matter or
shares. Newspapers are relatively cheap and may be used in the classroom with little
trouble. Many technical journals are available, but these are more expensive than
newspapers. Some examples are:

● Financial Mail
● SA Review
● Standard Bank Review
● South African Reserve Bank Quarterly Bulletin
● Newsletter of the SABS
● Finance and Trade Review
● Handel en Nywerheid

You will have to help your learners to read these technical journals with insight.
Obviously you will have to take into account the learners’ ages and stages of
development, for example, the difference between a grade 8 learner and a grade 12
learner.

Documents that are used in practice should be readily available in the classroom.
These could include trade documents for use in domestic and foreign trade and all

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documents used by the South African Post Office, Transnet, banks, insurance
companies, and merchandisers and retailers.

The following are also important: telephone directories, companies’ annual reports,
stock exchange manuals, the annual report of the President of the Reserve Bank
and the annual budget speech of the Minister of Finance (Becker, 1989:115).

4.2.2.5 Worksheets

Worksheets can be used for introducing EMS themes. EMS teachers could use
worksheets to record the learner’s baseline assessment and also to focus on specific
EMS content. EMS teachers can use worksheets to create a distinction between
active and passive learning. Worksheets can be used to check whether or not
learners understand financial literacy.
4.2.2.6 Flash cards
A card containing a small amount of information, held up for pupils to see, as an aid
to learning. It is made by using different colours, depicting information or key words,
which are displayed for learners to follow the content of a lesson for instance EMS
teacher can prepare cards depicting different components of a circular flow diagram
such as government, factor market etc.
4.2.2.7 Posters
A poster is a large printed picture or multiple pictures that can be used to teach
specific content. EMS teachers may encourage learners to work
collaboratively in collecting data in the form of pictures to depict how they
see the economic development of their country. An EMS class poster can
be used to assist learners to apply correct recordings of accounting figures
in ledger accounts.

4.2.2.8 Films, sound recordings, slide show videos, radio and the
internet

Where the equipment is available, a teacher should try to use modern

technology to record outside events and bring them into the classroom.
You can bring the voice of just about anyone into the classroom using a
radio or cassette recorder. Videos help learners to learn by seeing and
hearing. You should, however, make sure that you are completely familiar
with the equipment by testing it beforehand, otherwise your good
intentions could end in chaos.

Activity 4.3

● Discuss two teaching media that, in your opinion, can most successfully be
used for the teaching of EMS. Give a detailed description of how you would
plan to use these media.

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4.2.2.9 E-book

An e-book is a printable book or digital version of a printed book, which may be used
with Information and Communication Technology (ICT) gadgets such as an iPad,
laptop, desktop, smartphone or a data projector. Learners can use it in EMS to do
research about a topic such as forms of ownership.

4.2.2.10 Integrating ICT in the EMS curriculum

The 21st century provides opportunities to advance education, both locally and
globally, though the use of ICT and Web 2.0 technologies in the classroom. Teachers
are exposed to this phenomenon through different media platforms such a TV, DVDs
and films. A paradigm shift must be made in your teaching style to accommodate a
new group of learners – called digital natives.

These learners use ICT and social media for communication or sharing personal
information and must be catered for. ICT can be included in the classroom to
accommodate the digital natives.

The following section outlines the different Web 2.0 tools that can be used (Van Wyk,
2013:528)

4.2.2.11 Blogs

A blog is a personal or professional internet based diary entry that is set up to post
and respond to entries by other who use personal blog pages to post their ideas and
comments. Many people use blogs for personal information and to communicate with
family or friends, but you can also use this tool for educational purposes, especially
when teaching EMS in the classroom. Basically, a blog allows users to create
personal journals and resource sites to share with their community (Makri & Kynigos,
2007:76-81).

Educators and students can use blogs to do the following: publish news and
information about a course; collect learning resources and share ideas and
experiences; develop interaction (as in an online forum); improve researching and
writing skills while preparing individual assignments; and develop collaboration and
social skills in discussions over group assignments and projects (Churchill, 2009:178-
183; Fessakis, Tatsis & Dimitracopoulou, 2008:199-209).

▪ There are several educational benefits for using blogs in the classroom such
as:
▪ Blogs can support learning as a meaningful task tool for both individuals and
groups

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▪ Blogs enable learners to argue and explain ideas with fellow learners on a
particular EMS topic
▪ Blogs help with critical thinking and reflection on work done
▪ Blogs enhance learners’ communicative, collaborative, cooperative, problem
solving, creative, and innovative thinking skills (Van Wyk, 2013:531)
▪ Starting a blog requires you to log into the service provider’s website.
▪ There are several blog hosts that you can use for your class:

❖ Blogger.com: If you already have a Google account, then you can start
a blogging space for the class
❖ Wordpress.com: A useful platform to set up the blog, but your learners
must be experienced to use this blog platform
❖ Kidblog.com: A WordPress type of blog platform, but with only basic
information
❖ Tumblr.com: A simple blog for personal journaling.

4.2.2.12 Wikis

Wikis (from wikiwiki, meaning “fast” in Hawaiian) is a promising new technology that
supports “conversational” knowledge creation and sharing. A wiki is a collaboratively
created and iteratively improved set of web pages, together with the software that
manages the web pages (Wagner et al., 2003). A wiki is a knowledge based website
on which users collaboratively modify content and structure directly from the web
browser. In a typical wiki, text is written. A wiki is a collection of articles that multiple
users can add to and edit freely online. Learn all about wikis and how they are
published.

4.2.2.13 Open educational resources (OERs)

OERs are any type of educational materials that are in the public domain or
introduced with an open license. The nature of these open materials means that
anyone can legally and freely copy, use, adapt and re-share them. OERs range from
textbooks to curricula, syllabi, lecture notes, assignments, tests, projects, audio,
video and animation (UNESCO, 2017).

Conclusion

In this learning unit, we introduced you to some teaching media that can be used
successfully in the classroom. The selection of teaching media for teaching EMS
should, however, be appropriate so that they can contribute significantly to the need
of the individual learners. This will help increase learners’ comprehension of the
subject, increase their interest in the subject, and raise the level of participation and
concentration in class. Therefore, you can never go wrong with the use of multiple
media within the EMS classroom.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

Assess yourself to ascertain whether you have achieved the expected learning outcomes for this
learning unit.

● Discuss two teaching media which, in your opinion, can most successfully be used for the
teaching of EMS. Give a detailed description of how you would plan to use these media.
● Prepare transparencies or posters (A4-size sheets of paper) to introduce and illustrate the
format of an income statement and a balance sheet to a grade 9 class.
● Prepare a notice board to show how you would go about stimulating your learners’ interest
in a specific theme.

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References

Arends, RI. 1991. Learning to teach. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Cimer, A. 2007. Effective teaching in science: A review of literature. Journal of Turkish Science
Education, 4(1), pp.20-44.

Collins, A & Halverson, R. 2018. Rethinking education in the age of technology: The digital
revolution and schooling in America. Teachers College Press.

Killen, R. 2006. Effective teaching strategies. Wentworth Falls: Social Sciences Press.

Schön, DA. (2017). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Routledge.

UNESCO. 2016. Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the Implementation of
Sustainable Development Goal 4. [Online], Accessed at
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002456/245656E.pdf on 17 October 2018.

UNESCO. 2017. What are Open Educational Resources (OERs)? Accessed 30 November 2018
from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/access-to-
knowledge/open-educational

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Table of contents

Learning outcomes
Key concepts
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Department of Education specified the following elements that should appear in the
lesson plan
5.2.1 Planning a lesson
5.3 The lesson
5.4 Writing out a lesson: a lesson plan
Conclusion
Self-assessment activity

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Learning Unit 5: Lesson planning

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit you will able to do the following:

• Use the criteria for good formulation of learning intentions correctly and demonstrate
competence in the formulation of such learning intentions;

• Apply appropriate learning strategies, teaching methods and teaching media in the
planning of teaching;

• Apply the subject content of the curriculum, relevant pedagogical knowledge and
contextual realities to plan and present lessons in the subject;

• Teach lessons and facilitate learning;

• Reflect on the teaching and improve, change or adapt the practice;

• Identify the remaining learning needs and work on how learners can acquire them while
taking full responsibility for their actions, decision making and use of resources.

5.1 Introduction

The planning and preparation of lessons remains one of the teacher’s key functions, since the
lesson is the centre of all classroom activities. The teacher proceeds from the lesson structure (link
between teaching theory and teaching practice) to a specific EMS lesson. Becker (1989:81)
describes lesson preparation as a ‘‘reaching ahead experience’’. In other words, with proper
preparation, you (beginner or experienced) put yourself in the classroom situation ahead of time.
Although experienced teachers emphasise thinking about what they are going to present and how
to present it in their preparation, it is essential that EMS teachers do written preparation. The
subject deals with issues such as facts, definitions, terminology, causes, consequences,
characteristics, conditions, theories, properties and problems. For yourown peace of mind, and to
be quite sure about the lesson and the how, you should write down these facts (and so on) in
advance, where necessary. Remember, however, that the proof of your success as a teacher lies
in successfully presenting the lesson and not in comprehensive written preparation. When
examining the nature of your written preparation, your departmental head and school principal will
consider your ability and experience. Remember: to make learning activities succeed, your lesson
preparation has to be purposeful. According to The teacher’s guide for the development of learning programmes
(South Africa. Department of Education, 2003:4), the lesson plan provides detailed structure for
teaching, learning and assessment activities. It could range from a single lesson to a few months
of activities and it provides the day-to-day details for teaching, learning and assessment. It also

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enables, for example, events of major importance internationally, nationally or locally to be

incorporated n the curriculum in a structured yet flexible way. Lesson plans are designed to
ensure opportunities for learners to achieve the learning outcomes andassessment standards of
the EMS learning area.

5.2 The Department of Education specified the following elements that should appear
in the lesson plan:

▪ The expected learning objectives

▪ The context and/or core knowledge and concept selections for the lesson
▪ The assessment tasks to be used in the lesson
▪ The resources needed for the lesson for integration opportunities
▪ The actual dates over which the lesson plan will stretch
▪ Conceptual links with previous and future lesson plans
▪ Details and sequencing of the teaching, learning and assessment activities that will make
up the lesson plan
▪ Any particular teaching approach and method to be used
▪ Special and important notes regarding the needs of the learners in the class for whom the
teacher is preparing the lesson plan (South Africa. Department of Education 2003:4, 12-
13)

5.2.1 Planning a lesson

When planning a lesson, the realities of the classroom situation must be taken into account. The
Department of Basic Education lists the following considerations regarding the classroom situation
(South Africa. Department of Education, 2003:4, 1213):

● Learning styles

Since different learners have particular and preferred learning styles, every class is certain to
contain groups of learners who assimilate information and develop understanding in different ways.
Before a teacher is able to develop a lesson plan, he/she must have a clear sense of the different
learning styles of the learners in the class. He/she must also have a sense of those activities that
are likely to succeed with particular individuals or groups, and those that are unlikely to, and he/she
must plan to accommodate all learners in the class.

● Teaching approach and methodology

Teachers must decide how they will approach their teaching and what methods they will use. The
nature of the learning area often determines what approach and which methods will best support
the teaching, learning and assessment activities in the particular learning area.

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● Barriers to learning

While it is possible to list many different types of barriers to learning in general, not all of these will
apply in every class. Similarly, there may be barriers to learning that are particular to individual
learners only. When developing a lesson plan, the teachers must have a clear sense of barriers to
learning that exist in the class so that they can overcome these through the way in which they
structure activities and also through the activities that they select.

● Resources available to the school and class

Different schools have access to different types of resources, so while a particular lesson plan may
work well in one school, it may fail in another because of a difference in the resources of both types
and quantity available to teachers and their classes.

● What learners already know

It is important to be aware of both the prior learning that is required for different lesson plans and
the levels of this prior learning present in the class for whom the teacher is developing a lesson
plan. Learners could demonstrate different levels of knowledge and concept development from the
same learning experience. What learners already know becomes an important point of departure
for planning what will happen next in an activity.

At times, teachers may wish to perform some form of baseline assessment to be able to establish
the level of prior learning and, accordingly, plan appropriate support for the learners.

● School policies

In the same way that the national education policy will impact on learning programme design, so
too will the policies of the school impact on both the design of the lesson plan and its execution.
This section will include a specific lesson plan, which you must follow when preparing your own
lesson plans to support teaching, learning and assessment in your particular classroom. A lesson
plan must be worked out for each day.

• Reduction of the subject matter

Reduction means differentiating and highlighting the essential facts that reflect the meaning of the
subject matter. Teachers need to ask themselves: What do my learners need to know about this
theme/topic in order to get to the root of the matter? What crucial and additional facts, and what
connections between facts, must the lesson reveal? What skills do learners need? Clearly, the
reduction of subject matter is primarily a question of knowing your subject thoroughly. It also has
to do with explaining events and phenomena in the life-world (Becker, 1989:767).

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In the lesson plan, the core content is reflected by the essential facts of the subject. The
macroanalysis determines the place of your lesson topic in the wider syllabus theme by means of
a scheme. The purpose of the microanalysis is to bring essentials (concepts, abilities and
interrelationships) to the surface in order to formulate teaching and learning outcomes, and it is
reflected in a functional scheme.

5.3 The lesson

From our discussion so far, it follows that each lesson should be seen as a disclosure of the real
world. Each lesson should be a complete entity with its own aim and the teacher should determine
whether the various objectives (which together constitute the aim) have been achieved. When
reducing the chosen contents to their essence, you should make allowance for learners’ existing
knowledge as well as their readiness and potential. Teachers should anticipate possible problems
and their planning should focus on stimulating learners’ curiosity by presenting meaningful
problems. What the learner needs to know in order to solve the problem is the actual learning goal
(Van der Stoep, 1973:154).This learning goal is achieved in the course of the lesson.

The following aspects outline a structural explanation of the course of a lesson (lesson progress).

Greeting
The teacher’s greeting reveals an attitude; as a result of this attitude, learners feel welcome or
unwelcome, hence willing or unwilling, to enter into didactic relationships. The teacher’s invitation,
instruction, request or admonition reflects the type of authority relationship he/she has in mind.

Actualisation of existing knowledge

The aim is to stimulate learners’ interest in order to secure their active participation. The teacher
should check whether learners possess the knowledge needed to master the new theme. This can
be achieved by asking questions, introducing a class discussion, presenting a questionnaire or
arranging a quiz. Learners should be active and the lesson should proceed at a brisk pace. A brief
scheme on the chalkboard, an illustration or a graph is an effective teaching medium.

Defining the problem

The aim is to make learners realise that their knowledge is incomplete. They should experience
the problem and be able to define it in words. This phase of the lesson requires careful planning,
for the success or failure of the lesson depends on how the problem is experienced. The pace will
naturally be slow.

Confronting learners with a problem makes them become actively involved in the lesson, which
helps to eliminate the risk of passive listening. The definition of the problem is, in fact, an adaptation
of the learning objectives, which involves learners in meaningful learning. The problem statement
is always in a question format.

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Explanation of new learning contents (procedure)

The aim is to disclose the essence of a particular slice of reality. Teachers should not proceed
rashly, but should carefully plan the appropriate moment of disclosure. The method(s), content and
activities used to achieve the outcomes, which have been planned ahead by teachers, contain the
total procedure, which is conducted step by step in the lesson plan.

Judicious use of media can enhance the effect of teaching. During the explanation, the new
contents are disclosed and, at the same time, learners’ insight into it is monitored. The solution to
the problem should gradually become clear and concrete by the building up of a scheme on the
chalkboard. Because it is not just a matter of essences, but also of their interrelationship, the
arrangement of the lesson is very important. For this phase to proceed effectively, learners should
be given an opportunity to attribute meaning to the contents to be learnt, initially in their own words.
The teacher guides them until they can eventually interpret the contents in proper subject
terminology, which the teacher teaches them. During the explanation, the teacher checks whether
the learners understand and are interpreting the contents through cognitive participation and
activity. The questions asked should relate directly to the essences of the contents to be learnt so
that the teacher can monitor learners’ understanding and insight. If their insight is inadequate, the
teacher repeats the new subject matter. The pace of the lesson will depend on the quality of the
immediate learning effect. Teaching media should be functional, not just an abundance of
perceptual experience.

Constant monitoring of new learning contents

The aim is to determine the instructional effect of the lesson. This can be done during or after the
explanation, as pointed out above. Note that the first dawning of insight cannot be equated with
learning proper. The learners’ own attribution of meaning should be monitored and further
illustrative examples should be provided. If insight is lacking, the practise phase should be
postponed. New insight should be combined with existing knowledge in a scheme.

Functionalisation (practise and application of new insight)

The aim is twofold: first, practising to ensure insight, and then practising the insight.
Functionalisation is not just drill or memorisation. It results from mastery of new territory and new
information. Hence it refers to internalisation, deepening understanding, striving for better
performance and operative moulding.

In EMS, practise takes the form of application exercises. Learners get their first opportunity to apply
their new insight themselves, for example, by answering questions or carrying out planned
assignments. These assignments should focus directly on the learning outcomes. The teacher now
moves into the background while the learners try to solve the problem themselves. The teacher
remains available to give learners meaningful assistance with the interpretation of questions and
continually monitors the outcome of the lesson.

Evaluation and assessment

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The aim is to evaluate learners’ insight skills and attitudes that were developed in this lesson. The
teacher assesses the quality of his or her teaching. Evaluation is also important for the learners,
for this is when they determine the adequacy of their knowledge and their ability to solve problems,
apply knowledge, spot relationships and make inferences, as well as which new skills they have
developed.
When writing a lesson plan, the lesson structures should be included.

Stop and reflect

● Without paging back, draw a diagram to give a structural explanation of the lesson progress
and discuss each element in the diagram so that its meaning becomes clear.

5.4 Writing out a lesson: a lesson plan

There is no recipe for a successful lesson. All teachers have their own unique style, which is based
on their personality and initiative. It is advisable for beginner teachers to write out a lesson plan so
that they get to take a critical look at their teaching. A lesson plan should be concise and easy to
take in at a glance. You are not restricted to a single format when writing out your lesson plan. You
can use the format you feel most comfortable with, or the format recommended by your school
(with the exception of that explained below).

Remember, also, that when you do your written preparation of the lessons for the practical
teaching, you must do it as thoroughly as possible, as you will be evaluated on this written
preparation. You will be required to show, for example, all the worksheets, case studies, questions
and answers, assessment sheets, posters, transparencies, tests and memorandums.

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Table 5.1 ECONOMIC AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE LESSON PLANS

ECONOMIC AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES LESSON PLAN

General Information Lesson aim: (What do you
want to achieve?) To teach/facilitate:
School: ………………………………………
Subject: ……………………………………..
……………………………………………………
Duration of lesson:…………………..….min
Grade: ……………………………………….. ……………………………………………………
Topic: …………………………………………
Date: …………………………………………. ……………………………………………………
Resources available at school (very good, ……………………………………………………
sufficient, limited)
……………………………………….. ……………………………………………………

Class size: …………………………………… ……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………
Other important information:
…………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………

…………………...............................................

........................................................................

........................................................................

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Objectives/outcomes What are your teaching strategies/

methods/approaches? (Explain your choice)
What will the learners know/be able to do/
understand by the end of the lesson? (Start ……………………………………………………
with: Learners will….)
……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

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The introduction phase (How will you get the learners ready for what you want them to

learn?)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………….............................................................................................

How long will this take? ……………………………………………………………………………….

Questions you will ask:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………….............................................................................................

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The main part of the lesson Learner activity (What will the learners do
Activity 1 How long will this take? ………… and say?)
Teacher activity (What will you do and say?) ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
Questions you will ask: ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

The main part of the lesson Learner activity (What will the learners do
Activity 2 How long will this take? ………… and say?)
Teacher activity (What will you do and say?) ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

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…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
Questions you will ask: ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………

The main part of the lesson Learner activity (What will the learners
Activity 3 How long will this take? ………… do and say?)
Teacher activity (What will you do and say?) ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
Questions you will ask: ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ……
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………… ……
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The conclusion of the lesson (Quick quiz, Learner activity (What will the learners
class discussion, learners ask each other do
questions etc.) How long will it take? ………. and say?)
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………………

Questions you will ask: …………………………………………………

……………………………………………………… …………………………………………………
……………………………………………………… …………………………………………………
……………………………………………………… …………………………………………………
……………………………………………………… …………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………… …………………………………………………
……………………………………………………… …………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………… …………………………………………………
……………………………………………………… …………………………………………………
……………………………………………………… …………………………………………………
……………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
……………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………

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Assessment activity and explanation. Include or attach the activity. (How will you
know if your outcomes/objectives/aims were achieved? Is it an informal or formal
assessment?)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Homework. Write down or attach the homework that you gave for this lesson. Also answer:
Why are you allocating this homework? How long will it take the learners to complete at
home? Will they need any resources or help?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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How can you/did you cater for learners who need enrichment or those who
have special needs?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Conclusion
In teaching and learning, planning of the activities in the classroom is very important. To
be able to do good planning, you must have the theoretical background knowledge and
know-how to implement it in a practical situation. Make sure that you are very familiar
with all the material covered thus far before you move on to the following learning unit,
which deals with teaching strategies. Knowledge, understanding and implementation of
the teaching strategies will enhance your capabilities to become a good teacher and to
direct your learners to self-instruction and self-assessment in their journey to lifelong
learning.

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY
Plan a lesson in which the following are to be taught to grade 9 learners in EMS: learning
outcome 1: the economic cycle. Illustrate with the aid of a graph and discuss how
demand and supply influence price; and the lesson theme. Use the lesson plan and start
by trying to work out the following sections in the lesson plan before you look up the
possible solution.

The lesson plan

(1) Localising details
(2) Learning intentions
(3) Curriculum topic
(4) Lesson theme
(5) Methods, teaching support aids and learning material
(6) Reduction
(7) Lesson preparation
(8) Pattern of the lesson
(9) Assessment

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Assessment rubric for lesson plan

Components of lesson Detailed criteria / information Marks Marks

allocated
1. Localising details Subject 1 mark
Grade
Time allocation
Number of learners
2. Learning intentions Provide knowledge, skills and values 2 marks
3. Curriculum topic Topic from the CAPS document 1 mark
4. Lesson theme A curriculum sub-theme or lesson 1 mark
(curriculum sub- content theme
theme)
5. Method(s), teaching a) Give reasons for choice of 2 marks
support aids and teaching
learning material methods/techniques/
strategies 1 mark
b) Teaching aids
6. Place of the lesson in a) Indicate where the theme fits 1 mark
the curriculum into the curriculum
b) Lesson content 2 marks
7. Lesson preparation Explain how you would prepare and 2 marks
facilitate the lesson
8. Pattern of the lesson a) Existing knowledge 1 mark
b) Introduction of lesson theme 1 mark
c) Explanation of new content 3 marks
9. Assessment Provide types of assessment 2 marks
activities (including homework)
TOTAL MARKS 20 Marks

Use this lesson plan assessment rubric as a guide to compile the lesson. It serves only
as a guide to help you plan your lesson.

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References
Avenant, PJ. 1988. Riglyne vir suksesvolle onderwys. Durban: Butterworths.
Becker, LC. 1989. Didactics: business economics for the secondary school. Pretoria: De Jager-
HAUM.
Bloom, BS (ed).1956.Taxonomy of educational objectives. Handbook: cognitive domain.
Mich:Longmans & Green
Bounds, M, Maila, E, Rall, C & Tonetti, R. 1999. Economic and Management Sciences:
grade 7. CapeTown: Kagiso.
Boynton, LD. 1970. Methods of teaching bookkeeping: accounting. Cincinnati, Ohio:
SouthWestern.
Burden, PR & Byrd, DM.1994. Methods for effective teaching. London: Allyn & Bacon.
Carkhuff, RR & Berenson, DH.1981.The skilled teacher: a systems approach to teaching skills.
Amherst, Mass: HRD.
Clark, LH & Starr, IS. 1996. Secondary and middle school teaching methods. Columbus,Ohio:
Merrill.
Cohen, L & Manion, L. 1977. A guide to teaching practice. London: Methuen.
Douglas, LV,Blanford, JT & Anderson, RI.1973.Teaching business subjects.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
GagneŁ, ED, Briggs, LJ,& Wager,WW.1992. Principles of instruction design. NewYork:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Gartside, L. 1970.Teaching business subjects. London: McDonald & Evans. Hannah,
C.1979.Evalueringspraktyk vir onderwysgebruik. Pretoria: Academica.
Killen, R. 1996. Effective teaching strategies.Wentworth Falls: Social Sciences Press. Lee, N
(ed). 1975.Teaching economics. London: Heinemann.
Le Grange, L & Reddy, C. 1998. Continuous assessment. Kenwyn: Juta. Mager, RF. 1962.
Preparing instructional objectives. Palo Alto: Pearson.
McDonald, R & Van der Horst, HvR. 1997. OBE: outcomes-based education: a teacher’s
manual. Pretoria: Kagiso.
Nieman, MM & Swanepoel, JI. 1998. General education: teaching and learning.Study
guide for GED202X. Pretoria: Unisa.
Shuter’s Economic and Management Sciences.1999. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter & Shooter.
South Africa. Department of Education. 1996. Lifelong learning through the
National Qualifications Framework (NQF). Pretoria: Government Printer.
South Africa. Department of Education. 2000. Educator development manual: senior
phase. Pretoria: Government Printer.
South Africa. Department of Education. 2002. Policy: revised national curriculum statement
grades R9 (Schools): overview. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Van der Horst, H & McDonald, R. 2003. Outcomes-based education: theory and practi- ce.
Pretoria: Kagiso.
Van der Stoep, F (ed). 1973. Die lesstruktuur. Johannesburg: McGraw-Hill.
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Table of contents
Learning outcomes
Key concepts
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The purpose of assessment
6.3 Assessment according to CAPS curriculum
6.4 Taxonomies (Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy [Schultz 2005])
6.4.1 Types of assessment
6.5 Types of assessment
6.5.1 Summative assessment
6.5.2 Formative assessment
6.5.3 Norm referenced assessment
6.5.4 Criterion referenced assessment
6.5.5 Peer assessment
6.5.5.1 Categories of peer assessment
6.6 Self-assessment
6.7 Continuous assessment
6.8 Planning a continuous assessment
6.9 Time to fit everything in
6.10 Marking
6.11 Recording and reporting
6.12 Self-assessment
6.13 Tools for assessment
6.14 Observation, rating scales, checklists and standards
6.15 Themes, notebooks, homework and recitation
6.16 Assessment strategies
6.16.1 Forms of assessment that work best for EMS
6.16.2 Methods of collecting assessment evidence

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Learning Unit 6: Assessment in the classroom

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit you will able to do the following:

• Apply assessment principles to design assessments; Use learning intentions
and assessment criteria to design assessments;
• Use instruments that can be used to assess learners effectively and objectively;
• Apply the requirements for assessment in the curriculum to design appropriate
assessments for the school environment;
• Apply the requirements for assessment in the curriculum to design
assessments at appropriate cognitive levels;
• Make assessment decisions from scenarios/case studies/practical examples;
• Give useful/meaningful feedback on formative assessments to improve
learning;
• Record assessments in accordance with curriculum requirements using
scenarios/case studies/practical examples; and
• Reflect on assessments and improve/change/adapt where needed.

Key concepts
Assessment
Observation-based assessment
Test-based assessment
Task-based assessment
Self-assessment, peer assessment and group assessment

6.1 Introduction

Assessment is a continuous planned process of identifying, gathering and interpreting

information about the performance of learners, using various forms of assessment. It
involves four steps: generating and collecting evidence of achievement; evaluating this
evidence; recording the findings; and using this information to understand and thereby
assist the learner’s development in order to improve the process of learning and
teaching.

Assessment is integral to teaching and learning. Assessment informs teachers about

learners’ specific needs. It provides teachers with feedback that enables them to adjust
their teaching strategies. Assessment also provides learners with feedback, allowing
them to monitor their own progress. Assessment that takes note of learners’ needs is
called “assessment for learning” (informal assessment). Assessment for learning is
developmental. It helps learners improve and progress by informing them of their
strengths and weaknesses. When the focus of assessment is on the results of learning,
assessment is referred to as “assessment of learning” (formal assessment).

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Assessment of learning usually takes place at the end of a period of work, such as a
topic, term or year. Assessment of learning is typically used for promotion and
certification purposes. Both assessment for learning and assessment of learning
strategies should be used during the school year.

Assessment in EMS focuses on the knowledge, skills and values inherent in the
activities of production, consumption, exchange and making meaningful and informed
financial decisions in economic and social environments. EMS covers valuable skills
such as economic, entrepreneurship, financial and managerial skills that prepare
learners for success in different economic and business environments. Teachers must
consider all these skills when planning teaching, learning and assessment activities.

6.2 The purpose of assessment

There are ways in which educational progress and achievement may be judged or
assessed. These include formal and informal, and each provides different kinds of
information. According to Le Grange and Reddy (1998), assessment involves a wide
range of purposes, such as:

• supporting teaching and learning

• providing information about learners, teachers and schools
• acting as a selection and certifying device
• acting as an accountability procedure
• driving curriculum and teaching

According to Barlett and Burton (2007), assessment is conducted for a variety of

reasons, such as the following:

To monitor progress: In this case, assessment will indicate how a learner is

progressing. It can form part of a diagnostic process providing for decisions on future
learning and for developing a record of progress.

To indicate a final level of achievement: After completing a course or module, a final

grade or level is often awarded as part of the certification. It is a final assessment and
reflects the judgements of an individual’s achievements in relation to established
standards and norms

To evaluate the teaching and learning process: This provides teachers with a view
as to which aspects of learning learners find most difficult. The effectiveness of different
pedagogical approaches can be reflected on and included as part of an end-of-course
evaluation.

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To enable comparisons of achievement by external agencies: External agencies

and parents can use the results of assessments, such as public examinations and large-
scale national assessments to compare education institutions as part of their processes
of choosing where to enrol learners.

Classroom assessment

Teachers in their daily teaching need to plan and conduct assessments. These
assessments form part of their lesson plans and their teaching. It is important that
teachers do their assessments according to policies and guidelines. Thus, the first
requirement for student teachers is that they must be familiar with the following
documents:

• The National Protocol for Assessment grades R-12

• Assessment Guidelines in the CAPS for their teaching subjects (from the
Department of Basic Education)
• Subject and school protocol (Dbe,20007)

6.3 Assessment according to CAPS curriculum

The assessment practices that are encouraged through CAPS are continuous, planned
and integrated processes of gathering information about the performance of learners,
measured against the learning objectives. The level at which the learner is to be
assessed is provided by the assessment standards, which are progressive from grade
to grade. A learning programme, work schedule and lesson plan design should ensure
that assessment is an integral part of teaching, learning and assessment (South Africa.
Department of Education, 2003:15).

Planning assessments to include the assessment of learners who experience barriers

to learning is important. It is likely that in every classroom there will be some learners
who experience barriers to learning. However, these barriers will not always be the
same and could be situated in the learning context (as in the case of inflexible
methodology or lack of resources) or in the learners themselves (e.g. sensory, physical
or intellectual disabilities or disease/illness). Barriers can also arise from the social
context (e.g. poverty, violence or difficult home conditions). When planning an
assessment activity, the teacher should have a clear sense of the wide range of barriers
that may inhibit learning and the achievement of the learning outcomes, as well as how
to address them.

The key is to determine exactly what is being assessed (i.e. concepts, application, skill)
and to develop assessment tasks in such a way that learners have a variety of options
to demonstrate their learning with respect to the learning outcomes and assessment
standards, as outlined in the CAPS: Teacher’s guide for the development of learning
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programmes (2003:15). For more details on alternative methods of assessment, please

refer to the CAPS document. It is important that you ask the school where you are
teaching to provide you with all the policy documents.
An assessment should:

● enhance individual growth and development, monitor the progress of learners and
facilitate learning
● establish what a learner knows, understands and/or can do
● make judgements based on valid and appropriate evidence; these judgements
should then enable us to make well-informed decisions about what a learner
needs to learn next
● give an indication of the success of the programme of learning, including how
appropriate the resources have been
● include a variety of techniques
● encourage learners to go beyond simple recall of data or facts
● close the gap between the classroom and the real world
● include opportunities for learners to perform tasks and solve problems
● make provision for adaptive methods of assessment

6.4 Taxonomies (Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy [Schultz, 2005])

The taxonomies are often used to differentiate between cognitive levels. The names of
six major categories were changed from noun to verb forms. As the taxonomy reflects
different forms of thinking, and thinking is an active process, verbs were used rather
than nouns.
The sub-categories of the six major categories were also replaced by verbs and some
category were reorganised.

Table: 6.1 Assessing 21st Century Skills: A Guide to Evaluating Mastery and Authentic
Learning.
Revised Bloom’s Skills Examples
Taxonomy
Knowledge/ Remembering/factual Drawing and labelling the
Remembering recalling circular flow in the economy;
Matching characteristics with
business functions with
definitions
Comprehending Constructive meaning, Interpret graphical illustration of
/Understanding interpreting, supply and demand curves;
exemplifying, Classification of accounts from
classifying, given transactions
summarising, inferring,
comparing, explaining
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Applying Carrying out, using a Show and give reasons of the

procedure, applying effect on the accounting
information to situations equation;
or case studies, Graphical illustrations of a
presentations are given change in demand and a
change in supply;
Show the posting to the general
ledger from the Cash Payments
Journal and Cash Receipts
Journal
Analysing/Comparing Breaking material into Distinguish between the sectors
Organise, outline, infer,
parts, differentiating, of the economy based on a
distinguish, integrate, organising and case study;
break down, attributing, Organise information given in a
differentiate, attribute to
distinguishing between case study related to, for
the components or example, the business
parts, for example, functions
creating graphic
representations based
on given information
(case studies)
Synthesising/Evaluating Making judgements, Critique the sustainable use of
critiques, resources in the three sectors
recommendations of the economy;
Appraise the three major
economic systems: a planned
economy, market economy,
and mixed economy;
Defend the contribution of trade
unions to sustainable growth
and development
Creating Put parts together in a • Compile a business plan of a
coherent or functional research to start a business;
whole; reorganising, •
highest order cognitive• Produce a financial (fixed and
ability and very difficult variable costs, breakeven
to achieve points, mark-up on sales, profit
percentage).
Source: Adapted from Greenstein (2012)

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6.5 Types of assessment

There are different types of educational assessment. We will focus briefly on only four
types, namely summative, formative, norm referenced and criterion referenced. In
addition, there is also peer and self-assessment. In this section, the major assessment
types are described.

6.5.1 Summative assessment

A summative assessment is conducted at the end of a learning experience and usually

consists of one final test or examination. The main purpose is to grade learners and
judge teaching success. A summative assessment is almost always norm referenced,
which means that a learner’s achievement is compared with that of other learners or
with a prescribed pass mark to determine how well he/she is doing (Le Grange & Reddy,
1998:4). If as assessment is used to decide whether or not a certain outcome has been
achieved, it is summative. A summative assessment therefore enables you to tell how
much a learner has achieved at any given stage.

6.5.2 Formative assessment

Whereas a summative assessment is employed as an end measure of teaching and

learning success, a formative assessment provides teachers with information to help
them understand the problems learners may experience in the learning process and to
enable teachers to improve. A formative assessment is performed continuously
throughout the course, unit or lesson to decide how well the teacher and learners are
doing and what needs to be done to help learners grow and make progress (Sieborger
& MacIntosh, 1998:24). Formative tests are usually sharper in focus than summative
tests and are less useful for grading. A formative assessment is usually criterion
referenced and consists of criteria that learners are expected to achieve in a particular
grade.

6.5.3 Norm referenced assessment

Summative assessment is also known as a norm referenced assessment. This means

that a learner achievement is compared to the achievements of other learners or with
pass marks to determine how well the learner is doing. A norm referenced assessment
reflects little about what the learner has mastered or understood. For example, at a
parent-teacher meeting held after the mid-year examination, Kagiso’s parents are told
that he obtained 80 marks out of a possible 100 for a certain subject. The teacher further
explains that the performance is 10 marks higher than the class average and 40 marks
above the required pass mark. The norm referenced assessment has been explained
to the parents that Kagiso’s has done well compared to other learners in class. Norm

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referenced assessments have been largely removed from South Africa schools with the
shift to criterion referenced assessment.

6.5.4 Criterion referenced assessment

A criterion referenced assessment consists of certain criteria that learners are expected
to achieve in a particular grade. For example, Tumelo in the grade 7 EMS class. One
criteria for passing EMS in this grade is being able to identify types of businesses. Both
parents and learner were made aware of this criterion at the beginning of the year.
Table. 6.2 Comparisons of assessment practices

Traditional norm referenced Modern criterion norm referenced

assessment assessment
• Mainly consists of written
examinations that take place in • Made up of a variety of
formal settings assessment methods that can be
• Used to decide whether or not both formal and informal
the learner is promoted to the • Used to inform the learning
next grade process through diagnostic
• Takes place after the learning assessment
process, at stipulated dates or • Takes place during the learning
times (summative) process when it is considered
• Provides meaningless necessary (formative)
assessment that can’t be marks • Provides detailed information as
and percentages to show how feedback on how the learners are
the learner has performed performing or progressing
• Places more emphasis on • Places emphasis on the
memorising the content acquisition of knowledge, skills,
• Learners are not updated on their and values, and attainment of
progress and feedback comes learning objectives
after a summative assessment • Learners get regular feedback
• Learners are assessed in relation and progress updates
to others in the class and are • Learners are assessed in relation
ranked according to ability to their own ability and pace of
• Testing and assessment is leaning in order to create
standardised opportunities for success
• Questions have no bearing on • Assessment may be formal or
the life of the learner informal, taking into account the
• Competitiveness can be taken to needs of the learner and the
destructive levels context of the learning
• Power is in the hands of the • Assessment is contextualised in
examiner or an outside authority life-like situations

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• Assessment focuses on the •

The learner measures himself
individual against his own progress
• The learner takes responsibility
for his/her own progress
• Assessment may be individual or
occur in a group situation
Source: (Gauteng Department of Education (GDE, 2004))

6.5.5 Peer assessment

In recent years, assessments have been expanded to include peer and self-
assessment. Peer assessment occurs when learners assess each other’s work, either
as a learner or group of learners on the basis of the learning objectives. The latter is
often aimed at promoting self-directed learning, which means that the learner
participates actively and creatively in his or her own learning while the teacher assumes
a less active and more covert facilitating role. Peer assessment is the process of using
learners to determine each other’s achievements against clearly defined criteria.

It is productive in terms of improved learning; learners can learn a great deal from each
other. With larger numbers, the importance of peer feedback increases as the
availability of assessor feedback decreases.

6.5.1.1 Categories of peer assessment

• Learner to learner: two learners assess each other’s performance

• Learner to group: performance of a group is assessed by each learner
• Class to learner: the whole class assesses the performance of individual
learners
• Group to learners: a group assesses the performance of individual learners
• Group to group: groups within one class assess each other’s performance

6.6 Self-assessment

In this method of assessment learners are guided to assess their own performance.
Self-assessment is also associated with what is referred to as assessment of learning.
As a teacher you should allocate time for helping learners to reflect on their own
performance in order for them to take more responsibility for their learning. If learners
are challenged to set personal learning goals, they are more motivated and focused to
achieve these goals.

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Activity 6.1
● Why is it necessary to plan an assessment before teaching starts and what role
does an assessment play in the teaching and learning process?
● Illustrate and explain how an assessment forms part of the cycle of planning and
teaching.
● Distinguish between summative, formative and diagnostic assessments and
show how they are interrelated.
● Explain the difference between the concepts of “norm referenced” and “criterion
referenced” assessments.

6.7 Continuous assessment

Outcomes-based education views knowledge as being constructed in the mind of the

learner as far as each learner brings his or her own prior knowledge and experiences
to any learning situation. Learners make sense of the new knowledge in the context of
their existing knowledge and develop their original concept as learning takes place (Le
Grange & Reddy, 1998:6). These learning experiences are essential to their
achievement of outcomes. This means that assessment is ongoing throughout the
learning process, so that the learner’s development and growth are monitored and
nurtured. According to Le Grange and Reddy (1998:10), continuous assessment fulfils
this purpose and also does the following:

● It gives feedback on the learning outcomes that learners have achieved and
those that have not been achieved.
● It helps to identify the strengths and weaknesses of learners.
● It encourages communication between teachers and learners.
● It is an important element of evaluation and therefore provides essential
information about curriculum issues such as teaching methods and the
relevance of learning outcomes and resources.

In the South African outcomes-based education model, continuous assessment is

criterion referenced. The learning outcomes for each learning area have assessment
standards and each learner is assessed against these and not necessarily against
norms. Continuous assessment places more emphasis on formative than summative
assessments (Le Grange & Reddy, 1998:10).

6.8 Planning a continuous assessment

A continuous assessment is the most important method of assessment dealt with in

school learning. It covers all the assessment principles of outcomes-based education
and ensures that an assessment meets the following requirements:

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● Takes place continuously over a period. Learning is assessed regularly and the
records of learners’ progress are kept up to date throughout the year.
● Supports learners’ growth and development. Learners become active
participants in the learning and assessment process, understand the criteria
used for assessment activities, are involved in self-evaluation, set their own
individual goals, and reflect on their learning process and, in doing so,
experience an improvement in their self-image.
● Provides feedback on learning and teaching. Feedback is a key element of a
formative assessment. Methods of giving feedback include appropriate
questioning; oral or written comments by the teacher that focus on what was
supposed to be achieved by means of an assessment activity; and encouraging
the learners.
● Makes provision for integrated assessment. This could mean that several
related learning outcomes are used in a single activity and that various
assessment methods are combined. Since competence at specific learning
outcomes may be shown in countless different ways, a variety of assessment
methods and opportunities, during which learners are able to display their
abilities, are provided and used.
● Uses strategies that provide for a range of learner needs (language, physical,
psychological, emotional and cultural). A continuous assessment gives
teachers the opportunity to be sensitive to learners with special educational
needs and to overcome educational barriers with the aid of a flexible approach.
All learners have their own learning styles and learn at their own pace. Not all
learners need to be assessed at the same time and in the same manner.
● Makes provision for a summative assessment. The accumulation of the results
of continuous assessment activities provides a comprehensive picture of a
learner’s progress at a given time. A summative assessment must be carefully
planned from the beginning of the year in order to include a variety of
assessment strategies such as exercises, tasks, projects, school and class
tests, which will provide learners with a range of opportunities to show what
they have learnt. Regarding practical issues of assessment in the classroom,
Siebrger and MacIntosh (1998:6065) give some practical hints on assessment
in the classroom.

6.9 Time to fit everything in

The main complaint that teachers have had about time has always been that the amount
of learning content (syllabus) does not fit into the time available; there is usually too
much work. It is very difficult to give advice about time. One teacher may take longer to
explain something very thoroughly, while another explains it only briefly. The one who
spends a long time on explanations will have less time for assessments, while the one
who spends less time on explaining will have more time for assessments. Sometimes

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work needs to be explained again. The following suggestions might help to create more
time for assessments:

• Using group work will considerably reduce the number of items to assess. It
should be possible to distinguish between those who are coping and those who
are not.
• Outcomes and assessment criteria could be clustered together for assessment
purposes. Projects can be set with a list of different assessment criteria, and
exercises can be done with more than one assessment criterion in mind. This
requires careful planning.
• Use tests and examinations wisely. If necessary, a single question broken up
into parts can be used to assess certain aspects of several different
assessment criteria. It is easier to set meaningful papers using outcomes, since
they indicate what kinds of questions/things learners should be able to
answer/do. Some teachers might have to make greater use of tests and
examinations in outcomes-based education than before, because they create
more time for assessments, particularly if learners are not able to do much work
at home.

6.10 Marking

The most powerful tool for motivating learners to progress, and probably the aspect of
teaching most disliked by teachers, is marking. Receiving quick feedback is a very
strong incentive to a learner, either to try to improve a piece of work or to go ahead and
try the next piece. However, many teachers find it difficult to give quick feedback.
Marking is also one of the most effective forms of personal motivation, particularly in
big classes, as it represents personal contact. A “Well done… better than before!” or
“You’ve disappointed me. I know you could have done better!" is likely to have more
impact than being reprimanded in class. To achieve efficient marking, you should
become used to annotating rather than marking. It is not necessary to give all
assessments a mark, but it is necessary to have a record of what was done and to give
feed- back to the learners. Assess across broad levels, which gives learners an
indication of their progress. Use time in class to assess, as part of the activities done
by learners. All activities that can produce evidence of achievement should be assessed
(by teachers themselves or by the learners involved in peer assessment and group
assessment) and the assessment recorded.

6.11 Recording and reporting

Recording is a process by which the teacher documents the level of a learner’s

performance in a specific assessment task. It indicates learner progress towards the
achievement of the knowledge as prescribed in the CAPS document. Records of learner
performance should provide evidence of the learner’s conceptual progression within a
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grade and her or his readiness to progress or be promoted to the next grade. Records
of learner performance should also be used to verify the progress made by teachers
and learners in the teaching and learning process. Reporting is a process of
communicating learner performance to learners, parents, schools, and other
stakeholders. Learner performance can be reported in a number of ways. These include
report cards, parents’ meetings, school visitation days, parent-teacher conferences,
phone calls, letters, and class or school newsletters.

Marks in all subjects must be recorded in percentages. Seven levels of competence

have been described for each subject listed for grades R-12. Learner achievement
should be recorded not only in the form of marks, but also in the form of comments on
strengths, challenges and support measures. Learner achievement is measured
against the learning objectives and results are recorded. There are different methods
of recording learner achievement. The following are examples of different types of
recording instruments:
• Rating scales

Assessment codes or rating scales are written lists of assessment criteria against which
a learner‘s performance is judged by the assessor (teacher).

• Checklists

Checklists are lists of statements describing the expected performance in a particular

task. The teacher observes the learners against these statements and ticks off on the
list the statements that have been met or achieved by the learner.

• Rubrics

A rubric is a combination of rating codes and a description statement or comment. A

rubric provides a set criteria against which tasks will be judged. It describes the quality
of performance, which ranges from poor to excellent (see table below).

The various achievement levels and their corresponding percentage bands are shown
in table 6.3.

Table 6.3. CODES AND PERCENTAGES FOR RECORDING AND REPORTING

Rating code Description of competence Percentage

7 Outstanding achievement 80-100
6 Meritorious achievement 70-79
5 Substantial achievement 60-69
4 Adequate achievement 50-59

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3 Moderate achievement 40-49

2 Elementary achievement 30-39
1 Not achieved 0-29

The seven-point scale should have clear descriptors that give detailed information for
each level. Teachers will record actual marks against the task by using a record sheet
and report percentages against the subject on the learners’ report cards.

• Teachers’ record books

Good reporting or record keeping is essential to all assessments, particularly in

continuous assessments. Every teacher should keep a record book or file, which should
contain the following:

● names of learners
● dates of assessment
● name and description of assessment activities
● the results of assessment activities according to learning areas or learning
programmes
● comments made to assist learners

All records should be accessible, easy to interpret, safely stored, confidential and useful
to the teaching and reporting process.

The assessment programme determines the details of how report books should be filled
in. The assessment codes are used to indicate how learners are performing in terms of
the learning outcomes. The codes that are used should be immediately clear and
understandable to both learners and parents.

6.12 Self-assessment

In outcomes-based education it is important to be able to assess for oneself what has

been achieved, and learners should be encouraged to develop their skills at assessing
themselves informally. A formal self-assessment plays an important role, although it
isn’t always used as much as it could be by teachers. Learners cannot be expected to
assess themselves well without practice. They should begin in simple ways, acquiring
the skill of self-assessment gradually over a number of years. Self-assessment is
largely concerned with a formative assessment, involving learners in their own learning
processes and helping them to understand better what is expected of them.

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6.13 Tools for assessment

The choice of which assessment strategies and instruments to use is subjective and
unique to each teacher, grade and school. It also depends on the teacher’s professional
judgement. The availability of space and aids influences this decision, but even when
similar aids are available, there is a difference in the way teachers make their choices.
Methods selected for assessment activities should be suited to the assessment
standards that are set. All the learners and teachers concerned should also have a clear
understanding of the aim of the assessment. Competence can be shown in various
ways. This means that a range of methods are necessary to provide learners with the
opportunity to demonstrate their skills to the full.

Observing learners and examining samples of their work are the most common bases
for judging learners’ behaviour and progress (Clark & Starr, 1996:384).

Assessing samples of learners’ work should follow much the same procedure as
observation. Determine in advance the criteria for judging the work. These criteria
should be made known to the learners before they do the work (Clark & Starr,
1996:384).

Use rating scales when judging skills, procedures and personal social behaviour. By
using such tools, you can make the final evaluation, based on a numerical score.
However, always remember that often, as in the case of literary and artworks and other
creative activities, evaluation cannot, with certainty, be reduced to numbers. To avoid
misinterpretations, allow for the possibility that sometimes a single characteristic may
outweigh all others and that some items may be completely inapplicable (Clark & Starr,
1996:385).

6.14 Observation, rating scales, checklists and standards

To provide an objective basis for evaluating written work, you can use rating scales,
checklists and standards. A checklist that might be used to evaluate themes may
include such items as the following:

● Does the learner develop the thought logically?

● Is the central idea clearly expressed?
● Does the learner document the facts?

Sometimes a simple set of standards to use as a guideline is all you need when
correcting learners’ writing, in which case such standards might include items similar to
the following:

● The theme clearly expresses a central idea.

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● Everything presented as fact in the theme is documented.

● The writer develops his or her thoughts logically.

It follows that such standards could be used to make up the items on a checklist.

6.15 Themes, notebooks, homework and recitation

Themes, homework, papers and oral recitations can also provide evidence of learners’
progress, and you should check them carefully. A good rule is never to assign anything
that is not going to be checked by someone. Practise material, however, need not al-
ways be checked by the teacher. Sometimes learners can check their own and each
other’s work quite effectively.

Use both writing exercises and learning devices mainly as aids to instruction. The
emphasis should be on diagnosis, practise and learning, rather than on rating.

6.16 Assessment strategies

A wide range of assessment strategies may be used to measure learner performance.

Teachers can select these according to the purpose of assessment. The forms/types
chosen must provide a range of opportunities for learners to demonstrate their
attainment of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes. The following are some of the
various forms/types of assessment the teacher could use to assess learner
achievement (these assessment strategies and the different forms of assessment for
each of the learning areas are discussed at length in the assessment guidelines for
each learning area):

6.16.1 Forms of assessment that work best for EMS are:

● projects
● research
● role play
● simulations
● presentations
● tests
● assignments
● case studies
● practical demonstrations
(South Africa. Department of Education, 2003:17-18)

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6.16.2 Methods of collecting assessment evidence

There are various methods of collecting assessment evidence. Some of these are dis-
cussed below:

• Observation-based assessment

Observation-based assessment methods tend to be less structured and allow us to

record different kinds of evidence for different learners at different times. This kind of
assessment is often based on tasks that require learners to interact with one another in
pursuit of a common solution or product. Observation has to be intentional and should
be conducted with the help of an appropriate observation instrument.

• Test-based assessment

A test-based assessment is more structured to enable educators to gather the same

evidence, in the same way and at the same time, for all learners. This kind of
assessment creates evidence of learning that is verified by a specific mark or score.
Tests and exams remain an important part of CAPS because they give good evidence
of what knowledge has been learnt if they are used correctly.

In the past, tests were often erroneously considered to be the only method of
assessment. Tests are a good method of assessing learners’ acquisition of knowledge,
but do not provide evidence of the development of practical skills, values or attitudes.

Task-based assessment
Task-based/performance assessment methods aim to show whether learners are
competent at applying their learning. One of the benefits of this approach is that it shows
the extent to which learners can apply the skills and knowledge they have learnt in
unfamiliar contexts or contexts outside of the classroom.

The assessment activities are well-structured, but still allow for differences in the
evidence collected from different learners. The evidence differs from learner to learner,
but all the evidence shows whether learners can effectively choose what part of their
learning is needed to solve a problem or do a task, and then use that learning to
complete the task successfully. This approach relies on the professional judgement of
the educator in assessing the performance of learners, as measured against a set of
criteria that have been clearly set before the task is done. The criteria, standards or
rules by which the task will be assessed can be described in different ways, such as in
rubrics or task lists.

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• Self-assessment, peer assessment and group assessment

The outcomes and assessment standards are transparent. Learners know what is
expected of them. The learner can, therefore, play an important part in assessment by
“pre-assessing” work before it gets handed in (self-assessment). Learners can also
assist one another by assessing one another’s work before it is finally handed in (peer
assessment). Peer assessment helps both the learners whose work is being assessed
and the learners who are doing the assessment.

The ability to work effectively in groups is one of the critical outcomes. Learners should,
therefore, be assisted to develop, and be assessed on, the skills needed for working in
groups. Assessing group work involves assessing the extent to which learners work
effectively as a group. This includes looking for evidence that the learners within the
group are cooperating, assisting one another, dividing work, combining individual
contributions into a single composite assessable product, managing time and other
resources as a group, and managing group dynamics.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT FORM DATE: ........................

NAME: ..................................................................................................................
LEARNING ACTIVITY: ....................................................................................

1. Preparation Yes No
Did I know what to do?
Could I do it?
Did I ask for help when needed?
Did I prepare as well as I could have?
2. Presentation
Did I have eye contact with the audience?
Did I put my facts across?
Did I enjoy the experience?
Did I learn something?

COMMENTS:
I learnt about:
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................

I need assistance with:

.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

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PEER-ASSESSMENT TOOL
NAME OF GROUP: .................................................................................................
GRADE: .................................................................................................................
DATE: ....................................................................................................................
TOPIC: ...................................................................................................................
GROUP LEADER: ....................................................................................................

NO YES
1. Did every learner participate?
2. Did you give your partner a chance to
talk?
3. Did you keep to the time allocated?
4. Did you support each other?
5. Did you learn from the experience?

ANY OTHER COMMENTS: ................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

SIGNATURE: ....................................................

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RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE: SELF-ASSESSMENT

NO YES
1. Have I completed all the questions on the check
list?
2. Did I answer all the questions as fully as possible?
3. Did I help anyone with answers?
4. Did any of my friends help me with answers?
5. Did I find something that interested me that
was not on the list given?

Conclusion

This learning unit demonstrated how assessment forms an integral part of teaching.
This unit outlines the purposeful collection and interpretation of the level of learning.
Assessment processes should therefore be credible by ensuring that all assessment
activities are valid, sufficient, authentic, current and fair. Thus assessment provides of
learning that took place in trying to reach the learning objectives.

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

Assess yourself to ascertain whether you have achieved the expected learning
outcomes for this learning unit.

1. Show that you know and understand the learning outcomes: Applying the
requirements for assessment in the curriculum to design assessments at
appropriate cognitive levels.
2. According to CAPS, the cognitive levels are grouped into three categories with
suggested weightings. Critically discuss these levels by using Blooms Taxonomy.
3. Discuss and substantiate, with appropriate examples, the applicability of baseline
assessment, diagnostic assessment, formative assessment, and summative
assessment in the EMS classroom.

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References

South Africa. Department of Education. 2000. Educator development manual: senior phase.
Pretoria: Government Printer.

South Africa. Department of Education. 2002. Policy: revised national curriculum statement
grades R-9 (Schools): overview. Pretoria: Government Printer.

South Africa. Department of Education. 2003. Policy: revised national curriculum statement grades
R9 (Schools): teacher’s guide for the development of learning programmes. Pretoria: Government
Printer.

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Table of content

Learning outcomes
Key concepts
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The teacher’s skills
7.2.1 Reducing subject matter to essence
7.2.2 Planning a lesson designs
7.2.3 Making the lesson proceed meaningfully
7.2.4 Viewing content through the learners’ eyes
7.2.5 Capturing and holding the learners’ interest
7.2.6 Asking questions
7.2.7 Applying reinforcement
7.2.8 Evaluation
7.2.9 Providing intellectual challenges
7.3 Pedagogic didactic principles in teaching the EMS learning area
7.3.1 Traditional principles
7.3.1.1 The principle of totality
7.3.1.2 The principle of individualisation
7.3.1.3 The activity principle
7.3.1.4 The motivation principle
7.3.1.5 The principle of perception
7.3.1.6 The principle of environmental teaching
7.4 Learners’ behaviour in the classroom
7.5 Factors causing behavioural problems
7.6 Barriers to learning
7.7 Terminology
7.8 Language of teaching and learning and other language issues
7.9 Suggested plan to ensure desirable learner behaviour
7.10 The teacher’s attitude
7.11 Role of the teacher
Conclusion
Self-assessment activity

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Learning Unit 7: Classroom management

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit you will able to do the following:

• Describe an ideal classroom for the subject;

• Find innovative ways on how to overcome challenges in creating a unique
classroom atmosphere conducive to learning in less than perfect contexts;
• Prepare to manage learner behaviour in their classroom;
• Practise administrative tasks undertaken by teachers;
• Act professionally and ethically by taking full responsibility for their actions;
and
• Decision making and use of resources.

Key Concepts
Classroom management
Rules
Procedures
Discipline

7.1 Introduction

Managing a classroom is one of the roles that a teacher plays in a typical

classroom. As a teacher, you have to create and maintain a learning environment
that is favourable and supportive for all learners for effective teaching and learning
processes to take place. A class or learning group (usually in a traditional classroom)
consists of at least three universal components: the teacher, the learners and the
contents to be learnt. Through purposeful integration, coordination and harmonisation
of these three components, the teacher creates a unique learning environment in the
classroom, known as classroom practice, which can have either a positive or a
negative effect on instructional learning activities. The teacher is the main initiator
of all instructional learning activities and is responsible for putting into practise the
theory that underlies teaching.

In this learning unit, the following aspects of classroom practice are considered:

● the teacher’s skills

● pedagogic didactic principles for teaching EMS
● learners’ behaviour in the classroom
● creating a positive classroom atmosphere

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7.2 The teacher’s skills

Instruction is a practical task. Because teachers are involved in a formal practice, they
have to be able to account for it. They should therefore consciously develop the skills
that we will discuss below. As in all fields of modern life, increasingly demanding
requirements are being set for teachers. In response to demands for higher salaries
for teachers, an American president had the following to say: ‘‘You want money for
your teaching, but we want teaching for our money.’’

7.2.1 Reducing subject matter to essences

Instruction cannot happen without subject matter. When planning lessons, teachers
must carefully consider the interrelationship between a theme and other themes
(microanalysis). Then they should make a microanalysis of subject-specific knowledge
(technical terms like proper names, generic names and symbols); subject-specific
skills, such as giving advice, making decisions, drawing graphs, collecting data and
predicting; and general skills (explaining, interpreting and analysing).

7.2.2 Planning a lesson design

This skill is based on sound theoretical knowledge of the subject matter and
pedagogic essences. The teacher has to particularise propositions from the lesson
structure the macrostructure, and so arrive at a lesson design that harmonises the
anticipated lesson format with the subject matter (in keeping with the nature of the
subject).

7.2.3 Making the lesson proceed meaningfully

Skilled teachers are able to establish a balance between their own activities and those
of their learners. Criteria for evaluating this skill include instructional effect and learning
effect. Instructional aims and objectives may be regarded as ‘‘effect’’.

7.2.4 Viewing content through the learners’ eyes

As subject experts, teachers often make the mistake of expecting learners to have
reached the same level of insight as they (the teachers) have. And a teacher who
proceeds straight to a grade 8 class after teaching a grade 12 class may be inclined
to forget this basic truth. In addition, teachers may expect a grade 12 class to have
reached a level that they only have to achieve by the end of the year.

7.2.5 Capturing and holding the learners’ interest

One of the best ways to capture the learners’ interest is to vary activities. Teachers

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should avoid starting a lesson until learners have unpacked their books. The skill of
retaining interest is mainly a matter of thorough preparation and motivating learners.

7.2.6 Asking questions

The question-and-answer method promotes dialogue between teacher and learners. It

requires expertise to ask questions that follow logically, that accord with the learners’
level, that make the lesson unfold progressively, and that determine whether learners
have analytical and synthetic ability as well as knowledge. Formulating questions is an
essential part of preparing a lesson and should not be left to chance.

7.2.7 Applying reinforcement

Teachers should listen attentively to learners, give credit where credit is due and
encourage them to answer questions. This is a difficult task, but teachers should
never humiliate or reject a learner.

Integrating teaching media effectively

Teachers should continually work at the skill of making reality perceivable and
finding examples to make abstract concepts meaningful to learners. Many media do
not really enable learners to perceive things. The essence of perception lies in the
mind, so teaching media are effective if they promote thinking.

7.2.8 Evaluation

Evaluation reveals both qualitative and quantitative elements. Since the teacher’s
judgement has a major impact on learners’ futures, this skill has to be carefully
cultivated.

7.2.9 Providing intellectual challenges

Intellectual challenges improve learners’ performance. Instruction should not be

aimed at only memorisation of a multitude of facts; it should be future-oriented.

7.3 Pedagogic didactic principles in teaching the EMS learning area

Effective teaching depends on effective application of didactic principles. Ideally, one

should apply as many of these principles as possible in every lesson. Teaching is
practise based on theory. Teachers should know what to do and how to do it, but also
why they are doing it. In order to direct teaching, teachers have to understand, and not
just memorise, didactic principles.

Like all teaching, the teaching of EMS is based on a system of pedagogic didactic
principles. Not all authors define these principles in the same way, but the principles

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discussed below are particularly important for qualitative lesson design and
meaningful presentation of EMS. Van der Merwe (in Lemmer, 1994:10) states that
an analysis of the various teaching systems will reveal certain basic principles that
form the foundation of teaching. These principles must be seen as guidelines for the
teacher and not as recipes. Merely knowing these principles does not make a person
a good teacher. Only when these principles are put into practise will the teacher
enjoy success in the didactic situation.

7.3.1 Traditional principles

In formal didactic situations, teachers present learning material in such a way that
learners have to integrate new content into their existing body of knowledge. So,
because teachers try to make a connection with this existing knowledge, they have
to determine what that knowledge is. Once they have done this, the learning effect is
usually greater. The following are commonly regarded as traditional principles:

• Proceed from the known to the unknown

This principle is particularly useful in initial instruction. Grade 9 learners get pocket
money and spend it, handle commercial documents and use various modes of
transport to reach school. Some even have hobbies that might be lucrative and that
involve decisions about buying and selling.

As regards transport, all learners are familiar with the bicycle, the motor car, the train,
the airplane and the cargo ship (the concrete level). They have to be made aware of
the division between land and air transport, and the reasons why different modes of
transport are used at different times. Eventually abstract concepts such as utility of
place and infrastructure will be introduced.

• Proceed from the simple to the complex

This principle is closely linked with the spiral order of the presentation principle: a
learner buys an article and pays for it. This single transaction forms part of the
economic cycle: goods and services flow in one direction, while money flows in the
opposite.

• Proceed from the concrete to the abstract

People have various wants; consumption is the utilisation of goods and services to
satisfy wants. If you give your learners many concrete examples, these will lead to
the abstract formulations of ‘‘immediate consumption” and ‘‘postponed consumption’’.

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Proceed from the whole to the parts, then back to the whole

Prices are the function of various factors, such as production costs, the interaction
between demand and supply, and profit. You would analyse this view of totality and
discuss the individual demand supply curves. Later, you would compare price
formation in capitalist countries with price formation in communist countries.

7.3.1 The principle of totality

You should note that this principle refers to the totality of teacher, learner and subject
matter. The learner, for example, is viewed as a totality, and even though intellect is
paramount in the school situation, other dimensions such as the affective and psycho-
motor domains should not be neglected. Hand, head and heart should all be involved.
Children should synthesise the ideals of home, school, place of worship and society,
otherwise they become confused. Most people are situated in the totality of the
cultural, economic and material world that surrounds them, and learners (children) also
accept this world as a totality and a unit.

The traditional division into subjects or learning areas is for the purpose of study
only. It is important to emphasise that all subjects form part of the greater whole.
Similarly, every lesson is a unit that has to link up with the larger whole, namely the
subject. Adulthood implies a unity of thought and action. Therefore, learners should
not be puzzled by the fact that themes like bills, debt collection and cancellation
feature not only in the EMS learning area, but also in mercantile law, typing and
languages, for instance. As an EMS teacher, you should remember that, for
learners, the concrete is that which the whole is – familiar and also simple, in other
words, the world of their everyday lives (Eksteen, [sa]:118). According to Eksteen
([sa]:118]), the totality idea involves the following:

● experiencing the whole (totality)

● exploring and investigating the whole
● analysing the connection
● systematising established relationships
● synthesising into transparent structures
● making this structure part of the whole of the material to be learnt

If we measure EMS against these elements, we could say the following:

● The subject matter is logically and systematically arranged, functional,

interesting and balanced, and is taken directly from situations that are part of
reality.
● EMS includes factual knowledge, skills and attitudes that learners will often
require later as consumers, workers and citizens.

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● The integration and correlation of theory and practise create learning situations
that are favourable to activation. As far as possible, the theory should tie in
with practise (the everyday life-world). The classroom should be an extension
of the business world and the learners’ homes.
● EMS can be closely integrated with other learning areas. You should therefore
try to synchronise, integrate and correlate it with related learning material,
learning areas and fields of study to help your learners see not just the parts,
but also the whole in perspective.

Eksteen ([sa]:119) quotes Harms and Stehr, who write that ‘‘learners learn best when
they get a glimpse into the inner sanctum of understanding what it is all about. Learning
is more meaningful and more economical if it can be closely linked with its application.
Teachers’ influence extends beyond the subject matter. Their attitude, appearance,
enthusiasm and values, and the way they perform their instructional functions,
influence learners greatly.

7.3.1.2 The principle of individualisation

The principle of planning, teaching and evaluating in terms of the average learner
means that gifted learners are bored and less gifted ones are baffled. The crux of the
principle of individualisation is that every learner should be encouraged to perform to
the best of his or her ability. Teachers should consciously differentiate, for example,
their methods of presentation and pace, the ratio of mechanical to conceptual subject
matter, andthe quantity and quality of assignments.

Less gifted children tend to display slow reactions, stereotypical working methods
and a short attention span; they have problems with abstract thinking and see things
in isolation rather than in context. When teaching these learners, teachers should spell
out assignments by offering clear guidance; they should create opportunities for
repetition and practise; and their entire approach should be characterised by
resourcefulness, patience and sympathy.

Gifted learners have a longer attention span, needless repetition, spot

interrelationships easily and are able to generalise and think originally. Teachers
should provide them with plenty of challenges. They should let these learners work
independently in the library and develop subject matter logically by means of class
discussions.

EMS teachers should realise that implementing the individualisation principle

means that they have to do more and better preparation than usual. They have to
move slowly with less gifted children and more quickly with the more gifted.
Acceleration, enrichment and remedial education are important aspects of
individualisation. Sufficient time is essential if you are to apply the individualisation
principle successfully (Lemmer, 1994:11).

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Individualisation gives rise to differentiation and you can promote it in the classroom
situation by giving learners individual or group projects, for which EMS is an ideal
learning area. You can encourage and help your learners to set their own rate of
progress. Lemmer (1994:12) gives the following advantages and disadvantages of the
individualisation principle:

❖ Advantages of individualisation
❖ The risk of failure is decreased because learners are better motivated.
❖ Individualisation facilitates learner evaluation.
❖ There are more opportunities for giving learners individual help.
❖ There is better contact between teacher and learner.
❖ Individualisation recognises the principle that learners are unique individuals
with differing needs.
❖ Learners learn as individuals according to their abilities. Individualisation can
be applied in all facets of learning.
❖ The principle of an individual working pace is recognised.
❖ Greater responsibility is encouraged in learners.
❖ Learners become more involved.
❖ Individualisation gives gifted learners room for enrichment.

Where required, provision is made for remedial work.

➢ Disadvantages of individualisation
➢ Providing individual attention is time consuming.
➢ Giving attention to high achievers or remedial work may mean that you
neglect average learners.
➢ Group socialisation may be hampered.
➢ Competition among learners may be neglected.
➢ Intellectual differences may be overemphasised at the expense of qualitative
differences.
➢ Individualised teaching methods make heavy demands on teachers.
➢ Not all teachers are capable of applying the principle of individualisation
successfully.

7.3.1.3 The activity principle

Learning takes place onlyif learners participate actively. As a teacher who has carefully
thought through the individualisation principle, you can make provision for
meaningful activities in your preparation. In EMS classes, teachers sometimes think
that it is sufficient if their learners just sit and listen. But learners must also think,
handle problems analytically, compare solutions, evaluate information and be critical.
One way of introducing activities is to give your learners some information and then

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set them an independent activity in which they have to find the missing information
themselves. In an independent activity, learners get to experiment, discover, gain in-
sight, find solutions and come to their own conclusions, but all under the guidance of
you, their teacher. In independent activities, learners become seekers, conquerors
and discoverers. If they are to develop, learners have to be able to think for themselves.
Lemmer (1994:15) believes that in teaching, independent activity allows learners to
experience the joy of self-discovery and creates an atmosphere of enthusiasm. Group
work, role play, problem solving, working with documents, outings and
demonstrations can all be used to stimulate independent activity.

7.3.1.4 The motivation principle

Motivation is one of the keys to effective teaching. A motivated class participates

actively, cooperates well and makes good progress. The obvious question is ‘‘How do
I motivate my learners to work and to read?’’ The answer lies in how you design
learning situations. Teachers’ theoretical knowledge enables them to present subject
knowledge in various ways by considering the learners’ developmental level, the
nature of the subject (or theme) and the amount of time and number of teaching
media that are available. Teachers who know their subject, who are well-versed in the
science of education and who are prepared to work to the best of their ability usually
manage to motivate their learners. Case studies, projects, problem solving and
considering the impact of alternative solutions are all ways of motivating learners.

Ideally, intrinsic motivation (which enables learners to perform well because they are
interested in the subject and want to achieve) should come before extrinsic motivation
(punishment, reward) because it yields lasting results. You should be judicious in your
praise and learners should not live in fear and trepidation.

A motivated learner learns more efficiently. Moderate motivation produces better

results than excessive motivation.

Van der Merwe (in Lemmer, 1994:14-15) makes the following points about
motivation:

Intrinsic motivation is preferable to extrinsic motivation because its effect is more

permanent and widespread.

If a class is motivated, the learners will cooperate and participate in the teaching and
learning situation and learning will take place.

You should set realistic goals, long or short term, for your learners. They need to know
in what direction they are moving.

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You should be enthusiastic in your presentation of lessons. If they are boring, you
cannot expect the learners to be attentive and motivated.

Use a variety of methods in presentation; this prevents learners from getting bored.

There must be a correlation between the level of presentation and the learners’ level of
development. When lessons are presented at too high or too low a level, learners will
be discouraged or frustrated, rather than motivated.

Personal, social and intellectual differences must be kept in mind and the teacher
must cater for every learner in the class.

The natural desires and urges of learners, especially their inquisitiveness and
inclination to play, should be utilised.

As far as possible, self-confidence should be cultivated. Success breeds success.

A learner’s self-esteem must be promoted and built up. Everybody wants to feel
important and to be treated with respect by friends and teachers. Praise and
acknowledgement, no matter how slight, are therefore important parts of motivation.
Learners strive for and are dependent on these incentives for improvement.

Inform learners of their progress. Their assignments and tests must be returned to
them as soon as possible and you must help them to understand their mistakes.

Reinforce success with reward, instead of punishing failure. Positive motivation has
more retention value than negative motivation.

Use the learners’ natural desire for adventure and action.

7.3.1.5 The principle of perception

Comenius (b 1592) and Pestalozzi (b 1764) probably pioneered this notion and the use
of teaching media in schools. Note that ‘‘perception’’ refers to all five senses.

Sensory stimulation in itself does not ensure learning. Perception involves both sense
perception and subjective experience. Thought clearly plays a role in this, but thought
needs language to be expressed. We often hear about people who look, but do not
see, or who listen, but do not hear.

In didactic situations, the principle of perception is actualised by means of teaching

media. Knowledge is expanding enormously in our time; direct, first-hand
experience is no longer possible, so it has to be backed up with media. Words without
concrete perceptual experience usually lead to mere verbalism. On the other

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hand, excessive, mindless use of teaching media is not recommended. A surfeit of

perception may slow down thought, whereas the school’s whole purpose is to get
learners to think. EMS learners are already capable of abstract thought, but
diagrams, structures, pictures and photographs facilitate instruction and learning.
When designing media, the essences should emerge clearly; unnecessary details
merely confuse learners. Structures such as the following one contain the essences
that may activate learners’ thinking:

7.3.1.6 The principle of environmental teaching

Lemmer (1994:1-14) believes that the principle of environmental teaching can be

applied in teaching business economics. However, we can also apply it to the EMS
learning area and draw the following conclusions:

The immediate surroundings in which learners are reared, especially during their
early years, have an effect on their intellectual development.

The home, neighbourhood, city, health status and available educational and welfare
facilities are environmental factors that influence learners’ mental and physical
development.

The EMS teacher should be aware of the learners’ environment. This environment
can be used as a starting point for lessons, for example, the station, shop, post office,
bank and municipality. The area around the school provides a rich source of
information. Learners should also be encouraged to explore and experiment within
their environment to further their development.

Environmental teaching demands more preparation by teachers. They must have a

good knowledge of each learner’s environment and try to educate him or her to
become a stable and responsible person.

➢ Advantages of environmental teaching

➢ You can use the environment as a starting point and introduction to

new learning material.
➢ You will find it easier to gain the learners’ attention by relating the
learning matter to the environment.
➢ Learners become more aware of their surroundings.
➢ Problems relating to the environment become more meaningful to
them.

● Disadvantages of environmental teaching

● The learners may come from different environments, which makes
equal education difficult.

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● Learners may become disoriented and lose interest.

● Your personal background may not have prepared you to expose
your learners to different environments.

7.4 Learners’ behaviour intheclassroom

Teachers have to control and handle learners’ behaviour in the classroom. Order and
discipline in the classroom are the teacher’s responsibility. The authority that
teachers represent depends on themselves, their appearance, their way of
dressing, their language, mannerisms, their general approach to their learners, and
their reaction to the views of their learners and the people they work with. In order to
exercise authority in the classroom, teachers have to know their learners’ strengths
and weaknesses and share their problems and successes. Teachers should also be
able to personalise their teaching approach by projecting themselves into the

personal situations of their learners and taking an objective view of the conflicts that
can affect a child’s behaviour.

7.5 Factors causing behavioural problems

The following factors can give rise to behavioural problems:

Physiological factors. Factorssuchaspoor health, auditory and visual defects, malnutrition and
hyperactivity can cause behavioural problems (Kruger & Van Schalkwyk, 1992:133; Burden
& Byrd, 1994:202).

Social factors. Environmental factors, incitement of learners, negative mutual

influencing and bad forms of self-assertion on the part of learners all affect behaviour.
Even social factors in the classroom itself, like untidiness, poor instructional facilities
and bad instructional practices, can cause behavioural problems (Kruger & Van
Schalkwyk, 1992:133).

Home circumstances. Poor home circumstances, for example, lack of discipline, are not
easily corrected by teachers (Kruger & Van Schalkwyk, 1992:134).

Learners with behavioural problems. Personality traits like inherent aggression, a sense of
inferiority, conceit, obstructiveness, bullying, rudeness, moodiness, inability to handle
frustration, inattentiveness and teasing can cause bad behaviour in other learners
(Burden & Byrd, 1994:203).

The teacher and the instructional learning situation. A teacher’s health problems, personal
weaknesses, poor instructional methods and weak classroom management can
cause behavioural problems in learners (Kruger & Van Schalkwyk, 1992:134).

Inexperienced teachers may initially have difficulty maintaining discipline in their

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classrooms, but they learn from experience.

7.6 Barriers to learning

The Department of Education identifies the following problems regarding inclusive

education that must be taken into account for learning and assessment (South Africa.
Department of Education, 2003:3032):

There are various issues that can prevent a learner from reaching his or her full
potential. Inclusion is essentially a curriculum issue since curricula create the most
significant barriers to learning for many learners, effectively excluding them
irrespective of whether they are in special or ordinary schools and settings.

The EMS learning area is designed in such a way that all learners can participate in
EMS activities and achieve the expected learning outcomes. Inclusivity is an essential
part of EMS. Learners experiencing barriers to learning must always be
accommodated. Teachers need to be aware of barriers to learning and ensure
that their teaching methods reflect awareness of multiple intelligences and
different ways of learning and knowing.

The focus, therefore, is on experiencing the process rather than merely creating a
product.

Barriers need to be identified and addressed in an appropriate manner. EMS learning

activities must be inclusive to ensure that no learners are left on the sidelines.
Vulnerable learners need to be given the necessary support to ensure active
participation in the curriculum through adaptive or alternative means. The following
are suggestions for addressing certain barriers:

7.7 Terminology

The EMS learning area has its own terminology, which needs to be understood by both
teachers and learners. EMS is a new learning area in the foundation and intermediate
phases and most teachers lack the necessary background knowledge and skills to teach
it. This can hinder teaching, learning and assessment. Capacity building, skills
development and empowerment of teachers are of vital importance. Teachers and
learners should be encouraged to read more texts from available sources of information
or interact with media to familiarise themselves with EMS terminology. Issue-based
teaching and learning should take into account the real-life experiences of learners.
Teachers who lack the necessary skills for facilitating EMS should receive training and
be provided with support material.

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7.8 Language of teaching and learning and other language issues

The learner’s home language is important for his or her development. In most
schools, the language of teaching and learning is a second or third language for both
teachers and learners. This may result in learners failing to satisfy learning and
assessment requirements owing to a lack of understanding of the language of
teaching and learning. The language of teaching and learning should not be taught
in isolation, but should be linked to the content of other learning areas such as EMS.
Both teachers and learners should be encouraged to read business articles and
business news and to view and listen to business programmes to increase their store
of knowledge in the field of EMS, while at the same time improving their language
skills. In teaching and learning EMS generally, language knowledge and skills should
be emphasised so that they will not be solely the burden of the language teacher to
teach the language. Teaching of EMS can be done in collaboration with the language
teacher, for instance, when dealing with learning units such as advertising. This also
encourages teamwork among teachers.

● Prior learning

Learners may come to the learning situation with a great diversity of background
experiences. Some will have had more exposure than others to matters related to EMS,
such as a family business background, operating a savings account (and therefore
knowing how to deposit and withdraw money) and being a tourist. Learners should be
encouraged to value and share with one another whatever experiences they have had
in the field of EMS. Teachers need to assess the learning programmes on the basis
of prior learning, build on it and provide bridging, where necessary, by making EMS
resources available.

● Resources

Where material resources are hard to find, teachers and learners need to be
resourceful and innovative in finding substitutes and variations. Waste
materials can be used for different purposes of EMS, including:

— in teaching and learning, where empty containers of used products

may be used for issues such as brand names (competing products),
labels, prices and manufacturers, or as dummy products for role play
— to generate cash
— to promote appreciation and awareness of the importance of a clean
and safe environment at an early age

Teachers should be equipped with the necessary skills to select relevant resources
to use in the teaching-learning process. In order to augment the personal resources
of teachers, training programmes should guide teachers on how to look beyond

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the classroom for human and material resources. Teachers should draw on
community members for indigenous knowledge, entrepreneurs, artists and
managers of different business functions (e.g. production, marketing, financial,
public relations and human resources). The absence of specific facilities should not
prevent the effective implementation of this learning area. There is a wide range of
information on EMS in the media, which can be collected and accumulated to form a
rich resource corner in every classroom (e.g. newspapers, magazines, bulletins and
publications from different companies). Schools must make use of venues and
spaces available for facilities such as flea markets, tuck shops and manufacturing.
The possibilities of all available spaces should be explored and used profitably.
Notice boards should be used for advertising individual entrepreneurial projects,
products and services rendered, or family businesses. Announcements at school
should also include promoting or marketing individuals’ products and services with
the aim of encouraging young entrepreneurs (the ‘‘be your own boss’’ concept).

● Rural and urban contexts

Learning programmes should be adapted to suit urban or rural contexts.

Examples include the following:

— Where access to factories is not available, for example, in rural areas,

teachers need to realise that learners could also be taken to brickyards that
will expose them to production. Teachers can also provide the learners with
various pamphlets and booklets on production, which they have obtained
from factories.
— People in both rural and urban areas often find that they have limited exposure
to EMS experiences that do not apply to their situations. Teachers therefore
need to expand opportunities and exposure for learners by arranging
excursions to bridge the gap between theory and practise.

● Visual impairment

Learners may have varying degrees of difficulty reading print or graphics, or seeing
small objects. The following techniques may be employed to assist such learners:
— Instead of drawing, blind/partially sighted learners may be asked to
name or describe content.
— Additional help may be required to find resources for
research/materials for presentations.
— Suitable techniques and processes have to be selected for the
blind/partially sighted. For instance, where learners have to do
accounting entries by transferring information from source
documents, they can just mention the structure and the documents
to post.

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— When visuals are presented to the class, lines have to be bold for the
visually impaired and verbal explanations have to accompany all
pictures.

➢ Principles of administering punishment

Kruger and Van Schalkwyk (1992:136) mention the following principles that apply to
punishment:

▪ Punishment is effective only if there is a relationship of trust between teacher

and learner.
▪ Rules for learners’ behaviour in the classroom (and outside it) should be
clearly specified from the outset and should be applied consistently.
▪ Identify the cause of misbehaviour (Burden & Byrd, 1994:208).
▪ The character of the learner who is being punished should be considered:
“Know your learners”.
▪ Punishment should conform to departmental rules and regulations.
▪ Minor infringements that do not interfere with the orderly progress of
instruction may be ignored or remedied through eye contact, without
disrupting the whole class.
▪ Avoid constant scolding and criticism of learners, since learners will soon
discover that “your bark is worse than your bite” and will simply ignore it.
▪ Punishment should be consistent, prompt and, above all, reasonable.
▪ Do not punish the whole class, only the culprits.
▪ Teachers should assert their authority in the classroom rather than send
culprits to the principal. The principal should be involved in serious cases
only.

7.9 Suggested plan to ensure desirable learner behaviour

Teachers should exercise discipline in the classroom situation. Bear in mind, though,
that the teachers’ behaviour in class often dictates the behaviour of the learners.
Excessively strict, military-style discipline and lack of encouragement and praise are
experienced negatively by learners.

Activity 7.1
● Illustrate the kind of plan can you come up with to ensure that your
learners behave as you want them to in your classroom.

● Did you think of the following ways of ensuring that your learners behave the
way you want them to?
● Organise the classroom so as to be as convenient and functional as possible (Kruger & Van
Schalkwyk, 1992:134).
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● Lay down variouspositive disciplinary measures and procedures. Burden and Byrd (1994:223)
emphasise that no single approach is best for all teachers and all teaching
situations. For example, a system of rules and procedures for a tenth-grade
English class would not be appropriate for use with a third-grade class.
● Provide a supportive environment during class sessions. Once the system of rules and
procedures has been established at the start of the school year, teachers
need to continually take action in each class session to provide a supportive
environment. These are actions that teachers take in the normal course of
instruction for the purpose of guiding and reinforcing students for positive
classroom behaviour. Teachers would take these actions even if no
misbehaviour were present (Burden & Byrd, 1994:223):
● Providing a supportive environment is accomplished primarily through (a) cueing and
reinforcing appropriate behaviour, and (b) getting and holding attention.
Cueing and reinforcing involves stressing positive, desirable behaviours;
recognising and reinforcing desired behaviours; and praising effectively.
Getting and holding attention involves focusing attention when beginning
lessons; keeping lessons moving at a good pace; monitoring attention
during lessons; stimulating attention periodically; maintaining
accountability; and terminating lessons that have gone on too long. In
addition to these instructional techniques, teachers should treat their
learners with dignity and respect and present challenging, interesting and
exciting classes (Burden & Byrd, 1994:223).
● Always prepare well so that your lessons are professional. Maintain an even pace without
boring learners. Keep learners’ attention throughout the lesson.
● Provide situational assistance during class sessions (Burden & Byrd, 1994:224-225). At
some point, students may get off-task during a lesson. This off-task behaviour
may be in the form of misbehaviour or may simply be a lapse i n attention.
Either way, teachers need to provide situational assistance promptly.
Situational assistance involves actions that teachers take to get the
students back on task with the least intervention and disruption possible; it
does not involve punishment. Teachers should be alert to a lack of
involvement in learning activities, prolonged inattention or work avoidance,
and obvious violations of classroom rules and procedures. These
behaviours can be dealt with directly and without overreaction.

A calm, reasoned approach to managing inappropriate behaviour can be

accomplished in four ways. Firstly, redirect the student’s attention to the academic
tasks. This can be accomplished with a statement such as, “Tricia, you should be
writing now”. Check the student’s progress shortly thereafter to make sure he or she is
continuing to work. Secondly, make eye contact with or move closer to the student.
These or other signals, such as a finger to the lips or a head shake, prompt the
appropriate behaviour. Monitor until the student complies. Thirdly, remind the
student of the correct procedure. You can either state the correct procedure or ask the

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student if he or she remembers it. Fourthly, tell the student directly to stop the
inappropriate behaviour. This is called a desist order.

Desist orders influence other students and disrupt their involvement. Successful
interventions, therefore, tend to have a private and fleeting quality that does not
interrupt the academic flow of events. Successful desists are also quite brief and do
not invite further comment from the target student or students. In this way, the
academic programme of action is only minimally disturbed.
Some inappropriate behaviours are of such short duration and are so
insignificant that they can be safely ignored. In some ways, the teacher’s use
of situational assistance might be considered a forgiveness clause for the
student by recognising that:

● The off-task behaviour was minor or fleeting and by allowing the student to get
back on task without a pen.
● Keep learners constructively busy throughout the period. If learners are
given a chance to do an exercise in class, make sure that they use the time
for this purpose by providing positive guidance and further instruction to
individual learners.

● Make learners feel that they use each period in your classroom meaningfully.
● Show concern for your learners and trust them. Take an interest in each one and do not
lavish more attention on some learners than on others.
● Make sure that the control and disciplinary measures fit the type of offence, the
offender’s needs and the class atmosphere (Kruger & Van Schalkwyk, 1992:135).

You could add many other measures to this list.

Creatinga positiveclassroomatmosphere

Classroom atmosphere may be defined as the climate or mood in which interactions

and relations between teacher and individual learners, between teacher and class,
and between the learners themselves are realised.

Thus, a classroom situation can be characterised by a spirit of industry or wildness,

lack of motivation or plain socialising, all of which influence the actions of teachers
and learners (Kruger & Van Schalkwyk, 1992:104). A good classroom atmosphere
is warm, cordial, supportive and pleasant. A bad classroom atmosphere, on the
other hand, is “chaotic and disorganized or cold, unfriendly and threatening”
(Burden & Byrd, 1994:177).

Classroom atmosphere has many facets. For the purposes of this discussion, we will
confine ourselves to the teacher’s attitude and the establishment of good interpersonal
relations.

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7.10 The teacher’s attitude

As a beginner teacher, you should note that your personality is a decisive factor in the
atmosphere of your classroom. Kruger and Van Schalkwyk (1992:105) tabulate positive
and negative personality traits, which have a corresponding effect on the classroom
atmosphere:

PERSONALITY TRAITS OF THE TEACHER

Positive traits Negative traits
Friendliness Aloofness
Compassion Moodiness
Interest in Favouritism
Enthusiasm Impatience
Fairness Selfishness
Spontaneity Bombast
Considerate Sarcasm
Sense of humor Egocentricity
Cheerfulness Ill temper
Sensitivity Passiveness
Involvement Uninvolvement
Helpfulness Unhelpfulness
Tolerance Intolerance

In the same vein, Good and Brophy (in Burden & Byrd, 1994:177-178) mention the
following attitudes that teachers need to cultivate to create a good classroom
atmosphere:

● Have respect and affection for the students. Teachers must like their students and
respect them as individuals. This enjoyment of students and concern for their
welfare will come through in tone of voice, facial expressions and other
everyday behaviour. In the early grades, physical gestures and contact are
useful ways for teachers to express warmth and affection. Secondary school
teachers should make an effort to get to know students personally. Students
who like and respect their teachers will want to please them and will be more
likely to imitate their behaviours and attitudes.
● Be consistent and, therefore, credible and dependable. Credibility is
established
largely by making sure that words and actions coincide, and by pointing out
this modelling to the class, when necessary. If students can depend on what
teachers say, they will be less likely to test teachers constantly. Teacher
consistency does not mean that the teacher needs to behave in the same
way all the time, but rather that judgements should be reliable and consistent.

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● Assume responsibility. Teacher credibility also helps to enable students to

accept
responsibility for their own behaviour. When teachers establish fair rules and
enforce them consistently, rule breakers can get angry only at themselves.
● Value and enjoy learning and expect the students to do so too. Teachers
must clearly communicate the value of learning and also the need for
students to value it as well.

● Communicate these basic attitudes and expectations to students and model

them in behaviour. Students tend to conform not so much to what teachers
say, as to what they actually expect. Teachers, then, must think through what
they really expect of their students and then see that their own behaviour is
consistent with those expectations.

Establishing good interpersonal relationships

Activity 7.2

Demonstrate how you, as a teacher, would go about establishing effective

interpersonal relationships?

Establishing good relationships entails applying certain methods and social skills.
Teachers should make sure that they build a relationship of trust with their learners.
Kruger and Van Schalkwyk (1992:108-109) identify the following techniques:

● Get to know your learners’ names. Address them by name, for this shows
your interest in the learner as a person.
● Avoid negative criticism and condemnation. Do not harp on weaknesses
in front of the whole class.
● Making a mistake is not the end of the world. Help learners by pointing
out their mistakes and advising them on how to correct them. This creates
a positive helping relationship.
● Show honest, genuine appreciation and recognition. Everybody has a
need for re- cognition and appreciation for work done. Give this to your
learners and they will do their best.
● Smile. A friendly smile inside the classroom or outside it evokes openness,
friendliness, liking and good relations.
● Listen to learners’ views. People like those who give them an opportunity
to talk. Do not dismiss learners’ opinions as ridiculous or unimportant.
Point out strengths and weaknesses. Do not harm your relationship with
learners.
● Make individuals feel important. Learners like teachers who make them

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feel proud and important. Mention sporting, cultural and other

achievements, but be careful not to overemphasise an individual learner’s
achievements.
● Avoid conflict and arguments. If you win an argument, you may lose the
learner’s regard.
● Admit your own mistakes. Teachers are neither faultless nor perfect.
● Be sympathetic. Teachers who understand learners’ problems will earn
their regard. Care for your learners by being sympathetic and showing
genuine concern if the situation warrants it. Be happy with those who are
happy.
● Be interesting and enthusiastic. Interesting, enthusiastic teachers who
use exciting teaching methods are popular and usually have good
relations with their learners.

7.11 Role of the teacher

The teacher’s role is outlined in the following points:

Mediator of learning. This entails being able to mediate learning in a manner that is
sensitive to the diverse needs of learners and to construct learning environments that
are conducive to teaching and learning, appropriately contextualised and inspirational,
beneficial to effective communication and showing recognition of and respect for the
different cultures, languages and levels of proficiency of others within secondary
schools. Teachers will also demonstrate a sound knowledge of the contents of their
learning area and various principles, strategies and resources appropriate to teaching
at a secondary school in the South African context.

● Interpreter and designer of learning programmes and materials. This entails

understanding and being able to interpret learning programmes, design original
learning programmes, identify the requirements for a specific context of learning,
and select and prepare suitable textual and visual resources for learning that are
appropriate to secondary schools. The teacher will also select, sequence and
pace the learning in a manner sensitive to the differing needs of the
subject/learning area and learners in secondary schools.

● Leader, manager and administrator. This entails being able to make decisions
appropriate to the school level, manage learning in the classroom, carry out
administrative classroom duties efficiently and participate in school decision-
making structures in secondary schools. These competencies will be performed
in ways that are democratic, support learners and colleagues, and demonstrate
responsiveness to changing circumstances and needs.

● Scholar, researcher and lifelong learner. This involves enabling teachers to

achieve ongoing personal, academic, occupational and professional growth by

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pursuing reflective study and research in their learning area, in broader

professional and educational matters, and in other related fields.

● Community, citizenship and pastoral role. This involves enabling the practitioner
to practise and promote a critical, committed and ethical attitude that shows
respect for and responsibility towards others, one that upholds the constitution,
and promotes democratic values and practices in the secondary school and
society. This practitioner/teacher should be able to demonstrate in the school an
ability to establish a supportive relationship with teachers, parents and other key
persons and organisations, based on a critical understanding of community
development issues.

● Assessor. Being an assessor entails understanding that assessment is an

essential feature of the teaching and learning process and knowing how to
integrate it in this process in a secondary school. It entails having an
understanding of the purposes, methods and effects of assessment and being
able to provide helpful feedback to learners. The teacher’s assessing tasks will
include being able to design and manage both formative and summative
assessments in ways that are appropriate to the secondary school level and that
meet the requirements of accrediting bodies. These tasks will also involve being
able to keep detailed and diagnostic records of assessments and understanding
how to interpret and use assessment results to feed into processes for the
improvement of learning programmes.

● Learning area/subject/discipline/phase specialist. This involves being well-

grounded in the knowledge, skills, values, principles, methods and procedures
relevant to the discipline, subject, learning area and/or phase of study in
secondary schools. The teacher will know about different approaches to teaching
and learning, and how these may be used in ways that are appropriate to the
learner and the context in the secondary school phase. The teacher will have a
well-developed understanding of the contents appropriate to the field of
specialisation.

Conclusion

You will not become a successful teacher by simply studying this course.
Nevertheless, you should do your utmost to apply the guidelines provided in this
course as well as you can in order to fulfil your functions of preparation, presentation
and evaluation.

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

Assess yourself to ascertain whether you have achieved the expected learning
outcomes for this learning unit. Be honest with yourself. You can identify and explain

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the skills that EMS learning area teachers need:

• identify and explain the pedagogic didactic principles of teaching the EMS
learning area
• list the principles applicable to administering punishment
• list some plans to ensure desirable learner behaviour (your own input is
important)
• discuss the role of the teacher’s attitude in creating a pleasant classroom
atmosphere
• list ten techniques for establishing good interpersonal relations in a class
situation

To determine you’re a chievement, use the following codes:

1. I have not satisfied the requirements of the learning outcomes.

2. I have partially satisfied the requirements of the learning outcomes.
3. I have satisfied the requirements of the learning outcomes.
4. I have exceeded the requirements of the learning outcomes.

References

Burden, PR & Byrd, DM.1994. Methods for effective teaching. London: Allyn & Bacon.
Eksteen, FRLN. [sa]. Die didaktiek van die ekonomiese wetenskappe.
Kaapstad: NA-SOU.
Kruger, AG & Van Schalkwyk, AJ. 1992. Klaskamerbestuur. Pretoria: Academica.
Lemmer, S. 1994.Teaching business economics. Halfway House: Southern.

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GLOSSARY LIST

Teaching methods – General principles, pedagogy and management strategies used for
classroom instruction

Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) – It stipulates the aim, scope, content
and assessment for each subject listed in the National Curriculum grades R-12

Objectives (outcomes) – What we want learners to demonstrate at the end of a significant

learning experience

Teaching strategies – The principles and methods used by teachers to enable student learning

Syllabus – “A concise statement” or “table of the topics of a discourse” or the “list of contents of a
subject”

Learner-centred curriculum – A curriculum characterised by participation, affective teaching and

problem posing in the classroom

Assessment – Information about the learner to measure their performance

Cooperative learning – A method whereby learners work together to ensure that all members in
their group have learnt and gained the same knowledge, skills, attitudes and values on a
particular topic

Constructivism – Positions the learner at the centre of the teaching and learning
experience

Learning theories – Perspectives to describe how people learn or the inherently complex
processes of learning

Novice teacher – A qualified in-service teacher working in a school with less than three years’
experience

Teacher-centred approach – When the planned lessons are presented in such a way that the
teacher is in control of the teaching process and the learner remains a passive listener,
responding to instructions by the teacher

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