The Nature of Biochemistry

Biochemistry deals with the study of chemistry of livign organism. It is the

application of the principles amd methods of chemistry to the field of biology and
physiology. Biochemistry is not an isolated discipline. It is the most comprehensive in its
broad aspects and includes inorganic, organic and physical chemistry.
Meaning of Biochemistry
The importance of Biochemistry in medical science is due to the increasing
recognition that underlying each and every biological function in a chemical reaction.
There are several particular phases of Biochemistry

 Biochemistry is the study of compounds, chemical reactions, and molecular

interactions that are involved in the production, maintenance and reproduction of
living organisms.
 Biochemistry will serve as a central component of all the health sciences,
including microbiology, genetics, physiology, nutrition, medicine, dentistry and
nursing.
 Biochemistry -It is concerned with the physico- chemical processes underlying
digestion, absorption, circulation, respiration, metabolism, growth and
reproduction.

Scope of Biochemistry

 The scope of biochemistry is as wide as life itself. Whenever there is life,

chemical processes are occurring. It is also concerned with the entire spectrum
of life forms, from relatively simple viruses and bacteria to complex human being.
 It deals with the study of the special chemical constituents, which makes one
tissue to distinct and different from another, by virtue of this unique composition,
there is a structural localization of the different functions of the body.
 It deals with the chemical processes taking place in the body, among the
substances identifies are water, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acid,
organic and inorganic salts.
Branches of Biochemistry
The branches of biochemistry are vast and diverse and have varied overtime and
the progress of biology, chemistry and physics. Everyday new topics are adding in the
scientific data.

 Structural Biochemistry
- This is one of the main branches of biochemistry, it deals with the chemical
architecture of biological macromolecules.
 Bio-organic Chemistry
- Deals with the area of Chemistry that deals with the study of organic
compounds (i.e., those having carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen covalent
bond) that come specially from living things.
 Enzymology
- It deals with the study of behavioral catalyst or enzymes, such as certain
proteins and certain catalytic RNA and the coenzymes and cofactors such as
metals and vitamins.
 Metabolic Biochemistry
- The study of area of biochemistry who claim to know the different types of
metabolic pathways at the cellular level and organic context.
 Immunology
- All this taking into a account the reaction and immune function of living
things
 Endocrinology
- It is the study of biosynthesis, storage and function of hormones, cells and
tissue secreting and hormone signaling metabolisms.
 Virology
- This is one of the areas of biology, dedicated to the study of elementary
biosystems.
 Molecular Genetics and Genetics Engineering
 - An area of biochemistry and molecular biology that studies the genes,
their heritage, and their expression.
 Molecular Biology
- Scientific discipline that aims to the study the processes taking place in
living organisms from a molecular standpoint.
 Cell Biology
- This is an area of biology dedicated to the study of morphology and
physiology of prokaryotes
Biochemical Substances
Biochemical substance is a chemical substance found within a living organism
 Bioinorganic Substances
- substances that do not contain carbon
a. Water (70%)
b. Inorganic salts (5 %)
 Bioorganic Substances
- substances that contain carbon
a. Proteins (15%)
b. Lipids (8%)
c. Carbohydrates (2%)
d. Nucleic acids (2%)

The Cell
The cell is the basic structural and functional component of life, humans are
multicellular organism composed of 60 to 100 trillion cells. It is at the microscopic
cellular level, that’s such vital functions of life a metabolism, growth, response to stimuli,
repair and reproduction as carried on. The most striking thing about a cell is its
organization, they are made up of primarily of four elements; carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen. Cells also vary dramatically in their functions, or roles, they play in the
body.
 Figurre 1. Cell Structure
The Tissue

 Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a

complete organism.
 A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same
origin, that together carry out a specific function.
 Organs are then formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues.
 The study of tissue is known as Histology or, in connection with disease,
Histopathology.

Chemical Composition of Living Matter

Living things are composed of lifeless molecules and have the capacity to extract
and transform energy from their environment, which they use to build and maintain their
own intricate structures from simple raw materials. All living organisms are
predominantly constituted for carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, together with some organic
elements like nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur.

Chemical Composition of Living Matter

The tissues are made up of about 70% to 90% water and 10% to 30% solids. Of
the solids 1% is inorganic and the rest are organic substances.

 Water
- All life forms from the simplest bacteria to the most complex multicellular
plants and animals contain water. Human cells are composed 70% to 90%
water that makes it an ideal medium for sustaining life. Water and its
ionization product H+ and OH- are important in determining the structure and
biological properties of macromolecules and micromolecules.
- The structure of the water molecules gives water its unique properties. Water
is a polar molecule which means that it has a region with a slight negative
charge (the oxygen atom) and a region with slight positive charge (the
hydrogen atoms)
Within the cells - Intracellular water
Outside the cell – Extracellular water
a. Within the blood vessels – Intravascular water
b. Between vascular spaces and the cell – Interstitial water
- Functions:
a. It is a universal medium in which the various chemical changes of the
body take place.
b. As a carrier it aids in digestion, absorption, circulation and excretion.
c. It helps in the maintenance of the body temperature.
d. Acts as a transporting medium for nutrients and all body substances.
e. it plays an important part in mechanical functions, such as lubrication of
joints and the movement of the viscera in the abdominal cavity.
 f. it aids in the elimination of waste products.

General Properties:
a. Water has a unique property
b. Water has exceptional solvent properties
c. Water properties altered by solutes
d. Water has high specific heat
e. Water has high latent heat of vaporization
f. Water has high latent heat of fusion
g. Water has a high surface tension
 Hydrogen bonding
- The interaction between the partial negative charge on oxygen atom of one
water molecule and the partial negative charge on oxygen atom of one water
molecule and the partial positive charge on the hydrogen with a neighboring
water molecule.
 Ions
- An ion is an atom or a molecule that does not have an equal number of
protons and electrons. If the molecule has more electrons than protons it will
be negatively charged and it is called an anion.
 Polarity
- A molecule with atoms of different electronegativity (electron withdrawing
ability) has anisotropic charge distribution: part of the molecule has more
electron density, or partial negative charge and part has less, or partial
positive charge.
 Electrolytes
-Acid, base and salt under current process is known as electrolytes in the
process of ionization.
  Acid and Base -When some substances dissolve in water they break up into ion
acids and bases are such substances – they are very important to living
organism

- Acids – release H+ ions when dissolved in water

- Bases – accept H+ ion when dissolved in water
- The pH scale runs from 0 to 14, 0-6 are considered acids (low pHs)
7- is neutral, 8-14 are considered bases (high pHs)

 Organic Compounds (Nucleic Acid, Proteins, carbohydrates, fats and lipids)

 Inorganic (Bulk elements N,Na,Mg,P,S,Cl,K, and Ca) required in relatively large
amounts. Trace (iron, iodine, sulfates, phosphates, carbonates, etc.)
Attributes of Life
Some characteristics of Living Things that ensure survival are

 Adaptation
 Growth and repair
 Reproduction
 Metabolism
 Regulation
 All living organisms possess a characteristic size and shape
 Responsiveness to stimuli or sensitivity
Physical Chemistry
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including
living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organism and living processes, by
controlling information flow though biochemical signaling and the flow of chemical
energy through metabolism, biochemical processes give rise to the incredible
complexity of life. It deals with the chemistry of life, and as such it draws on the
techniques of analytical, organic and physical chemistry.

Physical Chemistry

 Biochemistry dealing as it does with the chemistry of living matter, requires the
knowledge of physical chemistry and possibly all other branches of chemistry for
the proper understanding of the biochemical processes.
 is the study of how matter behaves on a molecular and atomic level and
how chemical reactions occur? Based on their analyses
Colloidal State of Matter
The old method of grouping substances into colloids and crystalloids was based
upon the ability of the substances to pass through parchment membrane. Those that
diffuse readily through such membrane were called CRYSTALLOIDS, while those which
do not were termed COLLOIDS.
Concept of Classification
The newer concept of classification is based upon the size of the particles of a
solute (the dispersed phase) dispersed in the solvent (the dispersion medium).
Dispersed Dispersed Name of Colloidal Example
Phase Medium Solution
Gas Liquid Foam Soap lather, whipped cream, soda water, froth
Gas Solid Solid Foam Cake, Bread, Pumice stone lave
Liquid Gas Aerosol Mist, Fog, Clouds
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, cream, butter, oil in water
Liquid Solid Gel Curd, Cheese, Jellies, boot polish, butter
Solid Gas Solid Aerosol Smoke, dust
 Solid Liquid Sols Paints, cell fluid inks
Solid Solid Solid sols Alloys, colored glass, gem stones

Colloidal State of Matter

 Deals with different characteristics of substances or solutions.

2 types of mixtures
a. Homogenous – one phase/ miscible
b. Heterogeneous – particles can still be seen/ immiscible

General Properties
a. Filtrability
- The particles of colloids solution can pass through ordinary filter paper but not
through parchment membrane.

b. Negligible Osmotic Pressure

- Colloidal solution has negligible osmotic pressure, they possess the same
vapor pressure, boiling and freezing points as those of pure solvents, the
particle in a colloidal solution is comparatively small.

c. Tyndall Phenomenon
 - Colloidal solution manifests the Tyndall effect, that is, the path of a powerful
beam of light through a colloidal solution appears strongly luminous when
viewed at right angle.

d. Brownian Movement
- The suspended particles of colloidal solution are observed to be continuous,
rapid vibratory motion. This is attribute to the incessant bombardment of the
particles of the solute by the movement of solvent.

e. Electrical Charges
- Colloidal particles especially suspensoids are electrically charged, the charge
being distributed over the surface of the entire particle. The migration of
particles either to positive and negative poles of an electrical-field is called
electrophoresis.

f. Surface Tension
- The total surface area represented by colloidal particles is enormous
composed to these of suspension. Surface tension may be measured by the
use of a stalagmometer.
g. Adsorption
- accumulation of substances of the surface of solid or liquid. the greater the
surface of the adsorbing agent the greater is the adsorption.

• Adsorption is increased by a rise of pressure.

• Adsorption is diminished by a rise in temperature.
The process of adsorption brings substances nearer each other, thus promoting
chemical reactions.

h. Chromatography
- Chromatography is a technique used to separate and identify the
components of a mixture of substances.
I. Viscosity
- Liquid tends to flow due to its fluidity. The resistance which a liquid offers
to flowing is viscosity. This varies greatly with different liquids.
Factors:

1. Temperature
2. Chemical nature
3. Colloids
4. Suspended particles
j. Osmosis
 - Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high-water concentration
through a semi-permeable membrane to a region of low water concentration.

k. Diffusion
- Diffusion is the interpenetration of molecules between two substances, from
an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. This occurs
whenever the solute distributes itself uniformly into the solvent. Atoms and
small molecules can move across a cell membrane by diffusion.

L. Dialysis
- When two different solution are separated by a membrane which allows the
passage of the crystalloids but not colloids, dialysis occurs.

Classification of Colloidal Substances

 a. Emulsiods
b. Suspensoids
EMULSOIDS
 Are lyophilic, having affinity for the solvent.
 Forming gel and swell when contact with large amount of water. (imbibition)
- plays an important role in the normal state of the protoplasm. Increased
imbibition leads to increased retention of fluid in the tissues producing edema.
 Gels are made up of fibrillar structures surrounded by dispersion medium.
- The larger aggregates of colloidal particles formed in the process of gel
formation are called “MICELLES” Gels are freely permeable to non-colloidal
ions and molecules.
- Peptization- dispersal of a solid into colloidal state. (peptizing agent- water).
- The gel however subsequently retracts giving off the imbibe water, a process
termed, SYNERESIS.

- The retraction of blood coagulum with the liberation of a straw-colored fluid

(serum) is a good example.
- Thixotropy- transformation of gel when allowed to stand, after vigorously
shaking transformed to a sol.
 Have higher viscosity than that of the pure solvent, are not precipitated by the
addition of salts in amounts that readily flocculate suspensoids - in order to
precipitate -add sufficient/ large amounts of soluble salts “SALTING OUT”
SUSPENSOIDS

 Are lyophobic (no affinity for the solvent). Exhibit Imbibition and Syneresis. The
colloidal state of suspensoids is rendered more stable by the addition of
 emulsoids. The latter produces a coating upon the surface of the lyophobic
particles preventing them from coming contact with the electrolytes.
Comparison of True Solutions, Colloidal Solutions and Suspension
True Solution Colloidal Solution Suspension

Size of particles 1 millimicron or less 1 to 100 millimicron Above 100 millimicron to

1mm

Diffusibility and filtrability Passes thru Passes thru filters but Do not pass thru either
membrane and filter not thru membranes

Visibility Not visible Visible under ultra- Visible with microscope

microscope or naked eyed

Motion No visible Brownian movement Settles down

Osmotic pressure High Low none
Tyndall phenomenon None Exhibits None