Chapter 5

Air Pollution

Emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide. Image from
National Parks Service (Public Domain).

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
1. Describe the composition and structure of the atmosphere.
2. Explain the importance of the ozone layer, its depletion, and specific steps taken to address it.
3. Distinguish between indoor and outdoor air pollution and how these compare among
industrialized and less industrialized countries
4. Identify natural and anthropogenic sources of air pollution
5. Explain the effects of air pollution on human and ecosystem health
6. Explain how the Clean Air Act legislation works and describe its outcomes

Chapter Outline

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Learning Outcomes
5.1 Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere
5.2 Ozone
5.2.1 The Ozone Layer
5.2.2 The Ozone Hole
5.2.3 Ozone Depletion
5.2.4 The Montreal Protocol
5.3 Outdoor Air Pollution
5.3.1 Criteria pollutants
5.3.2 Volatile Organic Compounds
5.3.3 Smog
5.3.4 Toxic pollutants
5.4 Indoor Air Pollution
5.5 Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health
5.6 Acid Rain
5.7 Air Pollution Legislation
5.7.1 Clean Air Act
5.7.2 EPA's Role
5.7.3 State and Local Governments' Roles
5.7.4 Outcomes of the Clean Air Act
Sources
Websites
Test your understanding
Terms

5.1 Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere

Atmosphere refers to the layer of gases that surrounds Earth and is held in place by Earth’s
gravitational attraction (gravity). The mix of gases in the atmosphere forms a complex system
organized into layers that together support life on Earth. Although there are numerous gases, as
shown in Table 5.1, the top four gases make up 99.998 % of the volume of clean dry air (unpolluted air
that does not contain water vapor). Of this dry composition of the atmosphere nitrogen, by far, is the
most common (78%). Nitrogen dilutes oxygen and prevents rapid or instantaneous burning at the
Earth's surface, as oxygen gas is a necessary reactant of the combustion process. Nitrogen is also
needed and used by living things to make proteins, though as nitrogen gas, N2, it is unavailable to most

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 living things. Oxygen is used by all living things to make molecules that are essential for life. It is also
essential for aerobic respiration as well as combustion or burning. Argon is a non-reactive gas and we
use it in light bulbs, in double-pane windows, and to preserve priceless documents such as the original
Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Carbon dioxide is an essential gas used by plants
and other organisms to make sugar (food) through photosynthesis. This process is essential for other
life as well because during photosynthesis, water molecules are split apart and their oxygen is released
back to the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide also acts as a blanket that prevents the escape of heat into
outer space (see more on this in Chapter 6). The atmosphere is rarely, if ever, completely dry. Water
vapor (water in a 'gas' state) is usually present up to about 4% of the total volume depending on
location. In the Earth's desert regions (30° N/S) when dry winds are blowing, the water vapor
contribution to the composition of the atmosphere will be near zero.

Table 5.1: Average composition of clean dry air in the lower atmosphere
Gas Symbol Content

Oxygen O2 20.95
%
Argon
Nitrogen Ar 0.93 99.9 N2 78.08%
% 98%

0.03
Carbon dioxide CO2
%
Neon Ne 18.20 parts per
million
Helium He 5.20 parts per
million
Krypton Kr 1.10 parts per
million
Sulfur dioxide
Ozone SO2 1.00 parts per O3 0.07 parts per
million million
Methane
Nitrogen dioxide CH42
NO 2.00
0.02 parts per million
Iodine I2 million
0.01 parts per million
Hydrogen
Carbon monoxide H
CO2 0.50 parts per Trace
Ammonia NH3 million Trace
Nitrous oxide N2O 0.50 parts per
million Source: National
Xenon Xe 0.09 parts per Weather Service
million
http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmos/atmos_intro.htm

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 Earth’s atmosphere is divided into four distinct layers based on thermal characteristics (temperature
changes), chemical composition, movement, and density (Figure 5.1). The troposphere is the lowest layer
extending from the surface up to roughly 18 km above the surface depending on location (varies from as low
as 6 km to as high as 20 km). There is continuous flow and swirling of air constantly through convection
currents redistributing heat and moisture around the globe. This results in the short-lived and local patterns
of temperature and moisture that we call weather. Because gravity holds most air molecules close to the
Earth’s surface, the troposphere is the densest of all layers, containing about 75% of the total mass of the
atmosphere. The density of the gases in this layer decrease with height so the air becomes thinner. In
response, the temperature in the troposphere also decreases with height. As one climbs higher, the

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temperature drops from an average around 17°C (62°F) at sea level to about -51°C (-60°F) at the tropopause,
a sharp boundary at the top of the troposphere that limits mixing between the troposphere and the upper
layers.

Figure 5.1: An average temperature profile through the lower layers of the atmosphere. Height (in miles and
kilometers) is indicated along each side. Source: National Weather Service
http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmos/atmprofile.htm

The stratosphere is the layer that extends from the tropopause up to about 50 km to 53 km above
the Earth’s surface depending on location. The proportions of most gases in this layer is similar to that
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of the troposphere with two main exceptions: 1) there is almost no water vapor in the stratosphere
and 2) the stratosphere has nearly 1,000 times more ozone (O 3) than the troposphere. With only
about 19% of the total mass of the atmosphere, the density of the stratosphere is significantly lower
than the troposphere. However, temperature in this region increases with height as a result of heat
that is produced during the formation of ozone (more on ozone in section 5.2). This heat is responsible
for temperature increases from an average -51 °C (-60°F) at tropopause to a maximum of about -15°C
(5°F) at the top of the stratosphere. This increase in temperature with height means warmer air is
located above cooler air. This prevents "convection" as there is no upward vertical movement of the
gases. The consequence of this little to no mixing of gases in the stratosphere makes it relatively calm
but also means that once substances such as pollutants enter this zone, they can remain suspended for
many years. The top of the stratosphere is bound by a boundary known as the stratopause.

Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere which extends to about 85 km above the Earth's surface.
The mesosphere has no ozone molecules and the other gases such as oxygen and nitrogen continue to
become less dense with height. As a result, not much ultraviolet and x-ray radiation from the sun is
absorbed by molecules in this layer so temperature decreases with altitude. Both the stratosphere and
the mesosphere are considered the middle atmosphere.

Between about 85 km and 600 km lies the thermosphere. This layer is known as the upper
atmosphere. Unlike the mesosphere, the gases in this layer readily absorb incoming high energy
ultraviolet and x-ray radiation from the sun. Because of this absorption, the temperature in the
thermosphere increases with height and can reach as high as 2,000°C (3,600°F) near the top depending
on solar activity. However, despite the high temperature, this layer of the atmosphere would still feel
very cold to our skin due to the very thin atmosphere. The high temperature indicates the amount of
energy absorbed by molecules but with so few in this layer, the total number of molecules is not
enough to heat our skin. There’s no sharp boundary that marks the end of the atmosphere. Pressure
and density simply continue to decrease with distance until they become indistinguishable from the
near-vacuum of outer space.

5.2 Ozone
Ozone (O3) is a molecule in which three atoms of oxygen are bonded together. The oxygen gas in
the air we breathe has two oxygen atoms bonded together (O2). Ozone is relatively unstable and
releases its third oxygen atom readily so it oxidizes and burns things more readily than oxygen gas.
This characteristic makes ozone in the troposphere (ground-level ozone) an air pollutant (see section
5.3) but in the stratosphere, ozone is essential for protecting life on Earth. Ozone in the stratosphere is
formed when an oxygen molecule (O2) is broken apart into two separate oxygen atoms (O) by
highenergy ultra violet (UV) solar radiation. Each of the resulting oxygen atoms (O) in turn reacts with
an oxygen molecule (O2) creating ozone (O3) (Figure 5.2). Once produced, ozone can absorb UV

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radiation breaking the molecule to regenerate an oxygen molecule and a single oxygen atom. So, while
ozone is continually being replenished, it is also continually being destroyed. If the rate of ozone
creation is equal to the rate of destruction, the total amount will remain the same. Because there is so
much oxygen in our atmosphere, this “ozone-oxygen cycle” is continuously absorbing UV radiation.

Figure 5.2: The “ozone-oxygen cycle” showing the natural formation and breaking of ozone (O3) in the
stratosphere

5.2.1 The Ozone Layer

Ozone makes up a very small proportion of the gases in our atmosphere and most of it is
concentrated in a portion of the stratosphere roughly 17 – 30 km above the surface. This region, called
the ozone layer, acts as a protective shield that protects life on the surface of the Earth by absorbing
most of the harmful portions of the high-energy UV radiation coming from the sun. UV is subdivided
into three types namely UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C (Figure 5.3). Of these three types, UV-A is the least
energetic and least harmful but can cause some damage to living cells, resulting in sunburns and skin
damage. UV-A is also not absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere and is therefore transmitted through
the atmosphere to the surface of the Earth. UV-C is the most harmful and most energetic of all UV, but
is strongly absorbed in both the thermosphere and the stratosphere and does not make it to the
Earth’s surface. UV-C is the one responsible for the splitting of oxygen molecules in the stratosphere
that leads to the formation of ozone. When ozone absorbs UV it regenerates oxygen atoms and
releases heat which warms the upper part of the stratosphere. Since UV-C does not make it to the
Earth’s surface, the most harmful form of UV radiation that reaches the surface is UV-B. However, the
amount of UV-B that reaches Earth’s surface is significantly reduced because most of it is absorbed by
ozone in the stratosphere. Ozone is the only known gas that absorbs UV-B.

Natural conditions in the stratosphere sustain a dynamic balance between the creation and
destruction of ozone which helps to ensure the continued existence of the ozone layer. Any disruption
of this balance that results in a higher rate of ozone destruction than ozone creation would result in
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depletion of ozone. Ozone depletion, consequently, leads to significant increase in the amount of
harmful UV-B radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface and this what we are talking about when we
discuss the ozone problem.

Figure 5.3: Ozone is “good” in the stratosphere because it absorbs most ultraviolet
radiation. Ozone is “bad” in the troposphere because it is harmful to breathe and is the
primary component of smog in summer. Source: www.nasa.gov

5.2.2 The Ozone Hole

The Ozone Hole is not really a “hole” but rather an area where the thickness of the ozone layer is
greatly reduced. This hole is a result of ozone depletion that occurs every year during the Antarctic
spring (Figure 5.4) and was first reported to the public by the British Antarctic Survey in 1985. The
thickness of the ozone layer above the Antarctic continued to decline while the geographic area
covered by the ozone hole continued to increase, reaching its lowest concentration (thickness) in 1994
and largest geographic area in 2000. Recent data shows that ozone concentration globally and in the
Arctic and Antarctic is no longer declining.

During the long winter months of darkness over the Antarctic, atmospheric temperatures drop,
creating unique conditions for chemical reactions that are not found anywhere else in the atmosphere.
During this time, the Antarctic air mass is isolated from the rest of the atmosphere and circulates
around the pole in what is known as the polar vortex. This isolation allows temperatures to drop low
enough to create ice crystals at high altitudes. Ozone, nitric acid, sulfuric acid and some chlorine
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containing molecules are absorbed on the surfaces of these ice particles. When the sun rises over the
Antarctic in the southern spring (October), light rapidly releases free chlorine atoms into the
stratosphere. The chlorine atoms react with ozone breaking it down to molecular oxygen and an
oxygen atom. The polar vortex keeps the ozone-depleted air inside the vortex from mixing with the
undepleted air outside the vortex, hence the formation of an ozone hole .

Figure 5.4: Ozone concentrations over the Antarctic region for four months representing the four
seasons. Ozone concentration drops significantly during the Antarctic spring (October). Source:
www.nasa.gov

5.2.3 Ozone Depletion

Global ozone concentrations change periodically with regular natural cycles such as changing
seasons, winds, and long time scale sun variations. Concentrations of ozone in the atmosphere are
measured in parts per billion (ppb). Scientists have been measuring ozone since the 1920’s using
ground-based instruments that look skyward. Satellite measurements of concentrations of
atmospheric ozone began in 1970 and continue today.

Ozone depletion occurs when the rate at which ozone is broken down is greater than the rate of its
creation, interfering with the dynamic balance between creation and destruction that maintains the
ozone layer. When this happens, the amount of harmful UV-B radiation that reaches the Earth’s
surface increases. Ozone depletion was first identified over the Antarctic. Scientists suggested that
reactions involving man-made chlorine-containing compounds were responsible for depleting ozone in
the stratosphere. This hypothesis was based mostly on the physical and chemical properties of these
compounds and knowledge about atmospheric conditions.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are man-made compounds made up of chlorine, fluorine and carbon.
These compounds were commonly used as propellants in everyday products such as shaving cream,

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hair spray, deodorants, paints and insecticides and as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners.
CFCs are extremely stable molecules and do not react with other chemicals in the lower atmosphere,
part of the reason why they were considered a safe choice. Their stability means that they tend to
remain in the atmosphere for a very long time. With the constant movement of air in the lower
atmosphere, CFCs eventually make their way into the stratosphere. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation in
the stratosphere breaks them apart, releasing chlorine atoms. Free chlorine (Cl) atoms then react with
ozone molecules, taking one oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and leaving an oxygen
molecule (O2) (Figure 5.5). The ClO reacts with other atoms freeing up the Cl making it available to
react with another ozone molecule, repeating the cycle over and over resulting in ozone depletion.

Figure 5.5: Ozone destruction. UV radiation frees a chlorine (Cl) atom from a CFC molecule, this atom reacts with
ozone and produces an oxygen gas molecule and chlorine monoxide (ClO). ClO reacts with another oxygen atom,
it frees up the Cl atom which then proceeds to destroy another ozone molecule. Source: Wikimedia commons
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ozone#/media/File:Chlorine_catalysis.GIF

If each chlorine atom released from a CFC molecule destroyed only one ozone molecule, CFCs would
pose very little threat to the ozone layer. However, when a chlorine monoxide molecule encounters a
free atom of oxygen, the oxygen atom breaks up the chlorine monoxide, stealing the oxygen atom and
releasing the chlorine atom back into the stratosphere to destroy another ozone molecule. These two
reactions happen over and over again, so that a single atom of chlorine, acting as a catalyst, destroys
many molecules (about 100,000) of ozone. The consequence of stratospheric ozone depletion is
increased levels of UV-B radiation reaching the Earth’s surface, posing a threat to human health and
the environment. Figure 5.6 shows a lower than average amount of stratospheric ozone over North
America in 1997 when it was abnormally cold compared to 1984, which was warmer than average,
showing that ozone depletion does not exclusively affect just the South Pole (Antarctic).

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Figure 5.6: Seasonal ozone depletion over North America was lower in 1984 and greater in 1997. Source: NASA
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=1771

5.2.4 The Montreal Protocol

International policy efforts to restrict production of ozone depleting CFCs culminated in the 1987
treaty known as the Montreal Protocol in which signing nations agreed to cut CFC production in half by
1998. At least five follow-up agreements since then helped to deepen the cuts, advanced timetables
for compliance, and addressed additional ozone-depleting substances such as halons, methyl
chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). Most countries around the
world have phased out production of the substances covered by the agreements and industry has been
able to shift to safer alternative chemicals. As a result, there’s evidence that the Antarctic ozone hole
has stopped growing worse, although recovery is not expected anytime soon. Phasing out CFCs and
HCFCs is also beneficial in protecting the earth's climate, as these substances are also very damaging
greenhouse gases.

As part of the United States' commitment to implementing the Montreal Protocol, the U.S. Congress
amended the Clean Air Act (section 5.7), adding provisions for protection of the ozone layer. Most
importantly, the amended Act required the gradual end to the production of chemicals that deplete
the ozone layer. The Clean Air Act amendments passed by Congress requires the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) to develop and implement regulations for the responsible management of
ozone-depleting substances in the United States. Under the Clean Air Act, EPA has created several
regulatory programs to address numerous issues, including:

• ending the production of ozone-depleting substances,

• ensuring that refrigerants and halon fire extinguishing agents are recycled properly,
• identifying safe and effective alternatives to ozone-depleting substances,
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 • banning the release of ozone-depleting refrigerants during the service, maintenance, and
disposal of air conditioners and other refrigeration equipment,
• requiring that manufacturers label products either containing or made with the most
harmful ozone depleting substances.

5.3 Outdoor Air Pollution

Air pollution refers to the introduction, into the atmosphere, of substances that have harmful
effects on humans, other living organisms, and the environment either as solid particles, liquid droplets
or gases. Air pollution can result from natural processes such as dust storms, forest fires, and volcanic
eruptions, or from human activities such as biomass burning, vehicular emissions, mining, agriculture,
and industrial processes. Improved technology and government policies have helped reduce most
types of outdoor air pollution in many industrialized countries including the United States, in recent
decades. However, outdoor air quality is still a problem in less industrialized nations, especially in
megacities of rapidly industrializing nations such as China and India.

Outdoor pollutants can come from stationary (point) sources or mobile (nonpoint) sources (Figure
5.7). Stationary sources have a fixed location, for example power plant smokestacks, burning,
construction sites, farmlands and surface mines among others. Mobile sources of air pollutants move
from place to place while emitting pollutants. Examples of mobile sources include vehicles, aircrafts,
ships, and trains.

A mobile source of pollution

Volcanic eruption, a natural source Aircraft, a mobile source Smokestack, a stationary source
Figure 5.7: Images showing various sources of air pollution, including natural and anthropogenic, stationary and
mobile. Source: All images obtained from Wiki Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution

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 Pollutants are categorized into two major types based on how they originated namely primary and
secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants are those released directly from the source into the air in a
harmful form. The primary pollutants that account for nearly all air pollution problems are carbon
monoxide (58%), volatile organic compounds (VOCs, 11%), nitrogen oxides (15%), sulfur dioxides (13%),
and particulate material (3%). Secondary pollutants are produced through reactions between primary
pollutants and normal atmospheric compounds. For example, ground-level ozone forms over urban
areas through reactions, powered by sunlight, between primary pollutants (oxides of nitrogen) and
other atmospheric gases such as VOCs.

5.3.1 Criteria pollutants

Under the Clean Air Act (see section 5.7.1), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes
air quality standards to protect public health and the environment. EPA has set national air quality
standards for six common air pollutants namely: 1) carbon monoxide; 2) ground-level ozone; 3)
nitrogen dioxide; 4) Sulfur dioxide; 5) lead; and 6) particulate matter (also known as particle pollution).
Of the six pollutants, particle pollution and ground-level ozone are the most widespread health threats.
EPA calls these pollutants "criteria" air pollutants because it regulates them by developing human
health-based and/or environmentally-based criteria (science-based guidelines) for setting permissible
levels. The set of limits based on human health is called primary standards. Another set of limits
intended to prevent environmental and property damage is called secondary standards.
1. Carbon Monoxide (CO): is a colorless, odorless gas emitted from combustion processes,
specifically, the incomplete combustion of fuel. Nationally and, particularly in urban areas,
the majority of CO emissions to ambient air come from mobile sources. CO can cause
harmful health effects by reducing oxygen delivery to the body's organs (like the heart and
brain) and tissues. At extremely high levels, CO can cause death.
2. Ground-level ozone (O3): is a colorless gas with a slightly sweet odor that is not emitted
directly into the air, but is created by the interaction of sunlight, heat, oxides of nitrogen
(NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Ozone is likely to reach unhealthy levels on
hot sunny days in urban environments. Emissions from industrial facilities and electric
utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents are some of the
major sources of NOx and VOCs.
3. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2): is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as "oxides of
nitrogen," or "nitrogen oxides (NOx)." Other nitrogen oxides include nitrous acid and nitric
acid. NO2 is a yellowish-brown to reddish-brown foul-smelling gas that is a major
contributor to smog and acid rain. Nitrogen oxides result when atmospheric nitrogen and
oxygen react at the high temperatures created by combustion engines. Most emissions in
the U.S. result from combustion in vehicle engines, electrical utility, and industrial
combustion.

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4. Sulfur dioxide (SO2): Sulfur dioxide is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as
“oxides of sulfur.” The largest sources of SO2 emissions are from fossil fuel combustion at
power plants (73%) and other industrial facilities (20%). Smaller sources of SO 2 emissions
include industrial processes such as extracting metals from their ores, and the burning of
high sulfur containing fuels by locomotives, large ships, and non-road equipment.
5. Lead (Pb): is a metal found naturally in the environment as well as in manufactured
products. The major sources of lead emissions have historically been from fuels in motor
vehicles (such as cars and trucks) and industrial sources. As a result of EPA's regulatory
efforts to remove lead from gasoline, emissions of lead from the transportation sector
dramatically declined by 95 percent between 1980 and 1999, and levels of lead in the air
decreased by 94 percent during that time period. The major sources of lead emissions today
are ore and metal processing and piston-engine aircraft operating on leaded aviation
gasoline. Today, the highest levels of lead in air are usually found near lead smelters.
6. Particulate material (PM), sometimes known simply as “particulates” refers to solid
particles and liquid droplets suspended in the air we breathe. Particulate pollution is made
up of a variety of components, including acids (nitrates and sulfates), organic chemicals,
metals, soil or dust particles, and allergens (pollen and mold spores). The size of the
particles in directly linked to their potential for causing health problems. Particles that are
10 micrometers in diameter or smaller generally pass through the throat and nose and enter
the lungs. EPA groups these into two types: "inhalable coarse particles," with diameters
larger than 2.5 micrometers and smaller than 10 micrometers and "fine particles," with
diameters that are 2.5 micrometers and smaller. How small is 2.5 micrometers? Think about
a single hair from your head. The average human hair is about 70 micrometers in diameter –
making it 30 times larger than the largest fine particle (Figure 5.8). Our respiratory systems
are equipped to filter larger particles out of the air once it is inhaled. However, the lungs are
vulnerable to both coarse particles (PM10), and fine particles (PM2.5). These can slip past the
respiratory system's natural defenses and get deep into the lungs and some may even get
into the bloodstream. Coarse particles come from road dust while fine particles come from
combustion processes.

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Figure 5.8: Graphic showing size comparison of particulate material (PM10 and PM2.5) compared to fine beach
sand and human hair. Source: US EPA http://www.epa.gov/air/particlepollution/basic.html

5.3.2 Volatile Organic Compounds

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are carbon-containing chemicals emitted as gases from natural
and human-made sources. Natural sources of VOCs include plants, the largest source, and bacteria in
the guts of termites and ruminant animals. These compounds are generally oxidized to carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. VOCs are of great concern because they are
precursors for the formation of ozone, a secondary air pollutant.

A large number of synthetic organic chemicals such as benzene, toluene, formaldehyde, vinyl
chloride, chloroform, and phenols are widely used as ingredients in countless household products.
Paints, paint strippers, varnishes, many cleaning, disinfecting, cosmetic, degreasing, and hobby
products all contain VOCs. Fuels are also made up of organic chemicals. All of these products can
release organic compounds while you are using them, and, to some degree, when they are stored. The
“new car smell” characteristic of new cars is from a complex mix of dozens of VOC. Also,
concentrations of many VOCs are consistently higher indoors (up to ten times higher) than outdoors.
They are often held responsible for sick building syndrome, an illness resulting from indoor pollution in
which the specific cause is not identified.

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5.3.3 Smog

Smog is a mixture of air pollutants (sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, and particulates) that
often form over urban areas as a result of fossil fuel combustion. The term was coined from the terms
“smoke” and “fog” referring to a brownish haze that pollutes the air, greatly reducing visibility and
making it difficult for some people to breathe (Figure 5.9 and 5.10). There are two main types of smog:
industrial and photochemical smog. Industrial smog is produced primarily by the burning of fossil fuels
which produces carbon dioxide (from complete combustion), carbon monoxides (from partial
combustion), sulfur, and mercury. The sulfur reacts with other chemicals in the atmosphere producing
several sulfur compounds including sulfur dioxide. These compounds along with particulate material
make up industrial smog. Photochemical smog is formed when sunlight drives chemical reactions
between primary pollutants from automobiles and normal atmospheric compounds. The product is a
mix of over 100 different chemicals with the most abundant being ground-level ozone.

Figure 5.9: Smog over Almaty city, Kazakhstan. Figure 5.10: Smog over Santiago in Chile.
Photo by Igors Jefimovs. Source: Wikicommons Source: German Wikipedia
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Smog#/media/File:Smog_ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Smog#/media/File:S
over_Almaty.jpg antiago30std.jpg

5.3.4 Toxic pollutants

Toxic air pollutants, also known as hazardous air pollutants, are those pollutants that are known or
suspected to cause cancer or other serious health effects, such as reproductive effects or birth defects,
or adverse environmental effects. Examples of toxic air pollutants include benzene, which is found in
gasoline; perchloroethylene, which is emitted from some dry cleaning facilities; methylene chloride,
which is used as a solvent and paint stripper by a number of industries; and others such as dioxin,
asbestos, toluene, and metals such as cadmium, mercury, chromium, and lead compounds.

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 Most air toxics originate from human-made sources, including mobile sources (e.g., cars, trucks,
buses) and stationary sources (e.g., factories, refineries, power plants), as well as indoor sources (e.g.,
some building materials and cleaning solvents). Some air toxics are also released from natural sources
such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires. Exposure to air toxics is mainly through breathing but some
toxic air pollutants such as mercury can deposit onto soils or surface waters, where they are taken up
by plants and ingested by animals and are eventually magnified up through the food chain. Like
humans, animals may experience health problems if exposed to sufficiently high quantities of air toxics
over time.

5.4 Indoor Air Pollution

In both developed and developing nations, indoor air pollution poses a greater health risk than
outdoor air pollution. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) and other agencies such as
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), indoor air generally contains higher concentrations of toxic
pollutants than outdoor air. Additionally, people generally spend more time indoors than outdoors,
hence, the health effects from indoor air pollution in workplaces, schools, and homes are far greater
than outdoor. Indoor pollution sources that release gases or particles into the air are the primary
cause of indoor air quality problems in homes. Inadequate ventilation can increase indoor pollutant
levels by not bringing in enough outdoor air to dilute emissions from indoor sources and by not
carrying indoor air pollutants out of the home.

Outdoor air enters and leaves a building by infiltration, natural ventilation, and mechanical
ventilation. In infiltration, outdoor air flows into the house through openings, joints, and cracks in
walls, floors, and ceilings, and around windows and doors. In natural ventilation, air moves through
opened windows and doors. Air movement associated with infiltration and natural ventilation is caused
by air temperature differences between indoors and outdoors and by wind. Finally, there are a number
of mechanical ventilation devices, from outdoor-vented fans that intermittently remove air from a
single room, such as bathrooms and kitchen, to air handling systems that use fans and duct work to
continuously remove indoor air and distribute filtered and conditioned outdoor air to strategic points
throughout the house. The rate at which outdoor air replaces indoor air is described as the air
exchange rate. When there is little infiltration, natural ventilation, or mechanical ventilation, the air
exchange rate is low and pollutant levels can increase. High temperature and humidity levels can also
increase concentrations of some pollutants.

There are many sources of indoor air pollution in any home (Figure 5.11). These include combustion
sources such as oil, gas, kerosene, coal, wood, and tobacco products; building materials and furnishings
as diverse as deteriorated, asbestos-containing insulation, wet or damp carpet, and cabinetry or
furniture made of certain pressed wood products; products for household cleaning and maintenance,
personal care, or hobbies; central heating and cooling systems and humidification devices. Pollutants

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causing indoor air pollution can also originate from outside sources such as radon, pesticides, and
outdoor air pollution. Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas produced from the decay of
uranium in rock. If a building/home is constructed in an area with uranium containing rock, the gas can
seep through the foundations and accumulate in basements. Exposure to radon can cause lung cancer.

The relative importance of any single source depends on how much of a given pollutant it emits and
how hazardous those emissions are. In some cases, factors such as how old the source is and whether
it is properly maintained are significant. For example, an improperly adjusted gas stove can emit
significantly more carbon monoxide than one that is properly adjusted. Some sources, such as building
materials, furnishings, and household products like air fresheners, release pollutants more or less
continuously. Other sources, related to activities carried out in the home, release pollutants
intermittently. These include smoking, the use of unvented or malfunctioning stoves, furnaces, or space
heaters, the use of solvents in cleaning and hobby activities, the use of paint strippers in redecorating
activities, and the use of cleaning products and pesticides in house-keeping. High pollutant
concentrations can remain in the air for long periods after some of these activities.

Risks from indoor air pollution differ between less industrialized and industrialized nations. Indoor
pollution has a greater impact in less industrialized nations where many people use cheaper sources of
fuel such as wood, charcoal, and crop waste among others for cooking and heating, often with little or
no ventilation. The most significant indoor pollutant, therefore, is soot and carbon monoxide. In
industrialized nations, the primary indoor air health risks are cigarette smoke and radon.

18
 Attic
Asbestos, dust,
formaldehyde

Bathroom
Chloroform,
mold, mildew,
Bedroom bacteria,
Dust, dust mites, cleaning agents
bacteria, viruses,
pet dander

Kitchen
Living room Particulates,
Tobacco smoke, carbon
carpeting, monoxide,
furniture, pet cleaning agents
dander

Basement &
Garage
Mold, mildew,
Radon, volatile
chemicals
(VOCs), carbon
monoxide

Figure 5.11: Sources of indoor air pollution. Image source: EPA http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pdfs/careforyourair.pdf

5.5 Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health

The World Health Organization (WHO) and other international agencies recognize air pollution as a
major threat to human health. Numerous scientific studies have linked air pollution to a variety of
health problems (Table 5.2) including: aggravation of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases;
decreased lung function; increased frequency and severity of respiratory symptoms such as difficulty
breathing and coughing; increased susceptibility to respiratory infections; effects on the nervous
system, including the brain, such as IQ loss and impacts on learning, memory, and behavior; cancer;
and premature death. Immediate effects of air pollution may show up after a single exposure or
repeated exposures. Other health effects may show up either years after exposure has occurred or
only after long or repeated periods of exposure.

Immediate effects of air pollution include irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, headaches,
dizziness, and fatigue. Such immediate effects are usually short-term and treatable. Sometimes the
19
treatment is simply eliminating the person's exposure to the source of the pollution, if it can be
identified. Symptoms of some diseases, including asthma, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and humidifier
fever , may also show up soon after exposure to some indoor air pollutants.

Table 5.2: Sources and health effects of criteria pollutants.

Pollutant Sources Health Effects
Ground-level Secondary pollutant typically formed by Decreases lung function and causes respiratory
Ozone (O3) chemical reaction of volatile organic symptoms, such as coughing and shortness of breath;
compounds (VOCs) and NOx in the aggravates asthma and other lung diseases leading to
presence of sunlight. increased medication use, hospital admissions,
emergency department (ED) visits, and premature
mortality.
Particulate Emitted or formed through chemical Short-term exposures can aggravate heart or lung
Matter (PM) reactions; fuel combustion (e.g., burning diseases leading to respiratory symptoms, increased
coal, wood, diesel); industrial processes; medication use, hospital admissions, ED visits, and
agriculture (plowing, field burning); and premature mortality; long-term exposures can lead to
unpaved roads. the development of heart or lung disease and
premature mortality.
Lead Smelters (metal refineries) and other Damages the developing nervous system, resulting in
metal industries; combustion of leaded IQ loss and impacts on learning, memory, and
gasoline in piston engine aircraft; waste behavior in children. Cardiovascular and renal effects
incinerators; and battery manufacturing. in adults and early effects related to anemia.
Oxides of Fuel combustion (e.g., electric utilities, Aggravate lung diseases leading to respiratory
Nitrogen industrial boilers, and vehicles) and wood symptoms, hospital admissions, and ED visits;
(NOx) burning. increased susceptibility to respiratory infection.

Carbon Fuel combustion (especially vehicles), Reduces the amount of oxygen reaching the body’s
Monoxide industrial processes, fires, waste organs and tissues; aggravates heart disease, resulting
(CO) combustion, and residential wood in chest pain and other symptoms leading to hospital
burning. admissions and ED visits.
Sulfur Fuel combustion (especially high-sulfur Aggravates asthma and increased respiratory
Dioxide coal); electric utilities and industrial symptoms. Contributes to particle formation with
(SO2) processes; and natural sources such as associated health effects.
volcanoes.
Source: www.epa.gov

The likelihood of immediate reactions to air pollutants depends on several factors. Age and
preexisting medical conditions are two important influences. Some sensitive individuals appear to be at
greater risk for air pollution-related health effects, for example, those with pre-existing heart and lung
diseases (e.g., heart failure/ischemic heart disease, asthma, emphysema, and chronic bronchitis),
diabetics, older adults, and children. In other cases, whether a person reacts to a pollutant depends on
individual sensitivity, which varies tremendously from person to person. Some people can become

20
sensitized to biological pollutants after repeated exposures, and it appears that some people can
become sensitized to chemical pollutants as well.

5.6 Acid Rain

Pure rainfall is slightly acidic, pH 5.6, because water reacts with atmospheric carbon dioxide to
produce weak carbonic acid. When higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acid occur in the
atmosphere, the result is precipitation with a pH below 5.6 which is referred to as acid rain. Acid rain
includes both wet deposition (rainfall, snow, fog) and dry deposition (particulates). Acid rain formation
result from both natural sources, such as volcanoes and decaying vegetation, and man-made sources,
primarily emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) resulting from fossil fuel
combustion. In the United States, roughly 2/3 of all SO2 and ¼ of all NOx come from electric power
generation that relies on burning fossil fuels, like coal. Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the
atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form various acidic compounds (Figure 5.12).
The result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. When sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are
released from power plants and other sources, prevailing winds blow these compounds across state
and national borders, sometimes over hundreds of miles. Regions of greatest acidification tend to be
downwind from heavily industrialized source areas of pollution.

Figure 5.12: Formation of acid rain from both natural and anthropogenic pollutants. Source: US EPA, public
domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Origins.gif

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 Acid rain is a serious environmental problem that is particularly damaging to lakes, streams, and
forests and the plants and animals that live in these ecosystems, as well as to infrastructure. Some of
the impacts include:

• Leaching of soil nutrients such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium out of the topsoil,
altering soil chemistry and harming plants and soil organisms.
• Acid rain causes the release of substances that are toxic to trees and other plants, such as
aluminum, into the soil. Scientists hypothesize that this combination of loss of soil nutrients
and increase of toxic aluminum may be one way that acid rain harms trees (Figure 5.13).
Such substances also wash away in the runoff and are carried into streams, rivers, and lakes.
• Damage to automotive paints and other coatings. The reported damage typically occurs on
horizontal surfaces and appears as irregularly shaped, permanently etched areas.
• Acidic particles contribute to the corrosion of metals (such as bronze) and the deterioration
of paint and stone (such as marble and limestone). These effects significantly reduce the
societal value of buildings, bridges, cultural objects (such as statues, monuments, and
tombstones) (Figure 5.14).
• Sulfates and nitrates that form in the atmosphere contribute to visibility impairment,
meaning we cannot see as far or as clearly through the air. Sulfate particles account for 50 to
70 percent of the visibility reduction in the eastern part of the U.S., affecting our enjoyment
of national parks, such as the Shenandoah and the Great Smoky Mountains.

Figure 5.13: Effects of acid rain on trees, Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic, Public Domain.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Acid_rain#/media/File:Acid_rain_woods1.JPG

22
Figure 5.14: Effects of acid rain on a monument in Greenwood cemetery, Brooklyn NY. Credit: James P. Fischer.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Acid_rain#/media/File:Charlotte_Canda_Memorial_(Angel).jpg

5.7 Air Pollution Legislation

In 1930, 63 people died and 1000 were sickened in Belgium when a phenomenon referred to as
temperature inversion caused pollutants to be trapped near the surface, leading to a sudden spike in
atmospheric sulfur levels. In October 1948, a thick cloud of air pollution formed above the industrial
town of Donora, Pennsylvania. The cloud which lingered for five days, killed 20 people and caused
sickness in 6,000 of the town's 14,000 people. In 1952, the infamous London fog in which acid aerosols
trapped in the lower atmosphere killed 4000 people. Events like these alerted us to the dangers that
air pollution poses to public health.

5.7.1 Clean Air Act

In the United States, several federal and state laws were passed, including the original Clean Air Act
of 1963, which established funding for the study and cleanup of air pollution. But there was no
comprehensive federal response to address air pollution until Congress passed a much stronger Clean
Air Act in 1970. That same year Congress created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and gave
it the primary role in carrying out the law. Since 1970, EPA has been responsible for a variety of Clean
Air Act programs to reduce air pollution nationwide. The Clean Air Act is a federal law covering the
entire country. However, states, tribes and local governments do a lot of the work to meet the Act's
requirements. For example, representatives from these agencies work with companies to reduce air
pollution. They also review and approve permit applications for industries or chemical processes.
5.7.2 EPA's Role

EPA's mission is basic health and environmental protection from air pollution for all Americans. To
achieve this mission, EPA implements a variety of programs under the Clean Air Act that focus on:

23
 • reducing outdoor, or ambient, concentrations of air pollutants that cause smog, haze, acid
rain, and other problems;
• reducing emissions of toxic air pollutants that are known to, or are suspected of, causing
cancer or other serious health effects; and
• phasing out production and use of chemicals that destroy stratospheric ozone.

Under the Clean Air Act, EPA sets limits on certain air pollutants, including setting limits on how
much can be in the air anywhere in the United States. The Clean Air Act also gives EPA the authority to
limit emissions of air pollutants coming from sources like chemical plants, utilities, and steel mills.
Individual states or tribes may have stronger air pollution laws, but they may not have weaker pollution
limits than those set by EPA. EPA must approve state, tribal, and local agency plans for reducing air
pollution. If a plan does not meet the necessary requirements, EPA can issue sanctions against the
state and, if necessary, take over enforcing the Clean Air Act in that area. EPA assists state, tribal, and
local agencies by providing research, expert studies, engineering designs, and funding to support clean
air progress. Since 1970, Congress and the EPA have provided several billion dollars to the states, local
agencies, and tribal nations to accomplish this.

5.7.3 State and Local Governments' Roles

It makes sense for state and local air pollution agencies to take the lead in carrying out the Clean Air
Act. They are able to develop solutions for pollution problems that require special understanding of
local industries, geography, housing, and travel patterns, as well as other factors. State, local, and
tribal governments also monitor air quality, inspect facilities under their jurisdictions and enforce Clean
Air Act regulations. States have to develop State Implementation Plans (SIPs) that outline how each
state will control air pollution under the Clean Air Act. A SIP is a collection of the regulations, programs
and policies that a state will use to clean up polluted areas. The states must involve the public and
industries through hearings and opportunities to comment on the development of each state plan.

5.7.4 Outcomes of the Clean Air Act

For more than forty years, the Clean Air Act has cut pollution as the U.S. economy has grown.
The combined emissions of the six criteria pollutants has continued to decrease while population, gross
domestic product, energy consumption, and vehicle miles travelled have all continued to increase
(Figure 5.15). The following is a summary of some of the accomplishments of the Clean Air Act:
• Clean Air Act programs have lowered levels of the six criteria pollutants - particulates, ozone,
lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide - as well as numerous toxic
pollutants.

24
Figure 5.15: Showing a decrease in the combined emissions for the six criterial pollutants in the past two
decades. Meanwhile, population, energy consumption, vehicle miles travelled, and gross domestic product have
all increased. Source: US EPA

• From 1970 to 2012, aggregate national emissions of the six common pollutants alone dropped
an average of 72 percent while gross domestic product grew by 219 percent (Figure 5.15). This
progress reflects efforts by state, local and tribal governments; EPA; private sector companies;
environmental groups and others.
• The emissions reductions have led to dramatic improvements in the quality of the air that we
breathe.
• These air quality improvements have enabled many areas of the country to meet national air
quality standards set to protect public health and the environment. For example, all of the 41
areas that had unhealthy levels of carbon monoxide in 1991 now have levels that meet the
health-based national air quality standard. A key reason is that the motor vehicle fleet is much
cleaner because of Clean Air Act emissions standards for new motor vehicles.
• Airborne lead pollution, a widespread health concern before EPA phased out lead in motor
vehicle gasoline under Clean Air Act authority, now meets national air quality standards in most
areas of the country.
Sources
• Botkin, D. B. and Keller E. A. 2009. 7th Ed. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc. USA

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 • Cunningham, W. P., and Cunningham, M. A. 2010. 11th Ed. Environmental Science: a global
concern. McGraw-Hill Companies, USA.
• Karr, S., Houtman, A., and Interlandi, J. 2014. Environmental Science for a Changing world:
with extended coverage. W. H. Freeman and Company, New York.
• Withgott J. and Laposata, M. 2012. 4th Ed. Essential Environment: the science behind the
stories. Pearson Education, Inc. USA.
• Hewitt, P. G., Lyons, S. A., Suchocki, J. A., & Yeh, J. 2012 2 nd Ed. Conceptual Integrated
Science. Addison-Wesley, San Francisco.

Websites
• Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ Source of various photos and
images
• Environmental Protection Agency http://www.epa.gov/
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) http://www.nasa.gov/
• National Weather Service http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmos/layers.htm

Test your understanding

1. Describe the importance and unique characteristics of each layer of our atmosphere. How might
pollution in each of these layers impact humans or the environment differently?
2. For each of the criteria pollutants, identify: a) natural and anthropogenic sources, b)
environmental effects, and c) human health effects. What steps can we take to reduce the
concentration of each of these pollutants?
3. How do outdoor and indoor air quality differ in less- and more-industrialized countries? Can you
extrapolate this to differences in outdoor and indoor air quality in urban, rural, and industrial
areas of these countries?
4. Where in our atmosphere does the ozone layer reside, and what benefit does it provide humans
and the environment? What causes ozone depletion, and how is this problem being addressed?
5. Compare and contrast acid rain with the concept of acid mine drainage (see Chapter 3). How are
these similar and different in terms of sources, environmental impact, and remediation?
6. What is the role of local and national governments in regulating air quality? Identify the major
pieces of legislation outlined in this chapter, and describe their impacts on local air quality. What
role do international agencies have in regulating air quality?
7. What have been the results of the Clean Air Act in terms of human and environmental health?
Are there any categories of anthropogenic emissions that are not specifically covered by the Clean
Air Act (hint: look ahead to Chapter 6)?
Air pollution
Air quality
Terms Argon
Acid rain Atmosphere

26
 Carbon dioxide plan
Carbon monoxide (SIP)
Catalyst Stati
Chlorofluorocarbons onar
(CFCs) y
Clean Air Act sour
Corrosion ce
Environmental Stratopause
Protection Agency (EPA) Stratosphere
Greenhouse gas Sulfur
Ground-level ozone Hydrochlorofluorocarbo dioxides
ns (HCFCs) Industrial smog Thermosphe
Lead re
Mesosphere Tropopause
Mobile source Troposphere
Montreal Protocol Ultra violet (UV)
Nitrogen U
Nitrogen dioxide V
Nitrogen oxides -
Nonpoint source A
Oxidize
Oxygen U
Ozone V
-
Ozone hole
B
Ozone layer
Ozone-oxygen cycle
U
Particulate material
V
Parts per billion (ppb)
-
Parts per million (ppm)
C
Photochemical smog
Point source
Volatile
Primary pollutant
organic
Radiation
compou
Radon
nds
Runoff
(VOCs)
Secondary pollutant
Water
Standards State vapor
implementation
Weather
27
World Health
Organization

28