Inclusive Practices: English Language

Our experts
advise on INCLUSIVE
PRACTICES
IN ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
TEACHING
ELT EXPERT PANEL
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS ELT POSITION PAPERS
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of The ELT position papers are the result of consultation with
Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in members of the panel, selected for their specialism and
research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. research expertise. With these papers, we offer guidance to the
following readership:
ELT EXPERT PANEL • Ministries of Education

• Policymakers
The ELT Expert Panel is a group of leading researchers and • Curriculum developers
practitioners in education who advise us on the key issues • School owners
shaping language learning today. • Directors of Studies
The discussion topics are informed through research as well as • Head teachers
by listening to our global ELT community. • Teachers
Bringing together a wide range of insights from their

respective areas of expertise, and drawing on the experiences
of teachers and learners, the Panel offers evidence-based
recommendations to support educators and learners in their
future success.
© Oxford University Press 2

THE EXPERTS CONSULTED
FOR THIS PAPER
MARIE DELANEY
Marie Delaney is a teacher trainer, educational psychotherapist, author, and director
of the educational consultancy The Learning Harbour in Cork, Ireland. She has
worked for many years with students of all ages who have special educational needs,
in particular in the area of behavioural difficulties. She has worked with Ministries of
Education and trained teachers in several countries on inclusion policy, curriculum,
and inclusive pedagogy. Her main interests are bringing therapeutic approaches
into teaching and learning, supporting teachers in working with challenging pupils,
and promoting inclusive education principles for all. She is the author of Special
Educational Needs (2016).
JUDIT KORMOS
Judit Kormos is Professor of Second Language Acquisition at Lancaster University,
UK. She was the chief investigator on a project that explored the foreign language
learning processes of students with dyslexia. She is co-author of Teaching Languages
to Students with Specific Learning Differences (2012), and the author of Understanding
the Second Language Learning Processes of Students with Specific Learning Difficulties
(2017). She worked on DysTEFL, a European Commission sponsored teacher training
project focusing on dyslexia and language learning, and is the coordinator of the
Dyslexia for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language project.
MICHELE DALOISO
Michele Daloiso is Lecturer in the English Language at Ca’ Foscari University, Venice,
Italy. He is the founder and director of the DEAL Research Group at the university,
which investigates the process of language teaching for students with special
educational needs. He is also the author of many articles and teaching materials on
this topic, including Supporting Learners with Dyslexia in the ELT Classroom (2017).
His research interests include applied neuropsycholinguistics, early foreign language
learning and teaching, language learning strategies, and English language teaching
with learners who have specific needs related to language processing, such as dyslexia
and language impairment.
DARIO IANES
(IN COLLABORATION WITH RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT ERICKSON)
Dario Ianes is Professor of Didactics and Special Pedagogy at the Free University of
Bozen-Bolzano, Italy, on the degree course in Primary Education. He is co-founder
of Centro Studi Erickson in Trento, for whom he edits several series, including guides
for teachers and inclusive learning materials. He is the author of various articles and
books and editor of the journal Learning Difficulties. In this paper, Professor Ianes is
representing the special educational needs publisher Erickson, whose Research &
Development Department has also collaborated with OUP ELT in the creation of SEN-
appropriate content for the ELT market in Italy.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR Anne Margaret Smith taught English for 25 years in Kenya, Germany, Sweden, and
the UK, where she worked at the University of Salford, Lancaster University, and the
University of Cumbria. Co-author of Teaching Languages to Students with Specific
Learning Difficulties (2012), she is a dyslexia specialist tutor and assessor, and currently
provides materials, training to teachers, and specialist teaching to learners with
dyslexia through her consultancy, ELT well. She is a founding member of the IATEFL
special interest group Inclusive Practices and SEN.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
English has become a global lingua franca and is widely perceived as a prerequisite for
success in many areas of life. However, language learners with special educational needs
may find that they are disadvantaged by the way their learning environment interacts
with their individual differences. Such language learners include both ‘neurodiverse’
learners (those with specific learning difficulties) and those who experience social,
emotional, and behavioural difficulties (SEBD). An attainment gap can develop between
these learners and their peers which only increases during the school years. Bridging
this attainment gap is at the core of the inclusion agenda developed by international
organizations such as UNESCO and the OECD to promote the implementation of
inclusive educational systems in which all learners are actively engaged in learning and
can reach their potential.
Learning an additional language can present significant challenges to learners

with special educational needs. Consequently, the English language teacher may
even be the first to notice indicators of neurodiversity or SEBD. At the same time,
the English language classroom can provide the ideal environment for addressing
these challenges. Through its long association with learner-centred communicative
methodologies, the English language classroom offers many opportunities to
implement inclusive practices which allow all learners to participate fully and achieve
success. This unique combination of challenges and opportunities compels the English
language teaching community to lead in developing and implementing inclusive
practices.
The implementation of inclusive practices requires support and leadership at an

institutional level. All school staff need support for the collaboration and cooperation
involved in developing an inclusive learning environment. School management also
has a vital role to play in providing continuous professional development for teachers
in inclusive practices. Equipped to establish an inclusive ethos in their classes,
teachers can make small adjustments to classroom practice and learning materials
which meet the needs of all their learners.
This paper outlines the development of approaches to inclusive education and

discusses the characteristics of some types of neurodiversity and SEBD and their
impact on language learning. It suggests aspects of continuous professional
development that would benefit English language teachers, and provides guidelines
for inclusive practices in the use of learning materials. It also explores accessibility
with regard to assessment and testing. Finally, it advocates collaboration between
stakeholders in the development of inclusive education, from those in the classroom
to those involved in educational policymaking.

CONTENTS
Introduction
06
01 Inclusive education 08
02 Commonly identified causes of difficulties in language learning 13
03 Support and continuous professional development for teachers 19
04 Guidelines for the inclusive use of learning materials 24
05 Assessment and testing 29
06 Collaboration between stakeholders 35
Conclusions 38
Appendix 1 39
Appendix 2 42
Glossary 43
Further reading and resources 44
Endnotes 45
References 46

INTRODUCTION
The English language has become a global ESTABLISHING INCLUSIVE LANGUAGE
lingua franca in our 21st-century world.1 It is EDUCATION
used across vast domains of activity: from In this paper, Oxford University Press ELT seeks to make a
education, business, and international politics, contribution to the development and implementation of
inclusive language education systems. With this paper, we
to travel, tourism, and many daily interactions. aim to provide support and recommendations for English
As a result, English is widely perceived as a language teachers, teacher trainers, materials developers, and
other language professionals who are interested in creating an
prerequisite for success in many areas of life. inclusive learning environment. We also provide information
At the same time, the learning of English can on the opportunities and challenges inherent to the language
learning classroom for neurodiverse language learners (namely,
present significant challenges to many learners: those with specific learning difficulties such as dyslexia) and
there are an estimated 800 million children those with social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties
(SEBD), which may be a consequence of neurodiversity or of
worldwide whose cognitive development environmental factors alone.
and educational attainment are affected by a Two main considerations compel the English language
range of conditions stemming from biological, teaching (ELT) community to lead in this endeavour: firstly, the
opportunities afforded by the communicative methodologies
environmental, and psychosocial causes.2 These used in ELT; secondly, the challenges that language learning
learners can be at a disadvantage pedagogically, presents, the English language in particular.
and at risk of experiencing an ever-increasing The communicative methodologies and materials commonly
used in English language classrooms promote a largely learner-
attainment gap between themselves and their centred and interactive learning environment, in contrast to
peers. International organizations such as the the more traditional teacher-led methods often used in other
subjects. Communicative ELT activities can sometimes highlight
European Commission and the United Nations communication or social interaction difficulties. At the same
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization time, the English language classroom is an environment which
is particularly suitable for inclusive practices because of the
(UNESCO) recognize the importance of closing opportunities it provides for promoting cooperation between
this attainment gap,3 and many countries are learners.
working to achieve this by adopting inclusive

approaches in their education systems.

Introduction
The second section discusses the characteristics of some
The communicative and of the most commonly encountered types of neurodiversity

and SEBD, and how they impact on language learning. It is
collaborative approaches in important to emphasize that assigning a diagnostic label to a
student with difficulties is the job of a qualified assessor rather
language teaching offer valuable than a teacher. However, teachers can benefit from knowing
about some of the characteristics of neurodiversity and SEBD,
opportunities for inclusive as heightened awareness can lead to recognition of the need to
learning. provide support and to ask for a referral to a qualified assessor

if necessary.
JUDIT KORMOS The third section focuses on the importance of support and
continuous professional development (CPD) for teachers to
develop their existing skills and knowledge base. It sets out the
main areas of inclusive practice that need to be explored, and
emphasizes the fact that teachers will need the collaboration
With regard to the challenges of language learning, and cooperation of their colleagues—particularly their
neurodiverse learners may experience several difficulties if managers—and of learners’ parents (and other caregivers)
they have reduced phonological awareness (the awareness where appropriate. Teachers seeking to make their practice
of the sound structure of words) and working memory (the more inclusive will be embarking on a journey of exploration.
type of short-term memory needed for processing and During this journey, many different strategies and interventions
combining information). Difficulties in these areas affect word- may need to be implemented, monitored, reflected upon, and
decoding and the comprehension and production of written revised, until the best approach is found for each individual
and spoken language.4 The English language is particularly learner.
challenging in this regard, as the written language only partly
reflects pronunciation and there is often no one-to-one Section 4 outlines a set of guidelines for the inclusive use of
correspondence between sounds and letters. learning materials in the classroom, covering differentiation,
classroom management, multisensory and multimodal learning,
These two aspects of ELT mean that neurodiverse learners and and learning strategies.
those with SEBD often find that their existing learning strategies
are not adequate to cope with the extra challenges of learning Assessment is an integral part of any learning process, and so
English as a second or foreign language, and specific learning Section 5 explores inclusive practice within the assessment
difficulties can become apparent in a way that was not detected of progress (assessment for learning) and the assessment of
when learners were learning their own or other languages proficiency (assessment of learning). Providers of national
with more regular writing systems. For this reason, English and international assessments have a role to play here in
language teachers are sometimes the first to identify underlying offering students opportunities to demonstrate their true level
neurodiversity and SEBD in their learners, and may need to of understanding and language proficiency, without being
take a lead in raising the awareness of other members of staff unfairly penalized for weaknesses in specific aspects of their
in the school or college. As English language teachers are performance that mean they cannot access the test questions
often specialized in communicative methodologies, they have and/or material.
experience in facilitating supportive collaboration between The final section of the paper advocates the need for openness
learners. This can put English language teachers in a strong and collaboration between all the stakeholders, from those
starting position to implement inclusive practices. working in the classroom or training teachers, to educational
management, local and national policymakers, publishers,
and examining bodies. All these stakeholders need to work
THE STRUCTURE OF THIS PAPER together with the learners and their families to ensure that the
This paper explores aspects of inclusive practice in six sections. learners’ voices are heard and their needs are met. This will
require a commitment of time, resources, and energy from all
The first section traces the development of approaches to involved.
inclusive education, as part of a worldwide move towards
a more inclusive society, as outlined in the 1994 UNESCO We conclude by summarizing the key messages of the paper.
Salamanca Statement and subsequently developed by the
European Union and global agencies.5 It includes a brief
discussion of the terminology used in the field and gives a
definition of an ethos of inclusion, based on a principle of
equity, followed by an overview of the benefits that inclusive
education can bring.

01
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Approaches to inclusive education have evolved over time, as

has the associated terminology. This section describes an ethos
of inclusion and sets out the potential benefits of an inclusive
education system for all involved. Inclusive practices can be
implemented on two levels: at a general level, providing an
accessible learning environment; and at an individual level,
recognizing and embracing the individual differences that occur in
any group.
Inclusive practices acknowledge

that everyone has different
strengths and diversity is
celebrated.
MARIE DELANEY

THE DEVELOPMENT OF APPROACHES TO curriculum and materials, and most importantly, the attitudes
of the educational community. The goal here is to direct every
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION effort towards altering the learning environment and adapting
teaching to suit the learners, rather than expecting individuals
Inclusive education was first put on the map in 1994 by the
to fit into their environment.
UNESCO Salamanca Statement.6 This statement, a document
informed by governments and international organizations
Interactional Model
worldwide, introduced a rights-based perspective to the
discussion of inclusive education, putting inclusion on the There is a growing awareness of the importance of recognizing
agenda for educational reform. and understanding the individual differences of learners, and
not ascribing their difficulties only to external factors. The
Today, attitudes towards learner differences vary from country Interactional Model, as it is called, considers the interplay
to country and also on an individual basis, depending on between multiple factors affecting the behaviours and needs
personal experience, world view, and many other factors. of an individual. These factors include a learner’s cognitive
Traditional framing of learner differences uses the term processing capacity, individual abilities, and their personal
‘disability’. While in some contexts this term has fallen out and wider contextual circumstances. The Interactional Model
of use, its usage persists in many others; for example, in recognizes that difficulties in learning are the result of an
policy documents of EU agencies and the UN. It is also used interaction between individual and environmental factors. As no
in legislation. Although many neurodiverse learners with two learners respond to the environment in the same way, the
an identified specific learning difficulty would not think of range of barriers they experience will be unique to them. It is
themselves as having a ‘disability’, in many countries it is in this the Interactional Model that informs the approach of this paper.
term that their right to an education is protected by law.
In the discussion of difference and disability, three models

of understanding have evolved over time which have had a TERMINOLOGY USED TO TALK ABOUT
significant impact on educational policy and practice: the DIFFERENCE
medical model, the social model, and the interactional model.7
Just as there are different models of difference and disability
Medical Model reflecting a range of attitudes, there are also competing
discourses—ways of talking about difference and disability—
The Medical Model takes a ‘deficit approach’ to difference and
that reinforce or challenge the dominant models. The use of
disability, seeing the problem as being within the learner only,
language is fluid and it is not always possible to advise which
rather than recognizing any barriers to learning within the
terms will be acceptable and appropriate in any given situation.
learning environment. This model prioritizes the diagnosis of
Indeed, educational professionals need to develop a wide
the disability or disorder, and the individual receives treatment
repertoire so that they can choose which terminology to use in
which aims to enable them to function like most other students.
different contexts, with different people.
Separate schooling in ‘special schools’, set up to cater for
particular groups of learners with differences or disabilities, are
Special educational needs and neurodiversity
a product of the medical model, and are based on a policy of
segregation rather than inclusion. The term ‘special educational needs’ (SEN), first used by H.
M. Warnock in her influential 1978 report,8 is the term that
Social Model is commonly used in educational policy and institutions.
Definitions of SEN vary a great deal from country to country,
After the Medical Model came the Social Model, which
and even from region to region within countries, and so
reframed disability in terms of social and environmental
this term needs to be used with an awareness that it means
barriers. In the Social Model, difficulties are attributed not
different things to different people.
to the individual learner but to a mismatch between their
way of working, the physical environment, the design of the

Inclusive education
As with all technical terms, educational professionals should

consider carefully what the impact of their language choice
AN ETHOS OF INCLUSION
might be, bearing in mind that the expression ‘special An ethos of inclusion is one in which all students are valued.
educational needs’ may seem negative to some people, setting Inclusion respects the fact that people are different, that each
these learners apart from their peers. individual experiences learning in their own way, and that
everyone has their own strengths and weaknesses.
The term ‘neurodiversity’ is increasingly used in reference to
learners with specific learning difficulties, such as dyslexia, Underpinning inclusion is the principle of equity, which in
autism spectrum condition, and attention deficit hyperactivity education means ensuring that each learner is provided
disorder (ADHD). Neurodiversity embraces the idea that with what they need; in other words, every learner gets the
all human brains function differently, and some more so accommodation or differentiation they need in order to
than others. In the educational sphere, thinking in terms of succeed. This is distinct from equality, which is a ‘one size fits
neurodiversity recognizes that specific learning difficulties are all’ approach where everybody gets the same treatment or
part of human variation and need to be catered for. It shifts the resources. Equity is key to inclusive practice, as it guarantees
emphasis from the ‘problems’ of the learner to barriers in the that each learner is viewed and valued as an individual within
learning environment and the interaction between the two.9 the larger group.
Terminology used in this paper Inclusion versus integration

In 2007, the OECD classified different types of special The term inclusion is used in several ways. Some people use it in
educational needs into three categories.10 These are: a narrow way, to describe physical access to a school for all; for
example, the presence of students with disabilities in mainstream
A disabilities: sensory, physical, and intellectual impairments
schools. Other people conceive of the term in a broader sense,
B learning difficulties: specific learning differences such as
to describe the process of developing strategies that meet
dyslexia, and other ‘invisible’ cognitive differences which are everybody’s needs and support quality learning and participation
not directly linked to socio-economic or linguistic causes, for all.
such as ADHD Inclusion in this broader sense can only start from an engagement
C disadvantages: difficulties that arise from socio-economic, of the school community in supporting learning processes for all.
cultural, and/or linguistic factors. Achieving full inclusion is a significant challenge for educational
managers, but is perhaps best conceived of as a process which
As stated in the introduction, the communicative methodologies schools and colleges go through, constantly evaluating and
used in ELT and the nature of language learning (particularly of refining their systems and outcomes.11
the English language) mean that the English language classroom We use the term integration to refer to students’ physical
may be the environment in which signs of OECD Categories B access to school and recognize that it is a necessary but
and C (learning difficulties and disadvantages) are first noticed: insufficient step in developing inclusion. Indeed, the integration
neurodiverse learners with specific learning difficulties such as of a group of students without a change in the school ethos and
dyslexia may find that their existing language learning strategies practices might lead to a form of exclusion within a common
are not sufficient when learning English; and learners with social, setting.
emotional, and behavioural difficulties (SEBD)—whether a
consequence of a specific learning difficulty or of environmental In situations where students are integrated rather than fully
factors such as loss, trauma, or neglect—may find the social included, teachers can become exhausted and frustrated
interaction involved in communicative language teaching more by trying to fulfil their responsibilities within an inadequate
challenging than other learners. This paper therefore focuses framework. Despite this, schools and colleges in many countries
on learners in these two categories. Learners in Category A are remain committed to developing their inclusive provision, and
likely to have had their needs identified and addressed, though teachers all around the world are seeking more information and
of course the recommendations made in this paper can also professional development opportunities, in order to develop
benefit these learners. practical skills to build on their inclusive ethos. Inclusive
teaching is founded on core values, such as those set out by the
For the purposes of this paper, learners who fall into Category European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education
B—with specific learning difficulties—are referred to as in 2012:12
neurodiverse learners. We include in Category B learners with
‘high-functioning’ autism (also known as Asperger’s Syndrome), • valuing learner diversity
which is an autism spectrum condition in which there is no • supporting all learners
intellectual impairment. We use the term special educational • working with others
needs (SEN) when referring to OECD Categories B and C. • continuing personal professional development.

“ Very often I found that the problem
was not with the other students
in the class, but with the teachers
believing that they had to treat all
the children the same, when, in fact,
a lot of the children realized that my
son needed to be treated differently
from them, and they didn’t think it
was unfair.”
David, parent of a child with autism spectrum condition

Inclusive education
THE BENEFITS OF INCLUSION A TWO-LEVEL APPROACH TO INCLUSION

There are many arguments for the development of a more As stated by UNESCO, ‘Inclusion is a process that helps
inclusive education system, including: overcome barriers limiting the presence, participation and
achievement of learners’.14 This paper advocates a two-level
• the moral justness of offering parity of opportunity to all
approach to inclusion: the general level and the individual level.
learners to fulfil their potential
• the advantages to society of building cohesive communities General level
(increasing the sense of well-being that stems from living in a
At the general level, teachers need an understanding of the
supportive community)
most common kinds of difficulties that learners with SEN often
• the pedagogical benefits for all learners.
experience in the classroom. Teachers can then work towards
developing a classroom culture and environment that will
The pedagogical benefits of inclusive education have been make the learning experience more accessible. This in turn will
explored by several researchers in education. Research by the engender a feeling of belonging to a learning community, in
European Commission shows that for children who are deemed which individual differences are seen ‘not as problems to be
to have ‘additional support’ needs (SEN), there are some fixed, but as opportunities for democratizing and enriching
advantages to being educated in a mainstream school, in terms learning’.15
of how well they do in formal exams and in integrating socially.
It is also worth noting that children who are not considered Individual level
to have additional support needs benefit from being taught At the individual level, teachers work with each learner to
alongside children with SEN in two main ways:13 identify any barriers that they are experiencing as a result of
the interplay between environmental factors and the learner’s
• they are exposed to and become more appreciative of
neurodiversity. Once these are identified, teachers can put
diversity in general, and thus develop better social interaction
specific interventions in place and differentiate their teaching
skills and empathy
to meet the needs of the individuals they are working with.
• they benefit from their teachers’ efforts to provide an
In Appendix 1, there are suggestions for interventions, or
inclusive environment, which makes the curriculum more
practical responses, to various indications that students may be
accessible for all learners.
experiencing barriers to learning. This will enable all learners to
study independently and develop their own strategies, which
can also be transferred beyond education to other areas of
their lives.
SUMMARY
This section has offered an overview of
some of the different perspectives on
barriers to learning and the terminology
used to discuss these, and considered the
benefits of inclusive practices at both a
general and an individual level. The next
section provides an overview of the most
commonly identified causes of difficulties
in language learning.

02
COMMONLY IDENTIFIED CAUSES
OF DIFFICULTIES IN LANGUAGE
LEARNING
To help teachers recognize barriers to learning, this section
presents key characteristics of some of the most commonly
identified indications of neurodiversity and social, emotional, and
behavioural difficulties (SEBD). It is meant to empower teachers
by raising awareness of possible underlying issues that may
be hindering language learning. Diagnosis is not encouraged
where teachers are not specifically qualified to do so. However,
increased awareness can help teachers develop ideas on how to
address their learners’ difficulties, and know when a referral to an
assessor may be appropriate.
Inclusive practices aim to

remove barriers so all students
have equal chances to learn
successfully.
JUDIT KORMOS

Commonly identified causes of difficulties in language learning
In the introduction, it was suggested that language teachers There is also a high degree of overlap between the
are in a unique position when it comes to identifying some characteristics of certain learning difficulties, suggesting
cognitive differences, because neurodiverse learners may that co-occurrence is the norm rather than the exception;17
experience more significant challenges than their peers when people identified as having dyslexia will often also show some
learning a new language. In the case of English, the irregular indications of dyspraxia, for example, or of ADHD.
writing system presents particular challenges which may bring
Appendix 1 provides a list of common behaviours that might
to light unusual processing patterns. In addition, students with
be connected with the situations described in this section,
communication difficulties can find interactive methodologies
along with some suggestions for their accommodation in the
challenging and can be unsure of how to regulate their
language classroom.
behaviour.
Students who are facing additional challenges because of the

nature of the subject matter or the interaction required of them
are likely to experience low self-esteem. They might withdraw
from the class emotionally and psychologically, appearing aloof AD(H)D
or disengaged. Teachers may observe them behaving in a
range of ways:
• daydreaming or wasting time Dyslexia Dyspraxia

• disrupting the class routine (thus drawing attention away from
their poor academic performance)
• over-compensating (working extremely hard to try to
complete the tasks, and working through breaks and/or into Asperger’s
Dyscalculia
the night to try to keep up; as this is not sustainable, it can Syndrome
result in ‘burn out’, with these students showing a lack of
energy and motivation, even falling ill).
Co-occurence diagram © ELT well
It is important that teachers can get to know their learners,
to be alert to changes in behaviour from lesson to lesson
as well as over the course of a term. If teachers do become DYSLEXIA
concerned about a student, they should not immediately This is a cognitive developmental difference which is lifelong in
assign a diagnostic label, but rather monitor the situation and its effects. Because it affects working memory, phonological
if necessary refer to a qualified assessor. In the meantime, they awareness, and speed of processing, dyslexia can have a
can start to develop and adapt activities and materials to work particularly noticeable effect on the development of literacy
around the difficulties. practices, and in some countries it is defined in this way. For
As noted in Section 1, this paper focuses on the individual example, in the USA it is sometimes referred to as a ‘reading
differences in cognitive function which fall into OECD disability’ or a ‘specific learning disorder’.18 However, difficulties
Categories B and C: specifically, dyslexia, dyspraxia, with reading, spelling, and writing are only the most easily
dysgraphia, high-functioning autism, attention deficit visible features of the underlying differences in cognitive
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and SEBD. It is impossible function, which produce obvious discrepancies between oral
to state with any certainty how many people experience and written proficiency. People with dyslexia usually also
difficulties due to cognitive differences; many people are experience difficulties in following instructions, organizing their
never formally identified, and the identification criteria vary ideas, and maintaining coherence in both spoken and written
from country to country.16 For the occurrence of dyslexia, the texts, and their abilities in these areas often do not match up to
International Dyslexia Association, the European Dyslexia their other skills and talents.
Association, and the British Dyslexia Association all estimate In terms of learning a foreign language in a formal setting,
the figure to be somewhere between 10–15% of the population the difficulties experienced by students who are identified as
of their respective areas, with around 4–5% experiencing quite having dyslexia are likely to include:
severe difficulties.
• a discrepancy between oral and written work
• being unable to recognize and discriminate between sounds
10-15% 4-5%
• struggling to memorize and apply grammatical structures in
context, even with practice
• needing a lot of practice to securely learn new vocabulary
• finding it hard to develop good literacy skills (e.g. accurate
estimation of the population estimation of the population spelling, coherent writing, smooth line-tracking, fluent
with dyslexia with dyslexia experiencing quite
severe difficulties decoding, and good comprehension, including remembering
what has been read)

• slower-than-typical processing of oral input and the • inaccurate spelling or grammar

formulation of responses • incoherent structure of the text (i.e. ideas are presented in a
• needing to overlearn through the use of personalized way that appears illogical, or without seeming to connect).
strategies, accommodations, and structured practice to
achieve automaticity in language use.
AUTISM SPECTRUM CONDITION
DYSPRAXIA Autism spectrum condition is a wide-ranging term, spanning from
severe to mild. Mild autism is also known as high-functioning
Sometimes referred to as a ‘developmental co-ordination autism. As awareness and understanding of autism improves,
disorder (DCD)’,19 dyspraxia makes it difficult for people to plan more people are being identified as having some degree of high-
and sequence everyday movements. It can affect gross motor functioning autism which causes difficulties in learning, and in
skills (for example, when running or dancing) and/or fine motor activities of daily living. The key elements that indicate any autistic
skills (for example, when using a pencil or playing a musical profile are:20
instrument). There might also be an impact on the articulation
• difficulties in social interaction and social communication: for
of speech, as the small precise movements of the lips, tongue,
example, in maintaining appropriate eye contact, proximity,
and jaw may not be sufficiently well co-ordinated. In common
and physical contact; in turn-taking, making appropriate
with dyslexia, there may be issues around speed of processing,
contributions to conversations, and understanding the
working memory, and organization, as well as sequencing.
Some people with dyspraxia experience heightened (or underlying meaning of other people’s contributions
reduced) sensitivity to the environment (temperature, noise, • limited or repetitive patterns of behaviour or interests:
light, textures, etc.), also characteristic of autistic spectrum for example, difficulties in thinking flexibly, or coping with
condition. Balance and spatial awareness are often affected, change; an interest in one topic bordering on obsession.
making a person appear physically clumsy or awkward, as well
as temporal awareness (the ability to perceive how much time In common with dyspraxia, autism can also be characterized
has gone by, or to estimate how long a task might take). In the by increased sensitivity to the environment. Learners with
language classroom, the main areas of challenge are likely to high-functioning autism might have difficulty in forming and
be: maintaining relationships, as they might answer questions
• speech and language difficulties factually but abruptly, with little mitigation of unpleasant or
• developing legible handwriting (relative to age peers), unwelcome information, or display a very literal understanding
particularly if the target language uses a script that is not yet of what is said (that is, taking words in their most basic or usual
sense with no understanding of the speaker’s intention in
familiar
context).
• pronouncing sounds correctly and in the correct order
• organizing the work space (having text books, notebooks, When learning a language, the greatest difficulties are likely to
dictionary, stationery, etc. to hand and within a confined area) be noticed around:
• working quickly enough to complete tasks on time
• understanding other people’s communicative intentions (e.g.
• navigating the built environment (e.g. finding the way to a
irony, metaphor, humour)
different location).
• understanding the cues for taking turns
• using idiomatic language appropriate to the audience
DYSGRAPHIA • tolerating inconsistencies in the language (e.g. exceptions
to grammatical rules, or words that have more than one
Although closely related to dyslexia and dyspraxia, this is a
meaning)
term that is usually applied when there is a specific difficulty in
producing legible and coherent written text but other language • role-playing situations from an unfamiliar perspective
skills are not affected. Its prevalence varies from country to (e.g. ‘…but I’m not a shop-keeper!’)
country depending on assessment norms; for example, in the
UK it is almost never identified, as assessors would normally
attribute the difficulties to either dyslexia or dyspraxia, or a According to
combination of the two. However, some people who have no the National
identifiable difficulties in the areas of speed of processing, Autistic Society
UK, ‘researchers
working memory, or phonological awareness, or in fine comparing findings
motor control or spatial awareness generally, still experience of prevalence
significant barriers when they come to write a text. In the studies from
different parts
context of learning a new language, we might see the following of the world over
difficulties: the past few years
have come up with
• illegible handwriting (relative to age and first-language peers) a conservative
median estimate of
• inability to maintain lines or margins (even when writing on
prevalence of 62 in
lined paper, in some cases) 10,000 [people].’ 21

“ Ifrom
had quite a few positive comments
parents of children in her school,
who felt that it had been good for
the children to meet and understand
people with different conditions,
and it also means that she is a better
accepted member of our local
community.”
Melanie, parent of a child with autism
spectrum condition, dyslexia,
and dyspraxia

ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY result in behaviours characterized by mood swings, aggression,

a lot of noise or movement, and inappropriate reactions, such as
DISORDER (ADHD) trying to exert power over their classmates, or being unwilling
to wait their turn in class. Similar to other learning difficulties,
The key characteristics of attention deficit hyperactivity
especially ADHD, SEBD is likely to present additional challenges
disorder (ADHD) include difficulties in focusing and
to language learning, including:
maintaining attention, controlling impulses, and harnessing
excessive energy for productive activities. • not being able to manage emotions around learning (e.g.
frustration at not knowing something)
There are said to be three different ways in which these
characteristics can present themselves: predominantly • increased general anxiety or feelings of vulnerability, which
inattentive presentation (less excessive energy), predominantly mean that the learner may not be able to concentrate on the
hyperactive-impulsive presentation (more attentional control), work
and combined presentation (roughly equal degrees of • avoidance of failure (e.g. reluctance to use new language or
difficulty with controlling attention and harnessing excessive try new activities)
energy). 22 People with ADHD may also experience difficulty • difficulties in listening to and following instructions
with regulating their emotions, swinging from elation to fury • uncertainty around organizational and problem-solving tasks
or despair in a matter of minutes. As they mature and learn to • difficulties in social interaction, especially in terms of taking
regulate their behaviour better, some of these characteristics turns, trusting, and collaborating with work partners
tend to become less noticeable; but like the other cognitive • difficulties with completing work on time and/or accurately.
differences described above, ADHD does not ever fully
disappear. Many young people are prescribed medication to
reduce the effects of ADHD, and while some find this helpful,
MIGRANT AND REFUGEE STUDENTS
others prefer to explore behavioural interventions as well or One group of learners who merit a specific mention here
instead. are recently arrived learners whose language background
is different from the majority in the classroom—particularly
Teachers are likely to notice the following difficulties in the
migrant and refugee students. Their initial barriers to learning
classroom:
may be largely linguistic, cultural, or emotional. Linguistic
• loss of concentration when reading/listening for extended barriers my arise if a recently arrived learner has nobody in the
periods, especially if there are no visual cues or practical class who shares their first language, and little or no proficiency
input in the language of the classroom or the target language,
• difficulty or uncertainty in social interactions, especially leaving them feeling isolated and confused. Clearly, this is
taking turns in conversations or games not the same as having a cognitive difference like the ones
• difficulties in following instructions and classroom described above, but some of the effects and consequences
conventions (e.g. putting up a hand and waiting to be called may be similar, at least temporarily.
on to answer a question) In addition to these linguistic challenges, the impact on
• working too quickly to maintain accuracy learning of relocation and the possible emotional trauma
• excessive energy manifesting as fidgeting, restlessness, or that a refugee or migrant learner is experiencing cannot be
moving around the room. overstated.24 In many cases, families will have been separated,
leaving the learner wondering about the well-being of close
SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIOURAL relatives. Then there is the additional challenge of adjusting
to a new physical environment, as well as a new educational
DIFFICULTIES (SEBD) culture with some differing expectations, and there may well
be uncertainty about how long they will be staying before
All of the above learning difficulties may result at some stage in
being resettled elsewhere. Teachers should therefore not be
students with specific learning difficulties experiencing social
surprised to see these students experiencing any (or several) of
isolation and negative emotional issues, due to the challenges
the difficulties listed above, and should respond accordingly.
that they are facing. The combination of the environmental
Whether or not newly arrived learners have cognitive
stresses and the students’ own reactions to their difficulties may
differences in addition to facing the challenges of relocation,
result in low self-esteem, which could manifest as behaviours
the barriers to learning they experience must be addressed.
that are disruptive to others and/or self-harmful. This might well
have a negative effect on their relationships with their peers, and The strategies listed in Appendix 1 would also be appropriate
make them vulnerable to bullying.23 for migrant and refugee learners as well as learners with SEN.
There are also some students who experience SEBD without
a learning difficulty being the cause, sometimes as a result
of loss, neglect, or trauma. An uncertain, inconsistent, or
even dangerous home environment could lead to increased
stress levels, anxiety, and impulsivity, as well as limiting the
development of empathy and logical reasoning. This might

POSITIVE ATTRIBUTES Approximately In Europe

Recognizing the specific educational needs of learners need
800 million
recent estimates place the
not be only in terms of the difficulties experienced. On the number of children with special
contrary, it is important to look for each student’s strengths and educational needs (SEN) at
15 million
to find out about their interests, and to draw on them in the
language learning process. The variety of individual differences young children worldwide 25
is enormous, and identifying learners’ strengths and finding are affected by biological,
out about their interests is a key part of getting to know them environmental and psychosocial
conditions that can limit their
well, letting them know they are valued, and ensuring that their cognitive development.
individual characteristics do not get reduced to a diagnostic
label.
Without wishing to generalize, there are some common

strengths that teachers could observe in students with SEN. For
example, learners with autism spectrum condition sometimes
have excellent memories for facts and rules, making them
SUMMARY
confident in the grammatical aspects of the language. They This section has offered an overview of
may have a deep interest in (and knowledge of) a particular
topic, which can be directed towards learning vocabulary and the main challenges that some of the most
project work. Students with ADHD often have a lot of energy commonly identified barriers to learning
which, if channelled into learning using engaging and varied
tasks, can help them to keep working for longer. In practical can bring. The intention is to help teachers
activities, such as drama or art projects, their enthusiasm and understand what the diagnostic labels
energy can have a very motivating effect on their peers, too.
might mean in the classroom, if any of
All learners benefit from a structured and well-organized
learning environment, but those who are experiencing barriers their learners have been formally assessed,
to learning will appreciate it all the more. Students with SEBD and to appreciate the possible causes of
in particular might respond well to openness and support from
their teachers, with whom they can then develop a relationship the difficulties they are having. Migrant
of trust and respect.26 Migrant and refugee learners may find and refugee learners are mentioned,
that, given a safe and predictable environment, they can
contribute their experiences to the classroom, helping their not because being new in a country is
peers to understand and value the differences—and common associated with a specific learning difficulty,
ground—found between languages and cultures.
but because the impact of relocation can
Many neurodiverse learners may have innate strengths in visual
and/or spatial reasoning and therefore find visually organized cause social, emotional, and behavioural
activities engaging and accessible. Some may be especially difficulties, particularly in the early stages
good at perceiving and remembering abstract relationships
represented through the use of colour or diagrams. Others may of settling in. Understanding the possible
find they are skilled in holistic thinking (for example, being able underlying causes of students’ difficulties
to hold an overall view of how something works), enabling them
to solve problems in creative ways. gives teachers a direction to follow in
Finally, learners who have worked hard to learn often equipping themselves to support their
develop deep reserves of determination and can show great learners. The next section outlines other
perseverance in their learning.27 By noticing and praising
learners’ strengths, and taking an interest in the things that aspects of inclusive education that are
interest them, teachers reinforce the message that everybody is useful for teachers to know about as part of
valued for their individual achievements, individual differences,
and positive qualities. their continuous professional development.

03
SUPPORT AND CONTINUOUS
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
FOR TEACHERS
Inclusive practices need to be planned on two levels

simultaneously: the development of a generally inclusive
environment with a culture of mutual respect and support,
alongside work on an individual level. This section sets out
some ways in which teachers could enhance their existing
expertise and develop their practice on both levels, in line
with the European Agency’s core value of continuing personal
professional development (see page 10).28 It suggests some topics
for exploration, as well as the modes of accessing professional
development opportunities.
DEVELOPING AN INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENT

There is a long tradition in English language education of using student-centred
methodologies, such as communicative language teaching (CLT) or a task-based
approach. These methodologies, which rely on student-to-student communication,
foster collaboration and cooperation between learners. When it comes to developing
inclusive practices, English language teachers often have experience and knowledge
to draw on, and they can build upon the CLT training already received and the
teaching skills they have already developed in the classroom. There is a wide range
of topics that teachers could usefully explore in their CPD, which would lead to the
development of a more inclusive ethos in the classroom. These include the topics
outlined below.

Support and continuous professional development for teachers
Understanding the principles underpinning inclusive With colleagues

education • sharing experiences in the staff room; for example, informal
• the aims and ethos of inclusive education conversations to compare ideas about how to respond to the
• the benefits to all learners of being in an inclusive learning barriers to learning encountered by some learners
environment • organizing formal CPD events in the school; for example,
• the difference between inclusion and integration (i.e. inviting a speaker in to offer input on a particular aspect of
engagement versus access) inclusive practice
• teaching and learning methods that value learners’ diversity. • providing a forum for parents to meet and share experiences;
for example, setting up a private area on the school website
Making inclusive choices
for online discussions
There are decisions to be made at the stages of planning the
course, planning each lesson, and delivering the lesson in the
classroom. Reflection on the results of these choices should then DIFFERENTIATING TEACHING FOR THE
inform future choices. These are choices regarding: INDIVIDUAL
• the methodology (e.g. interactive and participatory Differentiation is the practical response to individual differences
approaches) in the way students learn. Even in an environment where many
• the range of teaching techniques (the activities that the barriers have been minimized, students will still need to work at
students will engage with) their own pace, and in their own ways. Differentiated teaching
• the range of materials (especially multisensory activities and involves developing a general understanding of neurodiversity
multimodal resources that reflect and celebrate the diversity and finding out as much as possible about how each individual
within the group) in the group learns so that learners can be provided with
• the classroom environment (ensuring that the lighting, options which allow them to develop greater autonomy.
temperature, and noise levels are comfortable for everyone,
as far as possible) Understanding neurodiversity
• classroom management (making sure all instructions are In order to understand an individual learner, teachers need to
clear and explicit, and establishing a shared and democratic be able to do the following:
system of rules)
• recognize the non-typical behaviours and learning patterns
• the assessment of progress (allowing students to
that may indicate the presence of neurodiversity
demonstrate their learning in different formats; giving
• understand the common features of different types of
explicit and constructive feedback, focusing on one or two
barriers to learning
areas for development).
• know when to refer to an appropriate professional for a full
Raising awareness regarding evaluation (in order to apply for additional resources or exam
issues of diversity and inclusion access arrangements).
With students Developing learner autonomy through differentiation
• initiating self-exploratory discussions in the classroom; for
Ideally, differentiated teaching provides students with options
example, creating a values-led class contract with each class,
that they could choose from—with guidance, if necessary—
and encouraging students to compare their responses to so that they also develop autonomy and engage critically
different tasks or challenges. with their learning. To help their learners develop autonomy,
teachers need to consider what they could offer in terms
of materials, tasks, expectations, support, and classroom
CLASS CONTRACT organization:
In this class, we: • materials: different texts and/or different text types; having
different formats available
• tasks: allowing students to choose which items to tackle (or to
LISTEN TO WORK tackle first); allocating different roles in group work
EACH OTHER TOGETHER • expectations: recognizing that not everybody will produce
the same amount of work in class; accepting that often the
learning process is more important than the finished product
• support: allowing students to use technology or reference
SHOW WAIT FOR materials to varying degrees; setting up groupwork so that
RESPECT OUR TURN there is a balance of abilities and skills; spending more
time with students who need more encouragement, or
clarification, at particular points in the lesson
• classroom organization: creating a learning environment in
which students can be doing different tasks within a shared
space
Informal CPD
MATERIALS
More informally, CPD can involve joining a local teachers’
organization and meeting once a month to discuss issues
around inclusion, or simply setting aside a lunchtime each week
to share experiences and ideas with colleagues, whether face-
to-face, via video conferencing, or in an online chat room.
ORGANIZAT OM
ION
TASK
CLASSRO
Action research
Very powerful personal and professional development can be
S
accomplished through an individual action research project,
with or without external resources of input.29 In these kinds
of projects, a teacher would identify an aspect of practice
that she or he was interested in improving—for example,
supporting a student to develop greater attentional control.
After thinking through the possible reasons for that issue
arising, an intervention would be devised—for example,
S
UP
IO N
encouraging the learner to maintain concentration on a task
POR AT
S
T
for one minute in the first instance, using a sand timer as a
T XPE C visual prompt, and building up the time gradually. After a short
E period of employing this strategy, the teacher would evaluate
how well it has been working, reflect on what the factors were
that determined its effectiveness or otherwise (for example,
time of day, the manner in which it was introduced, the position
of the sand timer, etc.), and why those choices were made.
Some modifications to the technique might be required before
continuing with the intervention, and this cycle would continue
until the strategy was successful for that learner.
For more information on these points, see Section 4.
It is important to note that there is no single strategy or

intervention that will work for every learner. The complex SUPPORT FROM THE PROFESSIONAL NETWORK
interactions between the individuals’ cognitive profiles, their
There is a lot that individual teachers can do independently
personal circumstances, and the learning environment mean
to develop their own practice in respect of the aspects of
that teachers and other professionals working with learners with
pedagogy listed in this section. However, in order to access and
special educational needs (SEN) need to take each situation on
make the most of CPD opportunities that arise, teachers need
a case-by-case basis and not assume that something that has
support from and collaboration with those they work with most
worked before will work in every case. With experience, though,
closely. These include institutions, colleagues, and professional
teachers can often find a useful starting point from which to
bodies.
experiment with, reflect on, and refine their techniques.
Institutions
MODES OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Usually managers will need to agree to teachers changing
schedules or taking time out to attend training, and also to
Formal CPD provide funding where possible to cover costs (in some cases,
this might include travel expenses and materials as well as
Teachers are busy people, and gaining access to high-quality
course fees). In return, managers may want to see evidence
continuous professional development (CPD) depends on
of improvements in student attainment or retention, which
balancing many different responsibilities. In recognition of this,
teachers would need to gather and present.
providers of CPD are beginning to offer a range of options that
teachers can choose from, to find a pathway that suits them.
Colleagues
This could mean teachers attending a face-to-face course at
a local college in the evenings, or accessing a course from an Sometimes it might be necessary to ask colleagues to provide
institution in another town via the internet. There are several cover while another teacher is on a training course. In return for
organizations offering online courses on topics related to this kind of support, many teachers share the information they
inclusive practices, and some are free to access. Some starting have gained with their team. Colleagues might also be asked to
points are provided in the Further reading and resources act as collaborators, participants, or informants in small-scale
section at the end of this paper. research projects, or simply to act as sounding boards for ideas
about implementing new strategies.

“ One of my Year 3 learners was a pleasant boy
who, when the topic caught his imagination,
would have great ideas and contribute in
class discussions. But he seemed to lose
all concentration when it came to following
instructions for follow-up activities, which I
thought was him switching off. Now that I
know he is dyslexic, and have learned a bit
about dyslexia, I understand that he simply
couldn’t retain the information—it wasn’t that
he couldn’t be bothered. Now I take care to
break up my instructions into one thing at a
time, so that he—and all my other learners—
can carry out the instructions step by step.
It was a simple thing to put into practice,
and I’ve seen a marked improvement in his
engagement with activities since I started this.”
Penny, Primary EFL teacher, Spain
Professional bodies
In most countries there are local and national organizations which exist to support
teachers. They might be asked to provide a forum for teachers interested in certain
topics to meet up, or to organize talks on a specific issue. There are also international
organizations which can put teachers in touch with colleagues in other countries who
are working on similar issues. For example, IATEFL now has a special interest group
called Inclusive Practices and SEN, which provides support and advice to teachers
working with learners who have additional needs. Many professional bodies produce a
newsletter or journal for their members, and might well have an interest in featuring a
report of a research project, or a reflective piece based on a teacher’s experiences.
Specific training for teachers is necessary,

and more effective alongside hands-on
experience.
MICHELE DALOISO
SUMMARY
In this section some suggestions were made as to how
teachers might make the most of any opportunities
available for developing their own inclusive practices.
Progression towards an inclusive education system will take
time, resources, leadership from management and local
authorities, and commitment from teachers and students. In
order to be sustainable, it requires both bottom-up and top-
down change: ideas and engagement within the classroom
coupled with managerial leadership and support.

04
G UIDELINES FOR THE INCLUSIVE
USE OF LEARNING MATERIALS
Equipped with some simple guidelines, teachers can make informed

decisions when using ELT materials for an inclusive classroom. ELT
courses come with an array of print and digital components that aim
to enrich the teaching and learning experience, offering flexibility to
students, who can access content in alternative modes. Guided by
a principle of equity, teachers can make the most of the materials
available to offer an inclusive learning experience to their learners
by following guidelines on differentiation, classroom management,
multisensory and multimodal learning, and learning strategies.
APPLY DIFFERENTIATION PRINCIPLES TO LEARNING MATERIALS

AND TASKS
At the heart of successful differentiation is teachers knowing their learners well; that
is, understanding their potential and the challenges they face. Differentiation is a
skill that teachers exercise every time they teach a group of learners that they know:
whenever they choose a learner to answer a question, or put learners in groups or
pairs, they are making decisions based on what they already know about their learners
and what will help them complete a task successfully.
With regard to ELT materials, there is a lot that teachers can do to make the most of
what is available to them and their learners, differentiating their teaching in the ways
they use the materials and manage the classroom. In many cases, small changes in
the way coursebook activities are set up can make a big difference to neurodiverse
learners.

Guidelines for the inclusive use of learning materials
a listening and reading activity, which requires learners to

process great deal at once linguistically, making it inaccessible
Language teachers can provide for those who experience difficulties with working memory
accessible inputs for everyone, and phonological awareness. The activity can be made more
accessible if the ‘do’ part requires learners to demonstrate their
differentiating tasks and materials understanding by means of a non-linguistic output, such as
colouring in, completing a map, or choosing a picture.
so that every learner can be
Adapted materials
involved. Sometimes learners will benefit from using adapted materials in
MICHELE DALOISO which the content has been simplified and/or reorganized, with
less information on the page. It is important that any adapted
materials used are based as far as possible on the original
and allow for integrated use. The materials need to be used
flexibly and inclusively: if treated as an extra classroom resource
available to all learners, they are materials like any other and
Differentiating the format of materials
all learners may choose to use them at times. This avoids the
For most learners, coursebooks are visually appealing and creation of a subgroup of students with SEN working alone on
interesting, with the illustrations, colour, and layout providing different materials and the damage to social cohesion that this
a stimulating basis for a lesson. For a minority of learners who could entail. An inclusive way of working with adapted materials
find visual processing difficult, such as those with attention is to involve learners in creating them; for example, engaging
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), who do not always know students in creating a do-it-yourself grammar revision sheet or
what to pay attention to, learners with dyslexia, and those glossary.
with high-functioning autism, who can become overwhelmed,
this same material can in fact be visually overburdening. The Collaborative adaptation of materials
teacher can differentiate by introducing some modifications
Learners can be invited to work in groups to prepare resources
to help their students. A simple low-tech solution such as
for use in class, such as simplified summaries, visual mappings
offering ‘text windows’ (two L-shaped pieces of card), can help
of grammar content, and illustrated sheets about the content
learners to focus on one part of the page at a time. A frequently
they have covered. This both consolidates knowledge for
used intervention for some learners with dyslexia is the use
learners who have already learned a topic from the coursebook
of coloured paper for printing out handouts. Alternatively,
and introduces it to those who are not yet familiar with it.
there may be digital solutions using online resources, such as
specially formatted versions of reading exercises, or audio files
of reading texts that can be slowed down.
MANAGE THE CLASSROOM INCLUSIVELY
If these resources can be shared with the whole class, teachers
can accomplish differentiation whilst encouraging students Collaborative learning
to exercise some degree of autonomy in class and at home. Collaborative learning opportunities, through pairwork and
Since there is no single solution that works for all learners, the groupwork, help to create an inclusive ethos. The range
teacher should try out different solutions, inviting feedback of collaborative tasks extends from short activities such as
from the learners. This will nurture an environment of trust and transactional dialogues, to more substantial tasks such as
openness, allowing suitable solutions to be identified for each project work, presenting learners with a variety of opportunities
learner. to sustain this inclusive ethos.
Making activities inclusive The teacher can adapt task procedures in the learning materials
to create collaborative pairwork or groupwork opportunities,
In order to ensure that ELT activities are inclusive, teachers can
for example using a Think–Pair–Share format.31 This will be
work on various technical skills and strategic skills with their
especially beneficial for students who need more time to
learners, which work on bottom-up and top-down processes
process a response.
needed for success in tasks focused on reading, writing,
listening, speaking, vocabulary, and grammar (see Appendix
2). More information can be found in Supporting Learners with
Dyslexia in the ELT Classroom.30
In addition, there are ways that teachers can maximize the

accessibility of coursebook activities for their learners. Some
THINK-PAIR-SHARE
The class are given two minutes to think,
activities place a high burden on working memory, which and one minute to discuss in pairs.*
can be particularly problematic for neurodiverse learners; Then the pairs are asked to share their ideas with the class.
for example, a ‘listen and do’ activity with a linguistic output
that involves summarizing, paraphrasing, or translating, or
* timing depends on the type and difficulty of the task

Students who find social interaction difficult can be encouraged

to work with one or two other people initially, in relatively short
activities that they will find comfortable. They may also benefit Second language classrooms
from some quiet time to work alone, and somewhere to go to
do this.
should be interactive and
Peer tutoring is a collaborative learning activity which involves encourage students to get
reciprocal teaching between learners. It has positive effects
both on the student who plays the role of tutor, and on the
to know each other and work
student who is being taught. It can also produce significant together.
progress with regard to interpersonal relationships, and to the
motivation and self-esteem of the students. The role of tutor MARIE DELANEY
needs to be rotated amongst the class members, giving every
student the opportunity to play the role.
Managing the environment

It is useful for collaborative learning if the teacher can organize
the layout of the classroom effectively to facilitate interaction
opportunities; for example, putting chairs into pairs, or laying CREATE MULTISENSORY AND MULTIMODAL
out the tables and chairs for small groupwork or individual quiet LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES
working time.
Multisensory activities involve the use of more than one of the
Once they know their learners, the teacher can also find ways senses—most commonly in the ELT classroom: sight, hearing,
to minimize distraction; for example, seating learners away from and touch. Using a variety of senses simultaneously whilst
the window if they are likely to get overstimulated. They might focused on the same information has two advantages: the
take the same approach to sensitivities regarding the type of activation of different senses increases the number of routes to
lighting and the temperature in the room, to ensure that every memory, and the use of different senses increases its potential
student feels comfortable in the physical environment. for learner engagement. Both of these aid learning.32 Successful
multisensory activities do not ask the learner to perform
Facilitating communication different tasks simultaneously, as this would place extra
It is easy for some learners to ‘get lost’ during activities, but demands on working memory. For example, a listening activity
there are straightforward strategies for keeping the class requiring simultaneous reading of another text in order to
together. These may be strategies around working memory; complete the task is not an example of a multisensory activity,
for example, staging instructions or breaking down rubrics in whereas providing the audio version of a reading text is, and
coursebooks so that learners do them together, one step at a can help the learner decode the text.
time. Other strategies may help with establishing classroom
Multimodal resources refer to different types of resources,
routines, where the use of non-verbal cues and signals can be
typically exploiting the wide range of media that is available,
effective in keeping noise and associated stress to a minimum.
including digital materials such as integrated video, interactive
For example, teachers can establish a ‘clap-back’ routine which
whiteboard materials, and apps that help with vocabulary
they can use to manage pairwork and groupwork activities, as it
learning (for example, Quizlet) and organization of learning (for
signals to the class that it is time to listen to the teacher.
example, online diaries). Audio versions of texts allow students
to listen as they read a text and thereby develop a sense of the
rhythm and intonation of the language. ‘Low-tech’ resources
such as paper-based materials and real-life objects are also
CLAP-BACK TECHNIQUE valuable, as their tactile qualities help to bring the relevance of
the ‘real world’ into the classroom.33
The teachers clap a short rhythm to the class, who respond by
clapping back the same rhythm. The teacher then claps another
Visual organizers
rhythm for the class to copy, and so on until the class is once again
ready to listen. Language teaching is often based largely on the use of
written text, but accessibility can be increased if information is
presented in visual ways. Mind maps, flow charts, diagrams, and
timelines are all clear and simple visual techniques which can
be used to show relationships between ideas, or to summarize
concepts and facts. These ‘visual organizers’ can support
and enrich the learning experience for neurodiverse learners.
For example, the traditional, verbal presentation of grammar
points in tables and boxes is suited to analytical minds, but
some learners may benefit more from the use of mind maps

or flow charts, which would offer a more visual and holistic with an understanding of how to make their own learning more
representation of the same concepts. Mind maps can also effective and efficient, the learner will be able to work more
be useful for identifying links between items in a vocabulary confidently and achieve their personal goals.
set which are otherwise presented separately. Teachers can
These activities could take the form of individual questionnaires
guide learners by demonstrating how to create these visual
(using appropriately graded language), pairwork interviews,
organizers, and encouraging them to experiment and see what
or small group discussions around the topic of how students
works best for them.
approach different aspects of learning. Games also offer
opportunities to understand and reflect on the need for rules,
Physical interaction with learning resources
listening, turn-taking, and working together—skills which some
Physical interaction with language learning resources should learners find difficult. Card-matching activities or even a board
be encouraged as much as possible, to engage learners’ game format could be developed to provide a tactile element
visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic channels. Communicative ELT and visual focus to support the auditory content of the activity.
methodologies are rich in activities involving physical interaction,
such as acting out a dialogue, or indicating understanding by Strategies for tackling new challenges
holding up cards or responses on personal whiteboards. In
An important aspect of metacognitive development work is
addition, teachers can help learners to grasp abstract concepts
providing learners with strategies for tackling new challenges,
involved in language learning by providing opportunities for
based on their previous experiences, and using their individual
physical interaction with resources. For example, learners can
strengths and talents. Sometimes students will feel unable to
use coloured tokens or counters to discuss and map out word
start a task, or to complete one aspect of it, because of barriers
order. The act of physically building new sentences, and talking
to learning such as not being able to remember grammar rules
through those sentences as they are being built, can help learners
or vocabulary, or not having enough time to do everything that
understand the concepts being explored.34
needs to be done. By identifying what the barrier is, students
have the key to access solutions for overcoming it. For example,
Songs and chants
some neurodiverse students can be overwhelmed by the
Singing songs and chants are multisensory activities that can amount of text involved in reading comprehension activities,
provide a valuable change of pace and focus. Younger learners and will need explicit guidance in how to approach these
enjoy learning through songs, and chants, which often include tasks. ELT coursebooks often provide guidance on reading
the use of visual aids and actions. Once the learners are familiar comprehension strategies that teachers can encourage learners
with them, songs and chants can be lifted out of their original to use, such as previewing a text, predicting content from the
context and used as part of classroom routines; for example, title and images, and noticing how it is structured.
singing ‘the rainbow song’ to review colours at the start of the
lesson, or using the last five minutes of the lesson before lunch Developing self-awareness is important for everyone, but
to do a food chant with actions. learners who experience greater challenges in their daily lives
benefit particularly from this. Often, self-awareness leads to
Multisensory activities and multimodal resources can add higher self-esteem, as learners realize they have particular
variety to the process of recapping and recycling language strengths and talents that they can draw on. The teacher
points that teachers provide as part of the language also has an important role to play in the development of self-
programme, and can include learners who struggle to esteem, as their praise and positive evaluation of learners’ work
consolidate their learning with writing activities. will be of great significance to the learners. If learners believe
that they can achieve success, and are encouraged to see their
own strengths and the progress they are making, they will be
HELP STUDENTS DEVELOP LEARNING more motivated to put in the required effort and to persist
STRATEGIES when faced with a challenge.
One of the most profound positive impacts a teacher can have standing
Under
trengths
on learners with SEN is to help them understand themselves your s
better, and to find their most effective ways of learning and
managing their behaviour. As students explore different ways
Se
s
of learning, they will become more aware of what works best for
ein
es
ucc
gp
them, both in class and in independent study.

DEALING
Achieving s
rogre
Thinking about thinking

WITH NEW
ss
Metacognitive (or ‘thinking about thinking’) activities are a type

of reflective activity which enables learners to make their own CHALLENGES
thought processes explicit and gain an appreciation of the most
lf
appropriate strategies for them to use in different situations.

rs e
Pu
ou
t ti
Such self-reflection may be challenging for learners at first, g y

n
in in
but the rewards for persevering can be immense: equipped the ng
effo
rt B eli evi

“ Wbecause
ith dyslexia, English is especially hard
it’s not pronounced the way SUMMARY
Selecting the best options
you write it. When I was 13, my dad and
from the vast array of
I went to England for a summer course. materials available can
He loves English and wanted us to learn require some thought,
it together. Throughout school he would especially for teachers
read my graded readers out loud in the seeking to accommodate
a diverse group of
evening, and I would do the exercises
students. This section has
after each chapter. My English teacher offered a set of guidelines
in school was the best: She let me take to inform planning and
photos of the whiteboard so I could working in an inclusive
classroom. Following
focus on the class without taking notes.
these guidelines should
When I finished school I went back to help to ensure that
England on my own. By then I could all materials, whether
make friends with people from all over used as published or
the world in English, and I’m still friends slightly adapted, can
be used inclusively,
with them today.” without the need for
Oleg, English language student with dyslexia extensive rewriting
and modification,
elaborate technical
solutions, or a lot of
preparation time. Finally,
all learners will benefit
from opportunities to
explore different ways of
learning, allowing for the
development of greater
self-awareness and
learner autonomy.

05
ASSESSMENT AND TESTING
Assessment can have many different purposes, and there are
ways of maximizing accessibility for learners in both formal and
informal assessment situations. Assessment plays a crucial role
in teaching and learning, and it is important to remember that any
barriers that students encounter in learning may well be magnified
in an assessment situation.
THE PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT

Students’ proficiency levels are often measured through summative assessment,
also known as assessment of learning. This type of assessment is usually carried
out by national or international testing organizations or exam boards, using formal
methods, and is considered ‘high-stakes’ since important outcomes, such as school-
leaving qualifications, university entrance, and employment or training opportunities
may depend on the results. Such high-stakes exams can be extremely daunting for
neurodiverse learners and those with social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties
(SEBD), but it is possible to accommodate their needs, as we describe in this section.
It is just as important to assess learners’ progress throughout the learning journey,

highlighting their strengths and weaknesses, and using the information to adjust
teaching and learning strategies. This kind of assessment, which feeds back into the
teaching and learning programme, is sometimes referred to as formative assessment
or assessment for learning35 and can be done using formal or informal methods.
Examples of this kind of assessment are provided in this section.

Assessment and testing
SETTING TARGETS Peer assessment

Peer assessment is another type of informal assessment that
Learners with SEN benefit from manageable targets being set, can be used with an inclusive ethos. Learners may need some
particularly if they are not attaining the targets expected for explicit guidance in how to make the most of this activity, and
their age and level. Students can be involved in setting their how to offer their ideas constructively and supportively. They
own targets and measuring their progress. It can be helpful may, for example, be set a task in which they have to find two
to think of targets that are SMART: Specific, Measurable, things they like in their peer’s work, and identify (and explain)
Achievable, Realistic, and Timed. Some learners may also need one aspect for further attention. In peer assessment activities,
goals which help them to measure their social, emotional, students who may be encountering difficulties have peers who
and behavioural progress as well as their learning progress. can act as role models to support their learning. Students can
Teachers can use various means to help students record their find out what their peers do in various learning situations, and
progress. For example: this allows them to consciously reflect on their own learning
• visual progress charts: these allow students to record the strategies and become more self-aware. All learners can benefit
completion of a task or stage in a project from this aspect of peer assessment.
• jigsaws: as the students complete each stage of their work,
Format of progress tests
the teacher gives them a piece of the jigsaw, and explains
exactly what they have to do to collect the next piece Progress tests provided in coursebook packages can help
• class pictures: for example, using a picture of a tree with lots teachers monitor students’ progress. However, they may need
of leaves, the students colour in the leaves and write their to be adapted to make them more suitable for learners with
SEN. The tests first need to be evaluated, taking into account,
names on them as they achieve a target
for example, the type of task, length of texts, font size, page
• checklists: students track their own progress in, for example,
layout, and the clarity of instructions, and then adaptations
group participation and communication skills against a
made, where necessary, to meet the specific needs of students.
checklist of targets.
Assistive technology
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING Classroom technology can help learners with SEN with
Carefully planned assessment of students’ performance in assessment for learning. These tools can help to reduce barriers
specific classroom tasks induces lower levels of anxiety than to learning, enabling students to use alternative ways of
formal testing,36 and not only yields information about language showing their understanding and demonstrate more easily what
proficiency but also about the students’ effort and persistence. they know. For example, text-to-speech technology can make it
In this section we consider some ways of going about this kind easier for students with reading difficulties to complete reading
of informal assessment. comprehension tasks. Making a personal reflective video blog
(or ‘vlog’) can help students reflect on what they have learned
Multisensory assessment and how they learned it, and teachers can record targeted
feedback for them. A wide range of tools exists and more are
Just as learners with SEN benefit from multisensory learning
being developed all the time, so it is worth checking what is
opportunities, they will also benefit from a multisensory
available and evaluating its suitability for individual students.
approach to classroom-based assessment. For example, to
assess understanding of a reading text or grammar point,
Using formal tests in a formative way
teachers could ask students to show their understanding by
producing pictures, symbols, diagrams, or mind maps; or Many assessment of learning tasks can be adapted and used
they could ask students to demonstrate what they know by for assessment for learning purposes. For example, instead
making an audio or video recording. These outputs, instead of of giving a weekly, summative test with grades, teachers can
traditional text-based ones, would then be used as the basis for set a test without a grade and give feedback in the form of
assessment. comments instead. This allows students to focus on what
they have done well and what they can do to improve without
Self-assessment comparing their work with that of their peers.
Self-assessment is another useful tool which can be used for
Introducing new approaches gradually
informal classroom-based assessment. Assessing their own
work gives learners the opportunity to raise their awareness of It is worth pointing out that introducing a new approach to
the areas of language proficiency they need to develop, as well classroom-based assessment may take time. Students might
as other skills, such as organization and time management. It not immediately respond well to a new approach, particularly if
also encourages learner autonomy and boosts self-esteem, as they have no previous experience of it or are used to a focus on
students feel empowered to take control of their own learning.37 grades. It is important, therefore, to introduce new approaches
Another important benefit is that students compare their work gradually, explaining them clearly and providing support and
with their own previous performance rather than with the work of encouragement. Over time, students will understand the value
other students, so they are able to focus on their own progress of new approaches and learn to become more independent
over time. learners.

FORMAL ASSESSMENT AND SUGGESTED in the testing group, it may well be necessary to allow them
extra time to complete the tasks. The precise amount of extra
ACCOMMODATIONS time required (usually 25–50%) will vary according to:
When planning more formal assessments, whether assessment • the severity of their difficulties
for learning or assessment of learning, three important • whether they need short breaks during the test (to
questions need to be asked: compensate for concentration difficulties and fatigue)
• whether they use a scribe to write on their behalf
1 Are the assessment methods and tasks accessible to all
• whether they use an electronic device rather than writing by
students?
hand.
2 Can all aspects of proficiency be assessed?
3 Can neurodiverse students in the class meet the standards
set for the general population? It is also important to keep in mind that:
• students’ levels of tiredness and alertness vary across the

If in answering these questions there are doubts, ways in which daily school routine, so it may be better to take a test in the
the assessment can be changed need to be considered. For morning rather than late in the afternoon
example, language learners who experience issues around • some neurodiverse students will have a shorter attention
rapid auditory processing (perhaps as part of a dyslexic profile) span, so the number of questions or items in each task could
may be disadvantaged by listening comprehension tasks, be reduced, the input could be shortened, or reading and
especially if they are time-restricted. They may therefore listening texts could be broken up into shorter sections to
be given additional time to listen to the texts, and if that is accommodate this.
not sufficient, they could be excused from that part of the
assessment. Similarly, learners who experience difficulties with Environment
spelling accurately might be exempted from the evaluation of Many neurodiverse learners who experience attentional control
their spelling skills or be allowed to use a spellchecker. issues find that noise and other activity during tests distract
them. Some learners might be particularly sensitive to the
Teachers and test designers might also set different learning
type of lighting and the temperature in the room. Therefore,
targets for some students in second language reading and
if possible, the option to take the test separately in a quiet
writing, and put the emphasis on attaining proficiency in
room may be offered, where the physical environment can be
speaking and listening. For learners with high-functioning
adjusted to suit the learner.
autism, the assessment of interaction skills could be particularly
demanding and it might be necessary to structure very simple Format
interactions in a pair or a small group. In some cases it may
Clear and logical visual organization assists all learners, and
be appropriate to exclude some tasks from the test, although
this is particularly helpful for students for whom sequencing
any such decision needs careful consideration. Some learners
and tracking are challenging. These learners might otherwise
might be assessed on vocabulary and grammar knowledge
find it difficult to navigate through the tasks, or leave out tasks
and all the skills of speaking, writing, listening, and reading,
accidentally. Some learners experience visual stress or scotopic
but the expected level of attainment might be lower for them
sensitivity (visual distortions experienced when people look at
in comparison with their peers. Teachers should be aware
text, usually in black type on white paper, and the text appears
of national assessment regulations, which in some countries
to swirl, blur, or disappear, making reading impossible). For
provide specific instructions about what is or is not to be tested
these learners, the following adjustments to format should be
depending on the type of difficulties being experienced.
considered:
For students who routinely experience difficulties in learning,
there are some important factors to consider; for example, • printing the test on coloured paper or encouraging the use of
students should be told in advance about tests, and helped to coloured overlays
prepare for them, to avoid unnecessary anxiety. Some of the • using a large font size and a sans serif font
following aspects of assessment may be possible to modify, • allowing more generous spacing.
especially in assessments for learning. In formal assessments
of learning, it may be necessary to apply for exam access It is important that the instructions and guidance given to
arrangements, as discussed below. learners is clear and easily accessible. Short, simple instructions
presented in clear stages, perhaps with examples of completed
Timing and length items, benefit all test takers, not just neurodiverse learners.
In real life, most second language interactions are not Instructions might need to be read out to students with visual
carried out under time constraints; however, tests are usually processing issues, or written down for those with auditory
timed, creating an additional challenge for students who processing issues.
process information more slowly than is typical, as well as
increasing their anxiety. To give these learners a fair chance of
demonstrating their language abilities alongside other students

“ My son started a new school,
and this school uses assistive
technology. So they use an LMS
(learning management system),
and the teachers put all of the
assignments onto the LMS so that
my son can read them, and then he
uses a spellchecker when writing
his assignments, so this has been
really good for him. The second
thing that he sometimes uses is
voice recognition software, and
this allows him to get all of his
ideas out onto paper, so that he
can really show what he knows.”
Amanda, parent of a teenager with dyslexia

In terms of responding to the questions, neurodiverse students There might be some cases where non-verbal aspects could
may benefit from: be used as criteria for evaluation; for example, the use of body
language (in a culturally appropriate way) during role-plays.
• responding to questions orally, or using speech-to-text
Amendments to criteria should be recorded and reported
software or a scribe to record their answers
with the scores or results to students, parents, or educational
• shorter responses instead of longer answers, or even authorities who make use of the data.40
alternative responses (e.g. matching or underlining;
producing visual organizers or mind maps) instead of gap-fill All students—but particularly those who experience difficulties
or short-answer tasks in learning—need to be rewarded for their achievement when
• not having to listen and read, or listen and write, at the same it shows effort and progress, even if it might fall short of the
time (instead, it may be fairer to allow students to have required standards. Feedback should:
additional time to preview the questions, read the test items, • be positive and encouraging
and listen to the text more than once) • emphasize what they can do now rather than what they
• some support from the teacher, such as verbal cannot do yet
encouragement and positive reinforcement, and prompting • present gaps in learners’ knowledge as areas for further
to move on to the next question. development.
Content
Generally, for a language assessment to be valid, it is essential Learners with attentional and emotional difficulties need
that more than one task and more than one type of task immediate feedback if it is to seem relevant and be useful.
is used for evaluating students’ attainment.38 Ideally, tasks Students who are experiencing difficulties in learning often
should be designed in such a way that they give students have lower self-esteem than their peers, and it can be very
a feeling of success and attainment and minimize chances discouraging for them to see a piece of work returned full of
of failure. Whenever possible, assessment tasks should highlighted or corrected errors. Excessive error-correction is
be interesting, motivating, authentic, and relevant for the demotivating and might not even be effective for improving
students’ language use context outside the classroom.39 For learners’ accuracy in the short term.41 Instead, it is helpful to
students who find change and new situations stressful, it is praise successful uses of newly learned language, to boost the
helpful if the tasks within the test are similar to the type of self-esteem of these students.
task they have encountered within their language lessons; the
most appropriate tasks are those that are part of the general
repertoire of tasks used in the classroom, and are therefore PREPARING FOR FORMAL EXTERNAL EXAMS
familiar and do not produce high levels of stress and anxiety.
When preparing neurodiverse learners and those with SEBD for
These aspects of test design may be implemented by teachers
external exams (which are usually assessments of learning), the
setting internal assessments, but they are the responsibility
accommodations raised above may be harder for a classroom
of exam boards in external assessments. However, teachers
teacher to implement but still need to be kept in mind. If exam
have an important role to play in giving feedback to the exam
access arrangements are required, whether accommodations
boards, to help them develop more accessible and inclusive
or modifications to the paper, then a formal application will
assessments.
need to be made to the exam board well in advance of the
exam, supported by evidence of the difficulties the student
MARKING AND FEEDBACK experiences.42 Teachers themselves can do a lot to support

neurodiverse learners by:
Teachers need to decide whether they will use the same criteria
• making sure the demands of the exam are clear, and
for evaluating the work of neurodiverse learners as for their
encouraging them to prepare systematically (e.g. setting up a
peers. In many countries, neurodiverse learners are given
revision timetable, recapping on the main topics or language
individualized/personalized learning plans, which are used to
inform the evaluation criteria. If the assessment is for internal points that need to be secure)
use (for example, a class progress check to inform the teacher • suggesting relaxation techniques that students can use before
which language points have been securely learned and which and during an exam (regular breathing, mindfulness, etc.)
require more work), then modifications in scoring can be put in • ensuring that the students are familiar with the location of the
place. These should take into account the students’ individual exam, the route to the venue, and the procedures on the day
strengths and weaknesses and the nature of the difficulties that (e.g. what to bring and what to leave at home, where to sign in,
a student is experiencing. Some students might be exempted and how long they will be there).
from the evaluation of certain aspects of their performance, or
their work might be evaluated using different criteria.
Most external exams are marked by the exam board that
Language concerns communication, so the teacher should provided the paper, and any accommodations or modifications
include communicative aspects in their evaluation criteria. For need to be recorded and reported when the scripts are
example, an oral presentation could be evaluated on the basis submitted. In some cases, modifications to the format or the
of communicative strategies, not just grammar and vocabulary. marking of the paper appear on the certificate, and it may

be perceived that the students’ scores have a different meaning from the scores PREPARING FOR FORMAL
of other learners. To reduce the number of modifications that need to be made, EXTERNAL EXAMS
providers of formal assessments need to work towards producing more inclusive and
accessible assessments. Making use of technology to provide online papers that can
easily be modified is one way that this could be accomplished. This will require some
investment in the professional development of item writers and designers so that they
understand the challenges facing neurodiverse students. This is a longer-term project,
SYSTEMATIC
but one which teachers and educational managers could contribute to by making their PREPARATION
assessment providers aware of the issues raised here.
RELAXATION
TECHNIQUES
SUMMARY
PRACTICAL
This section has shown that assessment serves multiple DETAILS
purposes, not just measuring what students know or have
learned, but also informing teachers’ decision-making on
what areas of language need more teaching or revision.
Assessment should be planned alongside the teaching of a
course, and carried out in as inclusive a manner as possible.
When taking formal exams, whether internal or externally set,
neurodiverse learners and those with SEBD may need exam
access arrangements in place to enable them to demonstrate
their true level of knowledge and skills. Teachers may, to some
degree, be able to influence exam boards in their design of
assessments by raising their awareness of the issues faced by
learners. It is important to ensure that all language learners
experience feelings of success as a result of testing, so that
they do not lose their motivation, and their self-esteem and
self-worth does not decrease.
In the next section, the focus is extended to include
policymaking and pastoral care, and the interaction between
the many stakeholders in an education system will be
discussed.

06
COLLABORATION BETWEEN
STAKEHOLDERS
The establishment of an inclusive culture in the language
classroom is only one component in the development of a truly
inclusive education system. Keeping in mind that ‘working with
others’ is one of the core values of inclusive practice identified
by the European Agency (see page 10),43 all the stakeholders in
an education system have roles to play in developing equitable
and transparent procedures and providing accessible education
for all.
Apart from the teachers and the students, there are many other parties involved in
developing an inclusive education system. Parents need to be sure that their children
and young people will be supported and enabled to develop their talents. Head
teachers and directors of schools have a responsibility to ensure that national and
local regulations are adhered to, regarding academic standards, health and safety,
and pastoral care. Policymakers at regional or national level must be sure that their
vision for education meets the long-term needs of their communities with respect to
the knowledge, skills, and qualities that are likely to be required. Providers of formal
assessments and published materials also have a role to play in ensuring that the
materials they produce are as accessible as possible. Tensions may sometimes arise
between these parties when their aims or priorities are perceived to be contradictory,
but more can be achieved by all stakeholders working together, as this section
proposes.
THE ROLE OF TEACHERS

Teachers may well find themselves in the position of being responsible for mediating
communication between the different parties involved in the development of an
inclusive institution. Ultimately, they may also liaise with other parties in the wider
education system, as they will have contact in different ways with everyone involved.
They will need to make choices about the appropriate language to use when talking
with different people, in order to communicate clearly while maintaining their
professional authority and encouraging inclusive attitudes in others. For example, it
may be appropriate when talking to other education professionals to use diagnostic
terms such as ‘dyslexia’ or ‘social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties’ (SEBD).
On the other hand, it may be clearer and more acceptable to the students and their
families to use more functional descriptions of what has been observed or identified
(such as ‘Learner X seems to forget things quite quickly’ or ‘Learner Y, you often seem
to be feeling quite angry or upset when you come to class’).
In order for an inclusive approach to education to be sustainable in the longer term,

teachers will need the active support of the management team in their institution
as well as the involvement of the students themselves and, where appropriate, their
families.
Collaboration between stakeholders
SCHOOL–HOME LINKS RAISING AWARENESS AMONG STUDENTS

Cooperation between school/college and home allows for the AND TEACHERS
sharing of detailed information about students’ needs and their
Teachers can also contribute enormously to an inclusive
existing learning and coping strategies. There are a number of
environment by raising awareness of neurodiversity and SEBD
ways in which this can be initiated and maintained, and they
among their colleagues and students, both through formal
work particularly well if each student has a designated contact
in-house CPD events and informal interactions in the course
member of staff. This could be a class tutor or head of year, or
of the working week. When students understand the barriers
in some cases there is a member of staff who is responsible
to learning that their classmates are facing, they are much
for overseeing the interventions for students who require
better equipped (and usually more inclined) to work with them
additional support. Other members of staff should channel
supportively. Teachers can match up students with contrasting
enquiries through this person, to avoid the confusion of parents
skills so they can see how the other works and explore different
receiving several messages from different people at different
study strategies. In this way, everyone can feel that their
times.44
contributions are valued and appreciate the diversity in their
In some schools, a home visit by the named member of staff is groups.
arranged when a new student enrols, particularly if the student
Formal CPD sessions might include running experiential
may have additional needs, or is arriving midway through
activities with groups of colleagues45 or discussing local case
the term. It is quite common for schools to organize ‘parents’
studies. Less formally, teachers could initiate conversations in
evenings’, where teachers can have face-to-face meetings with
the staff room about differentiation and the use of multisensory
the parents. In some countries, the students also attend and
activities, even sharing some ideas for making the classroom
take part in the discussions. In the case of adult learners, a
more inclusive.
termly (or more frequent) tutorial fulfils this function.
Language teachers already have a range of interpersonal skills
However it is organized, keeping these two-way communication
and classroom management techniques at their disposal, which
channels open is an important way of demonstrating to students
they can build on to accommodate the needs of all learners.
that their teachers are not judging them negatively but working
These could usefully be shared with colleagues who want
with them to support their learning and include them in the class.
to develop their own inclusive practices. For example, it is
It is also an efficient method for sharing knowledge of the issues
common practice in many ELT classrooms to plan activities with
and challenges being faced by the learners. Teachers may have
different interaction patterns throughout a lesson (for example,
theoretical knowledge about potential areas of difficulty, but
individual work, pairwork, small groups, teams, whole-class
parents and the students themselves will be able to add to this
discussions). These changes in class dynamics can be utilized to
knowledge base by offering concrete observations of situations
make the lesson more accessible for students who have shorter
that present challenges. They may also be able to provide some
attention spans, or who find it challenging to work with large
background information and family history which might help to
groups of people. Once teachers have tried out a technique
explain some of the behaviours seen in the classroom. Working
that is new to them, they should be encouraged to reflect on its
with the student and parents in this way requires a shift in
effectiveness, and possibly revise or adapt it to suit the needs
perspective from ‘teacher as the expert’ to ‘teacher as a partner’.
of their class.
Teachers might also be able to suggest local support groups
for the parents of students to contact, as they too may be
experiencing some frustration, anxiety, or uncertainty about
how best to support their child or young person. Here, they
can find out about strategies that other learners with the same
difficulties use, or equipment and technology that would make
their lives easier. Equally, parents themselves may be able to
suggest people from these support groups who can talk to staff
at the school.
When seeking the support of parents, teachers need to

consider the best course of action. In the case of learners who
have reached the legal age of adulthood, local data protection
laws are likely to prevent the sharing of information with
parents. Some adolescent learners may be reluctant for their
parents to find out about their difficulties, perhaps through
fear that this knowledge might not result in support. Teachers
should approach this sensitively with the learner in question
and respect their wishes.

Collaboration between stakeholders
THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT

It takes time and commitment to develop an inclusive
Institutions support inclusion
classroom culture and for this to filter into the culture of the
wider institution. Teachers need to give feedback to their
through inclusive policies,
managers about the positive effects of inclusive practices that through their organization and
they have implemented. The management team will need to
work together, acknowledging teachers’ innovations and, where curricular choices, and through
appropriate, ensuring that these innovations become part of
the usual way of working in that institution. The implementation
valuing and training teachers.
of any new procedure should be monitored to determine its DARIO IANES
impact on both staff and students. A process of reflection and
review should lead to any necessary modifications being made,
so that it meets the needs of the organization and enhances its
overall inclusiveness. The potential benefits of inclusive practice
are significant to the institution, as they include increased
attainment levels, higher retention rates, and the resulting
enhancement of the institution’s reputation.
POLICYMAKERS SUMMARY
Once local managers are engaged in the process of developing
more inclusive classroom practices and organizational systems, This section has set out the role that all
they may also be persuaded to lend official support to teachers
who want to influence policymakers by passing on their the stakeholders in an education system
suggestions and ideas through official channels. They might must play if inclusive practice is to become
also support teachers and students who lobby policymakers
through petitions and campaigns to bring about changes the norm. It does not only depend on
that would benefit all learners. Grassroots activity may be the students requesting accommodations in
catalyst for improving opportunities for neurodiverse learners,
but it is likely to remain localized and temporary unless there is the classroom and in examinations, or on
leadership and support from higher levels of management and individual teachers acting as advocates
government.
for their learners. Nor can it be imposed
from above, if the systems do not support
PROVIDERS OF ASSESSMENTS AND TEACHING practitioners in adopting new practices.
MATERIALS Change must be supported from the
Exam boards—especially those who provide internationally
recognized qualifications—and educational publishers have top down, as well as demanded from
an enormous impact on the way that subjects are taught, the bottom up; this is essential for the
as discussed in Sections 4 and 5. As awareness of inclusive
teaching practice grows globally, exam boards and publishers sustainability of an inclusive education
may find that it makes good commercial sense to offer more system.
accessible materials and exams, so as to position themselves
as inclusive providers. It is in everybody’s interests to ensure
that learners are enabled to access the curriculum and to
demonstrate their true level of proficiency when assessed, so
that the results can be trusted by all the parties identified in
this section. Teachers, managers, and policymakers all have
an important role to play in encouraging exam boards and
publishers to enhance the inclusivity of their products, by being
discerning consumers who give their custom to more inclusive
companies, wherever possible.

CONCLUSIONS
Approaches to inclusive education have been Inclusive education means embracing the inherent diversity
of any group of learners, understanding and valuing the
evolving over the past three decades, and many contribution made by each one, and working towards making
countries are already working towards adopting the curriculum accessible to all. It is based on a principle of
equity, in which each learner is provided with what they need in
inclusive approaches in their education systems, order to achieve success. Importantly, research demonstrates
with the support of international organizations that inclusive practices have benefits for all learners. These
include social benefits, as learners’ appreciation of diversity
such as UNESCO and the OECD which have is raised and their empathy for others is deepened, as well
long promoted inclusive education. The English as pedagogical benefits, resulting from teachers’ work on
enhancing the accessibility of their lessons.
language teaching community has much to
Teachers have a central role to play in the development
contribute to this positive shift, and is compelled and implementation of inclusive practices, but they cannot
to do so for two key reasons. On the one achieve or sustain positive change without support from the
wider educational community. School management needs to
hand, it is recognized that language learning provide teachers with ongoing support through the provision
poses particular challenges for learners with of continuous professional development. Schools also need
to facilitate collaboration between all those involved in the
special educational needs (both ‘neurodiverse’ students’ education and well-being, including school staff,
learners and those with social, emotional, or the students’ families, and the students themselves. Beyond
the school, policymakers, educational publishers, assessment
behavioural difficulties). On the other hand, providers, and other stakeholders all need to commit to a
the interactive methodologies associated with shared vision of an inclusive educational system in which
diversity is celebrated and all learners have equal chances to
the English language classroom can provide learn successfully.
an ideal environment in which to address these We encourage all those involved in English language education
challenges. to use the guidance in this paper in considering their own
particular contexts. Developing inclusive practices results in
educational systems where all learners have the opportunity to
realize their full potential.

APPENDIX 1:
FREQUENT INDICATIONS OF SEN
AND SUGGESTED INTERVENTIONS
The table below is intended to provide some support for teachers who notice indications of
neurodiversity or social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties (SEBD) in their students. It is not a
diagnostic tool, and nor is it an exhaustive list of all possible actions or strategies. The interventions
provide a starting point that can be helpful in finding the best way forward with each individual
learner. They are for trying out, discussing with the learner, and reviewing and modifying to suit the
situation and the learner.
Indications noticed in class Suggested interventions

PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS – LISTENING AND SPEAKING
The student has difficulty discriminating Spend some time doing focused practice on the sounds, starting with recognition in
between and producing sounds (even isolation, recognition in context, and then giving explicit instruction in how to produce
when other students from the same the sounds in isolation and in context. Offer frequent positive feedback.
language background have no problem
with them).
WORKING MEMORY
The student finds it hard to remember Use multimodal approaches, such as singing an example sentence containing the
grammar rules; or if they seem to be target structure, to increase automaticity, or creating a mind map that is easy to refer
learned, they are not applied in context. back to.
Learning vocabulary takes a long time. Help students to develop their own memorization techniques, using pictures, rhymes,
or games.
READING
Reading is often inaccurate or Encourage discussion of the topic before reading; help students to make use of all the
comprehension is not complete. contextual information available. Highlight cultural elements of the text to make them
clear for all.
Reading a text takes longer than for Encourage the use of holistic reading techniques. Try a coloured background or
their peers. overlay. Explore the use of technology, e.g. a screen reader to support reading of long
passages. It may be helpful to focus on reading comprehension strategies. Try splitting
the text into smaller parts and engaging students in comprehension tasks right after
they have read each part.
WRITING
Spelling is often erratic and inconsistent. Teach common spelling patterns; draw attention to other patterns of morphology and
syntax; use mnemonics to remember the difficult parts of irregular words.
Writing is slow. Help students to develop planning strategies to capture their ideas first, and then
write/type them up later. This may be due to dyspraxia or dysgraphia, in which case
providing students with additional support, e.g. in the form of technology, may help.

Appendix 1
Writing is hard to read and/or the text Experiment with different writing implements to see what works best. Encourage the
layout is untidy. use of paper with guidelines and draw attention to elements such as margins, spacing,
etc. Explore the use of technology, e.g. word-processing instead of handwriting, or
even speech-to-text software.
SPEAKING
The student takes longer than his/ Allow additional time for students to answer questions. Repeat the same question
her peers to process oral input and again, more slowly. Reformulate the question using simpler language and reinforcing
formulate responses. the idea with visuals/gestures/mimes. Let each student know which questions they
will be asked to answer in advance and allow time for preparation. Teach the linguistic
(and paralinguistic) strategies needed to explain ideas even if the vocabulary is not
known.
Ideas in speech and writing appear Suggest different methods of planning, such as using post-it notes to capture ideas,
disorganized. or mind-mapping to generate and then organize ideas before writing. Recap and
reformulate the student’s response, praising the content and modelling a different way
of organizing the ideas.
LISTENING
The student is not able to follow This may be due to working memory issues, in which case it may help to provide
instructions easily. students with multimodal instructions (e.g. oral and written) and activities which have
been divided into small steps. Provide instructions in a visual format, for example in
bullet points or as a sequence of pictures showing the actions required. Ask learners
to underline the key words of the rubrics and then tell the teacher what they have to
do, so as to get immediate feedback on their comprehension.
ORGANIZATION
There are books and papers all over the Encourage a tidy desk policy in the class; help the student to develop better storage
student’s workplace, but he/she can’t systems for papers and stationery; introduce boxes or drawers with clear labels.
find anything.
The student is often late for class. Initiate a class discussion about the best route to take, and how long it takes to get to
different parts of the building. Set up a class survey of what people do in the morning
and how long it takes them to get ready to leave the house. Encourage students
to develop their own reminders, for example on their phones or using a coloured
timeline.
ORGANIZATION
The student does not complete tasks on Discuss with the student what the barriers are, and suggest setting pre-deadlines for
time or meet deadlines. different stages of the work, or allowing extra time for some tasks. Make use of study-
buddies to help with keeping on track for deadlines.
The student works quickly but not Encourage the student to take more time over the work, by suggesting that they
accurately. count to ten between each question, and that they go through it twice to make sure it
is right.
SPATIAL AWARENESS AND PHYSICAL COORDINATION

The student often bumps into things Keep aisles and floors clear. Encourage slow and careful actions in the classroom
or misjudges distance (e.g. goes to put through mindfulness activities. Build a culture of helpfulness and consideration
something on a table but misses). through the class contract.
The student finds it difficult to fasten Provide a lot of activities to develop manual dexterity, using blocks, beads, pinboards,
buttons, tie a tie/bow or shoelaces, or etc.
put other clothes on properly.
PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT
The student appears to find his/her Check if the temperature is comfortable for everyone; suggest some appropriate
clothes uncomfortable and tugs at them modifications to clothing (e.g. removing a tie, wearing a sweatshirt but not a shirt
or refuses to wear some items of clothing. underneath).

Appendix 1
The student appears restless or fidgety; Provide something that the student can play with that is silent, and non-breakable
leaves his/her chair frequently or rocks on (Blu Tack is good). Find reasons for the student to get up during the lesson (collecting
the chair. materials, cleaning the board, etc.). Arrange a signal for the student to give you if he/
she needs to get up and move around.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Loud noises seem to cause more anxiety Monitor the noise levels in the class. Allow the student to wear ear defenders/
than expected. headphones if necessary. Provide a quiet place for students to go if the noise levels
get too high. Arrange a discreet signal that the student can give to let you know that
things are getting difficult.
The student complains about the lighting Ensure that the lights are not flickering (i.e. that the bulbs are IEEE-compliant) or ask
in the room, or shields his/her eyes from the rest of the class if it is possible to manage just with daylight.
the lights.
SOCIAL INTERACTION
The student does not make eye contact Try to find out what makes the student more anxious and see if it is possible to
when talking or listening. alleviate that in the classroom. Talk to the student about the role of eye contact in
communication, and try to encourage him/her to include it as part of the language
they are learning (but without insisting on it).
The student does not observe usual Make it clear what the expectations are for your context regarding physical contact
conventions concerning physical and proximity. Try to elicit how it may be different in the student’s home context, if
proximity or contact. applicable. Initiate a class discussion, perhaps leading to poster-making, about what
norms the students in your class feel comfortable with. Create stories, scenarios, or
role plays to explore the effects of different interaction patterns.
The student does not wait to take turns in Create a list of ‘classroom rules’ with the class to display on the wall. In a one-to-
talking or playing games. one conversation with the student, explain why taking turns is appropriate in the
classroom. Set this as a personal target for the student and give a lot of praise when
you see him/her managing to wait, even for a little while longer than usual.
Some of the student’s contributions Collect some examples and have a quiet chat with the student later, asking them to
appear unconnected to the topic or help you see the connections they saw. Point out any linguistic or paralinguistic clues
show that he/she has not understood the in the prompts that they may have missed. Teach the linguistic (and paralinguistic)
intention of the previous speaker. strategies needed to ask for clarification.
CHANGE TO ROUTINE
Changes in routine upset the student. Make it clear ahead of time (if possible) when something will change in the routine;
talk to the student about how things will be different and ask him/her to imagine what
it might feel like.
Inconsistencies in the language make the Point out inconsistencies in the language and ask students to think where they might
student upset or anxious. have come from—sometimes knowing the reason behind an anomaly can be helpful.
Acknowledge the inconsistency and name the anxiety (e.g. ‘This pattern is a bit
irregular, which can be annoying/confusing at first.’).
SELF-ESTEEM
The student avoids tackling tasks that are Set some tasks that start with easy successes, to draw the student in. Encourage him/
likely to be challenging, by leaving the her to stick with it, even when it becomes harder, and give a lot of praise if he/she
class or disrupting the lesson. does.
The student is withdrawn and unwilling to Provide a quiet corner for students to go to if they are overwhelmed by the
engage in class. environment. If a student spends a lot of time there, talk to him/her about the reasons
why and suggest a meeting with a counsellor if necessary. Try to help the student to
focus on the task rather than the personal interactions in the class. For multicultural
classes, initiate tasks that allow students to share aspects of their home cultures (e.g.
producing a recipe book of favourite dishes), valuing the range of diverse experiences
in the group.

APPENDIX 2:
STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR
DEVELOPING COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS
Technical skills Strategic skills
bottom-up processes top-down processes
Break the listening task into smaller units Help students formulate hypotheses
about the text
Pre-teach keywords and expressions Move from global to detailed
comprehension
Avoid ‘listen and read’ (unnecessary here) Start with context, then language
Activate communicative and

linguistic resources for speaking Enhance pragmatic and
interactional skills to help
Move from controlled to free practice compensate for weaknesses
Pre-teach keywords
Use metacognitive perspective
Present text in both audio
in comprehension tasks
and visual format
Check text layout accessibility
Explicitly teach ‘before, while,
Introduce accommodations (e.g.
after’ reading comprehension
silent reading, differentiated texts)
strategies
Activate linguistic resources (words,

expressions) for the writing task Teach text planning
Introduce shared/pair writing
Move from short to longer texts
Introduce accommodations Use strategies for content
(e.g. spellchecker, online dictionary) and language review
VOCABULARY GRAMMAR
Presentation Presentation
few target words per lesson notice/analyse structures in context
avoid similar-sounding words multisensory techniques (e.g. colour-coding)
pronunciation–meaning mapping > introduce other
information about target word Practice
Practice accessible exercises
structured practice
accessible exercises
memorization strategies
From Daloiso, 2017, page 153

GLOSSARY
assessment for learning interventions
An evaluation of learning which informs the next phase of Strategies, techniques, or equipment, including assistive
teaching. technology, that make learning more accessible.
assessment of learning multimodal resources

An evaluation of learning which determines whether targets Resources that include multimodal components (e.g.
have been met or standards achieved. coursebooks that have videos/CDs/tactile elements integrated
into their programmes).
barrier to learning
Anything that prevents a learner from progressing, whether due multisensory activities
to environmental factors, personal attributes, or the interaction Learning activities that simultaneously activate several different
between the two. senses.
co-occurrence neurodiverse/neurodiversity
The presence of more than one identifiable specific learning Used increasingly in reference to learners with specific learning
difference within an individual’s cognitive profile. Dyslexia and difficulties, neurodiversity embraces the idea that all human
dyspraxia often co-occur, for example. brains function differently, and some more so than others.
cognitive function differences phonological awareness

Activity in the mind/differences in the way the mind works (e.g. The ability to recognize and discriminate between different
in terms of memory, speed of processing, etc.). aspects of phonology (e.g. phonemes, intonation patterns,
volume).
equity
The provision of resources, support, etc. according to individual segregation
need. This is in contrast to equality, where everybody gets the A system of education whereby some learners are removed
same. from the ‘mainstream’ environment and taught instead in a
‘special’ school, usually engaging with a limited curriculum.
formal assessment
Methods of assessing proficiency levels and progress that social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties (SEBD)
typically require candidates to respond individually under timed A term used in educational contexts to describe learners whose
conditions, without access to other resources. social, emotional, or behavioural responses adversely affect
their learning.
inclusion
A system of education whereby every learner can access and special educational needs (SEN)
engage with the curriculum alongside his/her age peers, The term commonly used in educational settings to identify a
regardless of ability. student’s needs.
informal assessment speed of processing

Methods of assessing proficiency levels and progress that may How quickly a person can process information that is
allow candidates to work with others, use reference materials, presented, either visually or orally.
and take the time they need to complete tasks.
working memory
integration The ability to hold some information in mind while adding to it
A system of education whereby all learners are taught in the or otherwise manipulating it, before using it to complete a task
same physical location (i.e. in the same building, or on the or action.
same site), but not all learners have the same opportunities to
engage with the curriculum.

FURTHER READING AND RESOURCES
Delaney, M. (2016). Special educational needs. Oxford: Oxford British Dyslexia Association: www.bdadyslexia.org.uk
University Press. Additional online resources:
www.oup.com/elt/teacher/itc Dyspraxia Foundation: https://dyspraxiafoundation.org.uk
Daloiso, M. (2017). Supporting learners with dyslexia in the ELT dysTEFL: www.dystefl.eu
classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Additional online
resources: www.oup.com/elt/teacher/supportingdyslexia European Dyslexia Association: www.eda-info.eu
Kormos, J., & Smith, A. M. (2012). Teaching languages to FutureLearn: www.futurelearn.com/courses/education-for-all

students with specific learning differences. Bristol: Multilingual
Matters. IATEFL Inclusive Practices and Special Educational Needs
Special Interest Group: https://ipsen.iatefl.org
Sánchez-López, C., & Young, T. (2018). Focus on special
educational needs. Oxford: Oxford University Press. International Dyslexia Association: https://dyslexiaida.org
Smith, A. M. (2017). Raising awareness of SpLDs. Morecambe: The National Attention Deficit Disorder Information and
ELT well. Support Service (ADDISS): www.addiss.co.uk/allabout.htm
The National Autism Association:

http://nationalautismassociation.org
The National Autistic Society: www.autism.org.uk
ww
|
LIGHTBOWN & SPADA

Oxford Handbooks OXFORD KEY CONCEPTS
FOR THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM
for Language Teachers
Supporting Learners
with Dyslexia in the Focus on Special
ELT Classroom Educational Needs
Cristina Sánchez-López
and Theresa Young
Michele Daloiso
ISBN: 978 0 19 420037 0 ISBN: 978 0 19 440332 0 ISBN: 978 0 19 400087 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The publisher would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce photographs: Picfair pp1, (happy Asian students/wolf, Vietnam),
11 (girl at aquarium/Nazario), 13 (happy Asian students/wolf, Vietnam); Shutterstock pp4 (pre-school class/anek.soowannaphoom), 5
(outside lights/Alex Levine Photography), 6 (teacher and school kids/Syda Productions), 8 (colour pencils/goir), 9 (hanging lights/Yinkor),
16 (girl painting/Gladskikh Tatiana), 19 (hot air balloon/topseller), 22 (African school kids/Travel Stock), 23 (books/Quang Ho), 24 (chalk
board/Parilov), 28 (classroom/maroke), 32 (concentrated student/Pressmaster), 35 (aeroplanes/aapsky), 38 (outside lights/Alex Levine
Photography).

ENDNOTES
INTRODUCTION 03 SUPPORT AND CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
1 Crystal (2012) FOR TEACHERS
28 European Agency for Development in Special Needs
2 Carpenter (2005)
Education (2012)
3 European Commission (2013); UNESCO (2006, 2017)
29 Altrichter, Feldman, Posch, & Somekh (2013)
4 Schneider & Crombie (2003); Kormos & Smith (2012),
Kormos (2017)
04 GUIDELINES FOR THE INCLUSIVE USE OF LEARNING MATERIALS
5 UNESCO (1994, 2017), OECD (2007); European 30 Daloiso (2017)
Commission (2013)
31 Johnson & Johnson (1999)
01 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION 32 Kormos (2017)

6 UNESCO (1994) 33 Daloiso (2017)
7 Kormos (2017) 34 Kormos & Smith (2012)
8 Warnock (1978)
9 Daloiso (2017)
05 ASSESSMENT AND TESTING
35 Shute & Kim (2014)
10 OECD (2007)
36 Hashemi (2011)
11 European Commission (2013)
37 Gholami (2016)
12 European Agency for Development in Special Needs
Education (2012) 38 Kormos & Smith (2012)
13 European Commission (2013) 39 Kung, Fitzgerald, & Amendum (2013)
14–15 UNESCO (2017) 40 Kormos & Smith (2012)
41 Pawlak (2014)
02 COMMONLY IDENTIFIED CAUSES OF DIFFICULTIES 42 Kormos (2017)
IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
16 Everatt, Reid, & Elbeheri (2013)
06 COLLABORATION BETWEEN STAKEHOLDERS
17 Reid, Elbeheri, & Everatt (2015) 43 European Agency for Development in Special Needs
18 American Psychiatric Association (2013) Education (2012)
19 Gibbs, Appleton, & Appleton (2007) 44 Delaney (2016)
20 American Psychiatric Association (2013) 45 Smith (2017)
21 National Autistic Society (2018)
22 American Psychiatric Association (2013)
24 Taylor & Sidhu (2012)
26–27 Delaney (2016)

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ELT EXPERT PANEL • Ministries of Education

Bringing together a wide range of insights from their

© Oxford University Press 2

© Oxford University Press 3

Learning an additional language can present significant challenges to learners

The implementation of inclusive practices requires support and leadership at an

This paper outlines the development of approaches to inclusive education and

© Oxford University Press 4

© Oxford University Press 5

working to achieve this by adopting inclusive

© Oxford University Press 6

The second section discusses the characteristics of some

The communicative and of the most commonly encountered types of neurodiversity

learning. provide support and to ask for a referral to a qualified assessor

© Oxford University Press 7

Approaches to inclusive education have evolved over time, as

Inclusive practices acknowledge

© Oxford University Press 8

In the discussion of difference and disability, three models

© Oxford University Press 9

As with all technical terms, educational professionals should

Terminology used in this paper Inclusion versus integration

© Oxford University Press 10

© Oxford University Press 11

THE BENEFITS OF INCLUSION A TWO-LEVEL APPROACH TO INCLUSION

© Oxford University Press 12

Inclusive practices aim to

© Oxford University Press 13

Students who are facing additional challenges because of the

• daydreaming or wasting time Dyslexia Dyspraxia

© Oxford University Press 14

• slower-than-typical processing of oral input and the • inaccurate spelling or grammar

© Oxford University Press 15

© Oxford University Press 16

ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY result in behaviours characterized by mood swings, aggression,

© Oxford University Press 17

POSITIVE ATTRIBUTES Approximately In Europe

Without wishing to generalize, there are some common

© Oxford University Press 18

Inclusive practices need to be planned on two levels

DEVELOPING AN INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENT

© Oxford University Press 19

Understanding the principles underpinning inclusive With colleagues

encouraging the learner to maintain concentration on a task

It is important to note that there is no single strategy or

© Oxford University Press 21

Specific training for teachers is necessary,

© Oxford University Press 23

Equipped with some simple guidelines, teachers can make informed

APPLY DIFFERENTIATION PRINCIPLES TO LEARNING MATERIALS

© Oxford University Press 24

a listening and reading activity, which requires learners to

In addition, there are ways that teachers can maximize the

© Oxford University Press 25

Students who find social interaction difficult can be encouraged

Managing the environment

© Oxford University Press 26

them, both in class and in independent study.

01 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION 32 Kormos (2017)

13 European Commission (2013) 39 Kung, Fitzgerald, & Amendum (2013)

14–15 UNESCO (2017) 40 Kormos & Smith (2012)

19 Gibbs, Appleton, & Appleton (2007) 44 Delaney (2016)

20 American Psychiatric Association (2013) 45 Smith (2017)

22 American Psychiatric Association (2013)

25 European Commission (2013)