An 

oil tanker, also known as a petroleum tanker, is a ship designed for the bulk transport of oil or
its products. There are two basic types of oil tankers: crude tankers and product tankers.[1] Crude
tankers move large quantities of unrefined crude oil from its point of extraction to refineries.[1] Product
tankers, generally much smaller, are designed to move refined products from refineries to points
near consuming markets.
Oil tankers are often classified by their size as well as their occupation. The size classes range from
inland or coastal tankers of a few thousand metric tons of deadweight (DWT) to the mammoth ultra
large crude carriers (ULCCs) of 550,000 DWT. Tankers move approximately 2.0 billion metric
tons (2.2 billion short tons) of oil every year.[2][3] Second only to pipelines in terms of efficiency,[3] the
average cost of transport of crude oil by tanker amounts to only US$5 to $8 per cubic metre ($0.02
to $0.03 per US gallon).[3]
Some specialized types of oil tankers have evolved. One of these is the naval replenishment oiler, a
tanker which can fuel a moving vessel. Combination ore-bulk-oil carriers and permanently
moored floating storage units are two other variations on the standard oil tanker design. Oil tankers
have been involved in a number of damaging and high-profile oil spills. As a result, they are subject
to stringent design and operational regulations.
The technology of oil transportation has evolved alongside the oil industry. Although human use of
oil reaches to prehistory, the first modern commercial exploitation dates back to James Young's
manufacture of paraffin in 1850.[5] In the early 1850s, oil began to be exported from Upper Burma,
then a British colony. The oil was moved in earthenware vessels to the river bank where it was then
poured into boat holds for transportation to Britain.[6]
In the 1860s, Pennsylvania oil fields became a major supplier of oil, and a center of innovation
after Edwin Drake had struck oil near Titusville, Pennsylvania.[7] Break-bulk boats and barges were
originally used to transport Pennsylvania oil in 40-US-gallon (150 l) wooden barrels.[7] But transport
by barrel had several problems. The first problem was weight: they weighed 29 kilograms (64 lb),
representing 20% of the total weight of a full barrel.[8] Other problems with barrels were their
expense, their tendency to leak, and the fact that they were generally used only once. The expense
was significant: for example, in the early years of the Russian oil industry, barrels accounted for half
the cost of petroleum production.[8]

Early designs[edit]
In 1863, two sail-driven tankers were built on England's River Tyne.[9] These were followed in 1873
by the first oil-tank steamer, Vaderland (Fatherland), which was built by Palmers Shipbuilding and
Iron Company for Belgian owners.[9][5] The vessel's use was curtailed by U.S. and Belgian authorities
citing safety concerns.[6] By 1871, the Pennsylvania oil fields were making limited use of oil tank
barges and cylindrical railroad tank-cars similar to those in use today.[7]

Modern oil tankers[edit]

The modern oil tanker was developed in the period from 1877 to 1885.[10] In 1876, Ludvig and Robert
Nobel, brothers of Alfred Nobel, founded Branobel (short for Brothers Nobel) in Baku, Azerbaijan. It
was, during the late 19th century, one of the largest oil companies in the world.

Zoroaster, the world's first tanker, delivered to the Nobel brothers in Baku (Azerbaijan).
Ludvig was a pioneer in the development of early oil tankers. He first experimented with carrying oil
in bulk on single-hulled barges.[8] Turning his attention to self-propelled tankships, he faced a number
of challenges. A primary concern was to keep the cargo and fumes well away from the engine room
to avoid fires.[11] Other challenges included allowing for the cargo to expand and contract due to
temperature changes, and providing a method to ventilate the tanks.[11]
The first successful oil tanker was Zoroaster, which carried its 246 metric tons (242 long tons) of
kerosene cargo in two iron tanks joined by pipes.[11] One tank was forward of the midships engine
room and the other was aft.[11] The ship also featured a set of 21 vertical watertight compartments for
extra buoyancy.[11] The ship had a length overall of 56 metres (184 ft), a beam of 8.2 metres (27 ft),
and a draft of 2.7 metres (9 ft).[11] Unlike later Nobel tankers, the Zoroaster design was built small
enough to sail from Sweden to the Caspian by way of the Baltic Sea, Lake Ladoga, Lake Onega,
the Rybinsk and Mariinsk Canals and the Volga River.[11]
In 1883, oil tanker design took a large step forward. Working for the Nobel company, British engineer
Colonel Henry F. Swan designed a set of three Nobel tankers.[12] Instead of one or two large holds,
Swan's design used several holds which spanned the width, or beam, of the ship.[12] These holds
were further subdivided into port and starboard sections by a longitudinal bulkhead.[12] Earlier designs
suffered from stability problems caused by the free surface effect, where oil sloshing from side to
side could cause a ship to capsize.[13] But this approach of dividing the ship's storage space into
smaller tanks virtually eliminated free-surface problems.[13] This approach, almost universal today,
was first used by Swan in the Nobel tankers Blesk, Lumen, and Lux.[12][14]

Glückauf grounded in heavy fog at Blue Point Beach on Fire Island.

Others point to Glückauf, another design of Colonel Swan, as being the first modern oil tanker. It
adopted the best practices from previous oil tanker designs to create the prototype for all
subsequent vessels of the type. It was the first dedicated steam-driven ocean-going tanker in the
world and was the first ship in which oil could be pumped directly into the vessel hull instead of being
loaded in barrels or drums.[15][16] It was also the first tanker with a horizontal bulkhead;[17][page  needed] its
features included cargo valves operable from the deck, cargo main piping, a vapor
line, cofferdams for added safety, and the ability to fill a ballast tank with seawater when empty of
cargo.[18] The ship was built in Britain.[19] and was purchased by Wilhelm Anton Riedemann, an agent
for the Standard Oil Company along with several of her sister ships.[18] After Glückauf was lost in
1893 after being grounded in fog, Standard Oil purchased the sister ships.[18]

Asian trade[edit]
A Royal Dutch Petroleum dock in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia)

The 1880s also saw the beginnings of the Asian oil trade.[18] The idea that led to moving Russian oil
to the Far East via the Suez Canal was the brainchild of two men: importer Marcus Samuel and
shipowner/broker Fred Lane.[18] Prior bids to move oil through the canal had been rejected by
the Suez Canal Company as being too risky.[18] Samuel approached the problem a different way:
asking the company for the specifications of a tanker it would allow through the canal.[18]
Armed with the canal company's specifications, Samuel ordered three tankers from William Gray &
Company in northern England.[18] Named Murex, Conch and Clam, each had a capacity of 5,010 long
tons of deadweight.[18] These three ships were the first tankers of the Tank Syndicate, forerunner of
today's Royal Dutch Shell company.[18]
With facilities prepared in Jakarta, Singapore, Bangkok, Saigon, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Kobe,
the fledgling Shell company was ready to become Standard Oil's first challenger in the Asian market.
[18]
 On August 24, 1892, Murex became the first tanker to pass through the Suez Canal.[18] By the time
Shell merged with Royal Dutch Petroleum in 1907, the company had 34 steam-driven oil tankers,
compared to Standard Oil's four case-oil steamers and 16 sailing tankers.[18]

The supertanker era[edit]

Until 1956, tankers were designed to be able to navigate the Suez Canal.[20] This size restriction
became much less of a priority after the closing of the canal during the Suez Crisis of 1956.[20] Forced
to move oil around the Cape of Good Hope, shipowners realized that bigger tankers were the key to
more efficient transport.[20][21] While a typical T2 tanker of the World War II era was 162 metres (532 ft)
long and had a capacity of 16,500 DWT, the ultra-large crude carriers (ULCC) built in the 1970s
were over 400 metres (1,300 ft) long and had a capacity of 500,000 DWT.[22] Several factors
encouraged this growth. Hostilities in the Middle East which interrupted traffic through the Suez
Canal contributed, as did nationalization of Middle East oil refineries.[21] Fierce competition among
shipowners also played a part.[21] But apart from these considerations is a simple economic
advantage: the larger an oil tanker is, the more cheaply it can move crude oil, and the better it can
help meet growing demands for oil.[21]
In 1955 the world's largest supertanker was 30,708 GRT[23] and 47,500 LT DWT:[24] SS Spyros
Niarchos launched that year by Vickers Armstrongs Shipbuilders Ltd in England for Greek shipping
magnate Stavros Niarchos.
In 1958 United States shipping magnate Daniel K. Ludwig broke the record of 100,000 long tons of
heavy displacement.[25] His Universe Apollo displaced 104,500 long tons, a 23% increase from the
previous record-holder, Universe Leader which also belonged to Ludwig.[25][26]
Knock Nevis, ex Seawise Giant rivaled some of the world's largest buildings in size

The world's largest supertanker was built in 1979 at the Oppama shipyard by Sumitomo Heavy
Industries, Ltd., named Seawise Giant. This ship was built with a capacity of 564,763 DWT, a length
overall of 458.45 metres (1,504.1 ft) and a draft of 24.611 metres (80.74 ft).[27] She had 46 tanks,
31,541 square metres (339,500 sq ft) of deck, and at her full load draft, could not navigate
the English Channel.[28]
Seawise Giant was renamed Happy Giant in 1989, Jahre Viking in 1991,[27] and Knock Nevis in 2004
(when she was converted into a permanently moored storage tanker).[28][29] In 2009 she was sold for
the last time, renamed Mont, and scrapped.[30]
As of 2011, the world's two largest working supertankers are the TI-class supertankers TI
Europe and TI Oceania.[31][32] These ships were built in 2002 and 2003 as Hellespont
Alhambra and Hellespont Tara for the Greek Hellespont Steamship Corporation.[33] Hellespont sold
these ships to Overseas Shipholding Group and Euronav in 2004.[34] Each of the sister ships has a
capacity of over 441,500 DWT, a length overall of 380.0 metres (1,246.7 ft) and a cargo capacity of
3,166,353 barrels (503,409,900 l).[35] They were the first ULCCs to be double-hulled.[33] To
differentiate them from smaller ULCCs, these ships are sometimes given the V-Plus size
designation.[35][36]
With the exception of the pipeline, the tanker is the most cost-effective way to move oil today.
[37]
 Worldwide, tankers carry some 2 billion barrels (3.2×1011 l) annually, and the cost of transportation
by tanker amounts to only US$0.02 per gallon at the pump.[37]

Size categories[edit]
Oil tanker size categories

AFRA Scale[38] Flexible market scale[38]

New Used
Class Size in DWT Class Size in DWT
price[39] price[40]

Product $43M $42.5M

General Purpose tanker 10,000–24,999 10,000–60,000
tanker

Medium Range tanker 25,000–44,999 Panamax 60,000–80,000

 LR1 (Long Range 1) 45,000–79,999 Aframax 80,000–120,000

$60.7M $58M
120,000–
LR2 (Long Range 2) 80,000–159,999 Suezmax
200,000

160,000– 200,000–
VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier) VLCC
319,999 320,000

$120M $116M

ULCC (Ultra Large Crude 320,000– 320,000–

ULCC
Carrier) 549,999 550,000

Hellespont Alhambra (now TI Asia), a ULCC TI-class supertanker, which are the largest ocean-going oil
tankers in the world

Tatiana B and Florence B two bunkering tankers

In 1954, Shell Oil developed the "average freight rate assessment" (AFRA) system which classifies
tankers of different sizes. To make it an independent instrument, Shell consulted the London Tanker
Brokers' Panel (LTBP). At first, they divided the groups as General Purpose for tankers under
25,000 tons deadweight (DWT); Medium Range for ships between 25,000 and
45,000 DWT and Long Range for the then-enormous ships that were larger than 45,000 DWT. The
ships became larger during the 1970s, which prompted rescaling.[38]
The system was developed for tax reasons as the tax authorities wanted evidence that the internal
billing records were correct. Before the New York Mercantile Exchange started trading crude
oil futures in 1983, it was difficult to determine the exact price of oil, which could change with every
contract. Shell and BP, the first companies to use the system, abandoned the AFRA system in 1983,
later followed by the US oil companies. However, the system is still used today. Besides that, there
is the flexible market scale, which takes typical routes and lots of 500,000 barrels (79,000 m3).[41]
Merchant oil tankers carry a wide range of hydrocarbon liquids ranging from crude oil to refined
petroleum products.[1] Their size is measured in deadweight metric tons (DWT). Crude carriers are
among the largest, ranging from 55,000 DWT Panamax-sized vessels to ultra-large crude carriers
(ULCCs) of over 440,000 DWT.[42]
Smaller tankers, ranging from well under 10,000 DWT to 80,000 DWT Panamax vessels, generally
carry refined petroleum products, and are known as product tankers.[42] The smallest tankers, with
capacities under 10,000 DWT generally work near-coastal and inland waterways.[42] Although they
were in the past, ships of the smaller Aframax and Suezmax classes are no longer regarded as
supertankers.[43]

VLCC and ULCC[edit]

Knock Nevis (1979–2010), a ULCC supertanker and the longest ship ever built.

"Supertankers" are the largest tankers, and the largest man-made mobile structures. They include
very large and ultra-large crude carriers (VLCCs and ULCCs – see above) with capacities over
250,000 DWT. These ships can transport 2,000,000 barrels (320,000 m3) of oil/318,000 metric tons.
[42]
 By way of comparison, the United Kingdom consumed about 1.6 million barrels (250,000 m3) of oil
per day in 2009.[44] ULCCs commissioned in the 1970s were the largest vessels ever built, but have
all now been scrapped. A few newer ULCCs remain in service, none of which are more than 400
meters long.[45]
Because of their size, supertankers often cannot enter port fully loaded.[21] These ships can take on
their cargo at offshore platforms and single-point moorings.[21] On the other end of the journey, they
often pump their cargo off to smaller tankers at designated lightering points off-coast.[21] Supertanker
routes are typically long, requiring them to stay at sea for extended periods, often around seventy
days at a time.[21]
AMYNTAS, a brand new ULCC inaugurated in February 2019 berthing at Donges / Saint-Nazaire (France).

Chartering[edit]
Main article: Chartering (shipping)
The act of hiring a ship to carry cargo is called chartering. Tankers are hired by four types of charter
agreements: the voyage charter, the time charter, the bareboat charter, and contract of
affreightment.[46] In a voyage charter the charterer rents the vessel from the loading port to the
discharge port.[46] In a time charter the vessel is hired for a set period of time, to perform voyages as
the charterer directs.[46] In a bareboat charter the charterer acts as the ship's operator and manager,
taking on responsibilities such as providing the crew and maintaining the vessel.[47] Finally, in a
contract of affreightment or COA, the charterer specifies a total volume of cargo to be carried in a
specific time period and in specific sizes, for example a COA could be specified as 1 million barrels
(160,000 m3) of JP-5 in a year's time in 25,000-barrel (4,000 m3) shipments.[48] A completed
chartering contract is known as a charter party.[48]
One of the key aspects of any charter party is the freight rate, or the price specified for carriage of
cargo.[49] The freight rate of a tanker charter party is specified in one of four ways: by a lump sum
rate, by rate per ton, by a time charter equivalent rate, or by Worldscale rate.[49] In a lump sum rate
arrangement, a fixed price is negotiated for the delivery of a specified cargo, and the ship's
owner/operator is responsible to pay for all port costs and other voyage expenses.[50] Rate per ton
arrangements are used mostly in chemical tanker chartering, and differ from lump sum rates in that
port costs and voyage expenses are generally paid by the charterer.[51] Time charter arrangements
specify a daily rate, and port costs and voyage expenses are also generally paid by the charterer.[51]
The Worldwide Tanker Normal Freight Scale, often referred to as Worldscale, is established and
governed jointly by the Worldscale Associations of London and New York.[49] Worldscale establishes
a baseline price for carrying a metric ton of product between any two ports in the world.[52] In
Worldscale negotiations, operators and charterers will determine a price based on a percentage of
the Worldscale rate.[52] The baseline rate is expressed as WS 100.[52] If a given charter party settled
on 85% of the Worldscale rate, it would be expressed as WS 85.[52] Similarly, a charter party set at
125% of the Worldscale rate would be expressed as WS 125.[52]