Predicate Calculus- Symbolic Analysis of predicates and quantified statements.
Statement Calculus- Symbol Analysis of ordinary compound statements.
3.1 Predicates and Quantified Statements
In logic, predicates can be obtained by removing some or all nouns from a statement.
Let P = is a student at Bedford College
Let Q= is a student at.
Both P and Q are predicate symbols symbolized as P(x) and Q(x,y) where x and y are predicate variables
taking the place of values in appropriate sets.
Predicate- a predicate symbol together with suitable predicate variables.
Predicate- A sentence containing a finite number of variables and becomes a statement when specified
values are substituted.
Domain- Set of all values that may be substituted in place of the variable.
When an element in the domain of a one variable predicate is substituted the resulting statement is
either true or false and the set of all such elements making the predicate true is the truth set of the
predicate.
Another way to obtain statements from predicates is to add Quantifiers.
Quantifiers- words referring to quantities such as some or all and tell how many elements of a given
predicate is true.
Universal Quantifier- an upside down A and reads as for every, for each, for any, given any or for all.
Let Q(x) be a predicate and D the domain of X. A universal statement in the form
-> For all x in D, Q(x)
Is defined to be true if and only if Q(x) is true for each individual x in D and false if and only if Q(X) is false
for at least one x in D. A value for x where Q(x) is false is a counterexample to the universal statement.
Method of exhaustion CS Equivalent of brute forcing where you test every single value.
The existential quantifier (a backwards E) denotes there exists. Other expressions include one, for some
and for at least one.
Formal vs Informal Language- It’s important to be able to translate from formal to informal when
making sense of new mathematical concepts.
Universal Conditional Statements- A reasonable argument in the most important form of statement in
mathematics.
Implicit Quantification- Consider the statement “If a number is an integer then it is a rational number”
It does not contain the word all, every, each or any. The clue to indicate universal quantification comes
from the indefinite article a. Mathematical writing contains many examples of implicitly quantified
statements
P(x) Q(x) means that every element in the truth set of P(x) is in the truth set of Q(x)
P(x) Q(x) means that they have identical truth sets.
3.2 Predicates and Quantified Statements
Negation of Quantified Statements- Consider the statement “All mathematicians wear glasses” with the
negation being “No mathematician wear glasses” but if even one mathematician does not wear glasses,
the sweeping statement that all mathematicians wear glasses is false. The correct statement would be
“There is at least one mathematician who does not wear glasses”.
The negotiation of a universal statement (all are) is logically equivalent to an existential statement
(some are not, or there is at least one that is not).
The logical equivalence for quantified statements are statements that always have identical truth
values no matter what predicates are substituted and no matter what sets are used for the domain.
The negation of an existential statement (some are) is logically equivalent to a universal statement
(none are or all are not)
Negations of Universal Conditional Statements- There exist x such that P(X) and ~Q(X).
The negation of a for all statement is a there exists statement.
The negation for a there exists statement is a for all statement.
Both are analogous to DeMorgan’s Law that states the negation of an and statement is an or statement
and vice versa. Universal statements are generalizations of and statements and existential are
generalizations of or statements.
Vacuous Truth of Universal Statements-
Is vacuously true or true by default only if P(x) is false for every x in D.
3.3 Statements with Multiple Quantifiers
“There is a person supervising every detail of the production process”
Note that this statement contains informal versions of both the existential quantifier there is and the
universal quantifier every.
When a statement contains more than 1 kind of quantifier imagine the actions suggested by the
quantifiers as being performed in the order in which the quantifier occurs.
Interpreting Statements with two different quantifiers
If you want to establish the truth of a statement, your challenge is to allow someone else to pick x in D
and find an element y that works.
3.4- Arguments with Quantified Statements
Universal Instantiation- If a property is true of everything in a set, it is true of any particular thing in the
set. The fundamental tool of deductive reasoning.
Universal Modus Ponens- The rule of universal instantiation can be combined with modus ponens to
obtain the valid form of argument called universal modus ponens.
Universal Modus Tollens- Another crucially important rule of inference is universal modus tollens and
its validity results from combining universal instantiation with modus tollens. UMT is the heart of proof
of contradiction.
Proving validity of Arguments with Quantified Statements- the statements are the same as for
arguments with compound statements.
To say an argument form is valid- No matter what particular predicates are substituted for predicate
symbols in the premise, the resulting premise statements are all true, then the conclusion is also true. It
is sound if and only if its form is valid and its premises are true.
