UNIT 1 : GRAMMAR BASICS

Approaches To Grammar.

There are two main approaches to teaching grammar.

These are the deductive and the inductive approach.

A deductive approach is when the rule is presented and the

language is produced based on the rule. (The teacher gives the
rule.)

An inductive approach is when the rule is inferred through

some form of guided discovery. (The teacher gives the students
a means to discover the rule for themselves.)

In other words, the former is more teacher centred and the

latter more learner centred. Both approaches have their
advantages and disadvantages. In my own experience, the
deductive approach is undoubtedly time saving and allows more
time for practising the language items thus making it an
effective approach with lower level students. The inductive
approach, on the other hand, is often more beneficial to
students who already have a base in the language as it
encourages them to work things out for themselves based on
their existing knowledge.

Definition of Grammar

Grammar refers to the way words are used ,

classified,and structured together to form coherem written or
spoken communication.

One of its traditional approach is breaking the topic

into three fundamental elements : Parts of Speech, Infection,
and Syntax. Each of these is a discrete ,individual part ,but
they are all intrinsically linked together in meaning.

Types of Grammar

The kinds of grammar or the types of grammar are:

 • Prescriptive

• Descriptive

• Transformational-Generative

• Prescriptive Grammar

It is normative. It tells us ( prescribes) what we should say,

should write, and what we should not say or do or write. It gives
us a set of norms to follow, and tells us which ``errors" to avoid.
It tells us that somethings are ``bad" and some things are
``good". Prescriptive grammar fails to distinguish between style
and grammar, often confusing the two. It condemns all styles or
dialects of a language except the standard or classical or
``King's English" style and often characterizes non-standard
language as corrupt or vulgar or even morally deficient.
Examples from 8th-grade English grammar:

• Do not split infinitives.

• Do not dangle participles

• Do not end a sentence with a preposition.

• Linguistics is not prescriptive grammar.

• Descriptive Grammar.

Descriptive Grammar has as its goal to describe as

adequately and systematically as possible what speakers of a
language actually do and say, not what someone thinks they
should do or say.

• Transformational-Generative

Primacy Of Spoken Language.

Linguists hold that while many languages of the world are

both written and spoken, more languages of the world are only
spoken, and many languages of the world are spoken by more
people than are written, therefore what is primary about
language it that it is spoken. Written language is derived from
spoken language, not vice versa. Therefore if we see a conflict
between what is written and what is spoken, we will describe
the language as actually being what is spoken. In fact most
discrepancies between one norm or another in prescriptive
grammar are conflicts over whether to follow spoken usage or
written usage. Written usage is usually the norm of a previous
stage of the language.

Study of Human Language

We are concerned with the study of human language, and

its interrelationship with human culture. There are many
misconceptions about language, some of which you may even
learn in your study of English, or other languages, so here is
where we will try to dispel them. (Every literate culture has
prejudices about language and literature and especially other
languages/cultures, so these are often subtly learned and
passed on to foreigners).

Pedagogical Grammar

Is a set of rules that describe the structure of a

language and control the way that sentence are formed.

It is a modern approach in linguistics intended to aid

in teaching an additional language.

This is a description of how to use the grammar of a

language to communicate, for people wanting to learn the
target language. It can be compared with a reference grammar,
which just describes the grammar of the language. It contains
the assumptions about how learners learn, following certain
linguistic theories in their descriptions, and are written for a
specific target audience. For example:

How English Works and Grammar in Use are pedagogic

grammar books, as they help learners use the grammar of
English for communication.
 In the classroom

Learners can be asked to compare different explanations

of a language point from different grammars. This allows
learners to think about grammar and its role in communication.

Structure

The method of teaching is devided into : the

descriptive grammatical analysis, and the prescriptive , which
are the articulation of a set of rules .Following an analysis of
the context in which it is to be used,one grammatical form
or arrangement of words will be determined to be the most
appropiate.

For sum up , Pedagogical Grammars are :typically require

rules that are definite coherention technical, cumulatice and
heuristic. As the rules themselves accumulate its oxiomatic
system which is form between the two languages that should
them eneable a native speaker of the fast to learn the
second.

So , Pedagogical Grammar is a description of a

language aimed to improve the control of the adquisition in
the process, in which it incorporates all grammar actions to
be adquired ( with the description of constituent operations)
as well as the pedagogic information concerning these
actions.

Scientific Grammar

A scientific grammar is the code or rules of a language.

The three principles of scientific grammar for distribution

of words into classes are: 1) grammatical meaning; 2) form; 3)
function.

Standard And Non Standard English

 A standard language is a variety of language that is used
by governments, in the media, in schools and for international
communication. There are different standard varieties of English
in the world, such as North American English, Australian English
and Indian English. Although these standard varieties differ in
terms of their pronunciation, there are few differences in
grammar between them. In contrast, there are non-standard
forms of a language that are used, for example, in different
regional dialects and these non-standard varieties are different
from each other.

Formal And Informal Style

There are two basic types of English input: formal and

informal.

Formal English is used in “serious” texts and situations —

for example, in official documents, books, news reports,
articles, business letters or official speeches. Informal English
is used in everyday conversations and in personal letters.

Here is an example of formal English that you might come

across in a book:

As the price of five dollars was reasonable, I decided to

make the purchase without further thought.

The same thought would be expressed quite differently in

informal English. Here’s an actual example that I heard from a
young American:

It was, like, five bucks, so I was like “okay”.

You need to know formal English because you want to be

able to read a book, give a business presentation or write an
official letter. You also need informal English because you want
to be able to understand and communicate with English
speakers in everyday situations.
 Differences between formal and informal English

Formal English Informal English

 Used in official, literary,  Used in everyday, personal

academic, etc. content. conversations.

 Typically used in careful, edited  Typically used in “improvised”

writing — when the writer has a speech — when the speaker is
lot of time to polish his text. speaking without preparation, as
Formal English also occurs in in a conversation (in real life or
speech, usually when the speaker over the phone). Informal English
is saying something that was also occurs in writing, usually
prepared beforehand (for whenever the writer is writing
example, reading the news or quickly and without editing (for
delivering an official speech). example, in an Internet chatroom
or in quick, personal e-mails).

 Sentences are longer and more  Sentences are simpler and

complicated, for example: shorter, for example: Did you see
Toyota’s US sales bounced back Toyota’s sales figures? Looks like
in March as substantial discounts the discounts have actually
helped to win back customers worked.
who had been shaken by the
firm’s mass safety recalls.

 The standard of correctness is o

higher. Some things are
considered correct (or at least
acceptable) in informal English,
but wrong in formal English. For
example:

o I’ve made less mistakes.

(formal: I’ve made fewer
mistakes.)
o She’s liking it. (formal:
She likes it.)
o I feel real tired. (formal: I
feel really tired.)
o You did good. (formal:
You did well.)

Formal English Informal English

  Because informal English is
“improvised”, it is sloppy.
Speakers (and sometimes
writers) often do the following:
o Use “delaying
expressions” to give
themselves time: Well, I
think they should have
asked us first, you know?
o Use “correcting
expressions” to correct
themselves: He’s not well.
I mean, he’s not sick, but
he’s very tired.
o Use “qualifying
expressions” to show that
what they said is not
exactly right: This whole
blogging thing is getting
kind of old.

o  Informal English contains useful

“everyday phrases”, for example:
o Here you are. There you
go. (when giving
something to someone)
o Excuse me?, Come again?
(to ask someone to repeat
something)
o What do you mean? (to
ask for explanation)
o So, you’re saying that...?
(to ask for confirmation)
o Exactly!, I couldn’t agree
with you more. (to agree
with someone)
o By the way..., Anyway...
(to change the topic)
o See you. Take care. (to say
goodbye)

 A huge number of words and  A huge number of words and

phrases are used mainly in phrases are used mainly in
formal English. For example: informal English. For example:
 nevertheless, to disclose, to dude, freaking, uh-huh, nope (=
constitute, to undertake, no), to puke, trashy, grownup,
daunting, impervious, anew, awesome, to chill out, stuff,
truly, solace, to enchant, hard-up, to tick somebody off, to
frantically, sizeable, to clutch, sell like crazy.
heyday, as it happens, upsurge,
retrieval

 Many (but not all) phrasal verbs  Phrasal verbs are used
are avoided. frequently. For example, in
informal situations, people
usually say found out instead of
discovered, came across instead
of encountered and got away
instead of escaped.

 Words and phrases are

sometimes pronounced in a
shortened and simplified way,
e.g. Lemme go!, I’m doin’ fine,
Whassup?, Whatcha gonna do?

Types Of Sentences

Major Sentence

A major sentence (also called a regular sentence) is any complete sentence that
is made up of or contains an independent clause—that is, it has both a subject and a
predicate (a verb and any of its constituent parts).
Minor Sentence

A minor sentence (also called an irregular sentence), on the other hand, is any
sentence that does not have at least one independent clause—that is, it does not
have both a subject and a complete predicate—and yet is used in writing or speech
as a complete sentence that stands on its own.

Minor Sentences
Minor sentences can be made up of single words, sentence fragments, interjections, or
set expressions (such as idioms and proverbs.
 Sentence Types: Simple, Compound, Complex, and
Compound-Complex

Simple Sentences : A simple sentence contains a subject

and a verb.

- It expresses a single complete thought that can stand

on its own.

Examples:

1. The baby cried for food.

^There is a subject and a verb that expresses a complete

thought.

2. Professor Maple’s intelligent students completed and

turned in their homework.

^ A simple sentence does not necessarily have to be

short. It can have adjectives. In this case, there are two verbs
“completed” and “turned in.”

However, the sentence expresses one complete thought

and therefore is a simple sentence.

3. Megan and Ron ate too much and felt sick.

^Although there are two subjects and two verbs, it is

still a simple sentence because both verbs share the same
subjects and express one complete thought.

Compound Sentences - A compound sentence has two

independent clauses. An independent clause is a part of a
sentence that can stand alone because it contains a subject
and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
 - Basically, a compound contains two simple sentences. -
These independent clauses are joined by a conjunction (for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, so).

Examples:

1. The shoplifter had stolen clothes, so he ran once he saw

the police. ^Both sides of the conjunction “so” are complete
sentences.

“The shoplifter had stolen clothes” can stand alone and so

can “he ran once he saw the police.” Therefore, this is a
compound sentence.

2. They spoke to him in Spanish, but he responded in

English. ^This is also a compound sentence that uses a
conjunction to separate two individual clauses.

Complex Sentences - A complex sentence is an

independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A
dependent clause either lacks a subject or a verb or has both a
subject and a verb that does not express a complete thought.

- A complex sentence always has a subordinator (as,

because, since, after, although, when) or relative pronouns
(who, that, which).

Examples:

1. After eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory, Tim went

to the gym to exercise. ^ The independent clause is ‘Tim went
to the gym to exercise.” The subordinating clause before it is
dependent on the main, independent clause. If one were to say
“after eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory,” it would be an
incomplete thought.

2. Opinionated women are given disadvantages in

societies that privililege male accomplishments.
 ^ The subject is “opinionated women” and the verb is “are
given.” The first part of the sentence “opinionated women are
given disadvantages in societies” is an independent clause that
expresses a complete thought. The following “that privilege
male accomplishments” is a relative clause that describes
which types of societies.

3. The woman who taught Art History 210 was fired for
stealing school supplies. ^ The dependent clause in this
sentence is “who taught Art History 210” because if removed,
the rest of the sentence would stand as an independent clause.
“Who taught Art History 210” is an adjective clause that
provides necessary details about the subject, woman.

Compound-Complex Sentences - A compound-complex

sentence has two independent clauses and at least one
dependent clause.

Examples:

1. After the two soccer players lost their game, they

joined their other teammates for lunch, and they went to the
movies. ^ If we remove the dependent clause “after the two
soccer players lost their game,” we have a compound sentence.
The dependent clause makes this sentence compound-complex.

2. The man believed in the system, and he knew that

justice would prevail after the murderer was sent to jail.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words used as joiners.

Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of

grammatical structures.

The following are the kinds of conjunctions.

A. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS)

 for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another:

words to words, phrases to phrases,

clauses to clauses.

Coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections than other

conjunctions do.

Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning or end.

Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:

When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or subordinate

clauses, no comma should be placed before the conjunction.
 A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or
subordinate clauses creates a series and requires commas between the elements.

A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a

compound sentence and requires a comma before the coordinating conjunction.

B. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

either. . .or both. . . and

neither. . . nor not only. . .  but also

             

These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each

one.
 C. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

These conjunctions join independent clauses together.

The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs

after all in addition next

also incidentally nonetheless
as a result indeed on the contrary
besides in fact on the other hand
consequently in other words otherwise
finally instead still
for example likewise then
furthermore meanwhile therefore
hence moreover thus
however nevertheless

Punctuation: Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after
the conjunctive adverb.

D. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions

after in order (that) unless

although insofar as until
as in that when
as far as lest whenever
as soon as no matter how where
as if now that wherever
as though once whether
because provided (that) while
before since why
even if so that
even though supposing (that)
how than
if that
inasmuch as though
in case (that) till
 Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so, they
make one clause dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other.

A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or between

two clauses in a sentence

A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between

clauses than a coordinating conjunctions does.

Loose: It is raining, so we have an umbrella.

Tight: Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.

Punctuation Note:

When the dependent clause is placed first in a sentence, use a comma between
the two clauses.  When the independent clause is placed first and the dependent clause
second, do not separate the two clauses with a comma.