ENFORCED MILITARY SERVICE

WHY DID The British navy ruled the high seas. In times of war, however, sailors were often

THE UNITED STATES in short supply. During the French Revolution (1789–1799) and the Napoleonic
Wars, the British Royal Navy authorized the search of port cities in Europe and

DECLARE WAR?
in the colonies to round up men to serve in the navy. The men would have no
impressment  the act of choice but to join the navy. This practice was called impressment. The units
forcing individuals to serve that enforced this military service were called press gangs.
in the military with or
without notice As well, British navy captains chased down American merchant vessels
in search of British citizens who were trying to escape impressment by
working for the United States. Since citizenship was often difficult to prove,
American citizens were sometimes forced into service in the British navy.
Wars are destructive and tragic. They are also messy and complicated, as Estimates suggest that 10 000 American sailors were forced to serve on
are the reasons causing them. The War of 1812 is no exception. A number British ships between 1793 and 1812.
of factors caused the United States to declare war, once again, on Britain. The United States viewed impressment as an offence to national pride and
Despite gaining their independence from Britain in 1783, many Americans deserter  a soldier who the personal freedom of Americans. This was apparent in an 1807 incident
felt that the British did not respect this independence. They believed that abandons military service that occurred off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia. In June 1807, HMS Leopard,
without permission
the British were still trying to interfere in American politics and government a British warship, fired on USS Chesapeake, an American ship, for failing to
decision making. stop so that the British could search for deserters. Deserters are soldiers
FIGURE 6.2 This 1884 engraving who leave military service without permission. Although the numbers vary,
THE NAPOLEONIC WARS by American illustrator Howard
Pyle shows a British press gang some sources indicate three men on the Chesapeake were killed and another
By 1812, Britain was already heavily engaged in a war with France. from HMS Leopard investigating 18 were wounded. Others were taken prisoner by the British and put on
USS Chesapeake on June 22, 1807. trial, including three Americans. The Americans were enraged. Examine an
Napoleon Bonaparte, an ambitious military leader, had become the ruler of Analyze: What does the body
France. The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) pitted the French Empire against language of the inspectors and of illustration of the incident, shown in Figure 6.2. Why was impressment a
other European powers, including Britain and Spain. Napoleon was in a the man being inspected tell you source of tension between the United States and Britain?
about the practice of impressment?
position to overtake Britain.
With Britain focused on fighting France in
Europe, the Americans saw an opportunity
to gain control of North America. Neither
the Americans nor the British thought
that Upper and Lower Canada would be
significant in this conflict. However, both
powers soon discovered the importance of
these colonies in determining the outcome
of the war.
Examine the painting in Figure 6.1.
What does the painting reveal about
how Americans viewed their relationship
with Britain?

FIGURE 6.1 American artist

John Archibald Woodside created
this painting, entitled We Owe
Allegiance to No Crown, in 1814.
“Crown” is a reference to the British
monarchy. Analyze: How does
the artist indicate that the United
States is independent from Britain?

166 UNIT 2: Conflicts and Challenges in Canada: 1800–1850 NEL NEL CHAPTER 6: The War of 1812 167
 RESTRICTIONS ON TRADE TECUMSEH AND TENSKWATAWA
Britain’s conflict with France also affected the ability of the United States Tecumseh was a Shawnee chief and military leader. He opposed the expansion
to trade with other countries. As Britain gained the upper hand on the of American territories into the Ohio River Valley. His brother, Tenskwatawa,
What long-term impact seas, Napoleon tried to destroy his enemy economically. In 1806, Napoleon was a spiritual leader of the Shawnee. The brothers had similar goals for
do you think Britain’s ordered European nations under French control to stop trading with Britain. First Nations in America. Tenskwatawa wanted to unify First Nations peoples
conflicts with France Britain responded by using its naval power to block cargo ships that were as one community. Tecumseh proposed an Indian Confederacy in which all
and the United States
entering or leaving those European ports. In 1807, Britain issued laws, called First Nations would unite and live on protected lands. His goal was to reclaim
had on Canada?
Orders in Council, that called for neutral nations (those not taking sides territory for the confederacy that had been lost to American settlers. Look
in the war, such as the United States) to stop trading with France and its at Figure 6.4, which shows a confrontation in 1810 between Tecumseh and
allies. Read the excerpt in Figure 6.3 by Thomas Jefferson, the American William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory. Tecumseh was
president from 1801 to 1809. How do you think the United States reacted to protesting Harrison’s role in acquiring First Nations lands, which paved the way
the restrictions? for expanding American settlements. What details has the artist used to suggest
FIGURE 6.4 This undated
a peaceful resolution to the issue was not possible? engraving, called Genl.
Tecumseh’s confederacy was dealt a significant blow on November 7, Harrison & Tecumseh, was
FIGURE 6.3 This excerpt is from a
letter written by former American “[Britain] forbade us to trade with any nation without entering
1811. Tenskwatawa and his warriors launched an attack against Harrison’s created by American illustrator
John Reuben Chapin. The
president Jefferson to Consul and paying duties in their ports on both the outward and inward cargo. forces, despite warnings from Tecumseh to wait until the confederacy was colour was added at a later
James Maury on June 16, 1815. As united and strong. The Americans defeated Tenskwatawa at the Battle of
Thus, to carry a cargo of cotton from Savannah to St. Mary’s, and take date. It depicts a clash between
an American consul in Great Britain,
Maury represented the interests returns in fruits, for example, our vessel was to go to England, enter and Tippecanoe. Tecumseh went on to lead First Nations warriors against the Shawnee Chief Tecumseh and
Governor Harrison at Harrison’s
of the United States in England. pay a duty on her cottons there, return to St. Mary’s, then go back to Americans during the War of 1812. Tecumseh’s confederacy allied with the Indiana home in 1810. Analyze: With
Analyze: What British practices British in part to defend the First Nations way of life and lands from the
England to enter and pay a duty on her fruits, and then return to Savannah, whose perspective—Tecumseh’s or
described in this excerpt do you
think the Americans would view as after crossing the Atlantic four times, and paying tributes [payments] on ongoing expansion of the United States. Harrison’s—do you think the artist is
more sympathetic? Why?
grounds for war? both cargoes to England, instead of the direct passage of a few hours. And
taking ships not doing this, the [British say], is no aggression.”

— Thomas Jefferson, former American president

Britain did not consider taking American ships that challenged its Orders
in Council to be an act of aggression. The United States held a different view.
In response, the United States passed its own laws to restrict trade involving
Britain and France. The Embargo Act, 1807 was intended to slow or stop
the movement of American goods that supplied the British and French war
efforts. The Embargo Act, 1807 backfired, however. Rather than achieving
its goal of getting Britain to back off, the legislation further harmed the
American economy and its citizens. American farmers and merchants were
not able to sell or trade their goods abroad.

CHALLENGE TO EXPANSION
Another source of tension was the British support for the creation of
neutral First Nations territories. The Americans believed that they needed
to protect American settlements on the southern and western frontiers,
in places such as Ohio and Kentucky, from the Shawnee and other
First Nations. The Shawnee and their allies were equally determined
to stop the American expansion and drive out the settlers from
First Nations lands. Some Americans believed that the British in Upper
and Lower Canada were providing weapons to First Nations resisting
American settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains.

168 UNIT 2: Conflicts and Challenges in Canada: 1800–1850 NEL NEL CHAPTER 6: The War of 1812 169
 AMERICAN EXPECTATIONS
South Carolina congressman John C. Calhoun was another well-known
War Hawk, like Clay. Based on his statement in Figure 6.7, what challenges
does he anticipate from an invasion of Upper and Lower Canada?

FIGURE 6.7 Calhoun delivered

“I believe that in four weeks from the time a declaration of this statement in March 1812, three
war is heard on our frontier, the whole of Upper Canada and a part of months before the United States
declared war. Analyze: How are
Lower Canada will be in our power.” the statements in Figures 6.6 and
6.7 similar?
— Congressman John C. Calhoun

On June 18, 1812, the United States officially declared war on

FIGURE 6.5 This 1872 painting by Britain. In his proclamation released the next day, shown in Figure 6.8,
John Gast is entitled American President Madison mentions love of country as a motivating force.
Progress and represents American
ideas of expansion into the West.
Analyze: What symbols in this
painting represent American ways
And I do moreover exhort [urge] all the good people
of life?
of the United States, as they love their country … that
they exert themselves in preserving order, in promoting
THE CALL FOR WAR concord [harmony], in maintaining the authority and the
Expanding American settlement farther and farther west was a priority efficacy of the laws, and in supporting and invigorating all
the measures which may be adopted by the Constituted
for many American politicians throughout the 1800s. Many Americans How might
Authorities, for obtaining a speedy, just, and an
viewed the takeover of North America as not only their duty, but also their America’s idea of
honourable peace.
right. They believed it was their mission to spread American culture and westward expansion
“civilization” throughout as much of the continent as possible. For some, affect future relations
with Canada? FIGURE 6.8 President Madison issued this
this mission had a religious connection. Examine Figure 6.5. The angelic
proclamation of war against Britain on June 19, 1812.
figure represents the spirit of America, leading settlers westward and driving Analyze: What do you think the terms of a “just, and an
First Nations peoples off their land. honourable peace” would be for the American people?

WAR HAWKS
Several American politicians under President James Madison, Thomas During his presidency, Jefferson had tried to avoid another war with
Jefferson’s successor, supported a war with Britain. They were concerned Britain. On August 4, 1812, however, Jefferson wrote a letter to journalist
about Britain’s interference in American shipping and and military officer Colonel William Duane. Figure 6.9 is an excerpt from
exports. They were also concerned about Britain’s challenge Jefferson’s letter. How does he suggest that America could, once and for all,
to westward expansion. “The conquest of Canada is in secure its independence?
Nicknamed War Hawks because of their demand for your power.… Is it nothing to the British
armed conflict, these politicians pressured President nation—is it nothing to the pride of her FIGURE 6.9 This excerpt is from a
Madison to take action. One particularly vocal War Hawk monarch to have the last of the immense “I see, as you do, the difficulties & defects we have to letter written by Jefferson to Duane
was Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky. Read the excerpt from North American possessions wrested encounter in war, and should expect disasters … but the weakness of on August 4, 1812. Analyze: What
threat did Jefferson think Upper
one of his speeches in Figure 6.6. What reasons does Clay [taken] from his dominion [control]? Is it our enemy there will make our first errors innocent.… The acquisition and Lower Canada would pose to
give for supporting a war with Britain? nothing to us to extinguish the torch that [capture] of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Québec, will the United States?
lights up savage warfare? Is it nothing to be a mere matter of marching, and will give us experience for the attack
acquire the entire fur trade connected of Halifax the next, and the final expulsion of England from the
FIGURE 6.6 This excerpt is from a speech delivered to with that country?” American continent.”
Congress by Clay on February 22, 1810. Analyze: What
does Clay mean by “extinguish the torch that lights up — Senator Henry Clay — Thomas Jefferson, former American president
savage warfare”?

170 UNIT 2: Conflicts and Challenges in Canada: 1800–1850 NEL NEL CHAPTER 6: The War of 1812 171
REACTIONS IN UPPER AND
LOWER CANADA HISTORY AT WORK UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGIST
People in Upper and Lower Canada could sense that dangerous times
were ahead. The Americans had fought for their independence from
We can learn a lot about past events by examining Moore has been interested in archaeology since
Britain in the American Revolution, but the American settlers in
primary sources, such as the diary entry by he was very young. At 14, he began archaeological
Upper and Lower Canada were mostly content to remain loyal to the
Anne Prevost and the quote from Jacob Cline. work through school programs. He participated in
British Crown.
We can also learn about past events by studying excavations throughout high school and learned
However, within days of President Madison’s declaration of war
historical sites. Archaeology is the study of history how to scuba dive in university. He now spends half
with Britain, the police in Québec City issued the notice shown in
through the excavation of sites and the analysis of of the year conducting “diving fieldwork” all around
Figure 6.10, advising all American citizens to leave or face arrest. Under artifacts and other physical remains. Canada. He spends the other half of the year in his
what circumstances do you think a notice like this could be issued in Jonathan Moore, shown in Figure 6.13, is an Ottawa office, researching sites and writing reports,
Canada today? underwater archaeologist with Parks Canada. He to prepare for the next fieldwork season.
has a particular interest in the War of 1812. He and Recently, Moore led an underwater survey of
his team aim to protect “those parts of Canada’s two American warships, USS Hamilton and USS
Notice is hereby given, that all Subjects or Citizens of the
history found underwater.” Many of the battles in Scourge, both of which sank in Lake Ontario on
said United States, and all persons claiming American
the War of 1812 were fought on the water. Sunken August 8, 1813. These wrecks are well preserved
Citizenship, are ordered to quit the City of Québec … on
ships still remain at the battle sites. at the bottom of the lake and were accessed by
pain of arrest.
remotely operated vehicles. According to Moore,
the survey was “like stepping back in time.” The
FIGURE 6.10 This notice, issued on June 29, 1812, indicates that
intact hulls of the ships contain a treasure trove of
American citizens are no longer welcome in Québec City. Analyze:
What impact do you think this notice had on families and communities? artifacts, such as cannons, that provide historians
with evidence to help them understand the past.

CANADIAN EXPECTATIONS
The Americans were very confident that they would easily win the war.
They did not consider that people in Upper and Lower Canada would
stand up to them. Examine the words of the young British colonists in
Figures 6.11 and 6.12. How do their perspectives compare with those of the FIGURE 6.13 Jonathan Moore, taking part in diving fieldwork.

American politicians in Figures 6.6, 6.7, and 6.9?

MAKING CONNECTIONS
1. How does archaeological evidence provide a more
“On this day I saw nothing before me but my “The Americans were in high complete understanding of the past than just
Father’s honour and glory. Although I knew how small spirits, and when I said I was Canadian, written or oral evidence alone?
a force we had to defend the Canadas, such was my one of the officers laughed and said, 2. What fields of study would help prepare someone
confidence in his talents and fortune, that I did not feel ‘You’ll soon be under the Yankey for a career in underwater archaeology?
the slightest apprehension [uneasiness] of any reverse. I government, my boy.’ I was sassy, like
thought those abominable [morally disgusting] Yankees most boys of my age, and I said, ‘I’m not
deserved a good drubbing [beating] for having dared to so sure about that.’”
think of going to War with England.”
— Jacob Cline, British colonist
CHECK-IN
— Anne Prevost, daughter of Sir George Prevost,
commander-in-chief of Canada and commander of the FIGURE 6.12 Cline was only 13 years old when he 1. CAUSE AND CONSEQUENCE What reasons did the 3. INTERPRET AND ANALYZE How do you think the
British forces in North America stood up to the invading American soldiers in 1813. United States have for declaring war on Britain War of 1812 could have been avoided?
Analyze: Why might a young colonist stand up to the
in 1812? 4. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE For whom do you
American soldiers?
FIGURE 6.11 Prevost was 17 years old when she wrote this entry in her 2. COMMUNICATE Identify what you think was the think the outbreak of the War of 1812 was most
diary on June 25, 1812. Analyze: What are Prevost’s feelings toward the
primary cause of the War of 1812. Debate your relevant: the Americans, the British, First Nations,
United States?
choice in a small group to reach an agreement. or Canadians? Why?

172 UNIT 2: Conflicts and Challenges in Canada: 1800–1850 NEL NEL CHAPTER 6: The War of 1812 173