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Architecture 150 Quiz 3 Notes

11. Early Roman Architecture


This is the first of two lectures that focus on the building of the Roman empire. It starts with the founding
ritual of Rome and looks at urban infrastructure that served as a means of establishing empire. It will look
at the Roman resort town of Pompeii, its forum and its residential fabric, its domus and its villas. The
second part of the lecture looks at the Forum Romanum during the Republican rule and the Roman
temples on the Capitoline hill in Rome and in Nîmes, France.
As we will see, the Roman architecture sees a separation between construction and ornamentation. In the
architectural order that they adopted from the Greeks, Roman architects saw only a decoration that was
applied extravagantly to the building facades and their interior spaces. The Roman forum took form as an
ordered space dominated by a large temple at one end with surrounding basilicas, curia, and triumphal
arches. Roman temples influenced by Etruscan models are distinguished from Greek temples with their
frontal orientation, high podium, and engaged columns. Finally, the Roman interest in practical life and
the unity of law is reflected in their right of private property that served the development of villa and
domus structures in Roman cities.

Terms:
Aqueduct: A pie for conducting water under gravity flow. The term is often applied to the arched
structure built to support the pipe across valleys. Aqua Claudia brings water toward the palace. Also Aqua
Appia brought water into Rome. 17 aqueducts into Rome. Aqueducts would be an even slope and water
would move at a uniform rate from the water sources to Rome. Used gravity to move the water.

Atrium: The central space of a Roman house, open to the sky and serving as a source of light and fresh
air. In Early Christian churches, the atrium was a large open courtyard, surrounded by covered galleries,
which preceded the entrance to the church.

Barrel Vault: A semicircular vault over a rectangular space. Also known as a tunnel vault or a wagon
vault is an architectural element formed by the extrusion of a single curve along a given distance. The
curves are typically circular in shape, lending to a semi cylindrical appearance to the total design. Barrel
Vault: Cloaca Maxima. Barrel vault is an extended curve.

Basilica: Literally “kings hall”. In Roman architecture, a hall used for public administration. The term
generally refers to a rectangular building that has a central section with a higher roof (the nave if a
church) flanked by lower aisles on both long sides. A semicircular projection, the apse, was often set at
one or both of the shorter ends. Early Christians adapted the form as a basis for church design, replacing
one apse with the main entrance and establishing a processional axis the length of the building. The alter
was placed in the apse at the end. A long oblong hall or building with double colonnades and a
semicircular apse, used in ancient Rome as a court of law or of public assemblies.

Cardo: In Etruscan and Roman cities, the principal north-south road. The cardo maximus was
the main central north-south oriented street. Integral component of city planning. The Cardo was
the central road through the forum.
Colonnade: A linear series of columns with entablature. A long series of columns joined by their
entablature, often free-standing, or part of a building. Paired or multiple pairs of columns are normally
employed in a colonnade which can be straight or curved. The space may be covered or open.

Decumanus: The Decamanus is the principal East-West road in an Etruscan and Roman city. The
Decamanus Maximus was the main east-west oriented road. (Decumanus east-west and cardo is north-
south). Along with the Cardo it formed the central road through the forum.

Engaged column: An engaged column is a column embedded in a wall and partly projecting from the
surface of the wall, sometimes defined as semi or three-quarters detached.

Forum: In Roman towns, the open space near the center used for commerce and civic life. A public
space in a Roman municipium, or any civitas, reserved primarily for the vending of goods; i.e., a
marketplace, along with the buildings used for shops and the stoas used for open stalls. The Roman
Forum was the main center in Rome Italy and was known as the Forum Magnum.

Impluvium: In Roman houses, the shallow pool that collected rainwater draining from the atrium roof.
It was the sunken part of the atrium in a Greek or Roman house that is designed to carry away the
rainwater coming through the compluvium of the roof and placed 30 cm below the floor of the atrium and
emptied into a subfloor cistern.

Insula (pl. insulae): A Roman apartment house. The insulae were largely tenements providing
economically practical housing where land values were high and population dense. Insulae were seen in
Pompeii. (An insula refers to an ancient Roman city block)

Peristyle: A covered colonnade or row of columns that surrounds an interior open space or garden.
Example of peristyles can be found in locations in Pompeii. A courtyard with a covered walkway all the
way around it, with columns holding up the ceiling so you can see out into the garden.

Podium:
Pronaos: The vestibule or antechamber to the shrine room (naos) of a Greek temple. Vestibule flanked
by three walls and one row of columns between the front portico and the cella or naos of an Antique
temple, or the space between the colonnade of a portico and the front wall of the cell.

Pseudoperipteral: A pseudoperipteros is a building with engaged columns embedded in the outer


walls, except the front of the building. A pseudoperipteral building with a portico at the end is a
amphiprostyle. Refers to the Maison Caree temple

Round (true) arch: An arch formed in a continuous curve; characteristic of Roman architecture. Inner
curve is drawn within circles having three centers. The round arch was the foundation of Rome’s
architectural mastery and massive expanse of building projects across the ancient world. It allowed the
Romans to make bigger buildings, longer roads, and better aqueducts. The Roman arch is the ancestor of
modern architecture. Used to build aqueducts. Main advantage allows wider span and provides strong
support. Keystone was important for the holding up of the arch.

Tablinum: In Roman atrium houses, a reception area, usually on axis with the entrance. A tablinum was
a room generally situated on one side of the atrium and opposite to the entrance; it opened in the rear onto
the peristyle, with either a large window or only an anteroom or curtain.
Triclinium: A dining room in Roman houses and palaces. A formal dining room. The Triclinium had
couches along three sides and a small table for sharing foods. Seen in Pompeii. Sometimes they were
covered with stucco paintings.

Triumphal arch: In Roman architecture, a gateway structure, with one or three arched openings, built
to celebrate the return of a conquering army. A monumental structure in the shape of an archway with one
or more arched passageways often designed to span a road.

Tuscan: An order based on Etruscan architecture, employing unfluted columns and simplified capitals.
One of the two classical orders developed by the Romans, the other being the composite order. It is
influenced by the Doric order, but with un-fluted columns and a simpler entablature with no triglyphs or
guttae.

Villa: The Roman word for a farm. By extension, the term used during the Renaissance and afterward for
a rural house often of extensive size. Upper class, wealthy Roman citizens in the countryside around
Rome and throughout the Empire lived in villa complexes, the accommodation for rural farms. The villa-
complex consisted of three parts: the pars urbana where the owner and his family lived.

Buildings and Sites:


Pont du Garde, Nimes, France (60 CE): A bridge built by Romans in France. Formed three
tiers of arches. The first level is a road bridge for traffic. The top layer water runs over the bridge
and is slightly sloped to allow water to run in the right direction
Cloaca Maxima, Rome, Italy (3rd century CE): Cloaca Maxima was an open drainage that
drained rain and blood water from Forum into the river. Water coming in through aquaducts and
out through sewage system. The Cloaca Maxima was a barrel vaulted structure. One of the
world’s earliest sewage systems.
City of Pompeii, Forum, Atrium/Peristyle house (Domus), (6th century BCE-79 CE):
Pompeii was buried in 79 after the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, which preserved the city. Gave us
the earliest of early Roman basilica, amphitheater, and residential patterns. A summer resort
town and trade center. The amphitheater was located in the south-east corner of the city which
served as the entertainment of the city. The Forum in Pompeii was an open space that was
rectangular shaped and dominated by temple of Jupiter at the North. Lined with doric and ionic
colonnade. Basilica at the bottom of the forum. South was Curia or city offices. The Comitium
was the public meeting space. Macellum for selling food. Eumachia was headquarter for clock
makers. Basilica was a stock exchange along with traditional roles. Single story family house
called the Domus that were tightly organized around the atrium (area upon entrance of house
with pool to collect rainwater). Central room was place where they held shrine of house god.
Entrance vestibule with atrium. Tablinium was a public room. Then to a garden with a peristyle
court. If house expanded it would have another peristyle court.
Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii (50 BCE): The Villa of the Mysteries. Villas were larger
houses with large peristyle courts. The order of atrium and peristyle court was reversed. Villas
had first peristyle court and then atrium in the back. The Villa of Mysteries is one of the best
examples of Roman Villas. Series of beautiful paintings within the Villa.
Roman Forum, Rome, Italy: The Roman Forum is the center of Rome is the low ground
between the Capitoline and Palestine Hill. Templum. The Forum was enclosed by buildings. The
most important Forum. The Forum grew bit by bit and was not completely orthogonal. Lined
with porticos and was focused on the temple. The Roman Forum, also known by its Latin name
Forum Romanum, is a rectangular forum surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient
government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. Citizens of the ancient city referred to
this space, originally a marketplace, as the Forum Magnum, or simply the Forum. The Roman
Forum was redesigned by Caesar and Augustus to give Forum order.
Basilica Amelia: Lined the Roman forum. The Basilica Amelia was rebuilt by Augustus.
Shops in front of basilica and shops (two story structures in the front) in the back. Law
proceedings, national transaction, speeches took place. Two story doric façade.
Basilica Julia: Lined the Roman Forum. Reconstructed by Augustus. Central Nave
inside central basilica. Central space covered by timber roof and rest of structure had fireproof
shell. Open continuously to forum with bright interior and the double aisle made it insulated
from extreme weather.
Arch of Septimus Severus: The Arch of Septimus Severus commemorates the Roman
victories over the Partheons. Has triages and rich decoration. The Arch of Septimius Severus at
the northwest end of the Roman Forum is a white marble triumphal arch dedicated in 203 to
commemorate the Parthian victories of Emperor Septimius Severus and his two sons, Caracalla
and Geta, in the two campaigns against the Parthians of 194/195 and 197–199.
Curia: The Senate. Building was preserved. It had a grand space inside for gathering of
the Senate.
House of the Vestals: The House of the Vestals (12 virgin women who were supposed to
attend to the eternal flame of Rome). Structure was women’s dwelling space. Had a peristyle
court in the middle and temple of Vesta in the building (round temple).
- Capitoline Temple, Rome (509 BCE-70 CE): Roman Forum had temple of Jupiter
optimus maximus built in Etruscan style. Temple of Jupiter. Had luxurious decorations.
Doris columns. Cella and Pronaos. Emphasis was not on colonnade but on deep porch
and the decorated roof. The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, also known as the
Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was the most important temple in Ancient Rome, located
on the Capitoline Hill. It was surrounded by the Area Capitolina, a precinct where
numerous shrines, altars, statues and victory trophies were displayed. The Roman temple
was based on the Etruscan model, which were influenced by Greek temple. The Roman
temple could only be approached from the front via a long flight of stairs.
Maison Carree, Nimes, France (16 BCE): The Maison Carrée is an ancient Roman temple in
Nîmes, southern France; it is one of the best-preserved Roman temples to survive in the territory
of the former Roman Empire. Also called the square house built during reign of Augustus. An
imperial building and duplicates form of traditional temples of early republic. Engaged columns
and built with Corinthian colums. A pseudoperipteral temple.
Extra Notes
- The Roman forum is a city center and is filled and populated with temples and basilicas. Romans
were concerned with practical life and necessary supplies for citizens.
- Shift from Greek’s attention to exterior to Roman’s attention to interiors of Villas and bath.
- Roman wanted unity of law and city-state to determine the practical use of the villas and baths.
- Roman history divided into 3 phases. Rule of the early kings, the republican era, and then the
empire.
- Roman conquest with absorbing the Etruscans to the North. 3rd century BC they were in control
of the peninsula after defeating the Greeks. Added Alexander’s former empire to Rome. Series of
annexed colonies and liberated cities. After years of conquest, Rome resorted back to empire with
Julius Caesar.
- Rome occupies the seven hills of Rome.
- Story of Romulus and Remus. Romulus killed Remus and became the first leader of Rome. He
drew a templum to separate sacred area from other spaces.
- Cloaca Maxima was an open drainage that drained rain and blood water from Forum into the
river. Water coming in through aquaducts and out through sewage system.
- Insulae: the urban block
- Roman Forum had temple of Jupiter optimus maximus built in Etruscan style.

12. Imperial Roman Architecture


Reading: Buildings across Time, 105-131
This lecture continues with the building of the Roman empire. It starts with the palace structures
in Rome. In the Roman palace architecture, we begin to see the use of curved structures and
concrete domes that show the Romans’ attention to interior spaces. Next, we look at the Imperial
Forum and a series of additions to the old Republican forum. In these new forums, we see the
structures of exedra adjoining the colonnades and basilicas lining the forums; even the Trajan
markets is designed as a hemicycle with annular barrel vaults and groin vaults inside.
We look at the two architectural masterpieces of Hadrian Villa and Pantheon as they continue to
exhibit Roman’s use of concrete technology, geometries of curvature, and the invitation of light
into architecture. We conclude our lecture with Roman architectures of leisure and entertainment
first in the Theatre of Marcellus and Colosseum and then in the two Roman Baths of Caracalla
and Diocletian.

Terms:
Amphitheater: An arena with raked seating arranged around a circular or oval floor.
Annular vault: A barrel vault in the shape of a ring, instead of a straight line; covers a space of
which the plan is formed by the area between two concentric circles, or any portion of such a
space. The barrel vault/annular vault in the Markets of Trajan.
Basilica: Literally “kings hall”. In Roman architecture, a hall used for public administration. The
term generally refers to a rectangular building that has a central section with a higher roof (the
nave if a church) flanked by lower aisles on both long sides. A semicircular projection, the apse,
was often set at one or both of the shorter ends. Early Christians adapted the form as a basis for
church design, replacing one apse with the main entrance and establishing a processional axis the
length of the building. The alter was placed in the apse at the end. A long oblong hall or building
with double colonnades and a semicircular apse, used in ancient Rome as a court of law or of
public assemblies.
Caldarium: The hot or sweating bath chamber in Roman baths or thermae. A caldarium was a
room with a hot plunge bath, used in a Roman bath complex. This was a very hot and steamy
room heated by a hypocaust, an underfloor heating system using tunnels with hot air, heated by a
furnace tended by slaves.
Cavea: In Roman times the cavea referred to the seating sections of Roman theatres and
amphitheatres. The cavea is traditionally organised in three horizontal sections, corresponding to
the social class of the spectators: The ima cavea is the lowest part of the cavea and the one
directly surrounding the arena
Coffer: Ceiling recesses set in a geometric pattern. A series of sunken panels in the shape of a
square, rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling, soffit, or vault.
Corinthian: The order that features acanthus-leaf capitals atop a fluted shaft. An ornate column
style that is more complex and elaborate than both Doric and Ionic orders.
Dome: A continuously curved roof over a polygonal or circular plan, generally having a
semicircular or elliptical section.
Drum: The cylindrical volume supporting a dome. any of the cylindrical stone blocks
composing a column that is not a monolith. The term also denotes a circular or polygonal wall
supporting a dome, cupola, or lantern (qq. v.).
Exedra: A semicircular niche, often used as a seat of honor or place for a statue. An exedra is a
semicircular architectural recess, often crowned by a semi-dome, which is sometimes set into a
building's façade or is free-standing. The original Greek sense was applied to a room that opened
onto a stoa, ringed with curved high-backed stone benches, a suitable place for conversation.
Forum: In Roman towns, the open space near the center used for commerce and civic life. A public
space in a Roman municipium, or any civitas, reserved primarily for the vending of goods; i.e., a
marketplace, along with the buildings used for shops and the stoas used for open stalls. The Roman
Forum was the main center in Rome Italy and was known as the Forum Magnum.

Frigidarium: The cold-water baths in a Roman thermae. A frigidarium is a large cold pool at the
Roman baths. When entering the bath house, one would go through the apodyterium, where they
would store their clothes. After the caldarium and the tepidarium, which were used to open the
pores of the skin, the frigidarium would be reached.
Groin vault (cross vault): The vault formed by two intersecting barrel vaults. Also known as a
cross vault. A groin vault or groined vault is produced by the intersection at right angles of two
barrel vaults. The word "groin" refers to the edge between the intersecting vaults. Sometimes the
arches of groin vaults are pointed instead of round. Two barrel vault that intersect to make a
groin vault in the Markets of Trajan. Openings on four directions so there is a lot of light.
Hypocaust: A hypocaust is a system of central heating in a building that produces and circulates
hot air below the floor of a room, and may also warm the walls with a series of pipes through
which the hot air passes. This air can warm the upper floors as well.
Natatio: An open-air swimming pool in a Roman thermae.
Oculus: The circular opening at the apex of a dome. Seen in the dining room of the domus
Aurea, which served as the original model for the Pantheon.
Pilaster: A rectangular column, engaged in a wall, which is sometimes articulated as an order. In
classical architecture, a pilaster is an architectural element used to give the appearance of a
supporting column and to articulate an extent of wall, with only an ornamental function. 
Relieving arch: A discharging arch or relieving arch is an arch built over a lintel or architrave to
take off the superincumbent weight.
Tepidarium: The warm-water chamber in Roman baths or thermae.
Tuscan: An order based on Etruscan architecture, employing unfluted columns and simplified
capitals.

Buildings and Sites:


Domus Aurea, Rome, 64-68 CE: The golden house built by Nero. A grand project of Nero.
Grand palace occupied three hills of Rome. Covered 20% of Rome. Instead of rebuilding area
after burning of Rome he built his palace. An aqueduct supplied the palace to the structure. He
had a temple complex, villa, and bath. Had artificial lake. Hunting ground and forest filled with
animals. The Colosseum was built at the old site of Nero’s man-made lake. The dining room was
an octagonal plan with a massive oculus. It was the original model for the Pantheon. Pozzolona
stone was used. First use of Roman concrete in the making of the dome. Double-shelled dome.
Dining hall also served as a representation of the spinning heavens.
Domus Augustana, Rome, 92 CE: Built by Emperor Domitian. Includes a remarkable
courtyard with the remnants of a fountain and many of its walls. The three emperors that
followed Nero tore down Nero’s golden house and built the Domus Augustana. Domitian built a
concrete loggia to see the circus maximus arena so he could watch the game. The palace was
divided into three zones. The entrance was an outer portico which led into an audience hall with
a basilica to the side. There was a peristyle court and that let into the dining halls. The middle of
the plan was a private space for the royal family with peristyle court and atrium. There was a
sunken peristyle garden designed in the shape of the stadium in the back, which was not really a
stadium.
Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli, 118-125 CE: Emperor Hadrian considered himself an architect
and brought the Roman vaulted sky to new heights in his villa. Has basilica, theaters, two baths.
Another version of Nero’s golden house. He set up country house far from Rome to avoid the
hate that Nero received for the construction of his palace. Canopus, Piazza d’Oro, and
Maritime Theater are the three main parts we look at. Canopus was a very large pool with
structure surrounding it with a colonnade. Piazza d’Oro we see peristyle court and there is a
pavilion and a temple bath will alternating concave and convex sections. See Roman attention to
curve and interior spaces. Room was open to the sky and water cascading down its side. The
Maritime theater was an island retreat (villa within Villa). Formed by outer circular peristyle
separated by moat. Circular peristyle court-like shaped. Concave and convex curves. Fountain in
the center. The plan of Hadrian’s Villa outside Tivoli had unprecedented forms and compositions
around water features.
Imperial Forums: The Imperial Forums in Rome toward the Forum Romana and the Imperial
Forums through the Via Sacra. The Forum Romana was the old Roman Forum
Caesar (Temple of Venus Genetrix), 46 BCE: Rectangular space with continuous
colonnade. Basilica around the space of the Forum. Focused on the Corinthian temple. Famous
for using Corinthian columns. The Forum has axial order and the temple has unusual aspect.
Instead of steps going up to the podium, you go through triumphal arches on the sides. First
addition to the Roman forum.
Augustus (Temple of Mars), 2 BCE: The next forum was perpendicular to the Forum of
Caesar. Augustus restored Roman temples to marble. The Temple of Mars was the first temple
made with marble. Focused on the element of temple backed up against the city wall. Roman
temples had military function and was the site of several state ceremonies and the Senate met
here when debating decision of war. Temple was where the departure point for Roman
commanders. The temple was built on raised platform with row of 8 columns on the façade. 8
columns down each side. Arches on the front of temple. Colonnades and porticos with an usual
orientation. Instead of columns supporting the upper porticos they replaced it with sculptures of
founder of Rome. See curvatures begin to be made.
Trajan (Basilica Ulpia), 112 CE: The Basilica Ulpia was the largest of all forums. 3x
Caesar’s. Built to commemorate Trajan’s victories in Asia. Had to excavate lots of Earth on the
hill to build this forum. Forum had a basilica at the Northern face (largest basilica) instead of a
temple. Temple at the back of the basilica. Have the column of Trajan. Served as a full court.
Basilica had two internal colonnades. Porticos decorated with sculptures of captured prisoners.
The interior has no use of arches. The Forum of Trajan had the basilica Ulpia in front and also
had two libraries. The Column of Trajan had spiraling relief of a war campaign. Whole forum is
about military victory.
Trajan’s Markets, 110 CE: The Markets of Trajan was constructed as part of Forum
construction. Semicircle. There were 150, barrel vaulted shops that were open to the street.
Shops on floor level, second-level floor. The third story contained another level on shops turned
inward into the street. The groin vault in the Markets of Trajan at the top floors of the Markets of
Trajan. The groin vaults had four openings bringing in a lot of natural light. The Markets of
Trajan carved out of the Quirinale hillside and held a series of shop organized around a
hemicycle.
Pantheon, 126 CE: The greatest architectural legacy of Hadrian. The temple to all gods. The
Pantheon was part temple, part throne room. Forum with enclosing colonnades with a large
bulging dome in the back. The building has three parts. Has a cella, pronaos, and an intermediate
block in between. The dome is a stepped dome with a coffered ceiling and an oculus that lets in
natural light. Hadrian believed that the Pantheon was a +model of a heavenly dome. 8 widely
spaced piers with 8 deep niches. Two Corinthian columns in front of each niche. Second tier that
has a rhythmic polychromic composition. 5 rows of coffers diminishing in size and depth.
Relieving arches in the Pantheon. Pantheon is covered by a coffered dome.
Theater of Marcellus, 13 BCE: The Roman theater of Marcellus. The orchestra at the bottom,
the seating section (Cavea), and the stage at the top. The theater of Marcellus had seats inclined
and annual barrel vaults. Three tiers of seats. The outer curved travertine wall had number of
engaged orders (Tuscan on lower level, second level is ionic, third level had Corinthian
columns). Roman theaters were exactly semicircular. Lower seats made with marble and upper
seats made of wood.
Colosseum, 80 CE: The Flavian Amphitheater. The Colosseum was a roman innovation
amphitheater. Composed of two theaters devoted to gladiator fights. Placed on Nero’s old
artificial lake. Colosseum had the arch of Constantine and statue of Nero at the back. Thick
foundation ring of concrete. Spectators entered through arches and filtered through entrances. 5
different levels of seating. Very similar to modern sports arenas. Could accommodate 55,000
people. Lions and animals could be put into the arena by removing the floor. Half columns and
engaged columns. Corinthian pilasters on top, then Corinthian, then Ionic, then Tuscan. The
Colosseum in ancient Rome had stacked half-columns in the Roman Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian
Orders.
Baths of Caracalla, 212 CE: The public baths of Rome. Bathing became a major part of Roman
daily life. The largest bath in Rome. Could accommodate 1600 bathers. Around the complex
there were reservoirs filled via aqueducts. There were some shops on the North side and
semicircular space on side that held musical performances, libraries. There is a bilateral
symmetry to the major building at the Baths of Caracalla. Natio (swimming pool), dressing room
at the heart of the building. Frigidarium (cold bath), Tepidarium (warm bath) which led to
caldarium (hot bath). The frigidarium was the undressing room with cold baths. Natural lights
pouring in through windows. Built on a platform (hypocaust) under the floor heating system
where there were furnaces that heated up the baths.
Baths of Diocletian, 306 CE: The baths of Diocletian is similar to the Baths of Caracalla. Size
of a small city of Florence. Could accommodate over 3000 visitors. Baths of Diocletian had large
swimming pool in the middle. Frigidarium and intermediate space for medium bathing called the
Tepidarium and ends with Caldarium (hot bathing). Take exercise, take swim in Natation, then
cold bath, then warm bath, then hot bath, then steam room, then you head home.

There were plenty of places of leisure and activities with the Baths of Caracalla, Circus
Maximus, Theater of Marcellus, Colosseum, Bathos of Trajan, and Baths of Diocletian.
The Roman theatre never served as the same religious functions as the Greeks had. The Roman
theatre were free-standing buildings and the seating area were covered with canvas roof to
provide shelter from sunlight and rain.

13. Architecture in China and Japan


Reading: Buildings across Time, 83-97
This lecture looks at the architecture of ancient China and Japan. It explores different reproducible
methods used by Chinese builders – from Jian modules to bracket systems (dougong) – in order to
achieve repeated forms and styles in architecture. The lecture begins by comparing the tools of empire
building in Imperial Rome and China, looking at the infrastructural projects (defensive walls, water
networks, and road systems) and city grids. It looks at a number of Chinese capitals during Han and Tang
dynasties as well as the mausoleum of the first emperor of China and his terracotta army. The lecture
concludes with a number of Chinese and Japanese temples that exhibit parallel architectural ideas
between the two Far Eastern cultures.

Terms:
Axis (axial): A line at the end of which movement terminates at a significant feature and thereby
divides a composition into two equal parts.
Cantilever: A beam firmly anchored on one end and unsupported at the other end.
A cantilever is a rigid structural element which extends horizontally and is supported at only one
end. Typically it extends from a flat, vertical surface such as a wall, to which it must be firmly
attached. Like other structural elements, a cantilever can be formed as a beam, plate, truss or
slab.
Dou-gong: Translated as cap and block, dougong is a system of wooden brackets than can
support the overhanging roofs commonly found in Chinese architecture. The underlying physics
are simple: The interlocking brackets transfer weight to vertical columns, lessening the strain on
the horizontal beams. Increase the span of the beam. Ornamental. Composed of wooded block
called Dou, a lever arm called Ang, and a shorter arm called Gong. Allowed longer cantilever
and overhand of the roof.
Eaves: The edge of the roof plane that projects over the exterior wall of the building. The edges
of the roof which overhang the face of a wall and normally project beyond the side of a building.
The eaves form an overhang to throw water clear of the walls and may be highly decorated as
part of an architectural style, such as the Chinese duo-gong bracket systems.
Grid: Grid Architecture is the application of system architecture, network theory, and control
theory to the electric power grid. A grid architecture is the highest level description of the
complete grid, and is a key tool to help understand and define the many complex interactions
that exist in present and future grids. Like Roman colonies there was a grid in China. Zhou Ideal
City diagram. Quadrangle with three gates on each sides. Palace in center. Three roads near
gates.
Jian: A module used in Chinese wooden architecture, particularly houses, measuring about
twelve by twenty feet. The Jian Module in Chinese building. Proportional Bays. First Chines and
later Japanese architecture. Jian was the basic unit (3*6 meter) rectangular area with structural
framing. Created to make large spaces. Covered with decorative roof. Modular framing structure.
Associated with hierarchy. Chinese modular unit.
Mausoleum: An elaborate tomb named after the tomb of King Mausoleus. A mausoleum is an
about ground structure which houses crypts or burial spaces for caskets in which whole human
remains have been placed. ... The crypts are then sealed with stone. Interiors might be fancy or
simple and reflect many architectural styles. The Mausoleum of the First Emperor Xi’an.
Pagoda: A tapering tower with multiple roof levels, built by Buddhists particularly in China and
Japan. The word derived from the Sanskrit dagoba, meaning stupa.
Rammed earth: A structural building method of compressing a sandy mixture into a hard
sandstone-like material. Rammed earth walls resemble adobe construction. Both use soil mixed
with waterproofing additives.
Shoden: A Japanese word meaning “first teaching”. It is the first level of teaching in the
traditional Japanese branch of Reiki called Usui Reiki Ryoho.
Torii: An elaborate post-and-lintel gateway into Buddhist shrines in Japan. The gateway of a
Shinto shrine, with two uprights and two crosspieces. A torii is a traditional Japanese gate most
commonly found at the entrance of or within a Shinto shrine, where it symbolically marks the
transition from the mundane to the sacred.

Buildings and Sites:


Great Wall(s) of China: Not a single continuous structure but a network of walls and towers.
The Great Wall was built during the Chin dynasty but rebuilt during the Ming dynasty. There
was planting permanent colonies near the Great wall of China. Did not stop Mongols from
breaching the wall. The material of the wall changed according to the region. Some parts of the
wall was created with rammed earth, other parts were built with firestones. Rammed earth were
made with wooden structures that would be filled with mud and pounded into shape and is as
hard as cement when finished. Guard towers were placed at intervals for communication relays
and protection.
Grand Canal of China: A collection of canals running from North-South (1100 miles
connecting Beijing to Hanju). Connects yellow river and Yezhi River. Canal had to pass through
high mountains. Locks were the solution. Grand canal allowed for faster trading and improved
China’s economy. The canal was a manmade construction that would pass through the city.
Project took 4,000,000 slaves 10 years.
Luoyang (city), 1038 BCE - 24CE: Built according to the Zhou Ideal City model ( during the
Zhou Dynasty. (Quadrangle with three gates on each sides. Palace in center. Three roads near
gates.) Main entrance facing the south and the palace was in the middle of Luoyag. Royal tombs
to the back of the city and the markets are at the North. The Han built Chang’an and developed
Luoyang.
Chang’an (city), ca. 610 CE: The new city built during the Han dynasty. Changle Palace and
Weiyang Palace. Distored the ideal city plan and river crossing at one side of the city. Number of
palaces connected by two-story passageway crossing over the streets. Allowed emperor to move
along palaces without being seen. Biyong-Mingtang ritual hall. Resonates with Chinese
philosophy with emperor in the center. Sacred hall where the Earthly Emperor communicates
with the heavenly counterpart. The Chang’an changed during the Tang dynasty. Followed he
three axial streets intersected by three cross-axis streets. Imperial city pushed to the back with
palaces and the garden in the back instead of in the center. The main gate faces south. Major
avenues lead to the imperial cities and offices for the government. Bridges at intersection of
streets. 9 south-north streets, 12 east-west streets. 108 rectangular blocks with each own wall
enclosure, public parks, office building, temple, etc. City itself was the largest in the world.
Qin Shi Huangdi tomb, Xi’an, 221 - 206 BCE: The Funeral complex for “The First Emperor.”
Chin dynasty. Complex had huge pyramid mound and a tomb mound. All comes from sonic
depth devices and that there used to be a vast building constructed. The underground world had
replica of the Map of china, palaces, etc. Pyramid, underground palace and tomb chamber. 8,000
life-size statues in the burial pits made of terra cota. Armies’ purpose was for the soldiers to help
the emperor rule in the next life. Individual facial expressions and features so that all of the
soldiers appeared different.
Fogong Pagoda, Shanxi, 1056 CE: One of the tallest wooden buildings in the world. Idea of
reproducibility. Layers are repeated. Housed the Buddha inside and the Pagoda was a type of
temple. Inside is the temple of the Buddah. The Pagoda is supported in these bracket systems.
Emphasis on diagonal support of the roof. Multi-layer heaven.
Nanchan Temple, Shanxi, 782 CE: The Nanchan Temple has a front gate facing house with a
main hall, a courtyard and a platform. Many of the temples in China are arranged in this way.
Four wooden columns in front. Had rammed earth walls. Podium and the inside of these Chinese
temples had statue of Buddah inside. Bracketing system transferred the weight of roof into the
columns. Oldest existing wood building in china with frame building with hip and gabble roof.
Foguang Temple, Shanxi, 857 CE: The Foguang Temple has the same level of arrangement as
the Nanchan temple. Main hall located axially in the series of courtyard and arrived by a series of
stairs to the main hall. Foguang hall is 7x4 with a hip roof style with a single layer eave. Low
pitched roof sloped. Dominating brackets connecting the columns to the eaves. The roof is larger
an heavier. Overhanging eaves we need lever arm to help support the overhanging roof eave.
Have vertical columns that begin at ground level. Tie beams connect vertical strats.
Jinci Temple, Taiyuan, 1032 CE: Not a Buddhist Temple but built in the Buddhist design.
Associated with the temple and water springs. Temple to the local water spirit. The temple
complex facing the water feature instead of the major cardinal points. The temple of Jinci
(triange around it). Fourway bridge and the temple is above a platform. See all the elements of a
Buddhist temple repeated here (8 columns out front, two-layer roof, single story building with
double layer hip roof, columns wrapped with structures of dragon) no sculpture of Buddah.
Horyuji Temple, Nara, Japan, 714 CE: Horyuji Temple is a Buddhist temple in Japan.
Japanese architectural pattern repeats Have an enclosure, have an elaborate gate, main lecture
hall and main axis. One main difference is the pagoda which gives an asymmetry to the complex.
Height of the pagoda is balancing the width of the hall. All of the roofs of the pagoda are
ornamental. Ceremonial column axis mundi (symbolic axis of the celestial rotation) all built in
wood.
Ise Shrine, Uji-Yamada, Japan, 690 CE – present: Not a Buddhist temple but a Shinto shrine.
Shintoism is a form of animistic religion. Every aspect of nature is revered. Kami is a diety that
resides in objects of nature. Torii marked the presents of a sacred shrine. Complex was built and
rebuilt every 20 years. Enter from the gate called Torii over a long gate through a sacred gate and
then through a long avenue. Shrine built on a high platform enclosed by wooden wall or fences.
4 layer of gates. Shoden (central hall) and two sanctuaries behind the Shoden. The Shoden is
raised off the ground by columns and the Shoden is built entirely without nails. Japanese temples
believed to be modeled after old rice granaries.
China had the great canal, the great silk road, and the great wall, which served as the protection
in China.
China was easy to navigate from east-west with the use of the rivers, but it was hard to navigate
from North-South in China.
Silk road was a connection of paved roads where items were traded. Buddhism was transported
to China through interaction from the Silk Road.
Jian unit created symmetrical housing environments.
Daming Palace had pattern of recognition. Central hall to the house with porches on the
platform. Axial gate, exterior walls. Elaborate double roof. Duo gong (roof bracket system)
The schematic plan for an ancient Chinese city typically incorporated a grid that divided the city
into blocks.
Pagoda bracket sets are interlocking supports that allow a roof to overhang.
14. Architecture in the Americas
This lecture looks at the ancient architecture of South, Central and North America. It explores the
platform mounds and sunken plazas in Caral in Peru, the pyramid structures, axial avenues, and urban
grid patterns of La Venta and Teotihuacán in Mexico, and the clustered organization of pyramids and
temples in the Mayan cities of Tikal in Guatemala and Chichén Itzá in Mexico. The lecture concludes
with two ancient mound structures, the Poverty Point and Serpent mound in North America. The
architecture of the Americas exhibits a dual attention to heaven and earth that is represented in the
construction of pyramid mounds and pits in the form of sunken plazas and a connection to the
underground water.

Terms:
Barrio: A Spanish word meaning quarter or neighborhood. Residential neighborhoods in
Teotihuacan, Mexico. Residential blocks that are a center of houses around an outdoor area.
Houses for both commoner and wealthy. Raised platforms and patios. Pits held bones of
ancestors.
Causeway: A track, road, or railway on the upper point of an embankment across “a low, or wet
place, or piece of water”. It can be constructed of earth, masonry, wood, or concrete. Causeways
seen in Tikal.
Platform mound: A platform of earth and stone, usually rectangular in shape and flat-topped,
that forms a base for the construction of a building, such as a palace or temple. The buildings
served as habitation and/or ceremonial structures.
Roof comb: The structure that tops a pyramid in monumental Mesoamerican architecture.
Typicall the roof combs crowned the summit of pyramids and other structures; they consisted of
two pierced framework walls which leaned on one another.
Tablero: The vertical, often ornamented, plane in Pre-Columbian pyramid construction,
comparable to the frieze in ancient Greek architecture.
Talud: The inclined plane in Pre-Columbian pyramid construction. A steeply sloping wall is
surmounted by a table-like, right-angled panel with an inset (tablero).

Buildings and Sites:


Caral, Peru, ca. 2600 – 2000 BCE: The center of cotton-based agriculture. Cotton was a
valuable commodity and they used the rainwater from the Andes and will irrigate their lands and
grow cotton. Built massive pyramidal structures even before Egyptians. Located on a natural
terrace above the river flat plain. Cotton fields came first, terrace for large structures for elite,
small dwellings around the city for poor people. Pyramid Major on edge of major. Constructed in
two phases. First mound walls were built. And outer surface of mound is covered in white/red
colored plaster. Five other platform mounds in Caral Plaza. Circular sunken plaza for ceremonial
rituals. No temple. Polarity and duel connections between heaven and earth through series of
stairs. Possible buildings were faced toward celestial events.
La Venta, Mexico, 1100 – 400 BCE: La Venta was very different from Caral. Founded on
artificial islands. Rounded and fluted pyramid with conical shape with irregular base with mud
core and clay. Smaller mounds at the edge of the platform. 2 ceremonial courts. The series of
prismatic columns at the end of the plaza. Three colossal heads that are 6-8 feet tall. 20 ton stone
heads to commemorate the rulers. Whole site was organized on North-South axis. Sterling
acropolis that could be used for ball game. Believed to take prisoners and have violence to
satisfy the gods. Invisible sculptures and figurines buried under the ground. All figurines had
bald elongated heads.
Teotihuacán, Mexico, ca. 200 BCE – 900 CE: Teotihuacan has many elements as seen in La
Venta. One of the largest trade centers in Americas with a lot of access to obsidian. The name
meant the “city where men became gods.” Organized into four parts with one long avenue called
the Avenue of the Dead. The Pyramid of the Moon is at the southern end of the avenue and the
pyramid of the sun is facing west. (orientation due to astronomical reasons) Temple of the
Feathered Serpent. Ornamentation with images of the serpent on the pyramid. Pyramid of the sun
was built over a cave. Focal point of fire and water rituals. Vertical connection between sky and
the Earth. Pyramid of the Sun had steep staircase to the top. The pyramid of the moon is the
smaller pyramid had a series of platform altars and steep staircases (constructed in multiple
stages) There were human and animal sacrifices buried inside this pyramid.
Tikal, Guatemala, 600 BCE – 900 CE: The city of Tikal. Had a roof combs in the Mayan hut.
Tikal is not a compact city. City is unplanned with sprawling houses and angular arrangement.
Many of these buildings were augmented towards cosmic events. Triangle of principal could
suggest planned alignment. The stone causeways connected the land in Tikal and allowed for
transportation in the city. The water could be sent to a system of drains through the causeways.
There is a dam in Tikal that was used as a causeway as well that held 20 million gallons of water.
Largest of these zones was focused on the great plaza. The orientation of temples was
coordinated by astronomical measures. Temples were designed in way with triangle top that
dominates mass of the pyramid. Width of shrine on top of temple one was little less than
pyramids base. Basic focus becomes shrines entrance. Interior made with large blocks of stone.
Stelas are upright stones to commemorate victory.
Chichén Itzá, Mexico, ca. 600 – 1200 CE: Located in lowlands of Mexico. Large plaza was
surrounded by important buildings. Temple of the Warriors, Court of 1,000 columns, Castillo,
Ball Court. The last great Mayan city. Cylindrical observatory and cylindrical hypostyle halls.
The Mayan urban design had open public plazas were gathering places of people and design of
interior space was secondary. Geographical location near two sinkhole reservoirs. Cenote
(sacrificial well). The observatory is the main structure of the city. Connection with heavens. The
observatory is known as a caracol with a circular building on a trapezoidal base. Walls have tiny
openings that allowed priests to track movements of particular stars. The Castillo (temple of
Kukulkan) is a step-pyramid with stairways up the four sides. Both Castillo and the observatory
work as solar calendar and sacrificial temples. The Temple of Warriors was a large step-pyramid
where rulers held audiences. Hypostyle-hall in front of the temple of the warriors. There is a
figure of Chacmool at the Temple of the Warriors. The Ball Court is the largest Ball court in
Central America. The ball court had implications that music was part of the sport. Has hoops 8
meters high. Ball court reliefs. Sacrifices were part of the game. See steep Mayan Corbelled
arches.
Poverty Point, Louisiana, ca. 1200 BCE: The Poverty Point consists of a number of mounds in
a plaza. Probably a seasonal ceremonial camp. Area extended around Mississippi valley. Have
rigids that serve as foundations for huts and living places. Would see winter solstice and summer
solstice in opposite sites of the camp.
Great Serpent Mound, Ohio, ca. 200 BCE – 500 CE: New culture emerged around 1000 BCE.
Created remarkable earthwork. In shape of serpent made of stones and compounded clay. Head
of serpent placed at higher steep bank. Serpent was a powerful symbol. Snake’s head aligned to
summer solstice.

No walls for the cities in America


The La Venta site in Tabasco include a conical earth mound that stands at the opposite end of an
axis defined by earthen platforms.
System of pyramid construction was Talud-Tablero. Combination of rectangular panels (tablero)
sitting on top of taluds. Ornamental tablets attached to the tablero that were anchors to keep the
planes vertical. System of construction became dominate in Central America.
Most Mayan sites were constructed with limestone

15. Architecture and Movement: Ships & Camels


This lecture looks at the relationship of technologies of communication and transportation to architecture
and city planning. It looks at ships and boats as the oldest technology of globalization and its effect on
architecture and cities. It discusses how ships developed new types of urban centers, port cities and
exchange hubs, trading centers, and special building typologies such as warehouses and shoreline
factories designed especially for export. The lecture looks at Haida as an early fishing community, Lothal
as the industrial center of Indus Valley, and Pharaonic Egypt and their temples and festivals that show
how the economic function of the ship was integrated into worship rituals. Finally, this lecture looks at
camel cultures to see how camels allow the movement of people, architectural ideas, and mobile homes. It
looks at the caravan city of Petra, and the lightweight architecture of two nomadic cultures in Asia and
Africa: the Bedouin Black tent and the Tuareg skin/mat tent.

Terms:
Barque (bark): A barque, barc, or bark is a type of sailing vessel with three or more masts
having the fore- and mainmasts rigged square and only the mizzen rigged fore and aft.
Sometimes, the mizzen is only partly fore-and-aft rigged, bearing a square-rigged sail above.
Barque sanctuary:
Black tent: The ‘black tent’ was the great center of attraction and the shows were among the
most remarkable ever produced.” Pitchmen would lead their audience through the show and
challenge the spectators to unravel the mysteries presented to them. Audiences were infatuated
with the wonders of the black tent, and dumfounded by the incredible representations of art and
imagination!
Colonnaded street: Street with colonnades lining it. Colonnade are a linear series of columns
with an entablature.
Funerary barque:
Opet procession: The opet festival in Karnak was when they used boats to carry the bodies of
pharaohs from Karnak to other places.
Pit house: A Pit House was a type of semi subterranean dwelling, built half below the surface of
the ground in a deep hole or pit, made with a log frame with the walls and roof being covered
with grass, sticks, bark, brush that was covered with earth.
Potlatch: The purpose was the redistribution of wealth. Held in chief’s house. The act of giving
among people. An opulent ceremonial feast at which possessions are given away or destroyed to
display wealth or enhance prestige. Brought in people from far away. Gift-giving festival.
Skin/mat tent: A tent where a piece of skin/hide would be hung and function like a roof. Had no
walls and was open to weather.
Totem pole: Totem poles were the popular name for large cedar posts carved with effigies by
Native Americans from the Northwest.

Buildings and Sites:


Haida Village, British Columbia, Canada, ca. 4000 BCE: Haida canoes. Made large dugout
canoes from cedar logs. Used canoes to travel up and down sea coast and established villages
along the mouth of rivers to collect salmon. The canoes were the social interaction. Had Totem
Poles and pit houses.
Lothal, Indus Valley, India, ca. 3700 BCE: The oldest known port city that was a flourishing
port city with laid out streets. They were trading with Mesopotamia at this point. Lothal had an
Acropolis, market, lower town. Sun-dried bricks. The platform was cement mortar and bricks
and houses built on top of these platforms. The acropolis had water-well and ruling class houses
on it. There is a dock on the eastern end of a city surrounded by factories and houses. Factory
Kiln was a mud brick structure that consisted of a central courtyard and 11 rooms. Served as a
bead factory.
Boat Pits, Khufu Pyramid, Egypt, ca. 2500 BCE: There were boat pits at the Khufu pyramid.
Khufu Boat was a 143-foot-long shift and the largest of the boats. Model barques appeared
everywhere in temples and festivals. Barque sanctuaries and elaborate festival processions.
Chapelle Rouge, Temple of Amun, Karnak, Egypt, ca. 1550 – 370 BCE: The Chapelle Rouge
was a barque shrine during the reign of Hatshepsut. The Chapelle Rouge was inside the Karnak
temple. There is a hieroglyph. The barque sanctuary.
Petra, Siq, Al Khazneh, Great Temple, Theater, Jordan, ca. 37 – 100 CE: Important hub for
camel caravan routes. City of settling nomads. The entrance to the city of Petra was a long
national corridor called Siq. Stone carvings from nature. The Al Khazneh is carved out of
sandstone cliffs was entirely Hellenistic and composed of temple front. The Great temple
engaged in freestanding buildings with elements of Egyptians and Europeans. Temple had a
small theatre to fit 600 people for religious ceremonies. The theatre of Petra fit into a natural
rock formation. Incorporated Roman influences. Had a tall cavea (or sitting area for people).
Orchestra area accessed by barrel vault passages.
Bedouin Tent, Al Murrah, ca. 500 BCE – present: Tents clustered around centered space.
Skin/Mat Tent, Tuareg, ca. 1100 CE – present: Curved poles and bent arches.

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