Automotive Ignition Systems

Study Unit
Ignition System
Components and
Operation
iii
Preview
In your previous study units, you learned about the components of an engine and how they affect
engine operation. You also learned about automotive lubrication and cooling systems. In this
study unit, you’ll learn how an engine’s ignition system operates. An engine’s ignition system gen-
erates the high voltage needed to make a spark plug fire. The sparks from the spark plugs ignite
the air-and-fuel mixture in the engine’s cylinders and start the engine.
When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to
· Explain the difference between voltage, current, and resistance in a circuit
· Describe how a spark plug is constructed and how it operates
· Identify the components used in conventional and electronic ignition systems
· Describe the operation of spark-advance mechanisms
· Explain the operation of direct-fire ignition systems

v
Contents
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 1
A Simple Circuit
Conductors and Insulators
Current, Voltage, and Resistance
DC and AC Voltage and Current
The Relationship Between Current, Voltage, and Resistance
Measuring Electrical Quantities
Electromagnetism
INTRODUCTION TO IGNITION SYSTEM OPERATION · · · · · · · · · · · · 17

An Overview of Operation
The Battery
The Ignition Switch
The Ignition Coil
Triggering Devices
Spark Plug Wires
Spark Plugs
Firing Order
The Distributor
Review of Ignition System Operation
TRIGGERING IN CONVENTIONAL IGNITION SYSTEMS · · · · · · · · · · 42

Point-type Triggering Devices
The Contact Points
The Condenser
Primary-current Resistor
The Point Gap
The Dwell
TRIGGERING IN ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEMS · · · · · · · · · · · · · 49

Magnetic-pickup Triggering Devices
Hall-effect Triggering Devices
Optical Triggering Devices
IGNITION TIMING IN DISTRIBUTOR-TYPE IGNITION SYSTEMS · · · · · · · 57

Initial Timing
Precision Timing
Spark-advance Mechanisms
Timing in Electronic Ignition Systems
vi Contents
DIRECT-FIRE IGNITION SYSTEMS · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 64

Introduction
The Crankshaft Position Sensor
The Trigger Wheel
The Camshaft Position Sensor
Ignition Coils in Direct-fire Systems
Waste Sparks
Ignition Timing in Direct-fire Systems
Timing Control in Direct-fire Systems
Actual Direct-fire Examples
SUMMARY · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 98
POWER CHECK ANSWERS · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 99
EXAMINATION · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 101
1
Ignition System Components and Operation
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY
In this study unit, you’ll learn the different types of ignition systems
used to start and run automotive engines. Let’s begin with a review of
some basic concepts about electricity and circuits. Don’t worry if these
concepts aren’t familiar. You don't need to be an electrician in order to
work on automotive ignition systems. However, a basic knowledge of
electricity makes these systems easier to understand and troubleshoot.
In this study unit, we’ll limit our discussion to electrical concepts that
apply to ignition systems. You’ll learn more about electricity in general
in a later study unit.
A Simple Circuit
In order to work effectively on ignition systems, you need to know
how electricity is generated, distributed, used, and controlled. Let's be-
gin by examining a simple circuit. A circuit is defined as a complete
electrical path. A typical circuit includes a power source, conductors, a
load, and a switch. A power source is simply a source of electrical
power. A wall outlet is a common household power source. Conduc-
tors are the wires that carry the electricity. The load is a device, such as
a light or an appliance, that we want to run with electricity. The switch
is the device that’s used to turn the circuit on and off.
Circuits may be closed or open. In a closed circuit, the switch is in the
ON position. Electrical power from the battery flows on an unbroken
path to the load, flows through the load, and then returns back to the
battery. A closed circuit is complete—the power flows through the en-
tire circuit path to reach the load and then returns back to the original
power source. In contrast, in an open circuit, the switch is in the OFF
position. When the switch is turned off, the circuit path is broken and
the power can't reach the load.
A simple flashlight circuit is shown in Figure 1. The power source in
this circuit is a battery. The conductors are copper wire. The load is a
standard light bulb. In Figure 1A, the switch is open—turned to the
OFF position. The electrical circuit is therefore open, and power can't
flow through the wires to reach the bulb. In Figure 1B, the switch is
closed—turned to the ON position. The circuit is therefore complete,
2 Ignition System Components and Operation
FIGURE 1—This figure illustrates a simple electrical circuit. In Figure 1A, the switch is open, so electricity can't
flow to the light bulb. In Figure 1B, the switch is closed, allowing electricity to reach the light bulb and light it.
and electricity can flow through the wires to reach the bulb and turn
it on.
Now that you understand what a basic circuit is, let's take a closer look
at electricity itself. What exactly is electricity? Electricity is a natural
force produced by the movement of electrons. Electrons are tiny
atomic particles that have a negative electrical charge. In the circuit
shown in Figure 1, moving electrons come from the battery. The bat-
tery produces a flow of electrons that moves through the wires to light
the flashlight bulb.
Note that the battery has two different ends. The end of the battery
that's labeled with a negative or minus sign (–) is called the negative ter-
minal. The opposite end of the battery that's labeled with a positive or
plus sign (+) is called the positive terminal. The negative battery termi-
nal has a negative charge—that is, it contains too many electrons. The
positive battery terminal has a positive charge—it contains too few
electrons.
The negative and positive charges in a battery are produced by a sim-

ple chemical reaction. Figure 2 shows a simplified diagram of the parts
of a battery. The battery contains a chemical solution called electrolyte.
The battery terminals or electrodes are two strips of metal. Each elec-
trode is made from a different type of metal. When the strips of metal
are placed into the electrolyte solution, a chemical reaction occurs. As a
result of this reaction, a negative charge forms on one electrode, and a
positive charge forms on the other electrode.
You may have heard the phrase “opposites attract.” Well, this is defi-
nitely true in the world of electricity. Opposite electrical charges, posi-
tive and negative, attract each other very strongly and try to balance
Ignition System Components and Operation 3
each other out. Because of this attraction, whenever lots of electrons

are concentrated in one place, the electrons try to move to a place that
contains fewer electrons.
This is the basic operating principle of a battery. The negative terminal of a

battery has a high concentration of electrons, while the positive terminal
has very few electrons. So, the electrons at the negative battery terminal
are strongly drawn toward the positive battery terminal. However, in or-
der to actually move from the negative terminal to the positive terminal,
the electrons need a path to follow. We can create a path for the electrons
by connecting a wire between the battery terminals.
By attaching the two ends of a piece of wire to the two battery termi-
nals, we create a path for the electrons to follow between the terminals.
By attaching the wire in this way, we actually build a circuit. Note,
however, that this is not a practical experiment. Completing such a cir-
cuit could cause the battery to explode or, at the very least, the wire to
become very hot. In either case, someone could be seriously injured. If
we would like to use the electrons to perform useful work, we can con-
nect a light bulb to the circuit. We can also connect a switch to the cir-
cuit so that it can be turned on and off.
When we turn on the switch, the circuit is closed, and the electrons
from the negative battery terminal move to the positive battery termi-
nal. As the electrons flow through the light bulb, they cause the bulb’s
filament to heat up and glow, producing visible light. The flow of elec-
trons through a circuit is called electric current.
A simple circuit is shown in Figure 2. Electrons flow from the negative

battery terminal to the positive terminal through the conductors attached
to them. Note that the flow of electricity produced by the battery contin-
ues as long as there’s a chemical reaction in the battery. After some time,
the chemical reaction in the battery stops and the battery stops function-
ing. At that point the battery needs to be recharged or replaced.
Conductors and Insulators

You’ve just learned that electrons are atomic particles. All matter in the
universe is formed from about one hundred or so substances called ele-
ments. Each different element, such as hydrogen, gold, or uranium, is
made up of its own unique hydrogen, gold, or uranium atoms. An
atom is the smallest particle of an element that still keeps the proper-
ties of the element.
All atoms are made up of tiny atomic particles called protons, neutrons,
and electrons. The electron is a very lightweight particle that has a
negative electrical charge. Protons are much heavier than electrons and
have a positive electrical charge. Neutrons have no electrical charge at
FIGURE 2—In a simple

battery, a chemical re-
action takes place be-
tween the electrodes
and the electrolyte solu-
tion. This chemical reac-
tion produces an
electrical charge on NEGATIVE
each of the electrodes. ELECTRODE
POSITIVE
ELECTRODE
ELECTROLYTE
SOLUTION
all—they’re neutral. Electrons are the smallest type of atomic particle;

one electron is much smaller than the atom as a whole.
Figure 3A shows a drawing of a hydrogen atom, which is the simplest

atom known. (The element hydrogen is a gas that’s found in the at-
mosphere.) A hydrogen atom contains one electron and one proton.
The proton is located at the center of the atom in an area called the nu-
cleus. The electron orbits around the nucleus in a circle, just like the
moon orbits around the earth. All atoms are constructed this way, but
the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons varies in each different
element.
The hydrogen atom contains one positively charged proton and one
negatively charged electron. The proton’s positive charge and the elec-
tron’s negative charge balance each other out. Thus, as a whole, the hy-
drogen atom is perfectly balanced electrically. Because opposite
electrical charges attract each other, the electron in a hydrogen atom is
very strongly attracted to the proton. The electron can’t be easily re-
moved from the atom.
Now, in comparison, let’s look at the copper atom shown in Figure 3B.
(The element copper is a metal.) The copper atom contains 29 electrons
and 29 protons. The electrons orbit the nucleus of the copper atom in
several layers called shells. The outermost shell contains only one elec-
tron; this electron is called a free electron. Since the free electron is alone
and very far from the ato’ms nucleus, it’s not strongly attached to the
nucleus like the hydrogen’s electron was. For this reason, the free elec-
tron in a copper atom can easily be dislodged from its orbit.
ELECTRON
FREE ELECTRON
NUCLEUS
PROTON
NUCLEUS
ORBIT
HYDROGEN ATOM COPPER ATOM

(A) (B)
FIGURE 3—The single atom of hydrogen in Figure 3A contains one proton and one electron. The proton is
represented by the circle with the plus sign (+). The electron is represented by the circle with the minus sign
(–). The copper atom in Figure 3B contains a single electron in its outermost orbit. This free electron can eas-
ily be dislodged from its orbit, which makes copper a good conductor of electricity.
In general, protons and neutrons can’t be easily removed from an

atom. However, in some atoms, electrons can be easily removed from
their orbits. You already know that electric current is produced by the
movement of electrons. Well, in order to get the electrons moving, we
have to remove them from atoms.
The idea of removing electrons from atoms may seem strange and im-
possible. However, we remove electrons from atoms all the time with-
out realizing it. For example, if you shuffle across a carpet and then
touch a metal surface, what happens? You probably receive a small
shock, and you might even see a spark. This happens because, as you
scuffed your shoes along the carpet, you actually rubbed electrons off
the carpet. Your body held onto these electrons, and you became nega-
tively charged. When you touched the metal surface, the free electrons
from your body jumped to the metal, restoring your body to a neutral
charge. The discharge of electrons caused the small spark that you felt.
Thus, you can see that it’s not impossible to get electrons moving from
one place to another. However, it’s easier to get electrons moving in
some materials than in others. The structure of an individual atom de-
termines how easily an electron can be removed. For example, you
saw that the structure of the hydrogen atom makes it very difficult to
remove an electron from its orbit. So, it’s difficult to produce a flow of
electricity in hydrogen. However, in a copper atom, the outermost
electron can easily be dislodged from its orbit. Therefore, it’s very easy
to get a flow of electricity moving in copper. This is why copper is
used to make electrical wires and cables.
Any substance in which electrons can move freely is called an electrical

conductor. Copper, silver, gold, and other metals are good electrical
conductors. (In fact, silver and gold are better electrical conductors
than copper, but because silver and gold are so expensive, they aren’t
used to make electrical wires.) Materials in which the electrons are
very tightly bonded to the nucleus are called insulators. Plastic, nylon,
ceramic, and other such materials are very resistant to the flow of elec-
tricity and are classified as insulators.
Now, let’s see how electrons flow within an electrical circuit. Figure 4
shows a simple circuit in which a copper wire is attached to a battery.
One section of the copper wire is enlarged so you can see how elec-
trons would flow through the wire.
In the figure, the circuit is closed, and the electrons from the negative
battery terminal are drawn to the positive terminal. Remember that the
outermost electron in each copper atom is easily dislodged from its or-
bit. The flow of current starts at the negative battery terminal.
FIGURE 4—In this simple circuit, a section of the conductor wire has been en-
larged so that you can see how electrons would flow through the wire. A free
electron from the battery enters the wire. As the battery electron enters the
wire, it displaces free electrons from the copper atoms in the wire, creating a
“chain reaction” of moving electrons.
An electron is drawn from the negative battery terminal into the cop-
per conductor wire. This electron then collides with a free electron in a
copper atom, bumping the copper electron and taking its place. The
displaced copper atom moves to a neighboring copper atom, bumps
another free electron out of orbit, and takes its place. As this chain re-
action continues, each free electron bumps its neighbor out of orbit and
takes its place. (When we refer to the electrons bumping each other,
you might think of the balls on a billiards table. One ball strikes an-
other, causing it to move.) This chain reaction of moving electrons is
electric current.
In reality, of course, atoms are much too small to see, so we can’t fol-
low the movement of just one electron through a wire. Many millions
of copper atoms make up a wire. When a circuit is closed, millions of
electrons move through the wire at the same time at a very high rate of
speed. The more electrons that move through a circuit, the higher the
current is in the circuit.
Current, Voltage, and Resistance

Electrical and electronic circuits have three basic quantities associated
with them: current, voltage, and resistance. These quantities have a
very important relationship in a circuit.
As you’ve already learned, current is the flow of electrons through a
conductor. When a complete conducting path is present between two
opposing electrical charges, electrons begin to flow between the two
points. Current is measured in units called amperes or amps. The abbre-
viation for amperes is the letter A. So, the quantity 3 amperes would be
abbreviated 3 A. In electrical drawings, diagrams, and mathematical
formulas, current is usually represented by the letter I.
Small amounts of current may be noted with the abbreviations mA
(milliamperes) or A (microamperes). One milliampere of current is
equal to one one-thousandth of an ampere, or 0.001 A of current. One
microampere of current is equal to one-millionth of an ampere, or
0.000001 A of current. The following table shows you how to convert
between these different values.
Table
ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
UNIT ABBREVIATION VALUE
Ampere A 1 ampere
Milliampere mA 0.001 ampere
Microampere A 0.000001 ampere
Volt V 1 volt
Megavolt MV 1,000,000 volts
Kilovolt kV 1,000 volts
Millivolt mV 0.001 volt
Microvolt V 0.000001 volt
Ohm W 1 ohm
Megohm MW 1,000,000
Kilohm kW 1,000
CONVERSION EXAMPLES
To convert megohms to ohms, multiply the number of megohms by 1,000,000.

To convert kilohms to ohms, multiply the number of kilohms by 1,000.
To convert ohms to megohms, divide the number of ohms by 1,000,000.
To convert ohms to kilohms, divide the number of kilohms by 1,000.
To convert microamperes to amperes, divide the number of microamperes by
1,000,000.
To convert milliamperes to amperes, divide the number of milliamperes by
1,000.
To convert amperes to microamperes, multiply the number of amperes by
1,000,000.
To convert amperes to milliamperes, multiply the number of amperes by 1,000.
Now, let’s look at the electrical quantity voltage. Remember that in a

battery, one terminal has a negative charge and the other terminal has
a positive charge. Whenever a positive charge and a negative charge
are positioned close to each other in this way, a force is produced be-
tween the two charges. This force is called electrical potential. Electrical
potential is simply the difference in electrical charge between the two
opposing terminals. The bigger the difference between the two oppos-
ing charges, the greater the electrical potential is.
Voltage is a measure of the amount of electrical potential in a circuit.

Voltage is measured in units called volts. The abbreviation for volts is
the letter V. So, the quantity 2 volts would be abbreviated as 2 V. In
electrical diagrams and mathematical formulas, voltage is usually rep-
resented by the letter E.
The last electrical quantity you’ll learn about is resistance. Resistance is
a force of opposition that works against the flow of electric current in a
circuit. You’ve already seen that current flows easily through copper
wires. However, frayed wires, corroded connections, and other ob-
structions slow down the movement of electrons through a circuit.
That is, the circuit resists the flow of current through it. When a lot of
resistance is present in a circuit, a higher voltage is needed to get the
flow of electrons moving through the circuit.
Resistance is measured in units called ohms. The abbreviation for ohms
is the Greek letter omega, represented by the symbol W. Resistance is
usually represented by the letter R in electrical diagrams and mathe-
matical formulas.
Standard abbreviations are used to describe large values of resistance.
The value 10,000 ohms, for example, may be noted as either 10 kW or
10 kilohms. The prefixes k and kil stand for kilo—one thousand. The
value 20 million ohms may be noted as 20 MW or 20 megohms. The
prefixes M and meg stand for mega—one million.
Engine service manuals often provide electrical specifications in ohms.
For example, if you were measuring the amount of resistance in an ig-
nition module’s pins, the service manual would list the correct value in
ohms. The service manual may state that the resistance between Pin 1
and Pin 3 on an electronic ignition module is 300 W . (We’ll discuss
ignition components, specifications, and how to measure circuit quan-
tities in more detail later.)
To enhance your understanding of the relationship of current, voltage,
and resistance in a circuit, let’s compare an electrical circuit to a simple
water system. Electric circuits and water distribution systems have
many of the same properties.
In Figure 5, a simple electrical circuit is compared to a water circuit.

The water pipes form a path for the water to follow, so the pipes are
like the conductors in the electrical system. The water valve turns the
flow of water on and off, so the valve is like the switch in the electrical
system. The waterwheel is being operated by the flow of water, so the
wheel compares to the light bulb—the load—in the electrical circuit.
The water reservoir—the water source—can be compared to the bat-
tery—the power source—in the electrical circuit. The flow of water can
be compared to the flow of electrons. The water pump pushes the
FIGURE 5—Basic electrical principles can be visualized easily when you compare an electrical circuit to a
water system.
water into the pipes, so the pump can be compared to the voltage or
potential in the electrical circuit.
In Figure 5A, both the water circuit and the electrical circuit are turned
off. Both the water valve and the electric switch are in the OFF posi-
tion, so no water or current flows. The waterwheel doesn’t turn and
the light bulb doesn’t light up.
In Figure 5B, the water valve is turned on. Water is pumped out of the
reservoir and into the pipes; the water flows through the pipes, turns
the waterwheel, and then returns to the reservoir. In the electrical
system, the switch is in the ON position. Electric current flows out of
the battery through the wires, lights the bulb, and returns to the
battery.
When you look at this example, think of resistance as a blockage or

clog in the water pipe. If some debris was stuck in the pipe, the flow of
water through the pipe would be reduced. In a similar way, a resistor
in an electrical circuit reduces the flow of current through the circuit.
DC and AC Voltage and Current

In this study unit, you’ll learn about two different types of current. Di-
rect current (DC) is the flow of electrons in one direction only. A DC
voltage is nonvarying and is usually produced by a battery or a DC
power supply. If you were to graph a DC voltage of 9 volts over a peri-
od of time, your graph would look like the one shown in Figure 6A.
Whatever the voltage value, a DC voltage remains constant over time.
In an alternating current (AC), electrons flow in one direction first, and
then in the opposite direction. An alternating current reverses direc-
tion continually and is produced by an AC voltage source. An alternat-
ing current is the type of current found in household electrical systems
and wall outlets.
A graph of an alternating current is shown in Figure 6B. The current
starts at zero, then rises to a maximum positive value. At the maxi-
mum positive point, the current reverses direction and falls back to
zero. The current continues to drop until it reaches the maximum
negative value. The current then reverses direction again and rises
back to zero. One complete transition of the current from zero to the
positive peak, down to the negative peak, and back up to zero is called
a cycle. These alternating current cycles repeat continuously for as long
as the current flows.
In a modern automobile, a DC current from a battery powers the vari-
ous automotive systems. However, in addition to a DC current, an
automotive charging system often uses an alternating current. There-
fore, to understand the operation of automotive electrical systems,
technicians must be familiar with both DC and AC current.
The Relationship Between Current, Voltage, and Resistance

The values of resistance, current, and voltage have a very important re-
lationship in a circuit. Note that as the resistance in a circuit increases,
the current decreases. If the resistance in a circuit decreases, the current
increases. All circuits are designed to carry a particular amount of cur-
rent. In fact, a circuit is usually protected by a fuse that’s rated at a
value just slightly higher than the current value of the circuit.
DIRECT CURRENT ALTERNATING CURRENT

(A) (B)
FIGURE 6—In the graph shown in Figure 6A, you can see that the voltage level of a direct current (DC) re-
mains exactly the same over time. In the graph shown in Figure 6B, the voltage level of an alternating cur-
rent (AC) changes constantly.
If a problem develops in the circuit, the circuit draws too much current
from the battery. As a result, the excess current causes the fuse’s ele-
ments to melt, and the circuit is broken or opened. When a fuse’s ele-
ments melt in this way, we say that the fuse has “blown.”
It’s important to remember how resistance and current act in a circuit.
The relationship between electrical quantities is summarized by Ohm’s
law and is expressed with the following mathematical formula:
E=I R
In this formula, the variable E stands for the circuit voltage in volts, the
variable I stands for the circuit current in amperes, and the variable R
stands for the circuit resistance in ohms.
Ohm’s law is a very useful formula that’s used to analyze circuits and
troubleshoot circuit problems. Any time you know two of the three cir-
cuit values—voltage, current, or resistance—you can calculate the
third, unknown circuit value using Ohm’s law.
Measuring Electrical Quantities

Technicians use several testing tools to measure circuit quantities. The
most common testing instrument is the multimeter or volt-ohm-
milliammeter (VOM). A multimeter enables you to measure voltage,
current, and resistance. The multimeter is a box-like device with two
wires called test leads connected to it. The ends of the wire leads hold
probes that are used to make the actual circuit tests. A dial on the front
of the multimeter is used to select the quantity you want to measure.
The multimeter also has a display face where it displays the circuit in-
formation it reads. Depending on the type of multimeter, the display
may be a moving metal needle or a digital display.
To operate a multimeter, follow these steps.
Step 1: Select the quantity you want to measure by turning the dial.
Step 2: Take the two test leads in your hands and touch the probes to
two points in a circuit.
Step 3: Read the resulting information on the meter’s display.
Note that this is a very basic description of the operation of a multime-

ter. The actual operation is somewhat more involved, and electrical
safety precautions must be observed. If you use a multimeter incor-
rectly, you could receive a serious electrical shock and destroy the
multimeter. (You’ll learn how to operate a multimeter in a later study
unit.)
Note that when a multimeter is set to read resistance, it’s sometimes
called an ohmmeter. When it’s set to measure voltage, it’s called a volt-
meter. When it’s set to measure current, it’s called an ammeter.
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is very important to the operation of ignition systems.
Electromagnetism is the magnetic effect produced when electric cur-
rent flows through a conductor. When a conductor is carrying an elec-
tric current, the wire is surrounded by a magnetic field. A magnetic
field is the space around a magnet or magnetic object that contains a
force of attraction. This force of attraction is sometimes called magnetic
lines of force or magnetic flux. The magnetic field is strongest in the space
immediately surrounding the conductor. The force of electromagnet-
ism has many interesting and highly useful applications.
If an insulated piece of conductor wire is looped around to form a coil,

the resulting device is called a magnetic coil (Figure 7). When current
flows through a magnetic coil, each separate loop of wire develops its
own small magnetic field. The small magnetic fields around each sepa-
rate loop of wire then combine to form a larger and stronger magnetic
field around the entire coil. The coil develops a north pole and a south
pole. The magnetic field at the center of a magnetic coil is stronger than
the fields above or below the coil.
FIGURE 7—This figure shows a basic magnetic coil and the magnetic lines of
force that surround it.
An electromagnet is a device that’s made by inserting a piece of mag-

netic material, usually iron or soft steel, into a magnetic coil (Figure 8).
The piece of metal that the conductor is coiled around is called the core.
When current is applied to the coil, the core becomes magnetized and
develops a north and south pole. The addition of the metal core to the
coil increases the magnetic force of the coil. So, an electromagnet is
generally much stronger than a magnetic coil of a similar size.
Another useful electromagnetic property is mutual inductance. If two
conductors are placed close together, and current is applied to one of
the conductors, a voltage is induced in the other conductor. Therefore,
because the two conductors are physically close to each other, the en-
ergy in the “live” conductor energizes the other conductor. This effect
is called mutual inductance, and it can be used to operate transform-
ers. Note that if the conductors are moved apart from each other, the
effect of mutual inductance weakens. If the conductors are moved very
FIGURE 8—This figure

shows the construction
of a basic electromag-
net. A piece of mag-
netic material is inserted
into a magnetic coil.
FIGURE 9—A basic trans-

former is shown here. A
change in voltage in the V
primary winding induces
a voltage in the secon- SWITCH
dary winding.
PRIMARY SECONDARY
WINDING WINDING
IRON
CORE
far apart, the energy of the “live” conductor won’t be strong enough to
influence the second conductor, and the mutual inductance will stop.
A basic transformer is shown in Figure 9. The transformer is a device

that consists of two windings of wire wound around an iron core. The
first winding is called the primary winding and the second winding is
called the secondary winding. In this figure, the primary winding is con-
nected to a battery through a switch and a resistor; the secondary
winding is connected to a voltmeter.
When the switch is open as shown in Figure 9, no current flows
through the primary winding; thus, no magnetic field is produced, and
no voltage is induced in the secondary winding. However, when the
switch is closed, current flows through the primary winding, and pro-
duces a magnetic field around the primary winding. The magnetic
field spreads outward and cuts across the secondary winding, induc-
ing a voltage. The voltage registers on the voltmeter attached to the
secondary winding. Later in this study unit, you’ll learn how the prin-
ciple of mutual inductance is used in automotive ignition systems.
Now, take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by complet-
ing Power Check 1.
Power Check 1
At the end of each section of Ignition System Components and Operation, you’ll be asked
to pause and check your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a
“Power Check” exercise. Writing the answers to these questions will help you to review
what you’ve studied so far. Please complete Power Check 1 now.
1. The measure of the amount of electrical potential in a circuit is called the _______.
2. Electrical current is measured in units called _______.
3. The symbol W is used as an abbreviation for _______.
4. The flow of electrons through a circuit is called _______.
5. When electricity flows through a conductor, a _______ field is created around the
conductor.
6. Electrical resistance is measured in units called _______.
7. Opposition to the flow of electricity in a circuit is called _______.
Questions 8–12: Indicate whether the following statements are True or False.
_____ 8. Electrons are the smallest type of atomic particle.
_____ 9. The letter that’s used as an abbreviation for electric current is V.
_____10. One milliampere is equal to 0.001 ampere.
_____11. One kilovolt is equal to 10 volts.
_____12. An electron has a negative electrical charge.
Check your answers with those on page 99.

INTRODUCTION TO IGNITION SYSTEM OPERATION
An Overview of Operation
Now that you have a general understanding of what electricity is and
how it flows through a circuit, let’s examine how automotive ignition
systems operate. We’ll begin with the basics, and then move on to a
more detailed discussion of automotive ignition systems.
What exactly does an ignition system do? Well, once the air-and-fuel
mixture has been compressed in an engine’s combustion chamber, the
engine needs something to ignite the mixture. The engine’s ignition
system performs this task. The ignition system takes electricity from
the vehicle’s battery, increases the battery voltage to a much higher
voltage, and then sends this high voltage to the spark plugs. The high
voltage causes the spark plugs to produce a powerful, hot spark.
Each spark plug is threaded into a hole that leads directly into a cylin-
der’s combustion chamber. In simple terms, a spark plug is a device
that electricity flows through. At the very end of the spark plug are a
pair of metal contacts called electrodes. These contacts are separated
from one another by a small air space. When electricity flows through
a spark plug, it jumps across this air space from one electrode to the
other. As the electricity jumps across the space, a powerful spark is
produced. This spark ignites the air-and-fuel mixture that surrounds it
inside the cylinder. The resulting “explosion” in the combustion cham-
ber forces the piston down and gets the crankshaft turning.
Remember the four stages of operation in a four-stroke engine. During

the intake stage, the piston moves down in the cylinder to take the air-
and-fuel mixture into the cylinder. Then, the piston rises during the
compression stage to compress the air-and-fuel mixture in the combus-
tion chamber. When the piston reaches top dead center (TDC), the
spark plug fires and ignites the compressed air-and-fuel mixture. The
ignition of the air-and-fuel mixture forces the piston down in the cylin-
der, producing the power stage. The power produced by the ignition
of the air-and-fuel mixture gets the crankshaft turning, which keeps
the piston moving and the engine running. The ignition process keeps
the engine running for as long as the fuel lasts and for as long as the
spark plug continues firing.
An ignition system must produce a very high voltage in order to force
electric current—moving electrons—across the spark plug gap. As
many as 90,000 volts are needed to make this spark in some engines.
The spark that’s produced must be very powerful so that it can quickly
ignite the air-and-fuel mixture in the cylinder. The more completely
the fuel is burned, the more power that’s produced. The spark must
also occur near the end of each cylinder’s compression stage in order
to properly ignite and burn the air-and-fuel mixture. Also, an engine
requires many sparks per minute in order to keep running at the
proper speed. Remember that by the time the crankshaft completes
two rotations, every engine cylinder must have fired. Therefore, if a
typical six-cylinder engine is operating at a speed of 3,000 rpms, a
spark occurs 1,500 times per minute in each cylinder. Since the engine
has six cylinders, this is a total of 9,000 spark occurrences for all of the
cylinders! You can see that the ignition system has a very difficult job
to do.
How does the ignition system produce a powerful spark, time it per-
fectly, and keep making sparks over and over again? Let’s find out.
Figure 10 shows a simplified view of a typical automotive ignition sys-

tem. This basic ignition system contains a battery, an ignition switch,
an ignition coil, a distributor, a triggering device, a spark plug wire,
and a spark plug. These components perform the following functions.
· The battery supplies electricity to the system.
· The ignition switch turns the system on and off.
· The ignition coil strengthens the electricity from the battery.
· The distributor directs the electricity to the spark plug.
· The triggering device controls when the spark occurs.
· The spark plug wire carries the electricity to the spark plug.
FIGURE 10—A simplified view of a typical automotive ignition system is shown here.
· The spark plug produces the spark in the cylinder that ignites the
air-and-fuel mixture.
To better understand a basic ignition system, let’s explore each of its

components in a little more detail. We’ll begin with the battery.
The Battery
In most automobiles, the power source for the ignition is a battery and
an alternator. In a battery ignition system, the battery provides power
to the ignition coil. The battery used in this type of system is a lead-
acid storage battery. In addition to providing electricity to the ignition
coil, the battery may also be used to power lights, horns, and other ac-
cessory circuits.
A typical lead-acid storage battery is made up of several individual
compartments called cells. Each cell is made up of a series of lead
plates. Small spaces between the plates are filled with an electrolyte so-
lution. This solution is usually made from sulfuric acid diluted with
water. Each cell produces approximately 2 V when the battery is fully
charged, so a 12 V battery contains six cells. A diagram of a typical
storage battery is shown in Figure 11.
Note: The acid used in storage batteries can cause burns and destroy
clothing. Always use extreme caution when working near a lead-acid
battery.
Normally, a battery has a total output voltage of 12 volts of direct cur-

rent, or 12 DC. The current produced by the battery is often measured
in units called ampere/hours (Ah). In a battery ignition system, the alter-
nator is used to recharge the battery as the engine operates.
FIGURE 11—This figure

shows a storage battery
that contains six 2 V
cells. The total voltage of
the battery is 12 V.
The Ignition Switch

The type of ignition switch used on vehicles many years ago was much
simpler than the type used today. This is because old switches had
only one function—to open and close the primary ignition circuit.
Modern ignition switches must accomplish this function and many
others. For example, the ignition switch must operate the crank-
ing-motor circuit, a buzzer if the ignition key is left in the switch when
the vehicle’s door is opened, a locking mechanism for the steering
wheel to prevent theft, and a means for the radio and other accessory
circuits to operate when the engine is off.
Because of these many functions, the ignition switch assembly is some-
what larger than it was many years ago. The switch assembly is usu-
ally mounted a short distance down the steering column from the key
lock cylinder assembly. The two assemblies are then connected by an
ignition switch actuator rod (Figure 12). Note that turning the key
moves a gear-and-rack assembly. The gear-and-rack assembly, in turn,
moves the ignition switch actuator rod and plunger to the various po-
sitions required for performing ignition switch functions.
Several different types of ignition switches are commonly used. The
most common is the five-position switch (Figure 13). In the accessory or
ACT position, the engine is shut off and a connection is made from the
battery terminal to the accessory terminal of the switch. This allows ac-
cessories such as the radio, heater, blower, and windshield wiper to be
operated when the ignition, fuel gage, and indicator light circuits are
off.
FIGURE 12—In modern automobiles, the ignition switch assembly is mounted

to the steering column and is operated by a key lock cylinder assembly at
the top of the steering column.
In the OFF and LOCK positions, accessories that are supplied with
power through the ignition switch can’t be operated. Also, it’s general
practice to ground the resistance wire circuit to the ignition coil when
the switch is in the LOCK position. This prevents the engine from be-
ing operated with a jumper to the coil.
Generally, in the START position, all accessories that are supplied with
power through the switch are temporarily disconnected. (However,
you may see some exceptions to this rule.) One connection is made to
the starter solenoid, and a second connection is made directly to the ig-
nition coil. Because the battery voltage lowers when an engine is
started, the ballast resistor, which supplies the switch with power, is
bypassed to provide a higher secondary winding voltage to start the
engine.
When the ignition switch is released from the START position, a
spring returns the switch to the ON position.
FIGURE 13—Most auto-

mobiles use a five-
position ignition switch
like the one shown here.
The Ignition Coil

All ignition systems contain an ignition coil. The ignition coil is actu-
ally a type of electric transformer that changes low-voltage electricity
to high-voltage electricity.
Ignition coils work on the principles of magnetic induction. An igni-
tion coil contains two coils of wire called the primary winding and the
secondary winding (Figure 14). The primary winding is made of turns of
heavy-gage wire; in contrast, the secondary winding is made of many
turns of very fine-gage wire wrapped around a soft iron core. The sec-
ondary winding has many more turns of wire than the primary wind-
ing. The difference in the number of turns of wire between the two is
what allows the ignition coil to increase voltage.
FIGURE 14—An ignition coil contains two wire windings called the primary
winding and the secondary winding. The primary winding is made of turns of
heavy wire, while the secondary winding is made of many turns of fine wire.
In all vehicles, the ignition coil performs the same function—it uses the
forces of electromagnetism to convert a low voltage from the battery
into the high voltage that’s needed to fire the spark plug.
All ignition coils contain the following basic components:
1. A small number of turns of heavy wire
2. A large number of turns of fine wire
3. A central core of soft iron
4. Insulation between each turn of wire, and between the turns and
the iron core
5. External electrical connections
In the ignition coil, one end of the transformer’s primary winding is

connected to the vehicle’s battery. The battery applies low-voltage
electricity to the coil’s primary winding. The flow of electricity from
the battery is controlled by the ignition switch. When the ignition
switch is in the OFF position, no electricity is available to the ignition
coil. When the ignition switch is in the ON position, current is allowed
to flow through the primary winding of the coil. A resistor is often
placed between the ignition switch and the other ignition system com-
ponents. The resistor prevents damage to the components due to ex-
cessive current flow.
As you know, when a current flows through a conductor wire, a mag-

netic field builds up around the wire. The magnetic field that accumu-
lates in the primary winding of the ignition coil is very strong. If the
current flow to the primary winding is suddenly stopped or turned
off, the magnetic field in the primary winding collapses. This collaps-
ing magnetic field then induces a very high voltage in the secondary
winding of the ignition coil.
In an ignition system, a triggering device is attached to the primary

winding of the ignition coil. The triggering device is used to turn the
current flow in the primary winding on and off at the proper time.
Because the coil’s secondary winding has many more turns of wire
than the primary winding, the voltage that’s induced in the secondary
winding is much higher than the original voltage applied to the pri-
mary winding. In a typical automotive ignition system, the battery
supplies about 12 volts to the coil’s primary winding, and the ignition
coil increases that voltage to between 20,000 and 90,000 volts.
The secondary coil winding is connected to the spark plug wire. The
spark plug wire is a heavily insulated wire that leads directly to the
spark plug. When the strong voltage is induced in the secondary
winding, current flows through the secondary winding and then out
through the spark plug wire. The current flows through the spark plug
wire directly to the spark plugs in the engine cylinders. The current
then flows through the spark plug and produces a strong electrical
spark at the end of the plug. The spark ignites the air-and-fuel mixture
in the cylinder, and the engine starts running.
Remember that the high voltage in the secondary winding is produced

only when the current stops. This is a very important concept to un-
derstand. Current from the battery passes through the transformer’s
primary winding, and when the current flow is stopped, the magnetic
field collapses and produces a high voltage in the secondary winding.
This means that an ignition system needs the triggering device to keep
turning the current from the power source on and off.
Two types of ignition coils are commonly used in automotive ignition

systems: round coils and flat coils, which are also called E-type coils.
Round coils have two sets of windings that are held inside a round cy-
lindrical housing (Figure 15A). The primary winding is placed on the
outer edge of the coil. The winding has two terminals that stick up out
of the top of the coil. One of these terminals connects the coil to the
battery, while the other terminal connects the coil to the triggering de-
vice. The secondary winding, which consists of many turns of very
fine wire, is located toward the center of the coil. The high voltage is
produced in these windings. The output from these windings leads to
a large terminal at the very top of the coil. From this terminal, the high
voltage is directed through the coil wire and spark plug wire to the
spark plug.
FIGURE 15—Most ignition systems use either a round ignition coil like the one
shown in Figure 15A, or a flat coil like the one shown in Figure 15B. The flat
coil is sometimes called an E-type coil.
The flat coil or E-type coil (Figure 15B) consists of an iron frame that
surrounds the primary and secondary windings. The entire assembly
is covered with epoxy insulation and doesn’t contain oil. The positive
and negative primary terminals project from the side of the coil assem-
bly, along with a third wire that serves as a ground. The secondary
voltage discharge is at the center of the coil.
Triggering Devices
All ignition systems use some type of triggering device to turn the pri-
mary coil winding on and off. A triggering device works much like a
switch. Earlier you learned about open and closed circuits. The igni-
tion system’s circuit is closed when the switch closes. When the switch
closes, current flows from the power source to the transformer. When
the switch opens, the circuit is opened and the flow of current immedi-
ately stops. When the current stops, the magnetic field in the trans-
former collapses, producing the voltage needed to fire the spark plug.
Imagine that you’re standing near a light switch in your home, flip-
ping the switch on and off. Each time you flip the switch on, the light
comes on. When you flip the switch off, the light goes out. If you keep
doing this, you’ll get an ON, OFF, ON, OFF pattern. This is very simi-
lar to the action of the triggering device in an ignition system. The trig-
gering device is connected to one end of the ignition coil’s primary
winding. Each time the triggering device stops the current flow in the
primary winding, the spark plug fires. The spark plug keeps firing
continually—about 1,800 times per minute—so the engine keeps
running.
In modern automobiles, the triggering devices used vary greatly from

one engine to another. Years ago, the triggering was handled by a set
of contact points. A system that uses contact points is called a point-
type ignition system or a conventional ignition system. Contact points are
simple electrical contacts that open and close as needed to turn the pri-
mary winding on and off.
However, because contact points tend to wear out and can handle only
a limited amount of current, all modern automobiles use electronic
triggering devices. A system that uses an electronic triggering device is
called an electronic ignition system. Since there isn’t any physical contact
between the various components in an electronic ignition system, parts
don’t wear out or need adjustment. Also, electronic ignition systems
can handle more current than conventional ignition systems. This al-
lows electronic systems to perform reliably for a long period of time.
Most modern vehicles also use a computer control system to control
engine operation. In these vehicles, the ignition system is usually con-
nected to the computer control system. In a computer-controlled igni-
tion system, the electronic triggering device sends information to the
onboard computer. The computer then uses the information to turn
the coil on and off at the proper time. A computer control system can
precisely vary the ignition timing to match current engine conditions,
which results in better efficiency and more power.
You’ll learn more about different types of triggering devices later in
this study unit. For now, just remember that the triggering device
turns the power in the coils on and off, and this produces a spark in
the cylinder at the proper time. Once the current in the primary wind-
ing is shut off, the magnetic field collapses and produces a high volt-
age in the secondary winding.
Spark Plug Wires

Ignition system wires can be classified into two general types: primary
wires and secondary wires. Primary wires carry high-current loads at
low voltages from the battery to the ignition components. These wires
are made of large-diameter conductors that are covered with light in-
sulation. In contrast, secondary wires are used to carry small amounts
of current, but at very high voltages. Therefore, secondary wires are
made of small-diameter conductors that are covered with thick coat-
ings of rubber, plastic, or neoprene insulation. Figure 16 shows a com-
parison of primary and secondary wires.
As you’ve learned, the electricity that’s sent to the spark plug must be
very strong to produce a proper spark. In modern ignition systems, it
isn’t uncommon for ignition coils to produce voltages as high as 90,000
volts. When you consider that the voltage supplied to a typical house-
FIGURE 16—This illustra-

tion shows the differ-
ences between primary
and secondary wires.
Primary wires are made
of large-diameter con-
ductors that are covered
with light insulation. Sec-
ondary wires are made
of small-diameter con-
ductors that are covered
with thick insulation.
hold circuit is only 110 volts, you can see that a coil produces a very
high voltage! Because of these high voltages, special, heavily insulated
wires called spark plug wires or high-tension wires must be used to con-
nect the coil to the spark plug.
Spark plug wires are made from heavily insulated secondary wires be-
cause they must carry very high voltages. If the spark plug wire wasn’t
heavily insulated, the high voltage might jump to any metal object, such
as the engine block, instead of flowing to the spark plug.
Note that the conductor inside the spark plug wire isn’t a metal wire.
Instead, the conductor is made from a special type of carbon-
impregnated fiberglass. The fiberglass conductor prevents radio and
television interference, increases firing voltages, and reduces spark
plug wear by reducing current.
Both ends of a spark plug wire have metal connectors called terminals
attached to them. The internal end of each terminal is connected to the
conductor, and the exposed end of the terminal is used to make a solid
physical connection to the spark plugs or the distributor. For example,
a spark plug wire’s terminal is placed over the spark plug’s terminal
nut to create a connection between the two. By using this type of con-
nection, spark plug wires can be easily removed and installed when
you’re testing the system or replacing the spark plugs.
In addition to the insulation around the wire itself, spark plug wire ter-
minals are also surrounded by insulating boots made of rubber, silicon,
or neoprene. The boots help to prevent current from leaking or arcing
out of the spark plug wire to nearby metal parts. In addition, insulat-
ing boots help keep dirt and moisture from collecting on the terminals.
Spark Plugs
As you learned, a spark plug is designed to allow a voltage to jump
across a gap, producing a spark that ignites the engine’s fuel. Four-
stroke engines contain one spark plug for each cylinder. An external
FIGURE 17—Figure 17A shows an external view of a typical spark plug. Figure
17B shows the parts of a spark plug.
view of a spark plug is shown in Figure 17A. The basic parts of a spark
plug are shown in Figure 17B.
The metal section at the bottom of the spark plug is called the shell. The
top section of the shell is molded into a hexagon shape that fits into a
wrench or socket. Thus, a wrench or socket can be used to install or re-
move a spark plug. The lower section of the shell is threaded. Remem-
ber that a spark plug screws into a hole of the cylinder head. The
threads on the bottom of the spark plug mate with threads inside the
hole in the cylinder head.
A spark plug has two metal electrodes or terminals. The metal elec-
trodes are conductors through which current flows. One electrode
runs through the entire length of the spark plug. This is called the cen-
ter electrode. The second electrode is connected to the threaded part of
the spark plug. This electrode is sometimes called the side electrode or
the grounding electrode. The grounding electrode bends around so that
it’s very close to the end of the center electrode. The small air space be-
tween the two electrodes is called the gap.
The top end of the center electrode connects to the terminal nut of the
spark plug. When the spark plug is screwed into the cylinder head, the
terminal nut is connected to the spark plug wire.
The high voltage produced by the ignition coil travels through the
spark plug wire and enters the spark plug through the terminal nut.
The electricity then flows down the spark plug through the center elec-
trode and jumps across the gap from one electrode to the other to pro-
duce the spark.
Different plugs have different types of electrodes. In some plugs, the
center electrode is made of an alloy of copper and steel. Other plugs
have electrodes that are made of a platinum alloy. Platinum-alloy elec-
trodes operate better under high temperatures and burn off combus-
tion deposits at lower temperatures. The various spark plug manufac-
turers usually indicate what type of electrode the spark plug is equipped
with. The best advice as far as choosing a particular type of spark plug is
to use the plug that’s recommended by the vehicle manufacturer. This
information is usually listed in the vehicle’s service manual.
In some spark plugs, a small ceramic element is placed in the center
electrode. This element acts as a resistor, preventing the spark plug
from interfering with radio frequencies. When a spark plug fires, it
sometimes interferes with the radio. This interference causes a pop-
ping noise in radios, televisions, and in some types of communication
systems. The resistance element in the plug helps to prevent this inter-
ference.
The shape of the grounding electrodes in spark plugs varies. Most

grounding electrodes bend and extend over the entire width of the
center electrode. This is sometimes called an automotive gap spark plug.
However, in some plugs, the grounding electrode is split to form two
separate grounding electrodes. This type of spark plug is sometimes
called a split-fire or split-electrode spark plug. The manufacturers of these
plugs claim that the split-type electrode offers better engine perform-
ance and fuel economy. However, this is a matter of opinion; some
technicians believe the split electrode does provide benefits, while oth-
ers feel it offers no performance advantages. Again, use the spark
plugs recommended by the manufacturer. An automotive gap and a
split-electrode spark plug are shown in Figure 18.
FIGURE 18—Figure 18A

shows the end of an
automotive gap spark
plug. Figure 18B shows a
split-electrode spark
plug.
AUTOMOTIVE GAP SPLIT-ELECTRODE

SPARK PLUG SPARK PLUG
(A) (B)
The gap between the two plug electrodes is very small and is usually
measured in thousandths of an inch. The correct gap measurement is very
important to the correct operation of the spark plug. If a gap is too narrow,
the spark produced is weak and the ignition is poor. In contrast, if the gap
is too wide, it’s difficult for the electricity to jump the gap. This condition
also results in a weak spark. Therefore, you can see that the width of the
gap is a very important factor in ignition system performance.
The body of a spark plug is encased in a porcelain shell. Porcelain, a

china-like substance, is used for the shell because it’s an electrical insula-
tor—it doesn’t conduct electricity. This porcelain insulator electrically iso-
lates the voltage inside the spark plug. The spark plug’s manufacturer and
identification number are usually printed on the porcelain insulation.
Note that the porcelain covering is ribbed. The ribs extend from the
terminal nut to the shell of the plug to prevent a condition called
flashover. In flashover, current jumps or arcs from the terminal nut to
the metal shell on the outside of the plug instead of traveling down
through the center electrode.
You learned earlier that the spark plug wire is connected to the spark
plug by a metal connector that fits down over the plug’s terminal nut.
A typical spark plug wire connection is shown in Figure 19. Note that
this connector has a rubber boot that seals out dirt and moisture. The
boot also prevents the high voltage from jumping out to the cylinder
head instead of flowing down to the spark plug electrode.
FIGURE 19—The insulated

connector on the end of SPARK PLUG WIRE
a spark plug wire fits
down around the spark
plug’s terminal nut as
shown here.
RUBBER BOOT
SPARK PLUG
If you look quickly at a group of spark plugs, they may all look alike.
However, spark plugs are manufactured with minute differences that
affect their performance. Each type of spark plug is identified by a spe-
cific manufacturer identification number. When you replace a spark
plug, always use the same type of plug.
Now, let’s discuss some of these different spark plug specifications.

The first specification is called reach. The reach of a spark plug is the
length of the metal threads at the end of the plug. The reach of a spark
plug is shown in Figure 20.
FIGURE 20—The length of the threaded area of a spark plug is called the reach.
The correct spark plug reach is essential to proper engine operation. If

the spark plug reach is too long, the threaded part extends down into
the combustion chamber and hits the piston each time it rises, which
seriously damages the engine. If the reach is too short, the spark occurs
too high in the cylinder head. This causes the air-and-fuel mixture to
burn too slowly in the combustion chamber and delays the start of the
power stroke. The delayed power stroke causes a loss of power and
makes the engine difficult to start.
Spark plugs also differ in terms of how much heat they can withstand.
Heat from the fuel combustion process is absorbed by the spark plug
during engine operation and is conducted upward through the plug.
Combustion temperatures normally range from 1,000 to 1,500 degrees
Fahrenheit. Thus, a spark plug must be able to withstand these
temperatures.
Each spark plug has a heat range. A spark plug’s heat range deter-
mines, to a large extent, engine performance under different conditions
and speeds. A heat range classifies a spark plug according to its ability
to transfer heat from the gap end of the plug to the engine’s cooling
system. The rate of heat transfer is controlled by the length of the insu-
lator tip, as shown in Figure 21.
FIGURE 21—A spark plug’s heat range is a measure of the plug’s ability to
transfer heat. The rate of heat transfer is controlled by the length of the insula-
tor tip. The hot plug in Figure 21A transfers less heat than the cold plug shown
in Figure 21B.
A spark plug is called a cold plug if it can easily transfer combustion

heat from the firing end of the plug out to the cylinder head. In a hot
plug, the center electrode is more isolated from the shell and the cylin-
der head. Therefore, a hot plug tends to retain its heat. Cold plugs
have shorter insulator tips than hot plugs.
Spark plugs are made in several heat ranges to suit different engines
and different operating conditions. A spark plug with the correct heat
range must be installed in an engine. For instance, a cold plug should
be installed in an engine that has high combustion temperatures. A hot
plug should be installed in an engine with low combustion tempera-
tures. If a hot plug is installed in a hot-running engine, the spark plug
may overheat. If a cold plug is installed in a cool-running engine,
heavy carbon deposits form on the electrodes, making it difficult for
the spark plug to fire. When the plug is in the correct temperature
range, the heat from combustion burns the byproducts of combustion
off the electrodes and keep them clean without causing them to over-
heat.
Firing Order
Earlier in this program, you learned that all automobiles contain multi-
cylinder engines; that is, engines with more than one cylinder. Usually,
an automotive engine contains four, six, or eight cylinders. Each of the
cylinders fires at a different time at equally spaced intervals. By firing
the engine cylinders at different times, the forces in the engine are bal-
anced and vibration is kept to a minimum. In order to achieve the most
efficient engine operation, each engine cylinder must be fired as it ap-
proaches TDC on its compression stroke. As you may remember, the
order in which an engine’s cylinders fire is called the firing order. The
firing order of the cylinders varies from engine to engine, depending
on the manufacturer’s design.
In an earlier study unit, you learned how an engine’s cylinders are

numbered—in most cases, from the front of the engine to the back. In
an in-line, four-cylinder engine, the cylinders are usually numbered 1-
2-3-4 from the front of the engine to the back. However, in most cases,
the engine’s firing order doesn’t follow a simple numerical order. For
example, a typical firing order for an in-line, four-cylinder engine is 1-
3-4-2. The firing order for a particular engine is listed in the vehicle’s
service manual. Figure 22 shows some typical automotive firing orders
for six-cylinder and eight-cylinder engines.
FIGURE 22—Figure 22A

shows the cylinder ar- FRONT OF CAR
rangement and firing or- (90 V-6) FRONT OF CAR
der for a General Motors LEFT RIGHT LEFT RIGHT
V-6 engine; Figure 22B BANK BANK BANK BANK
shows the cylinder ar-
1 2 4 1
rangement and firing or-
der for a Ford V-6 3 4 5 2
engine; Figure 22C shows 5 6 6 3
the cylinder arrange-
ment and firing order for FIRING ORDER FIRING ORDER
a General Motors V-8 1-2-3-4-5-6 1-4-2-5-3-6
(A) (B)
engine; and Figure 22D
shows the cylinder ar-
rangement and firing or-
der for a Ford V-8 FRONT OF CAR FRONT OF CAR
engine. LEFT RIGHT LEFT RIGHT
BANK BANK BANK BANK
1 2 5 1
3 4 6 2
5 6 7 3
7 8 8 4
FIRING ORDER FIRING ORDER

1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2 1-5-4-2-6-3-7-8
(C) (D)
The Distributor
Two different types of ignition systems are used to control the spark
that’s delivered to an engine’s cylinders: distributor-type systems and
direct-fire systems. In a distributor-type ignition system, a single ignition
coil powers all the spark plugs in the engine. A device called a distribu-
tor is used to direct the high voltage from the ignition coil to the spark
plugs. Remember that in most engines, each cylinder ignites at a differ-
ent time so that the engine runs more smoothly. Therefore, the dis-
tributor directs the high voltage to the cylinder that’s currently on its
compression stroke and ready to have the air-and-fuel mixture ignited
to produce power.
In contrast, a direct-fire system uses a single battery and triggering de-

vice, and separate coils to control the spark at each engine cylinder. A
computer control system takes the information from the triggering de-
vice and uses it to fire each cylinder at the proper time.
You’ll learn about direct-fire ignition systems in detail later in the

study unit. For now, let’s concentrate on the ignition systems that use
distributors. A simplified view of a distributor-type ignition system is
shown in Figure 23.
FIGURE 23—A typical distributor-type ignition system for an eight-cylinder engine is shown here.
The main parts of the distributor are the housing, gear, shaft, cap, and
rotor. In some systems, the ignition coil and the triggering device are
both housed inside the distributor.
The distributor itself consists of several different components, as

shown in Figure 24. The distributor’s outer shell is called the housing.
The distributor’s top covering is called the distributor cap. The dis-
tributor shaft runs through the middle of the distributor. The distribu-
tor gear is attached to the end of the distributor shaft. The distributor is
usually mounted to an engine with its housing placed in a hole in the
engine block or cylinder head.
FIGURE 24—The components of a typical distributor are shown here. Note that the ignition coil is mounted
inside this particular distributor.
When a distributor is installed in an engine, the gear on the end of the

distributor shaft is driven by a similar gear that’s attached to the en-
gine’s camshaft. Therefore, whenever the engine is running, the dis-
tributor shaft turns with the camshaft at the same speed. Therefore,
one camshaft rotation results in one distributor rotation.
Distributor caps are made from heat-resistant plastic and are heavily
insulated (Figure 25A). The distributor cap fits snugly over the top of
the distributor housing. In this figure, note that the distributor cap con-
tains several points called towers. The towers that are arranged evenly
around the outer edge of the distributor cap are called the spark towers.
The tower in the center of the distributor cap is called the coil tower.
Note that a distributor cap contains one spark tower for each of the en-
gine’s cylinders. Therefore, the distributor cap in an eight-cylinder en-
gine has eight spark towers, and the cap in a six-cylinder engine has
six spark towers. Remember that a complete circle contains 360 de-
grees. So, if a distributor cap contains four towers, each tower is posi-
tioned 90 degrees apart from its neighboring towers on the distributor
(360 ¸ 4 = 90). If a distributor contains six towers, the towers are posi-
tioned 60 degrees apart (360 ¸ 60 = 6). In a distributor with eight
towers, the towers are 45 degrees apart (360 ¸ 8 = 45). The distributor
FIGURE 25—Figure 25A shows an external view of a typical automotive distributor cap. Figure 25B shows the
metal contacts on the underside of the cap.
cap shown in Figure 25A has eight spark towers that are positioned 45
degrees apart.
Figure 25B shows the underside of the distributor cap. Metal inserts
are cast into each tower in the cap. These metal inserts extend down-
ward into the cap as shown in the figure. The metal contact in the cen-
ter of the cap is inserted into the coil tower. This center contact is called
the rotor button.
Each of the engine’s spark plug wires is fastened to the spark towers.
The opposite ends of the spark plug wires are then fastened to the
spark plugs. Each spark plug wire is attached to a spark tower and a
spark plug. Spark plug wires are made in different lengths, depending
on how far the wire must travel between the spark tower and the
spark plug.
Note that the spark plug wires are attached to the spark towers in the
same order as the firing order. For example, Figure 26 shows a typical
automotive spark plug wire arrangement for a six-cylinder engine. Re-
member this is only an example—the actual spark plug wire arrange-
ment and firing order depend on the vehicle design. In this example,
the distributor rotor turns clockwise and the firing order of the engine
is 1-4-2-5-3-6. The spark plug wires are installed around the edge of the
distributor cap in that order.
FIGURE 26—This illustration shows a spark plug wire arrangement for a six-
cylinder engine. The spark plug wires are installed around the distributor cap
in the direction of rotor rotation. The rotor rotates clockwise, and the firing or-
der of the engine is 1-4-2-5-3-6.
A separate wire called a coil wire leads from the engine’s ignition coil
to the coil tower on the distributor cap. The coil wire is similar in con-
struction to a spark plug wire, but the coil wire is a different length
and the terminals in its ends are shaped differently.
A component called a rotor is attached to the top of the distributor
shaft. As the distributor shaft rotates, the rotor also rotates. The rotor’s
function is to direct the high voltage from the ignition coil to the spark
plugs.
Two typical distributor rotors are shown in Figure 27. Rotors are usu-
ally constructed of materials that have a very high insulating quality.
Note that a conducting metal strip runs from the center of a rotor to its
outer tip. This metal strip on the rotor touches the rotor button on the
inside of the distributor cap. The metal strip on the rotor doesn’t touch
the spark tower contacts, however. Instead, a small air gap is be-
tween the end of the rotortip and the spark tower contacts inside the
distributor cap.
Now, let’s discuss the basic operation of the distributor and rotor in
more detail. In Figure 28 on page 38 you can see the operation of a
distributor-type ignition system for a four-cylinder engine. In the fig-
ure, note how the spark plug wires are attached to the four towers on
the distributor cap. The firing order of the cylinders in this engine is 1-
3-4-2, so the spark plug wires are installed around the edge of the dis-
tributor cap in that order. Also note how the coil wire is connected be-
tween the ignition coil and the coil tower on the distributor cap.
FIGURE 27—Shown here are two common types of rotors. Rotors are attached
to the distributor shaft and transfer the high voltage from the coil to the
proper spark plug wire.
As the engine operates, the engine’s camshaft rotates and causes the
distributor shaft to rotate inside the distributor cap. When the distribu-
tor shaft rotates, the rotor also rotates. At this time, the engine’s igni-
tion coil is also operating. Current from the secondary winding of the
ignition coil passes through the coil wire to the coil tower in the center
of the distributor cap. Current passes down through the coil tower,
through the rotor button, and into the contact strip on the rotor. (Note
that in some ignition systems, the ignition coil is located inside the dis-
tributor. If an ignition coil is located inside a distributor, no separate
coil wire is needed. Instead, the ignition coil output travels directly to
the rotor.)
As the rotor rotates, it passes under each of the spark towers. Each
time the rotor passes under a spark tower, the high voltage jumps
across the air gap to the spark plug tower contact. The spark travels
through the distributor tower, through the spark plug wire attached to
that tower, and then to the engine cylinder on the other end of the
spark plug wire. No more than 2,000 or 3,000 volts is required to carry
the current across the air gap, so almost all of the voltage produced by
the ignition coil reaches the spark plug.
Remember that the firing order of this engine is 1-3-4-2. Therefore, as

the rotor rotates, it passes under the spark tower for Cylinder 1 first,
and Cylinder 1 receives a spark. The rotor then passes under the spark
tower for Cylinder 3, and Cylinder 3 receives a spark. Next, the rotor
passes under the spark tower for Cylinder 4, and Cylinder 4 receives a
spark. Finally, the rotor passes under the spark tower for Cylinder 2,
and Cylinder 2 receives a spark.
FIGURE 28—The spark plug wires are installed around the distributor cap in
their proper firing order, the direction of rotor rotation.
The relationship between the movement of the rotor and the position
of the spark tower contacts is critical. At the exact time a spark is pro-
duced by the ignition coil, the rotor tip must pass under one of the
spark tower contacts inside the distributor cap. If the rotor tip isn’t
properly aligned with the spark tower contact inside the cap, the air
space between the rotor tip and the spark tower contact will be too
large. If the air gap is too large, more voltage is needed to complete the
circuit to the spark plugs. For this reason, it’s very important to select
the proper replacement rotor recommended by the manufacturer.
FIGURE 29—Shown here is a simplified drawing of an automotive ignition system. The arrows indicate the
flow of electricity through the system.
Review of Ignition System Operation

Now, let’s quickly review how all the components in a distributor-type
ignition system work together. A simplified view of a distributor-type
ignition system is shown in Figure 29.
In this system, the battery provides the voltage needed to energize the
primary winding of the ignition coil. The battery voltage is turned on
by the ignition switch, which is operated with a key. When the ignition
key is turned on, the ignition circuit closes. When the circuit closes,
electric current flows from the battery through the triggering device
and into the ignition coil’s primary winding. The current flow pro-
duces a magnetic field around the primary winding.
Next, as the first piston in the firing order approaches TDC in its cylin-
der, the triggering device opens and cuts off the current flow to the
primary winding. When the current in the primary windings stops
flowing, the magnetic field around the coil windings collapses. The
collapsing magnetic field induces a high-voltage current in the coil’s
secondary winding.
The high-voltage current from the coil’s secondary winding flows to

the rotor and the distributor. The rotor and distributor then send the
current to the proper spark plug through the spark plug wire. The cur-
rent that’s sent to the spark plug then arcs across the spark plug gap,
igniting the air-and-fuel mixture in the cylinder.
After each ignition occurs, the triggering device again turns on the cur-
rent in the primary winding, and the cycle continues for the next cylin-
der in the firing order. Once all the cylinders have been fired, the cycle
repeats, starting with the first cylinder in the firing order.
When the driver wishes to stop the vehicle, the ignition key is turned
off, and the flow of power from the battery to the primary winding is
stopped. As a result, the engine stops running.

ing Power Check 2.
Power Check 2
1. The order in which an engine’s cylinders fire is called the _______.
2. In most automobiles, the power source for the ignition and accessory circuits is a _______.
3. In a distributor-type ignition system, the _______ directs the high voltage from the ignition
coil to the cylinder that’s currently on its compression stroke.
4. The high voltage required for electricity to jump the gap of a spark plug is produced in the
_______ of the ignition coil.
5. The small air space between the two electrodes in a spark plug is called the _______.
6. In an ignition system, the _______wire leads from the ignition coil to the distributor cap.
7. In a distributor cap, the spark plug wire towers are arranged evenly around the outer
edge, and the tower in the center of the cap receives the high voltage from the _______.
8. The most common type of ignition switch has _______ positions.
9. A typical automotive battery has a total output voltage of _______ volts of direct current.
10. A type of transformer that changes low-voltage electricity to high-voltage electricity in an

ignition system is called a(n) _______.
11. An ignition coil contains two coils of wire called the _______ winding and the _______ winding.
12. In a distributor-type ignition system, the distributor gear is attached to the end of the
_______.
(Continued)
Power Check 2
13. A _______ is often placed between the ignition switch and the other ignition system com-
ponents to prevent them from being damaged by excessive current flow.
14. If the current flow to an ignition coil’s primary winding is suddenly turned off, the mag-
netic field in the _______ winding collapses and induces a very high voltage in the _______
winding of the ignition coil.
15. Spark plug wire terminals are surrounded by insulating _______ made of rubber, silicon,
or neoprene.
16. The _______ fits snugly over the top of the distributor housing.
_____17. In an ignition system, a triggering device is used to turn the current flow in the
secondary winding on and off at the proper time.
_____18. An ignition system that uses contact points is called an electronic ignition system.
_____19. If the spark plug reach is too short, the threaded part of the plug extends down into
the combustion chamber and hits the piston each time it rises.
_____20. All modern automobiles use electronic triggering devices in their ignition systems
because they can tolerate more current than contact points.
_____21. The secondary winding of an ignition coil is connected to the spark plug wire.
_____22. A spark plug’s heat range is a classification that’s based on the spark plug’s ability to
transfer heat.
_____23. The spark plug wires are attached to the distributor cap’s terminals in the same order
as the firing order.
_____24. The conductor inside the spark plug wire is made of copper or steel.
_____25. In a typical automotive ignition system, each engine cylinder has its own spark plug
wire and spark plug.
_____26. The spark plug gap is usually measured in inches.
_____27. If a spark plug gap is too narrow or too wide, the spark produced will be weak.
_____28. In an ignition system, the coil wire is a heavily insulated wire that leads directly to
the spark plug.

TRIGGERING IN CONVENTIONAL IGNITION SYSTEMS

All ignition systems use some type of triggering device to turn the pri-
mary-coil winding on and off. In distributor-type ignition systems, the
triggering device is usually located in the distributor housing. In the
distributor, the triggering device is controlled by the rotating distribu-
tor shaft, which is, in turn, driven by the engine’s camshaft. This al-
lows the triggering device to be timed in reference to the position of
the pistons. Several different types of triggering devices can be used.
Point-type Triggering Devices

As you learned earlier, the point-type triggering device is no longer
used on modern automobiles; however, you may see point-type trig-
gering devices in some vehicles, particularly classic cars that are being
restored. Point-type triggering devices were used in the ignition sys-
tems of virtually every automobile that was manufactured between the
1920s and the mid-1970s. We’ll discuss point-type triggering devices in
detail in this section because they’re an excellent, easy-to-understand
example of how automotive ignition systems work. As you learned
earlier, an ignition system that contains a point-type triggering device
is often called a conventional ignition system.
The components of a conventional ignition system with a point-type
triggering device are shown in Figure 30. In this system, the primary-
winding triggering device is a set of contact points mounted inside the
distributor. The contact points are opened and closed by a rotating
cam that’s mounted on the distributor shaft. The distributor shaft is
driven by the camshaft. When the contact points rest on the low point
of the rotating cam lobe, the points are closed. When the points are
closed, current flows through the ignition coil, creating a magnetic
field (Figure 30A).
As the cam continues to rotate, the high point of the cam lobe causes
the points to move apart, stopping the flow of current in the primary
winding (Figure 30B). This causes the coil’s magnetic field to collapse,
which produces current in the secondary windings and causes a spark
in the spark plug.
The distributor cam is driven by the engine, usually by a gear on the
camshaft. The number of lobes on the distributor cam is the same as
the number of cylinders in the engine. The distributor is mounted in
the engine so that when the points open and the spark plug is fired,
one of the pistons is near the top of its compression stroke. The rotor in
the distributor then directs the high voltage to the proper cylinder.
FIGURE 30—The flow of current through a point-type ignition system is shown here. In Figure 30A, the points
are closed and current flows through the primary winding of the ignition coil. In Figure 30B, the points open
and stop the flow of current in the primary winding. When the current flow in the primary stops, the coil’s
magnetic field collapses. This produces current in the secondary windings and causes a spark at the spark
plug.
The Contact Points

Figure 31 shows a close-up of a typical point-type triggering device.
Note the position of the contact points in the figure. Contact points
usually carry between 3 and 4 amperes of current, and must open and
close as many as 10,000 times per minute at average speeds. To handle
such a difficult job, the contact points must be manufactured from
high-quality materials. Most contact points are made from high-grade
steel coated with tungsten, a heat-resistant metal used to make light
bulb filaments.
A rubbing block made of a dense, fibrous material rides on the distribu-

tor cam. This rubbing block must be lubricated to prevent excessive
FIGURE 31—Figure 31A shows a typical contact point set for a conventional ignition system. Figure 31B
shows a close-up of the points.
wear. The rubbing block is attached to the contact point and is used to
open the points.
The points are held closed by spring tension that’s built into the point
assembly. The spring tension must be strong enough to prevent the
points from bouncing or floating. Floating is a tendency to remain open
when an engine is running at high speeds. However, if the spring ten-
sion is too strong, it causes excessive wear at the rubbing block and
distributor cam.
In any point-type triggering device, the amount of current that the con-
tact points can carry is limited. Therefore, the coil output is limited to
about 25,000 volts in conventional ignition systems. This voltage was
adequate in older vehicles, but a newer car with an emission control
device needs a stronger spark to fire the leaner air-and-fuel mixture in
its cylinders. This is the reason why contact point ignition systems
were replaced by electronic ignition systems. You’ll learn about elec-
tronic ignition systems later in this study unit.
The Condenser
When the coil’s magnetic field collapses, current is produced in the pri-
mary winding as well as in the secondary winding. Since all of the pri-
mary current must pass through the contact points, a device is needed
to prevent the current from arcing across the points when they’re
opened. This device is called a condenser. A condenser can absorb and
store current, helping the ignition system work more efficiently.
FIGURE 32—A condenser

consists of many layers
of metal foil separated
by insulation.
An external view of a condenser can be seen in the point-type trigger-

ing device shown in Figure 32. A condenser consists of many layers of
metal foil that are separated by insulation. One set of foil wraps is
grounded, and the other set is attached to the points. The condenser is
usually connected in parallel with the points. The closeness of the foil
wrappings attracts electrons that would usually jump across the point
gap. When the points open, the condenser absorbs any current that’s
induced into the coil’s primary windings (Figure 33). When the points
close, the current is discharged from the condenser.
FIGURE 33—When the points open, the condenser absorbs any current that’s induced into the coil’s primary
windings.
The number of electrons that the condenser can attract is a measure of

its capacity. Condenser capacity must be closely matched to the needs
of the primary ignition system. A condenser with too much capacity
wears out the contact points as quickly as a condenser with too little
capacity.
Primary-current Resistor
In a point-type ignition system, the primary current travels from the
battery to the coil and distributor by way of the ignition switch and a
resistor. The resistor reduces the current flow to protect the coil and the
contact points from overheating. The resistor may be a separate com-
ponent, commonly called a ballast resistor, or it may be a resistance wire
that’s built into the wiring harness.
When an engine is cranked, the battery voltage is lower than normal,
and current flow through the resistor to the coil is considerably re-
duced. At this time, there may not be enough current to produce a
spark strong enough to start the vehicle. Therefore, the resistor is by-
passed to provide full battery current to the coil. The bypass circuit is
usually built into the starter, although some bypass circuits are incor-
porated into the ignition switch.
The Point Gap

The distance between the contact points when they’re open is called
the point gap (Figure 34). You now know that the distance between the
points must be correct in order for the engine to operate properly.
When an engine is started, the point gap must be wide enough to pre-
vent current from arcing across the points, or the automobile won’t
start easily. However, if the point gap is too small, the points will dete-
riorate rapidly when the engine is operating at low speed. If the points
open slowly and don’t open wide enough, an arc may continue across
the contact points, using energy that would usually produce a spark at
one of the spark plugs. When an arc does occur at the contact points
due to a small point gap, the spark plug usually won’t fire at that time.
FIGURE 34—The distance

between the contact
points when they’re open
is called the point gap.
The proper gap can be set by using a feeler gage. With the rubbing
block on the high point of the distributor cam, the feeler gage can be
used to measure the point gap. The proper adjustment allows the
points to open and close at the proper time.
The Dwell
An ignition system’s dwell is the number of degrees that the distributor
cam rotates during the time that the contact points are closed. When
the rubbing block reaches the lobe or corner of the distributor cam, the
points open and the dwell period ends. After the rubbing block passes
a cam lobe, the block returns to the flat side of the cam, and the next
dwell period begins. The dwell setting is very important to the proper
operation of an ignition system.
There are 360 degrees in a circle, so the maximum dwell for any engine
is 360 degrees divided by the number of engine cylinders. One com-
plete rotation of the distributor cam equals 360 degrees. An 8-cylinder
engine has 8 cam lobes, so 45 degrees of rotation is between each cam
lobe (360 ¸ 8 = 45). A 6-cylinder engine has 60 degrees between each
cam lobe (360 ¸ 6 = 60). A 4-cylinder engine has 90 degrees between
each cam lobe (360 ¸ 4 = 90).
Therefore, the maximum possible dwell setting in an 8-cylinder engine
would be 45 degrees. If the dwell was set higher than 45 degrees, the
contact points would remain closed for the entire time as the distribu-
tor rotates from cam lobe to cam lobe. In this situation, the primary
current flowing through the coil would never be interrupted, so no
spark would ever be produced.
In contrast, if the dwell was set at 0 degrees, the points would remain
open constantly and would never close. In this situation, no magnetic
field would build up in the coil, so no spark would occur.
In a contact point system, the dwell and the point gap are related—if
you increase one, you decrease the other. For example, if the point gap
is too wide, the dwell will be too short. If the point gap is too small, the
dwell will be too long.
The preferred way to adjust contact points is by setting the dwell. Set-
ting the dwell is easier and more accurate than setting the point gap.
However, setting the dwell requires a specialized instrument called a
dwell tester. A dwell tester measures the amount of time that a set of
contact points is closed, and displays the time in degrees of distributor
cam rotation. The use of a dwell tester will be discussed later in this
study unit.

ing Power Check 3.
Power Check 3
1. The tendency of contact points to remain open when an engine is running at high speeds is
called _______.
2. The measured distance between the contact points when they’re open is called the _______.
3. A special instrument called a _______ is needed to set the dwell in a conventional ignition
system.
4. The _______ prevents current from arcing across the contact points when they’re opened.
5. An ignition system that contains a point-type triggering device is often called a _______
ignition system.
_____ 6. In a conventional ignition system, when the contact points close, current is discharged
from the condenser.
_____ 7. In a conventional ignition system, if the point gap is too large, the points will deterio-
rate rapidly.
_____ 8. In a contact point system, the points are held closed by spring tension.
_____ 9. The preferred way to adjust contact points is to set the point gap rather than the dwell.
_____10. In a contact point system, if the point gap is too small, the dwell will be too long.

TRIGGERING IN ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEMS

As you just learned, a conventional ignition system uses a set of con-
tact points to turn the ignition coil’s primary winding on and off. All of
the voltage that flows through the coil must pass through the contact
points when they’re closed. Because a set of contact points can accept
only a certain amount of voltage without burning up, the amount of
voltage that can flow through the ignition coil is limited—only about
25,000 volts.
However, because an electronic ignition system’s components can tol-

erate higher voltages than contact points, electronic ignition systems
can produce much more secondary voltage than conventional ignition
systems. In addition, an electronic ignition system can handle much
more current because a transistor is used to turn the primary circuit on
and off. As you learned, transistors are electronic devices that can tol-
erate very high voltages.
In most electronic ignition systems, the electronic triggering device
doesn’t control the coil voltage directly. Instead, the triggering device
uses a separate component called an ignition module to turn the coil on
and off. The triggering device sends signals to the ignition module,
telling it when to turn the primary-winding voltage on and off. An ig-
nition module can tolerate much higher voltages than contact points,
so a higher voltage can be used in the coil’s primary winding. This
high voltage produces a very strong spark. Typically, electronic igni-
tion systems can produce spark plug voltages of between 60,000 and
90,000 volts. These strong sparks ignite the fuel in the cylinders quickly
and efficiently.
An ignition module may be mounted inside the distributor next to the
triggering device (Figure 35B), or it may be mounted somewhere out-
side the distributor (Figure 35A). In either location, the ignition mod-
ule performs the same functions.
Now that you have a general idea of how electronic ignition systems
operate, let’s examine some common electronic triggering devices. The
operation of electronic triggering devices is very similar to the opera-
tion of the point-type devices you learned about earlier, except that
electronic triggering devices use electronic components instead of con-
tact points. The distributor looks much the same in both types of sys-
tems, but the triggering device inside the distributor is different.
The type of triggering device used in a particular engine depends on

the vehicle’s make and model. The vehicle’s service manual should in-
dicate the type of triggering device that the vehicle uses. Most engines
use one of the following electronic triggering devices:
· Magnetic pickup triggering device

FIGURE 35—The ignition module can be mounted somewhere outside the distributor, as shown in Figure 35A,
or it may be mounted inside the distributor next to the triggering device, as shown in Figure 35B.
· Hall-effect triggering device
· Optical triggering device
Magnetic-pickup Triggering Devices

In a magnetic-pickup triggering device, a small coil called a magnetic
pickup coil is mounted in the distributor (Figure 36A). This coil is
mounted in the same place that the contact points were mounted in the
conventional distributor. In the electronic ignition distributor, a trigger
wheel is mounted on the distributor shaft instead of a cam (Figure 36B).
FIGURE 36—Most electronic ignition systems use a pickup coil as shown in

Figure 36A. A trigger wheel like the one shown in Figure 36B signals the igni-
tion module when the primary current should be interrupted.
FIGURE 37—In the electronic ignition distributor shown in Figure 37A, the trigger wheel is driven by the en-
gine, while the pickup coil remains stationary. In the ignition distributor shown in Figure 37B, the pickup coil
completely surrounds the trigger wheel.
(A trigger wheel may also be called a reluctor or an armature, depend-

ing on the engine manufacturer.) The trigger wheel has metal teeth
around its outer edge—one tooth for each cylinder. The pickup coil re-
mains stationary, and the trigger wheel rotates on the distributor shaft.
Two typical pickup coil distributors are shown in Figure 37.
When the ignition switch is on, current from the battery reaches the
magnetic pickup coil, and as the distributor shaft turns the trigger
wheel, a magnetic field is induced at the pickup coil. In addition, a
magnetic field develops between the pickup coil and the trigger wheel
(Figure 38A). The strength of the magnetic field is influenced by the
trigger wheel as it revolves. In Figure 38A, note that none of the teeth
on the trigger wheel are aligned with the pickup coil. Because of the
wide air gap between the pickup coil and the trigger wheel at this mo-
ment, the magnetic field is quite weak.
In Figure 38B, a trigger wheel tooth approaches the pickup coil. (Note
that the trigger wheel tooth doesn’t come into direct contact with the
pickup coil—it merely passes close by.) The air gap between the trig-
ger wheel tooth and the pickup coil is now quite small, and the
strength of the magnetic field in the pickup unit increases. The in-
creased magnetic field induces a voltage in the pickup coil. This volt-
age signal is sent to the ignition module.
In Figure 38C, the trigger wheel tooth passes by the pickup coil, and
the air gap widens again. This causes a decrease in the strength of the
magnetic field, which reduces the voltage in the pickup coil. The
change in the voltage signal that’s produced by the pickup coil is de-
tected by the ignition module.
FIGURE 38—When the trigger wheel teeth aren’t in alignment with the pickup coil, the magnetic field be-
tween the trigger wheel and the pickup coil is weak (Figure 38A). As a trigger wheel tooth approaches the
pickup coil, the magnetic field becomes stronger. The stronger field induces a voltage in the pickup unit
(Figure 38B). As the trigger wheel tooth moves away from the pickup coil, the magnetic field weakens
(Figure 38C).
As long as the ignition module receives a voltage signal from the

pickup coil, the module directs current to the primary winding of the
ignition coil. However, when the voltage signal from the pickup coil
decreases, the ignition module interrupts the flow of current in the pri-
mary winding. The magnetic field in the ignition coil collapses, and a
spark is produced. Therefore, in this electronic ignition system, the
pickup coil times the occurrence of the spark, and the ignition module
controls the actual spark.
Remember that the dwell is the period of time when current flows
through the coil’s primary winding. In an electronic ignition system,
the dwell is regulated within the ignition module by electronic devices
and isn’t adjustable, so periodic maintenance isn’t needed.
FIGURE 39—A typical Hall-effect triggering device is shown here.
Hall-effect Triggering Devices

Another type of triggering device that’s often used in modern automo-
biles is the Hall-effect triggering device, sometimes referred to as a Hall-
effect switch. A Hall-effect triggering device is usually mounted inside
the distributor. The device consists of a permanent magnet, a Hall-
effect switch, and several thin metal plates called shutter blades. A typi-
cal Hall-effect triggering device is shown in Figure 39.
In a distributor, the Hall-effect device is usually placed directly next to
the permanent magnet, with only a small air space in between. The
permanent magnet is simply a small piece of metal that holds a mag-
netic charge. Permanent magnets are very similar to common house-
hold magnets used to hold notes on a refrigerator.
Since the Hall-effect switch is placed next to a permanent magnet, the

Hall-effect switch has a magnetic field around it. As long as a magnetic
field is present around the device, no electrical signal is produced.
However, when there isn’t a magnetic field around the switch, the
Hall-effect switch sends a signal to the ignition module.
In a Hall-effect triggering device, shutter blades are attached to a

round disk that rotates with the distributor shaft. This disk may be a
separate item, or the blades may be attached to the distributor rotor. In
either case, the operation of the device is the same. The shutter blades
rotate with the distributor shaft as the engine operates. Each time a
shutter blade passes between the permanent magnet and the Hall-
effect switch, the shutter blade prevents the magnetic field from reach-
ing the Hall-effect switch (Figure 40). As a result, the Hall-effect trig-
gering device sends a signal to the ignition module.
FIGURE 40—As the shutter

blade passes between
the permanent magnet
and the Hall-effect
switch, it prevents the
magnetic field from
reaching the Hall-effect
switch. This causes the
Hall-effect switch to pro-
duce a voltage signal
that’s sent to the ignition
module.
The signal tells the ignition module that a cylinder is ready to receive a
spark. A typical Hall-effect triggering device has one shutter blade for
each cylinder.
Optical Triggering Devices

So far, you’ve learned about two electronic triggering devices that use
the forces of electromagnetism to signal the ignition module as to the
position of the cylinders. Each time a cylinder is ready to fire, the trig-
gering device signals the ignition module to turn off the voltage in the
primary winding of the ignition coil. The distributor rotor and cap
then direct the high voltage to the proper spark plug.
An optical or LED triggering device performs the same function as a
magnetic pickup coil or a Hall-effect switch. However, an optical trig-
gering device uses a light source and a thin, flat metal plate for trigger-
ing. Holes in the metal plate represent the TDC point of each cylinder.
A typical optical triggering device is shown in Figure 41.
FIGURE 41—A typical optical triggering device is shown here.

In an optical triggering device, light shines on the metal plate. The light is
produced by special electronic components called light-emitting diodes
(LEDs). On the other side of the plate, electronic light sensors called photoe-
lectric cells or photo diodes are used to detect the light from the LEDs.
In operation, the metal plate is attached to the distributor shaft, so the
plate rotates when the engine is running. When the light from the LED
shines against the surface of the plate, no light reaches the photo diode
on the other side of the plate. However, whenever one of the holes in
the plate passes over the LED, the light passes through the hole and
reaches the photo diode on the other side of the plate. When the light
reaches the photo diode, the photo diode sends a signal to the ignition
module to fire a particular spark plug.
Thus, each time one of the holes in the plate passes over the LED, the
photo diode sends a signal to the ignition module. In this way, the ig-
nition module and/or computer can determine the exact crankshaft
position and then fire the spark plug for the proper cylinder.
In many optical triggering devices, a second LED and photo diode and
a second series of holes on the plate are used to indicate the position of
the crankshaft. For example, in the optical triggering device shown in
Figure 42, each hole in the outer edge of the metal plate represents one
degree of crankshaft rotation. The larger, inner slits in the plate repre-
sent the TDC points of each cylinder. The second LED and photoelec-
tric cell monitor the positions of the holes in the outer edge of the plate.
The additional information provided by the second LED and photo-
electric cell helps the computer system determine the ignition timing.
Therefore, if a computer determines that a cylinder should be fired a
few degrees of crankshaft rotation before it reaches TDC, the com-
puter can simply monitor the information from the second LED and
photoelectric cell so it knows exactly when to fire the spark plug.
Some LED systems are also used to operate a vehicle’s fuel system. To
operate the fuel system properly, the computer must be able to tell
which holes on the plate represent which cylinders. Therefore, in some
systems, the plate used to indicate the crankshaft position contains a
small space without holes. This space indicates the TDC point for Cyl-
inder 1. When the area without holes passes over the LED, the com-
puter recognizes that this area indicates the current position of
Cylinder 1. The computer can then use the engine’s firing order to
identify the rest of the holes in the plate.

ing Power Check 4.
FIGURE 42—In this optical system, each hole in the outer edge of the plate
represents one degree of crankshaft rotation. The larger, inner holes repre-
sent the TDC points of the cylinders. One LED and photoelectric cell monitor
the inner holes, and a second LED and photoelectric cell monitor the outer
holes.
Power Check 4
1. When a magnetic-pickup triggering device is used in an ignition system, the magnetic

pickup coil is mounted in the _______.
2. In a typical electronic ignition system, the _______ turns the primary circuit on and off.
3. In a Hall-effect triggering device, _______ are attached to a round disk that rotates within
the distributor shaft.
4. True or False? Contact points can handle higher voltages than electronic components, so
conventional ignition systems can produce much more secondary voltage than electronic
ignition systems.
5. True or False? In newer electronic ignition systems, ignition modules control the spark
timing as well as the ignition coil triggering.

IGNITION TIMING IN DISTRIBUTOR-TYPE IGNITION

SYSTEMS
The ignition system must be closely timed to match the operation of
the engine, or the engine won’t run properly. In fact, if the ignition sys-
tem timing is very far off, the engine won’t operate at all.
The ignition is timed in reference to the position of the engine’s crank-

shaft. In order for the air-and-fuel mixture to burn properly, the spark
must occur when the greatest amount of power is produced by com-
bustion. For this reason, an engine’s ignition system is usually timed to
produce a spark when each piston is near TDC at the end of its com-
pression stroke.
Ignition timing is expressed in degrees of crankshaft rotation. There-
fore, if an engine has an ignition timing of eight degrees before TDC,
the spark occurs when the crankshaft is positioned at eight degrees of
rotation before a cylinder’s TDC point. Changing the ignition timing so
that the spark plug fires earlier is called advancing the ignition timing.
Changing the ignition timing so that the spark occurs later is called re-
tarding the ignition timing.
In distributor-type ignition systems, settings for ignition timing are
usually made at the distributor. Distributor timing is divided into two
main processes:
· Initial timing
· Precision timing
Initial Timing
The initial or “rough” timing is completed whenever the distributor
has been removed from the vehicle and is being reinstalled. The main
purpose of setting the initial timing is to get the ignition timing close
enough to specifications so the engine can start. Once the engine can be
started, precision timing can be set.
Initial timing is completed by setting the distributor cap, rotor, and

spark plug wires to transfer the spark at the proper time. This involves
installing these components so that the spark plug in a cylinder fires
when the piston is at the top of its compression stroke.
For example, if the firing order of an eight-cylinder engine is 1-8-4-3-6-

5-7-2, the rotor should be lined up with Tower 1 when Piston 1 is at
the top of its compression stroke. Then, each wire, starting with the Cy-
linder 1, should be installed in the correct firing order around the dis-
tributor cap in the direction of rotor rotation.
Precision Timing
The spark must occur at exactly the right time for proper combustion,
which is usually at or near TDC. Before you can make precision adjust-
ments to ignition timing, the distributor clamp must be loosened.
Then, the position of the distributor housing is shifted relative to the
rotating shaft until the proper timing is set (Figure 43). Finally, the dis-
tributor clamp is retightened. The distributor shaft may rotate either
clockwise or counterclockwise, depending on the engine design. If the
distributor housing is rotated in the same direction in which the shaft
rotates, the spark timing will be retarded. If the distributor housing is
rotated in the opposite direction from which the shaft rotates, the
spark timing will be advanced. This timing adjustment is usually set at
the factory, or by a technician when performing a tune-up.
FIGURE 43—Ignition timing is adjusted by loosening the distributor clamp, ro-

tating the distributor until the proper timing is set, and then retightening the
distributor clamp.
Note: Once the precision timing is set, the distributor clamp is tight-
ened to hold the housing in place.
If the distributor is removed from the engine, both the shaft and hous-
ing must be reinstalled in exactly the same position to maintain the
original ignition timing. Spark plug wires must also be reconnected in
the same order in which they were removed.
Spark-advance Mechanisms
Theoretically, the ignition of the air-and-fuel mixture should occur
when the piston reaches the top of the cylinder—TDC—at the end of
its compression stroke. However, several factors can cause variations
in the time at which a spark plug fires and the time at which a piston
reaches TDC. These factors include the following:
· The engine’s compression ratio

· The load
· The number of revolutions per minute (rpms)
· The engine temperature
· The valve timing
· The composition—ratio—of the air-and-fuel mixture
· The fuel’s ability to vaporize quickly
· The octane rating of the fuel
Engine design characteristics such as the cylinder bore, the combustion

chamber contour, and the spark plug location also affect spark timing.
Many of these factors can be controlled through proper servicing pro-
cedures and correct driving techniques. However, engine speed and
load change every time the position of the accelerator pedal changes.
The distributor compensates for these changes by varying the ignition
timing. This produces the greatest expansion force from combustion,
which provides the best engine performance and fuel economy.
In order to achieve the best engine performance, the spark timing must
vary according to the current position of the piston in the cylinder.
When an engine is idling, the spark is timed to occur a few degrees
before TDC, just before the piston completes the compression stroke.
At higher engine speeds, the period in which the air-and-fuel mixture
can ignite, burn, and apply force to the piston is much shorter. Thus, at
high engine speeds, the spark must jump the spark plug gap earlier in
the compression stroke. An earlier spark gives the air-and-fuel mixture
more time to burn and release power to the piston as the piston starts
moving down in the power stroke.
For example, suppose that a particular air-and-fuel mixture takes 0.003
of a second to burn. To give the mixture time to burn, and thus obtain
full power from combustion, the maximum cylinder pressure on the
power stroke must be reached between 10 and 20 degrees of crank-
shaft rotation past TDC. When this engine is operating at a speed of
1,000 rpms, the crankshaft travels through 18 degrees of rotation in
0.003 of a second. At 2,000 rpms, however, the crankshaft would travel
twice as fast, or 36 degrees of rotation in 0.003 second (Figure 44).
Of course, these times vary with different engines. However, this ex-
ample illustrates the need to advance ignition timing in order to main-
tain power as the engine speed increases. As you can see, the piston
moves faster as the engine gains speed. Unless the ignition timing is
advanced along with the increase in piston speed, the forces of com-
bustion are applied to the piston too late in the engine cycle.
FIGURE 44—At higher engine speeds, the time period available to burn the air-and-fuel mixture properly is
shorter. Therefore, the spark must occur earlier in the engine cycle.
Now, let’s look at two devices that are used to advance ignition timing.
Centrifugal-Advance Mechanisms
An advance in ignition timing can be produced by a mechanical

centrifugal-advance mechanism built into the distributor. A centrifugal-
advance mechanism varies ignition timing in relation to changes in en-
gine speed. It consists of two weights, a base plate, weight springs, and
an advance cam (Figure 45). The base plate is permanently attached to
the distributor shaft. The two centrifugal weights are pivoted on pins
riveted to the base plate. Another pin extends upward on each side of
the advance cam. Springs are attached between the two pins. The dis-
tributor cam is located in the center of the advance cam and is free to
rotate with it.
The weights are thrown out against the spring tension as the engine
speed increases. The motion of the weights turns the advance cam, so
that the distributor cam is rotated to an advanced position; cam rota-
tion is in the same direction as distributor shaft rotation. The higher
the engine speed, the more the weights are thrown out, and the farther
the distributor cam is advanced.
Vacuum-Advance Mechanisms
When an engine is operating under a light load, usually when the

throttle is opened only partway, combustion is slower than when an
engine is operating under a full load, such as when it’s pulling a vehi-
cle up a hill, and the throttle is wide open. Combustion is slower when
an engine is operating under a light load because a small amount of
the air-and-fuel mixture enters the cylinders at a part-throttle setting.
FIGURE 45—In most point-type ignition systems, a centrifugal-advance mechanism is used to advance the
timing as engine speed increases.
This smaller amount isn’t compressed as much as a full-throttle mix-

ture, so the combustion process requires more to burn completely.
This means that when an engine is operating under a light load, addi-
tional spark advance is required to produce maximum power and
economy.
However, more advance is needed than the centrifugal-advance

mechanism can provide. Because the intake manifold vacuum varies
with changes in the engine load, the vacuum can be used to increase
the spark advance. Thus, a vacuum-advance mechanism is used to adjust
the timing in relation to the load on the engine.
In a vacuum-advance mechanism, a movable plate called a breaker plate
holds the points and the condenser. The breaker plate can be revolved
about the cam by connecting it to the vacuum-advance mechanism
(Figure 46).
In a typical vacuum-advance system, vacuum is taken from a port in
the intake manifold. A hose connects the vacuum to a diaphragm as-
sembly mounted on the side of the distributor housing. The spring-
loaded diaphragm is connected by a lever to the movable distributor
breaker plate. Movement of the diaphragm causes the breaker plate to
rotate, changing the position of the points in relation to distributor cam
rotation. This, of course, changes the timing of the point opening, and
it changes the ignition timing. The arrangement is usually such that an
increase in vacuum causes the diaphragm to move the points in the di-
rection opposite of the cam rotation. This advances the timing, since the
points open earlier. When the vacuum decreases—for example, when
the throttle is opened wider for higher-speed operation—the spring
pushes against the diaphragm and the points are moved back. This re-
duces the amount of spark advance provided by the vacuum unit.
FIGURE 46—A vacuum-

advance mechanism is
used in point-type igni-
tion systems to adjust the
timing in relation to the
load on the engine.
At high engine speeds, when the vacuum in the intake manifold is low,
most—if not all—of the spark advance is provided by the centrifugal-
advance unit. When an engine is idle, the centrifugal-advance unit doesn’t
provide any advance. The weights are unable to overcome their springs at
low speed, so the centrifugal advance doesn’t work. The vacuum-advance
unit may or may not provide a spark advance when an engine is idle. This
depends on the location of the vacuum port in the intake manifold and on
what type of emission control system the vehicle has.
Timing in Electronic Ignition Systems

In older electronic ignition systems, the spark-advance function was
performed by centrifugal-advance and vacuum-advance mechanisms
similar to those used in conventional ignition systems (Figure 47).
However, in newer electronic ignition systems, ignition modules are

designed to control the spark timing as well as the ignition coil trigger-
ing. This eliminates the need for traditional vacuum-advance or
centrifugal-advance units. Ignition modules often have a vacuum hose
attached to sense the amount of suction vacuum in the intake mani-
fold. The heavier the load that’s placed on the engine, the lower the
vacuum. The ignition module can use this information to adjust the ig-
nition timing to current engine conditions.
FIGURE 47—In older electronic ignition systems, the spark-advance function was performed by centrifugal-
advance and vacuum-advance mechanisms.
Note that in most newer cars, the ignition module is either a part of the
computer system or is controlled by the computer system. Various
sensors in the engine gather information about current engine condi-
tions, including engine temperature, the amount of oxygen in the ex-
haust gases, the current throttle position, and the vehicle speed. The
sensors then deliver this information to the computer. Using the infor-
mation from its sensors, the computer can determine the best timing
advance for current engine conditions. The computer then directs the
ignition module to set the timing at that value.
The computer operates at a very high speed, performing thousands of

functions every second. This allows it to continuously adjust the igni-
tion timing so that it’s always at the proper setting for current engine
conditions. Since the timing is continuously adjusted, a computer-
controlled engine performs better and is more fuel-efficient than an en-
gine in which the timing is controlled by vacuum-advance and
centrifugal-advance systems.

ing Power Check 5.
Power Check 5
1. Changing an engine’s ignition timing so that the spark plug fires earlier is called _______
the ignition timing.
2. Changing an engine’s ignition timing so that the spark plug fires later is called _______ the
ignition timing.
3. A _______ is a device that adjusts ignition timing in relation to the load on the engine.
4. True or False? A distributor shaft may rotate either clockwise or counterclockwise, depend-
ing on the engine design.
DIRECT-FIRE IGNITION SYSTEMS
Introduction
Earlier in this study unit, you learned that two different systems may
be used to control the spark that’s delivered to an engine’s cylinders:
distributor-type systems and direct-fire systems. In a distributor-type igni-
tion system, a single ignition coil delivers the spark to all of the cylin-
ders, and a distributor delivers the spark to the appropriate cylinder at
the proper time.
In contrast, a direct-fire system doesn’t use a distributor. For this rea-

son, a direct-fire ignition system is sometimes called a distributorless ig-
nition system (DIS).
An external view of a typical direct-fire ignition system is shown in
Figure 48. This system consists of a computer, an ignition module, ig-
nition coils, a crankshaft position sensor, a trigger wheel, spark plug
wires, and spark plugs. Note that the ignition module and the ignition
coils are contained within one housing called a coil pack.
FIGURE 48—A typical direct-fire ignition system is shown here.
In a direct-fire system, the computer, ignition module, and ignition

coils work together to control the spark at the cylinders. Various sen-
sors positioned in the engine send information about different engine
conditions to the computer. The computer then processes the informa-
tion and determines the ideal spark timing for the current engine con-
ditions. The computer tells the ignition module when to trigger the
primary windings in the ignition coils. In this type of system, the igni-
tion module takes the place of the distributor.
In order for a direct-fire ignition system to work properly, the com-
puter must know the exact crankshaft position at all times so that it can
determine when the cylinders should be fired. For this reason, a spe-
cial crankshaft position sensor is used to monitor the crankshaft position.
As the crankshaft rotates, the crankshaft position sensor monitors its
position and sends signals about the crankshaft position to the com-
puter. The computer uses these signals to determine when to fire the
various cylinders.
As you can see in Figure 48, the crankshaft position sensor is usually
mounted in the engine block close to the crankshaft. A special rotating
wheel on the crankshaft is then used to trigger the sensor. Depending
on the manufacturer, this wheel may be called a trigger wheel, a trigger
ring, a reluctor, an interrupter ring, or a pulse ring. The trigger wheel may
be an integral part of the crankshaft, or it may be attached to the crank-
shaft.
The exact design of the trigger wheel varies depending on the engine
make and model. In all cases, though, the outer edge of the trigger
wheel contains some type of notches or holes that represent crankshaft
positions. One common type of trigger wheel is shown in Figure 49.
This trigger wheel has four notches cut out of its edge. Each notch in
the trigger wheel represents a one-quarter turn—90 degrees—of crank-
shaft rotation.
FIGURE 49—This trigger

wheel has four notches cut
into its edge. Each notch
represents one-quarter
turn—90 degrees—of
crankshaft rotation. As the
trigger wheel rotates, each
time one of the notches
passes the crankshaft posi-
tion sensor, the sensor
sends a signal to the com-
puter.
How exactly does a crankshaft position sensor work? One common

type of crankshaft position sensor contains a permanent magnet and a
wire winding. When the sensor’s winding is energized, a magnetic
field develops between the crankshaft position sensor and the surface
of the metal trigger wheel. As the trigger wheel rotates, the notches in
the trigger wheel cause the strength of this magnetic field to change.
Each time a notch passes by the crankshaft position sensor, the mag-
netic field changes and an electrical signal is sent to the computer. The
computer then uses the signals from the crankshaft position sensor to
determine the current crankshaft position.
Remember that this trigger wheel has four notches, one for every 90
degrees of crankshaft rotation. Each time a notch passes the crankshaft
position sensor, the sensor sends a voltage pulse to the computer. The
computer simply counts the voltage pulses to figure out the correct
crankshaft position. The first pulse tells the computer that the crank-
shaft is at 90 degrees of rotation. The second pulse tells the computer
that the crankshaft is at 180 degrees of rotation. The third pulse tells
the computer that the crankshaft is at 270 degrees of rotation. The
fourth pulse tells the computer that the crankshaft has rotated a com-
plete 360 degrees and is back where it started. The computer continu-
ally counts the voltage pulses from the crankshaft position sensor as
the engine operates.
Once the computer knows the current position of the crankshaft, it can
determine when to fire the engine’s cylinders. For example, suppose
an engine contains four cylinders that fire in a 1-2-3-4 firing order.
When the computer receives the first signal from the crankshaft posi-
tion sensor, at 90 degrees of crankshaft rotation, the computer knows
that Cylinder 1 is at TDC on its compression stroke and is ready to be
fired. The computer signals the ignition module to fire the spark plug
attached to Cylinder 1. When the computer receives the second signal
from the crankshaft position sensor—at 180 degrees of crankshaft rota-
tion—it knows that Cylinder 2 is ready to be fired. The computer sig-
nals the ignition module to fire the spark plug at Cylinder 2. At the
third signal from the crankshaft position sensor, at 270 degrees of
crankshaft rotation, the computer fires Cylinder 3. Finally, at the fourth
signal from the crankshaft position sensor, at 360 degrees of crankshaft
rotation, the computer fires Cylinder 4. This process continues over

and over as the engine operates.
In addition to firing the engine cylinders, the computer in a direct-fire
ignition system also controls the ignition timing and timing advance.
A variety of different sensors in the engine monitor conditions, such as
engine speed and temperature, and send information about current
conditions to the computer. The computer then determines how many
degrees of crankshaft rotation before TDC the spark should occur.
Once this is determined, the computer waits until the crankshaft is at
that exact degree of rotation. At that moment, the computer signals the
ignition module to trigger the ignition coil for that cylinder. The igni-
tion module shuts off the voltage in the primary winding of that igni-
tion coil, the magnetic field in the coil collapses, and a spark is sent to
the spark plug for that cylinder.
This ignition system process repeats thousands of times every minute.

This isn’t always easy, considering how fast an engine operates. How-
ever, the computers used in direct-fire ignition systems can make deci-
sions very quickly and can control engine operation efficiently even at
high speeds.
Note that this is a very basic description of the operation of a direct-fire

system. Many individual system variations are possible, depending on
the engine design, number of engine cylinders, and type of ignition sys-
tem components used. For example, there are many different styles of
trigger wheels. Also, some direct-fire systems may use more than one
crankshaft position sensor to signal the computer. However, the basic
principles of operation are the same in all systems—a rotating trigger
wheel and sensor work together to tell the computer when to fire the en-
gine cylinders. Remember that all of the ignition timing and firing func-
tions in a direct-fire system are performed electronically, without a
distributor. Because electronic components are long-lasting and require
no adjustments, direct-fire ignition systems are very reliable.
Now, let’s discuss some of the different components that may be used
in direct-fire ignition systems.
The Crankshaft Position Sensor

In many engines, the crankshaft position sensor fits into a machined
hole in the engine block next to the trigger wheel (Figure 50A). In some
ignition systems, however, the crankshaft position sensor may be
mounted to the engine’s front cover, with the trigger wheel mounted
at the front of the crankshaft (Figure 50B). Or, the trigger wheel may be
a part of the flywheel at the very back of the engine. In all cases,
though, the crankshaft position sensor and the trigger wheel are very
close to each other.
FIGURE 50—In most cases, the crankshaft position sensor fits into a machined hole in the engine block next
to the trigger wheel, as shown in Figure 50A. In Figure 50B, the crankshaft position sensor is mounted to the
engine’s front cover, and the trigger wheel is mounted at the front of the crankshaft.
As you learned earlier, two common types of crankshaft position sen-

sors are the magnetic sensor and the Hall-effect sensor. While mag-
netic sensors are used in some vehicles, Hall-effect sensors are used
more often in modern cars. Let’s discuss each of these sensors now.
A magnetic crankshaft position sensor uses a magnetic field to sense

the crankshaft position. The magnetic crankshaft position sensor is
placed about 0.05 of an inch away from the trigger wheel on the crank-
shaft. The trigger wheel, often called a reluctor wheel in a magnetic
crankshaft position sensor, contains several notches. As the reluctor
wheel begins to rotate, a magnetic field flows easily through it. At this
time, there’s no change in the magnetic field and the crankshaft posi-
tion sensor doesn’t produce a voltage signal. However, when a notch
passes by the magnetic sensor, the strength of the magnetic field
changes, and the sensor sends a low-voltage AC signal to the com-
puter. This signal tells the computer that a notch is passing by the sen-
sor (Figure 51).
Hall-effect crankshaft position sensors work in much the same way as

magnetic sensors; however, instead of sending a low-voltage AC signal
to the computer, the Hall-effect sensor sends a pulse signal. An inter-
rupter ring is placed on the crankshaft pulley as shown in Figure 52A.
The ring contains three equally spaced blades. As the crankshaft rotates,
the blades on the interrupter ring pass through the Hall-effect switch to
trigger the crankshaft position sensor. Therefore, each time a blade

passes through the Hall-effect sensor, the sensor sends a voltage pulse
to the computer system. These pulses are usually called square waves,
because they look like a series of small squares as shown in Figure 52B.
FIGURE 51—When a reluctor wheel notch passes by the magnetic crankshaft position sensor, the strength of
the magnetic field changes, and the sensor sends a low-voltage AC signal to the computer. (Courtesy of Gen-
eral Motors Corp.)
FIGURE 52—In a Hall-effect crankshaft position sensor, one or more interrupter rings is placed on the crank-
shaft as shown in Figure 52A. When a Hall-effect crankshaft position sensor sends a voltage pulse to the
computer, these voltage pulses produce a signal pattern called a square wave, as shown in Figure 52B.
The Trigger Wheel

A wide variety of different trigger wheels are used in direct-fire igni-
tion systems. Some wheels have notches cut into their edges, while
others may use holes or slits to trigger the crankshaft position sensor.
Figure 53 shows a typical trigger wheel for a six-cylinder engine. The
wheel contains six equally spaced notches around its edge—one notch
for each 60 degrees of crankshaft rotation. Each time one of the notches
rotates by the crankshaft position sensor, the sensor sends a signal to
the vehicle’s computer. In this way, the computer always knows the
current crankshaft position.
FIGURE 53—The trigger wheel for a six-cylinder engine contains six crankshaft
position notches in its edge, one for each 60 degrees of crankshaft rotation.
The wheel also contains a seventh notch called a synch notch. The synch
notch is used to determine the starting point for the cylinder firing order.
Note that the trigger wheel in Figure 53 also contains a seventh notch
that’s very close to one of the crankshaft position notches. This extra
notch is called a synch notch. The synch notch is used to help the com-
puter identify the starting point in the firing order. In other words,
when the synch notch passes by the crankshaft position sensor, it gives
the computer a point of reference to help identify the engine cylinders.
Once the computer determines the location of one cylinder in relation
to the notches on the trigger wheel, the computer can determine the
positions of the other cylinders.
Each time a notch passes by the crankshaft position, a signal is sent to
the computer. The spaces between the six regular notches are equal.
However, when the synch notch passes by the crankshaft position sen-
sor, another notch passes almost immediately after it. So, when the
computer receives two signals very close together, it knows that the
synch notch has just passed by the crankshaft position sensor. The
computer then begins counting the crankshaft position signals from
that point. In this way, the computer can tell which cylinder is ready to
be fired.
In addition to counting the signals sent by the crankshaft position sen-
sor, the computer measures the amount of time between each signal.
The computer can use this information to determine the engine speed.
For instance, the computer knows that when the time between pulses
is long, the engine is running slow, and when the time between pulses
is very short, the engine is running fast. In systems that use a synch
notch, the computer can also use the time between pulses to identify
the synch notch. Remember that the synch notch is located very close
to another crankshaft position notch. When the computer measures a
very short time between two signals, it knows that the second signal is
for the synch notch.
Many different types of trigger wheels are used by different manufac-
turers. The trigger wheel shown in Figure 54 has notches all the way
around its edge. In this trigger wheel, each notch represents a certain
amount of crankshaft rotation. The crankshaft position trigger points
are indicated by areas of missing teeth in the wheel. In a similar type of
trigger wheel, the crankshaft position trigger points are indicated by
areas where the notches are placed closer together.
Still another type of trigger wheel is a plate that contains a series of
slots in its outer edge. The plate is then bolted to the rear of the crank-
shaft near the transmission (Figure 55). Since this wheel is bolted
directly to the rear of the crankshaft, the wheel rotates with the crank-
shaft as the engine operates. In this design, the crankshaft position
sensor detects whenever one of the slots passes by, and indicates the
current crankshaft position.
FIGURE 54—In this trigger

wheel design, notches
are placed all the way
around the edge of the
wheel. The crankshaft
position trigger points are
indicated by areas of
missing teeth on the
wheel.
FIGURE 55—Another type

of trigger wheel uses a
series of slots placed in
the outer edge of a plate
that’s bolted to the rear
of the crankshaft, as
shown here. (Courtesy of
Chrysler Corporation)
As you can see, the exact design of the trigger wheel varies, depending
on the engine make and model. However, all trigger wheels operate in
the same basic way. All trigger wheels are designed to rotate with the
crankshaft, and the notches or holes in the trigger wheel indicate the
crankshaft position to the crankshaft position sensor.
The Camshaft Position Sensor

As you’ve seen, some direct-fire ignition systems use a synch notch on
the trigger wheel to help the computer identify which cylinder is ready
to fire. However, some systems use an additional sensor called a cam-
shaft position sensor instead of a synch notch to perform this function. In
this type of system, the camshaft position sensor sends a signal to the
computer to indicate that a particular cylinder is ready to be fired.
A typical camshaft position sensor is shown in Figure 56A. In most

cases, the camshaft position sensor is mounted in the engine’s front
cover, next to the camshaft gear as shown in Figure 56B. A notched
wheel is mounted on the camshaft gear. As the camshaft rotates, the
notches on the wheel cause the camshaft position sensor to signal the
computer. This signal is used to identify the notches so that the com-
puter can keep track of them. Once the computer knows the location of
one notch, it can count the number of signals from that point to deter-
mine the current camshaft position.
FIGURE 56—A typical camshaft position sensor is shown in Figure 56A. Most camshaft position sensors are
mounted in the engine’s front cover, as shown in Figure 56B.
In most systems, the camshaft position sensor is needed only when an

engine is started. Once the camshaft position sensor has indicated the
positions of the different cylinders to the computer, the sensor won’t
be needed again until the engine is shut off and restarted. However, in
some systems, the camshaft position sensor may be used to directly
control the operation of the ignition system or the fuel-injection sys-
tem. In these engines, the camshaft position sensor provides informa-
tion to the computer the entire time the engine is operating. Once the
computer receives the information from its sensors, it can then decide
when to fire the spark plug for each cylinder.
You may also see some engines in which two crankshaft position sen-
sors are used instead of a camshaft position sensor (Figure 57). In this
type of system, the second crankshaft position sensor monitors a sec-
ond set of marks on the crankshaft trigger wheel. The signals from the
two sensors tell the computer how the crankshaft is positioned, as well
as which cylinder is in position to receive a spark. Thus, the system
doesn’t require the use of a camshaft position sensor.
Another type of ignition system uses a dual crankshaft position sensor. In

this type of system, the trigger wheel contains an inner ring and an
outer ring (Figure 58). The inner ring has three blades, and the outer
ring is notched. The dual crankshaft position sensor monitors both sets
of notches on the trigger wheel. This system doesn’t require a camshaft
sensor.
FIGURE 57—This direct-

fire ignition system uses
two crankshaft position
sensors to monitor the
crankshaft position.
(A) (B)
FIGURE 58—A dual crankshaft position sensor is shown in Figure 58A, and its trigger wheel is shown in
Figure 58B.
Ignition Coils in Direct-fire Systems

The ignition coils used in most direct-fire ignition systems are very
similar in construction to those used in other types of ignition systems.
These coils have primary and secondary windings, and the spark is
produced in the same way. However, direct-fire systems use more
than one ignition coil. In some direct-fire systems, a separate ignition
coil is used to fire each cylinder. However, most systems use a separate
coil to fire each pair of cylinders. That is, one coil fires two cylinders at
the same time.
The coils used in a direct-fire system are usually mounted all in one
housing, as shown in Figure 59. Ignition coils that are contained in a
single housing are often called a coil pack. The coil pack shown in
Figure 59A contains one ignition coil for each of the cylinders in a four-
cylinder engine. Note how the spark plug wires connect to the towers
on the coil pack. In contrast, the coil pack shown in Figure 59B contains
one ignition coil for each pair of cylinders in a six-cylinder engine. That
is, each of the three ignition coils fires two of the engine’s six cylinders.
Note the location of the spark towers on this coil pack. The coil pack
shown in Figure 59C contains one ignition coil for each pair of cylin-
ders in a four-cylinder engine. Each of the two ignition coils fires two
of the engine’s four cylinders.
FIGURE 59—The ignition coil in Figure 59A contains one ignition coil for each of the four cylinders in the en-
gine. The ignition coil pack shown in Figure 59B contains one ignition coil for each pair of cylinders in a six-
cylinder engine. The coil pack in Figure 59C contains one ignition coil for each pair of cylinders in a four-
cylinder engine. (59A Courtesy of Chrysler Corporation; 59B and C Courtesy of General Motors Corp.)
Ignition coil packs can produce very high voltages. In a typical direct-
fire ignition system, the voltage supplied to the spark plug could be as
high as 90,000 volts. Because the voltage is so high, care must be taken
when working on these systems to prevent injury from electrical
shocks.
An ignition coil pack is usually mounted to the outside of the engine.

The most common mounting locations are the very top of the engine
or the side of the engine block. The spark plug wires attach the sepa-
rate coils to each engine cylinder.
In a variation to the typical ignition coil arrangement, some manufactur-

ers use small ignition coils to fire each separate engine cylinder, as
shown in Figure 60. These ignition coils are mounted directly to the
spark plugs, so no spark plug wires are needed. This system’s operation
is similar to the other direct-fire systems we’ve discussed, except that the
ignition coils are separate and not contained in a single housing.
FIGURE 60—In this ignition system, separate ignition coils are used to fire
each engine cylinder. These coils are mounted directly to the spark plugs, so
no spark plug wires are needed. (Courtesy of General Motors Corp.)
Waste Sparks
You’ve just learned that a direct-fire ignition system may use a sepa-
rate coil to fire each cylinder, or one coil may fire two cylinders. In
most direct-fire systems, the cylinders are paired together so that one
coil fires two cylinders. In these systems, the ignition system fires two
spark plugs at once. However, only one of the sparks produces power
in a cylinder. The second spark occurs in a cylinder that isn’t on its
compression stroke, so the spark produces no ignition and has no ef-
fect on the engine. This spark is called a waste spark. This type of sys-
tem requires fewer coils, so the triggering system can be made much
simpler.
To better understand what occurs, let’s take a closer look at the opera-
tion of a four-cylinder engine with a direct-fire ignition system.
Figure 61 illustrates the operation of an in-line, four-cylinder engine. In
a four-cylinder engine, all four cylinders in the engine will have fired
after two complete crankshaft rotations. After one complete crankshaft
rotation, Cylinders 2 and 3 are both moving toward TDC (Figure 61A).
Cylinder 2 is on its compression stroke and ready to fire, and Cylinder
3 is on its exhaust stroke. After the second complete crankshaft rota-
tion, Cylinders 2 and 3 are again moving toward TDC (Figure 61B).
However, this time, Cylinder 2 is on its exhaust stroke, and Cylinder 3
is on its compression stroke and ready to fire.
CYLINDER 1 CYLINDER 2 CYLINDER 3 CYLINDER 4

INTAKE COMPRESSION EXHAUST POWER
(A)
CYLINDER 1 CYLINDER 2 CYLINDER 3 CYLINDER 4
POWER EXHAUST COMPRESSION INTAKE
(B)
FIGURE 61—This figure illustrates the operation of an in-line, four-cylinder en-

gine. In Figure 61A, after one complete crankshaft rotation, Cylinder 2 is at
TDC on its compression stroke, and Cylinder 3 is at TDC on its exhaust stroke
and ready to fire. In Figure 61B, after the second crankshaft rotation, Cylinder
2 is at TDC on its exhaust stroke and ready to fire, and Cylinder 3 is at TDC on
its compression stroke.
Cylinders 1 and 4 operate together in the same way as Cylinders 2 and

3. After one complete crankshaft rotation, Cylinders 1 and 4 are both
moving toward TDC (Figure 62A). Cylinder 1 is on its compression
stroke and ready to fire, and Cylinder 4 is on its exhaust stroke. After
the second complete crankshaft rotation, Cylinders 1 and 4 are again
moving toward TDC (Figure 62B). However, this time, Cylinder 1 is on
its exhaust stroke, and Cylinder 4 is on its compression stroke and
ready to fire.
FIGURE 62—In Figure 62A, after one complete crankshaft rotation, Cylinder 4
is at TDC on its exhaust stroke, and Cylinder 1 is at TDC on its compression
stroke and ready to fire. In Figure 62B, after the second crankshaft rotation,
Cylinder 4 is at TDC on its compression stroke and ready to fire, and Cylinder
1 is at TDC on its exhaust stroke.
You can see that because Cylinder 2 and 3 both reach TDC at the same
time, one ignition coil can be used to fire both of them. The same is
true for Cylinders 1 and 4—one coil can be used to fire both cylinders.
The crankshaft position for each cylinder pair is the same, regardless of
which cylinder is ready to fire. Therefore, the notch on the trigger
wheel is also in the same spot.
Now, let’s imagine that one ignition coil is attached to Cylinders 2 and
3, and another coil is attached to Cylinders 1 and 4. The crankshaft ro-
tates, and Cylinders 2 and 3 both rise to TDC. Cylinder 2 is on its com-
pression stroke, and Cylinder 3 is on its exhaust stroke. When the
ignition coil fires that pair of cylinders, the coil sends sparks to both
Cylinder 2 and Cylinder 3 at the same time. The spark fires Cylinder 2,
igniting the air-and-fuel mixture in the cylinder and producing power.
The spark that goes to Cylinder 3 is a waste spark. Because Cylinder 3
is on its exhaust stroke, it doesn’t contain any air-and-fuel mixture.
Therefore, when the spark reaches Cylinder 3, the spark simply jumps
across the spark plug gap. A waste spark has no effect on engine per-
formance—since that cylinder isn’t ready to fire, the spark doesn’t
cause any ignition.
On the next crankshaft rotation, Cylinders 2 and 3 both rise to TDC
again. However, this time, Cylinder 2 is on its exhaust stroke, and Cyl-
inder 3 is on its compression stroke. The ignition coil fires that pair of
cylinders, and sparks are sent to Cylinder 2 and Cylinder 3. The spark
fires Cylinder 3, and the spark in Cylinder 2 is a waste spark.
What about Cylinders 1 and 4? Well, the other ignition coil would fire
Cylinders 1 and 4 in exactly the same way that we just described. The
cylinder pairs would be fired alternately in the engine—Cylinders 2
and 3 would fire together, then Cylinders 1 and 4, then Cylinders 2
and 3 again, and finally Cylinders 1 and 4.
A lot of voltage is needed to fire a spark plug. However, much less volt-
age is needed to produce a waste spark. Since there’s no compression
and very little combustible material in the cylinder during the exhaust
stroke, only a very small spark is needed to fire the cylinder. Since so lit-
tle voltage is needed to produce a waste spark, no voltage is taken away
from the other spark plug that’s fired simultaneously. The other plug
needs the higher voltage, since it’s fired during the compression stroke.
Ignition Timing in Direct-fire Systems

As you learned earlier, in most systems the crankshaft position sensor
and/or the camshaft position sensor are used to tell the computer-
control system when a cylinder is in position and ready to be ignited.
The computer then uses the information from its sensors to decide pre-
cisely when to ignite the cylinder. In most cases, the cylinder is ignited
a few degrees before it reaches TDC. The ignition timing is measured

in degrees of crankshaft rotation. For example, if the ignition timing for
a particular engine is 10 degrees before TDC, the spark occurs when
the crankshaft is 10 degrees of rotation before the TDC point of that
cylinder.
The reason that the spark occurs before TDC is because the air-and-
fuel mixture takes a short amount of time to actually ignite and start
burning. Remember that an engine is operating at a very high speed,
and the crankshaft is turning thousands of rotations per minute.
Therefore, if the computer waited until the exact TDC point to ignite
the mixture, the piston would already be partly down in the cylinder.
Thus, the power stroke has already begun before the mixture can start
to burn. This greatly reduces the amount of power the piston can pro-
duce. Therefore, the most power in an engine is produced when the
air-and-fuel mixture is ignited before the cylinder reaches TDC and
then begins to burn fully when the piston reaches TDC.
So, the faster an engine runs, the faster the pistons travel, and the farther
the pistons are past TDC before the fuel begins to burn. To compensate
for this and to ensure that the fuel begins to burn fully when the cylinder
reaches TDC, the ignition timing must occur earlier when the engine
runs faster. This is called timing advance. In the distributor-type ignition
systems you learned about earlier, timing advance was controlled by a
separate mechanical system, such as a vacuum-advance or centrifugal-
advance. However, in a direct-fire ignition system, all timing advance is
controlled by the computer control system.
The computer control system receives information about engine condi-
tions from the engine sensors. This information includes the air tem-
perature, engine temperature, engine speed, throttle position, and so
on. From this information, the computer control system can determine
the proper timing advance needed for the current engine conditions.
Once the timing advance is determined, the computer sends a signal to
the ignition module to activate the coil for the cylinder that’s ready to
fire. The ignition module is usually built into the set of ignition coils.
Remember that a computer system operates very quickly, and makes
thousands of decisions in a single second. This speed ensures that the
ignition timing is always adjusted precisely for the current engine con-
ditions.
Timing Control in Direct-fire Systems

The computer system used on a particular car may be given a special
name by the manufacturer, such as the electronic control module (ECM) or
ignition control module (ICM). However, in general, the computer system
is simply a small computer that controls many vehicle functions.
As you learned earlier in this study unit, the spark must occur sooner
in the compression stroke as an engine’s speed increases. However, the
engine speed isn’t the only factor that influences spark timing. The
load placed on the engine, external air temperature, engine tempera-
ture, and air pressure also affect the spark timing. In order to accu-
rately track current engine conditions, therefore, the computer system
gathers information from a number of different sensors mounted in
the engine. These sensors measure the engine temperature, speed of
the car, outside air temperature, amount of vacuum in the intake mani-
fold, amount of air entering the engine, and many other factors. The
computer system analyzes the information from all the sensors and
then determines the best time for the spark to occur under the current
engine conditions. The computer system continually monitors all of
these factors as the car is running, and continuously changes the igni-
tion timing to best match the current conditions.
In addition, many vehicles use sensors to help the computer system
control the spark under certain conditions. For example, a condition
called spark knock or detonation can occur in an engine when the air-
and-fuel mixture in a cylinder explodes rather than burns. These ex-
plosions may occur when the engine temperature rises, or when an in-
correct air-and-fuel mixture is used in an engine. The explosions are
usually loud enough for the driver to hear, and sound like a tapping or
knocking noise coming from inside the engine.
Spark knock usually happens when an engine is placed under a heavy
load, such as when it’s pulling a trailer or going up a steep hill. Under
these conditions, the mixture in the cylinder can explode and can actu-
ally start to burn in several areas of the combustion chamber at the
same time. As the exploding fuel smashes into the top of the piston, it
causes a shock wave to flow through the cylinder. In most cases, the
fuel explodes so quickly that the piston may not even reach TDC be-
fore the pressure from the explosion forces it back down. The forces of
detonation can be strong enough to cause damage to the pistons and
piston rings.
One way to control detonation is to reduce the amount of ignition tim-
ing advance under those conditions. Therefore, to help determine
when these conditions occur, some ignition systems use special sen-
sors called antiknock sensors. An antiknock sensor is usually mounted
in the engine block. When detonation occurs, the knocking noise
causes the antiknock sensor to send a signal to the computer system.
The computer system can then retard the ignition timing until the
knocking stops. By using an antiknock sensor, the computer control
system can help to prevent detonation damage.
As you can see, an automotive computer control system has many capa-
bilities. The computer must continually make decisions about ignition
timing as the engine is running—many times per second. By continually
adjusting the ignition timing to match current engine conditions, the

computer helps the engine perform better, consume less fuel, and pro-
duce fewer harmful exhaust emissions. You’ll examine automotive
computer systems in much more detail in a later study unit.
Actual Direct-fire Examples

As you learned earlier, most direct-fire ignition systems operate on the
same basic principles. However, the design of the systems varies in
different vehicle makes and models. In fact, it isn’t uncommon for a
manufacturer to use several different systems in different car models.
For these reasons, a skilled technician almost always needs to refer to a
service manual for the exact servicing procedures for a particular
direct-fire system. However, to get a better idea of how these systems
operate, let’s look at a few examples.
Figure 63A shows a direct-fire ignition system that’s used in many Gen-
eral Motors V-6 engines. The components in this system are a computer,
the ignition module and coil pack (located in one housing), a crankshaft
position sensor, and a trigger wheel. In addition, the system contains six
spark plug wires and six spark plugs—one for each cylinder.
In this system, the crankshaft position sensor is triggered by a trigger
wheel on the crankshaft. A close-up view of the trigger wheel and
crankshaft position sensor is shown in Figure 63B. This trigger wheel
has seven separate notches. Six of the notches are spaced evenly at 60-
degree intervals around the wheel, and the seventh notch is a synch
notch that’s placed very close to one of the other notches. The synch
notch tells the computer where Notch 1 is located. Once the computer
system knows where Notch 1 is located, it can count from that point to
determine the location of the other notches.
In this direct-fire system, the coil pack has three separate ignition coils.
Each ignition coil fires two cylinders at the same time. The firing order
for the engine is 1-2-3-4-5-6. In this engine, Cylinders 5 and 2 are fired
at Notch 2; Cylinders 3 and 6 are fired at Notch 4; and Cylinders 4 and
1 are fired at Notch 6.
Now, let’s observe the operation of the ignition system. Remember

that the crankshaft must rotate twice to fire all of the cylinders once.
After the first crankshaft rotation, half of the cylinders will be in posi-
tion to be fired. After the second crankshaft rotation, the remaining
cylinders will be in position to be fired.
FIGURE 63—A typical direct-fire ignition system used in many General Motors V-6 engines is shown in Figure
63A. Figure 63B shows a close-up view of the crankshaft position sensor and trigger wheel used in this sys-
tem. (Courtesy of General Motors Corp.)
As we start, the trigger wheel is in the position shown in Figure 64.

The crankshaft in this engine is rotating clockwise, so the trigger wheel
also rotates clockwise. At this point, the synch notch is just passing the
crankshaft position sensor. As the synch notch passes the sensor, the
sensor sends a signal to the computer. Since this signal occurs only a
very short time after the last signal, the computer recognizes that this
notch is the synch notch.
The trigger wheel continues to rotate to the position shown in Figure 65.
At this point, Notch 1 is passing the crankshaft position sensor. The sen-
sor sends a signal to the computer that indicates the current crankshaft
position to the computer. The computer counts this notch as Notch 1.
FIGURE 64—Note the position of the trigger wheel in this illustration. The crankshaft is rotating clockwise. At
this point, the synch notch is just passing the crankshaft position sensor. As the notch passes by the sensor,
the sensor sends a voltage signal to the computer control system. (Courtesy of General Motors Corp.)
The trigger wheel continues to rotate to the position shown in Figure 66A.
At this point, Notch 2 is passing the crankshaft position sensor. The
sensor sends a signal to the computer indicating the current crankshaft
position—60 degrees from the last signal. Since this is the second sig-
nal after the synch notch, the computer recognizes that this is Notch 2.
Since Notch 2 represents Cylinders 5 and 2, the computer knows that
Cylinders 5 and 2 are ready to be fired.
The computer now uses the information from its various sensors to de-
termine the proper ignition timing for the current engine conditions.
Then, the computer signals the ignition module to turn off the primary
voltage in the coil that’s attached to Cylinders 5 and 2. The magnetic
field in the coil collapses, and a high voltage is produced in the secon-
dary winding of that coil. This high voltage flows through the spark
plug wires to the spark plugs in Cylinder 5 and Cylinder 2 (Figure 66B ).
Cylinder 5 is currently on its compression stroke, so the spark at Cylin-
der 5 ignites the air-and-fuel mixture and forces the piston down in the
cylinder. Cylinder 2 is currently on its exhaust stroke, so the spark in
that cylinder is a waste spark and has no effect on engine operation.
FIGURE 65—The trigger wheel continues to rotate to the position shown here. At this point, Notch 1 is passing
by the crankshaft position sensor. The sensor sends a voltage signal to the computer system indicating that
Notch 1 has passed by the sensor. (Courtesy of General Motors Corp.)
Next, the trigger wheel continues to rotate to the position shown in

Figure 67. At this time, Notch 3 is passing the crankshaft position sen-
sor, and the sensor sends a signal to the computer indicating the cur-
rent crankshaft position. Remember that in this engine, the notches are
spaced 60 degrees apart around the trigger wheel. Therefore, the com-
puter knows that each time it receives a signal from the crankshaft po-
sition sensor, the crankshaft has rotated an additional 60 degrees. The
computer recognizes that this is the signal for Notch 3.
The trigger wheel continues to rotate to the position shown in Figure 68A.
At this time, Notch 4 is passing the crankshaft position sensor, and the
position. The computer recognizes that this is the signal for Notch 4. Be-
cause Notch 4 represents Cylinders 3 and 6, the computer knows that
Cylinders 3 and 6 are ready to be fired.
FIGURE 66—The trigger wheel now rotates to the position shown in Figure 66A. At this point, Notch 2 is pass-
ing by the crankshaft position sensor. The sensor sends a voltage signal to the computer system indicating
that Notch 2 has passed by the sensor. In Figure 66B, as Notch 2 passes the crankshaft position sensor, the
computer signals the ignition module to fire Cylinders 5 and 2. (Courtesy of General Motors Corp.)
FIGURE 67—In this illustration, the trigger wheel has rotated so that Notch 3 is passing by the crankshaft posi-
tion sensor. (Courtesy of General Motors Corp.)
The computer again uses the information from its various sensors to
determine the proper ignition timing for the current engine conditions.
Then, the computer signals the ignition module to fire the coil that’s at-
tached to Cylinders 3 and 6 (Figure 68B). Cylinder 3 is on its compres-
sion stroke, so the spark at Cylinder 3 ignites the air-and-fuel mixture
and forces the piston down in the cylinder. Cylinder 6 is on its exhaust
stroke, so the spark in that cylinder is a waste spark that has no effect
on engine operation.
The trigger wheel continues to rotate to the position shown in Figure 69.
At this time, Notch 5 is passing the crankshaft position sensor, and the
position. The computer recognizes that this is the signal for Notch 5.
The crankshaft continues to rotate until Notch 6 passes the crankshaft

position sensor, as shown in Figure 70A. The computer recognizes that
this is the signal for Notch 6, so the computer knows that Cylinders 4
and 1 are ready to be fired. The computer determines the proper ignition
timing and signals the ignition module to fire Cylinders 4 and 1 (Figure 70B).
Cylinder 4 is on its compression stroke, so the spark fires Cylinder 4. Cyl-
inder 1 is on its exhaust stroke, so the spark in that cylinder is a waste
spark.
FIGURE 68—In Figure 68A, the trigger wheel has rotated so that Notch 4 is passing by the crankshaft position
sensor. In Figure 68B, as Notch 4 passes the crankshaft position sensor, the computer signals the ignition
module to fire Cylinders 3 and 6. (Courtesy of General Motors Corp.)
Finally, the trigger wheel rotates until the synch notch passes by the
crankshaft position sensor again. Because of the very short space be-
tween the Notch 6 signal and the synch notch signal, the computer rec-
ognizes the synch notch and begins counting the signals again from
this point.
As you learned earlier, it takes two complete crankshaft rotations for

all of the engine’s cylinders to fire. In our example, the crankshaft has
completed one rotation, and power was produced in Cylinders 5, 3,
and 4. During the second complete crankshaft rotation, power will be
produced in Cylinders 2, 6, and 1, and the sparks that occur in Cylin-
ders 5, 3, and 4 will be waste sparks. This cycle continues as long as the
engine is running.
FIGURE 69—In this figure, the trigger wheel has rotated so that Notch 5 is passing by the crankshaft position
sensor. (Courtesy of General Motors Corp.)
Because the computer control system determines the proper spark tim-
ing, this system, like most direct-fire systems, is relatively simple in
construction. First of all, the system is made up of electronic parts that
don’t wear out or need periodic adjustment. In addition, since the
computer is controlling the spark timing, there’s no need for a separate
vacuum-advance or centrifugal-advance system. In fact, since the sys-
tem uses a crankshaft position sensor to determine the crankshaft posi-
tion, the system doesn’t require any timing adjustment at all. It’s all
handled by the computer control system.
Now let’s look at a direct-fire system that’s used in many Chrysler ve-
hicles. This system uses a crankshaft position sensor to send signals to
the computer, just like the system you learned about previously. How-
ever, instead of using a notched wheel on the crankshaft, this system
uses a drive plate that’s attached to the end of the crankshaft at the rear
of the engine. This system also uses a camshaft position sensor to help
the computer determine which cylinders are ready to be fired. Each ig-
nition coil in the coil pack fires two cylinders at the same time.
The drive plate for this system is shown in Figure 71. Note that the
plate contains groups of slots that represent the crankshaft positions,
rather than notches. Each set of four holes represents one pair of cylin-
ders. There are three groups of slots, so you can see that this engine
has six cylinders.
FIGURE 70—In Figure 70A, the trigger wheel has rotated so that Notch 6 is passing by the crankshaft position
sensor. In Figure 70B, as Notch 6 passes the crankshaft position sensor, the computer signals the ignition
module to fire Cylinders 4 and 1. (Courtesy of General Motors Corp.)
FIGURE 71—A drive plate

for a Chrysler direct-fire
ignition system is shown
here. (Courtesy of Chrysler
Corporation)
In this system, the crankshaft position sensor is mounted in the back of

the engine so the end of the sensor is placed right next to the drive
plate. The drive plate is attached to the crankshaft, so as the engine runs,
the drive plate rotates with the crankshaft. As the drive plate rotates,
the holes in the drive plate move past the crankshaft position sensor.
Each time one of the holes passes by the sensor, the sensor produces a
signal that’s sent to the computer control system.
In this system, the leading edge of the first hole in a group is located 9
degrees before the cylinder reaches TDC. This is considered the base or
beginning timing point for the engine. The second hole in each group
is placed 29 degrees before TDC; the third hole in each group is placed
49 degrees before TDC; and the fourth hole in each group is placed 69
degrees before TDC.
Each hole helps the computer identify the current crankshaft position
and fire the spark plug at the correct time. The crankshaft position sen-
sor sends a signal each time a hole passes the sensor. The first hole sig-
nals the computer that the cylinder is now 69 degrees before TDC. The
second hole signals the computer that the cylinder is now 49 degrees
before TDC. The third hole signals the computer that the cylinder is 29
degrees before TDC. The fourth hole signals the computer that the cyl-
inder is 9 degrees before TDC. The computer then fires the spark plugs
at the 9-degree hole.
As you can see, each pair of cylinders in the engine has its own set of
holes on the drive plate. However, each hole set is the same. There’s no
way for the computer to know which set of holes goes with which pair
of cylinders. For this reason, this system also uses a camshaft position
sensor. The camshaft position sensor sends a signal to the computer
that identifies the cylinder pair that’s ready to be fired.
The camshaft position sensor operates much like a crankshaft position

sensor, using a notched wheel to identify the cylinder positions. This
camshaft position sensor is mounted in the engine’s front cover so that
the end of the sensor is next to the timing gear on the end of the cam-
shaft. The notched trigger wheel that’s used in this system is shown in
Figure 72. Each notch helps the camshaft position sensor determine
which cylinders are ready to be fired. The signals from the camshaft
position sensor tell the computer which cylinder pair matches the set
of holes that’s coming up on the crankshaft drive plate. In addition, the
computer also uses the signals from the camshaft position sensor to
operate the fuel-injection system. (You’ll learn about fuel systems in
detail in a later study unit.)
Let’s discuss the cylinder notches labeled on the camshaft trigger

wheel in more detail. Note that the single notches in the wheel corre-
spond to Cylinder 2 and Cylinder 5. The double notches in the wheel
correspond to Cylinder 3 and Cylinder 6. The triple notch corresponds
to Cylinder 4. The long area on the wheel that has no notches corre-
sponds to Cylinder 1.
FIGURE 72—The camshaft gear that’s used in this ignition system is shown
here. (Courtesy of Chrysler Corporation)
The firing order of this engine is 1-2-3-4-5-6. Cylinders 2 and 5 are fired
together, Cylinders 3 and 6 are fired together, and Cylinders 4 and 1
are fired together.
As the engine operates, the computer uses the signals from the crank-
shaft position sensor to determine the current crankshaft position. The
computer uses the signals from the camshaft position sensor to iden-
tify which pair of cylinders to fire. Thus, the crankshaft sensor tells the
computer when to fire, and the camshaft sensor tells the computer which
cylinders to fire.
As the camshaft rotates, the first single notch on the camshaft gear
passes by the camshaft position sensor. The camshaft position sensor
sends one signal pulse to the computer, and the computer recognizes
that Cylinder 2 is approaching TDC. Then, the computer waits until
the four slots in the drive plate rotate past the crankshaft position sen-
sor. When the fourth slot passes the crankshaft position sensor, the
crankshaft position sensor signals the computer that it’s the right time
to fire. The computer then fires the spark plugs for Cylinders 2 and 5.
Cylinder 2 produces power, and Cylinder 5 produces a waste spark.
The camshaft continues to rotate, and the double notch labeled Cylin-
der 3 passes the camshaft position sensor. The camshaft position sen-
sor sends two quick signal pulses to the computer, and the computer
recognizes that Cylinder 3 is approaching TDC. Then, the computer
waits until the four slots in the drive plate rotate past the crankshaft
position sensor. When the fourth slot passes the crankshaft position
sensor, the crankshaft position sensor signals the computer that it’s the
right time to fire. The computer then fires the spark plugs for Cylin-
ders 3 and 6. Cylinder 3 produces power, and Cylinder 6 produces a
waste spark.
The camshaft continues to rotate, and the triple notch labeled Cylinder
4 passes the camshaft position sensor. The camshaft position sensor
sends three quick signal pulses to the computer, and the computer rec-
ognizes that Cylinder 4 is approaching TDC. The computer waits until
the four slots in the drive plate pass the crankshaft position sensor.
When the fourth slot passes the crankshaft position sensor, the crank-
shaft position sensor signals the computer that it’s the right time to
fire. The computer then fires the spark plugs for Cylinders 4 and 1.
Cylinder 4 produces power, and Cylinder 1 produces a waste spark.
Next, as the camshaft continues to rotate, the single notch labeled
Cylinder 5 passes the camshaft position sensor. The camshaft position
sensor sends one signal pulse to the computer, and the computer rec-
ognizes that Cylinder 5 is approaching TDC. The computer waits until
the four slots in the drive plate pass the crankshaft position sensor.
When the fourth slot passes the crankshaft position sensor, the com-
puter fires the spark plugs for Cylinders 5 and 2. Cylinder 5 produces
power, and Cylinder 2 produces a waste spark. (Note that a single
notch is used to fire both Cylinder 2 and Cylinder 5. However, since
Cylinder 5 and Cylinder 2 are both fired by the same ignition coil, the
computer doesn’t have to distinguish between the two single notches
on the camshaft gear.)
The camshaft continues to rotate, and the double notch labeled Cylin-
der 6 passes the camshaft position sensor. The camshaft position sen-
sor sends two quick signal pulses to the computer, and the computer
recognizes that Cylinder 6 is approaching TDC. The computer waits
until the four slots in the drive plate pass the crankshaft position sen-
sor. When the fourth slot passes the crankshaft position sensor, the
computer fires the spark plugs for Cylinders 6 and 3. Cylinder 6 pro-
duces power, and Cylinder 3 produces a waste spark.
Now, look at the area of the camshaft gear that’s labeled Cylinder 1.
This area of the camshaft gear doesn’t have notches on it. When this
area passes by the camshaft position sensor, no signal is sent to the
computer, and the computer recognizes that Cylinder 1 is approaching
TDC. The computer waits until the four slots in the drive plate pass the
crankshaft position sensor. When the fourth slot passes the crankshaft
position sensor, the computer fires the spark plugs for Cylinders 1 and
4. Cylinder 1 produces power, and Cylinder 4 produces a waste spark.
At this point, the camshaft has made one complete revolution, and
we’re back where we started from. This process continues over and
over as the engine operates, with the computer firing each of the cylin-
ders in their proper firing order. Keep in mind that the camshaft ro-
tates at one-half the speed of the crankshaft. Therefore, after the
crankshaft has made two complete revolutions, the camshaft will have
made only one revolution.
Now, let’s look at one more type of direct-fire ignition system. This
system uses a notched trigger wheel and a crankshaft position sensor
to monitor the crankshaft position. An illustration of the wheel and
sensor used in this system is shown in Figure 73.
FIGURE 73—An illustration of the wheel and sensor used in this system is
shown here. (Courtesy of Chrysler Corporation)
Note that this trigger wheel has only two sets of four notches, because
it’s used in a four-cylinder engine. Since each ignition coil fires two cyl-
inders, only two sets of crankshaft position notches are needed. The
first notch on the wheel is located at 9 degrees before TDC, the second
notch is located at 29 degrees before TDC, the third notch is located at
49 degrees before TDC, and the fourth notch is located at 69 degrees
before TDC.
In one set of notches in the trigger wheel in Figure 73, the last notch is
particularly long. In fact, the notch continues for 60 degrees of crank-
shaft rotation. When this long notch passes over the crankshaft posi-
tion sensor, the sensor sends a very long pulse signal to the computer.
When the computer receives this long signal, it recognizes that the next
set of notches will be for Cylinders 1 and 4. The other set of notches
corresponds to Cylinders 2 and 3.
As in most in-line, four-cylinder engines, the firing order for this en-
gine is 1-3-4-2 (Figure 74). Therefore, the ignition coils are arranged so
that Cylinder 1 and Cylinder 4 are fired by the same coil, and Cylin-
ders 3 and 2 are fired by the other coil.
FIGURE 74—The firing order for this in-line, four-cylinder engine is 1-3-4-2.
(Courtesy of Chrysler Corp.)
This system uses a camshaft position sensor to help the computer iden-
tify the cylinders that are ready to fire. As in the ignition system we ex-
amined previously, the crankshaft position sensor in this system tells the
computer when to fire the cylinder pairs, and the camshaft position sensor
tells the computer which cylinders to fire.
However, the camshaft position sensor in this system is a little differ-
ent from the other camshaft position sensor you’ve seen. In the previ-
ous system, the camshaft position sensor was triggered by a notched
wheel on the camshaft gear. However, in this system, the camshaft po-
sition sensor is triggered by a target magnet (Figure 75).
The target magnet in this system is a magnetic disc that’s attached to the
end of the camshaft. The magnetic disc has four different poles spaced
apart from one another. Two of the poles are north poles, and two are
south poles. The camshaft position sensor is placed over the magnetic disc
as shown in Figure 76. The magnetic disc then rotates with the camshaft,
and the camshaft position sensor monitors the surface of the magnetic
disc. Each time a north pole passes by the camshaft position sensor, the
sensor sends a voltage signal to the computer. Each time a south pole
passes by the sensor, no signal is sent.
The computer system uses the signals from the camshaft position sen-
sor and the crankshaft position sensor to keep track of the cylinders
that are ready to fire. For example, if the long notch on the trigger
wheel passes by the crankshaft sensor, and the camshaft sensor sends
no voltage signal, Cylinder 1 is ready to fire. Therefore, whenever
these two conditions are met, the computer knows that Cylinder 1 is
ready to fire. The computer determines the proper ignition timing and
then fires Cylinder 1 and Cylinder 4. Cylinder 1 produces power, and

Cylinder 4 produces a waste spark. Once the computer knows where
Cylinder 1 is located, it can simply follow the engine firing order to fire
the remaining cylinders.
FIGURE 75—The camshaft position sensor in this system is triggered by a target magnet (Figure 75A). The tar-
get magnet is a magnetic disc that contains four different poles (Figure 75B). (Courtesy of Chrysler Corporation)
FIGURE 76—The camshaft position sensor is placed over the magnetic disc.
As the magnetic disc rotates with the camshaft, the sensor monitors the sur-
face of the magnetic disc. (Courtesy of Chrysler Corporation)
In this section of your study unit, you learned about several direct-fire
ignition systems in detail. As you now know, many different varia-
tions of these systems are used in modern vehicles. In fact, one manu-
facturer may use several types of ignition systems in its car models.
Therefore, two vehicles that were made by the same company in the
same year may contain different types of ignition systems. For this rea-
son, all technicians need to refer to service manuals to determine the
exact operation of the ignition system and the location of the ignition
components. In general, however, all systems operate in a similar man-
ner. If you understand the basic principles of direct-fire ignition sys-
tems, you’ll adapt easily to any system you may come across.

ing Power Check 6.
Power Check 6
_____ 1. In most direct-fire ignition systems, one ignition coil is used to fire each pair of cylinders.
_____ 2. As an engine’s speed increases, the spark must occur later in the engine cycle to produce
the maximum power.
_____ 3. One way to control spark knock is to retard the ignition timing advance.
_____ 4. A direct-fire ignition system uses a distributor to direct the high voltage from the
ignition coil to the spark plugs.
_____ 5. Some direct-fire ignition systems use two crankshaft position sensors to monitor the
crankshaft position in the engine.
6. In a direct-fire ignition system, the ignition module and the ignition coils are often contained
within one housing that’s called a _______.
7. In a direct-fire ignition system, the ignition module takes the place of the _______.
8. A device called a ________ is used to monitor the crankshaft position at all times in a direct-
fire ignition system.
9. Two common types of crankshaft position sensors are the _______ sensor and the _______
sensor.
10. In a notched trigger wheel, an extra notch that’s used to identify the starting point in the fir-
ing order is called a _______.
11. A spark that fires in a cylinder without causing fuel ignition is called a _______ spark.
12. When the air-and-fuel mixture in a cylinder explodes instead of burning, a condition called
_______ or _______ can occur in the engine.

SUMMARY
In this study unit, you learned how a simple circuit operates. You
learned that a typical circuit includes a power source, conductors, a
load, and a switch. Circuits can be closed or open. In a closed circuit,
the switch is in the ON position. In an open circuit, the switch is in the
OFF position.
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still retains the
properties of that element. All atoms are made up of tiny atomic parti-
cles called protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons have a negative
charge, protons have a positive charge, and neutrons are neutral. Any
substance in which electrons can move freely is called an electrical
conductor.
Electrical circuits have three basic quantities associated with them:

current, voltage, and resistance. Current is measured in units called
amperes or amps. Voltage is a measure of the amount of electrical po-
tential in a circuit. Resistance is the force of opposition that works
against the flow of electric current in a circuit. As the resistance in a
circuit increases, the current decreases. If the resistance in a circuit
decreases, the current increases.
You learned that an ignition system that uses contact points is called
a point-type ignition system, and an ignition system that uses an elec-
tronic triggering device is called an electronic ignition system.
You also learned about spark plugs in this study unit. You know that
spark plugs allow voltage to jump across a gap, which produces a
spark that ignites the engine’s fuel.
Today, automobiles use electronic ignition systems rather than point-
type or conventional systems. Electronic systems can tolerate very high
voltages because a transistor is used to turn the primary circuit on and
off. The type of triggering device used in an engine depends on the ve-
hicle’s make and model. Most engines use either a magnetic-pickup,
Hall-effect, or optical triggering device.
You also learned about ignition timing in this study unit. You know
that the ignition system must be timed so that it closely matches the
operation of the engine. Sometimes it’s necessary to change the igni-
tion timing so that the spark plug fires earlier than a cylinder’s TDC
point; other times, the spark should occur after a cylinder’s TDC point.
As you know, this is referred to as either advancing or retarding the
ignition timing.
At the end of this study unit, you learned how a direct-fire ignition
system works. Then, you read some real-life examples to enhance your
learning of how a direct-fire ignition system operates.
99
Power Check Answers
7. ignition coil
8. five
1
9. 12
1. voltage 10. ignition coil
2. amperes 11. primary, secondary
3. ohms (the unit of electrical resistance) 12. distributor shaft
4. current 13. resistor
5. magnetic 14. primary, secondary
6. ohms 15. boots
7. resistance 16. distributor cap
8. True 17. False
9. False 18. False
10. True 19. False
11. False 20. True
12. True 21. True
22. True
2
23. True
24. False
1. firing order
25. True
2. lead-acid storage battery
26. False
3. distributor
27. True
4. secondary winding
28. False
5. spark plug gap
6. coil
100 Power Check Answers
3 5
1. float 1. advancing
2. point gap 2. retarding
3. dwell tester 3. vacuum-advance mechanism
4. condenser 4. True
5. conventional
6. True
6
7. False
1. True
8. True
2. False
9. False
3. True
10. True
4. False
5. True
4
6. coil pack
1. distributor 7. distributor
2. ignition module 8. crankshaft position sensor
3. shutter blades 9. magnetic, Hall-effect
4. False 10. synch notch
5. True 11. waste
12. spark knock, detonation

ONLINE EXAMINATION
For the online exam, you must use this
EXAMINATION NUMBER:
00400701
When you’re confident that you’ve mastered the material in your studies, you can
complete your examination online. Follow these instructions:
1. Write down the eight-digit examination number shown in the box above.
2. Click the Back button on your browser.
3. Click the Take an Exam button near the top of the screen.
4. Type in the eight-digit examination number.
Study Unit
Ignition System
Maintenance
iii
Preview
In this study unit, you’ll learn how to maintain ignition systems and troubleshoot faulty ignition
system components. You’ll also learn how to maintain conventional and electronic ignition
systems.
When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to
· Outline the steps needed to service an ignition system
· Describe how you would perform an ignition system tune-up
· Differentiate between the steps used to maintain a conventional and an electronic ignition
system
· Explain how to use an oscilloscope as an automotive ignition system diagnostic tool
· List the steps used to troubleshoot ignition systems

v
Contents
IGNITION SYSTEM SERVICING · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 1

Introduction
Servicing Spark Plugs
Inspecting the Spark Plug Wires
Testing Ignition Coils
Servicing Distributors
Inspecting Timing-Advance Mechanisms
TUNING UP A CONVENTIONAL IGNITION SYSTEM · · · · · · · · · · · · 19

Introduction
Servicing the Contact Points
Adjusting the Contact Point Gap
Testing and Adjusting the Dwell
Servicing the Condenser
Testing the Timing in a Conventional Ignition System
Troubleshooting a Conventional Ignition System
TUNING UP AN ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEM· · · · · · · · · · · · · · 31

Introduction
Testing the Timing in an Electronic Ignition System
Testing Ignition Coils in an Electronic Ignition System
Testing Electronic Ignition Modules
Testing Magnetic Pickup Coils and Hall-Effect Switches
Servicing the Distributor in an Electronic Ignition System
Removing and Replacing the Magnetic Pickup Assembly
Troubleshooting Electronic Ignition Systems
CHECKING IGNITION SYSTEM OPERATION WITH AN OSCILLOSCOPE · · 45

Using an Oscilloscope
Reading a Waveform
Ignition System Waveforms
Methods of Displaying Waveforms
Perfroming an Engine Test with an Oscilloscope
Cylinder Balance Test
SERVICING COMPUTER-CONTROLLED AND DIRECT-FIRE

IGNITION SYSTEMS · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 58
Computer-Controlled Ignition Systems
Direct-Fire Ignition Systems
Troubleshooting Direct-Fire Ignition Systems
vi Contents
SUMMARY · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 63
POWER CHECK ANSWERS · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 65
EXAMINATION · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 67
1
Ignition System Maintenance
IGNITION SYSTEM SERVICING
Introduction
At this point in your program, you know that an ignition system uses
electricity from a vehicle’s battery, increases the battery voltage signifi-
cantly, and then sends this high voltage to the spark plugs. The spark
plugs produce a spark that ignites the air-and-fuel mixture that’s been
compressed in an engine’s combustion chamber. The resulting burning
of the fuel in the combustion chamber forces the piston down and gets
the crankshaft turning.
Because an ignition system performs such a vital function, it’s important

to keep its components in working order. Any defect in the ignition
system can result in a loss of engine power, a reduction in fuel mileage,
and even engine failure. For this reason, the tune-up of a vehicle’s igni-
tion system is one of the most important procedures performed on an
automobile. An ignition system tune-up usually involves the inspection,
adjustment, and replacement of all the ignition system components, es-
pecially the spark plugs.
The servicing interval for ignition system components differs from ve-
hicle to vehicle. The vehicle’s service manual usually contains a section
that lists the recommended servicing interval for a particular vehicle’s
ignition system. This section is called the maintenance schedule. The
maintenance schedule contains information such as how often spark
plugs, oil, and oil filters should be changed.
As you know, several basic types of ignition systems are used in auto-
mobiles. Because of the variations in the components that make up these
systems, the procedures differ slightly from system to system. Let’s begin
by discussing how to service the components common to all ignition
systems—the spark plugs, ignition coils, and spark plug wires.
Servicing Spark Plugs

As you learned, an engine’s spark plugs create sparks that ignite the
air-and-fuel mixture in the combustion chambers. Because the end of a
spark plug is located directly in the combustion chamber, spark plugs
2 Ignition System Maintenance
are exposed to very high temperatures and pressures. In addition, the

high voltage from the coil is sent through the spark plug to its end.
Electricity jumps from the center electrode across the air gap to the
grounding electrode. The heat produced when the electricity jumps
across the air gap can actually cause part of the electrode to burn or
melt. Therefore, spark plugs wear out over time and need to be in-
spected and/or replaced periodically.
Worn or dirty spark plugs are the most common cause of sluggish per-
formance and misfiring under acceleration. Spark plugs are normally
replaced during any tune-up. In the past, spark plugs were cleaned
rather than replaced if they had been used less than 12,000 miles.
Spark plugs in electronic ignition systems usually last up to 30,000
miles and are replaced when an engine is tuned up.
Removing Spark Plugs
To inspect or replace spark plugs, you must first remove them from
the engine. The first step to removing spark plugs is to disconnect the
spark plug wires. Each spark plug has a spark plug wire and a spark
plug connector attached to it.
In most cases, the spark plug wire connector simply slips over the end
of the spark plug. However, over time, it may get stuck to the spark
plug. Therefore, the spark plug wire may not always pull off easily. To
prevent damage to the spark plug wire, never pull on the spark plug
wire itself. Instead, pull on the terminal boot that’s attached to the
plug. If the boot is tight, twist it gently to loosen it from the plug.
If the boot is attached to the plug very tightly or if the spark plug wire
is hard to reach, it may be necessary to use a special spark plug wire re-
moving tool to prevent damage to the wire. This tool usually resembles
a pair of pliers, as shown in Figure 1.
FIGURE 1—A spark plug

wire should be removed
from a spark plug with a
special tool like the one
shown here. Using a spark
plug wire removal tool will
prevent damage to the
wires.
Keep in mind that when spark plug wires are reinstalled, they must be
reconnected to the same plugs. This is necessary to keep the firing or-
der in the proper sequence. For this reason, it’s a good idea to mark the
spark plug wires so that you can reinstall them on the correct plugs in
the proper sequence. Some technicians place a piece of masking tape
on each plug wire, so they can write the cylinder number on the tape.
Ignition System Maintenance 3
Once the spark plug wires are disconnected, remove any dirt and de-
bris from around the spark plugs with compressed air. Once the area
around the spark plugs is clean, you’re ready to remove the plugs
from the cylinder head.
Remember that the spark plug insulator is usually made of porcelain.

As you learned, the porcelain insulator prevents electricity from leak-
ing out of the plug. However, porcelain is very fragile. Therefore,
when removing or installing a spark plug, be careful not to damage or
break the insulator. To prevent the insulator from being damaged, a
specially designed socket wrench called a spark plug socket is used to re-
move a spark plug (Figure 2).
The spark plug socket closely resembles a traditional deep socket.

However, unlike a deep socket, the spark plug socket has a soft rubber
bushing inside that fits around the insulator to protect it from damage.
As you learned, the spark plugs used in modern automobiles vary
slightly in thread size, length, and design. However, the hexagon-
shaped area of the spark plug comes in only two common sizes—5 8 -
inch and 13 16 -inch. Therefore, spark plug sockets are available in both
the 5 8 - and the 13 16 -inch size.
As you remove the spark plugs, keep the plugs in the order in which
they were removed from the engine. For troubleshooting purposes, it’s
FIGURE 2—When removing or installing a spark plug, be careful not to damage or break the spark plug in-
sulator. A special spark plug socket should always be used to remove a spark plug. (Courtesy of Snap-On Tool
Company, Copyright Owner)
important to know which plug came from which cylinder. If you dis-
cover a problem with one of the plugs, you may need to know which
cylinder the bad plug came from in order to correct the problem.
Inspecting the Plugs
Once the plugs have been removed, inspect them to determine their
condition. The condition of a spark plug tells you a lot about how an
engine is operating. In fact, many automotive technicians remove the
spark plugs first when troubleshooting a faulty engine. Use the spark
plug diagnostic chart in Figure 3 as a guide to identify engine
problems.
Always check to make certain the spark plug is the correct type for the
engine. Then, check the condition of the electrodes. A clean, new spark
plug is shown in Figure 4A on page 6. Note that the bottom surface of
the center electrode is flat and that the surfaces of the lower electrode
are squared. A used plug in normal condition looks much the same,
except the electrodes are gray or light tan from carbon deposits. (Car-
bon deposits are produced during normal fuel combustion.)
Next, inspect each plug for oil fouling. An oil-fouled plug is shown in
Figure 4B. Oil fouling causes the end of a plug to be saturated with
wet, sooty, black oil deposits. In a four-stroke engine, an oil-fouled
plug may indicate that the piston rings aren’t sealing the cylinder
properly, or oil may be passing through the valve stem area. Some-
times, a clogged breather can cause an oil-fouled plug. (A breather is a
vent in the crankcase.) A clogged breather may prevent the crankcase
from venting properly, and, as a result, pressure builds up in the
crankcase. This pressure causes oil to be pushed up past the piston
rings and into the combustion chamber. The oil in the combustion
chamber then fouls the spark plug. Excessive smoke at the exhaust
pipe may also indicate oil fouling.
A spark plug that was fouled by excessive fuel is shown in Figure 4C.
Fuel fouling, also called carbon fouling, is indicated by dry, black, fluffy
deposits on the spark plug electrodes. However, the plug won’t have
the caked or lumpy appearance of an oil-fouled spark plug.
Fuel fouling is most often caused by an air-and-fuel mixture that’s too

rich. However, a blocked exhaust or faulty valve can also cause fuel
fouling. If the problem is severe, you might be able to smell fuel on the
spark plug.
A weak ignition can also cause fuel fouling. For instance, if the spark is
weak because of a faulty cable, electronic module, coil, condenser, or
because of weak points, a plug can become fuel-fouled. In addition, if
the spark plug is too cold for that particular engine, it may become
fuel-fouled.
FIGURE 3—The condition of a spark plug can tell you a lot about the engine conditions and can pinpoint the
causes of poor engine performance. Use this guide to judge spark plug condition and identify engine prob-
lems. (Courtesy of Ford Motor Company)
Both oil fouling and fuel fouling can cause a spark plug condition
known as a bridged gap. In this situation, carbon or oil deposits build
up in the spark plug gap until it becomes completely blocked. A
bridged gap seriously affects the ignition’s efficiency.
FIGURE 4—A clean, new spark plug is shown in Figure 4A; an oil-fouled plug is
shown in Figure 4B; and a plug that was fouled by excessive fuel is shown in
Figure 4C.
Note that the deposits caused by fuel and oil fouling can usually be
cleaned off a spark plug, and the plug can then be reinstalled in the
cylinder head. However, spark plugs are inexpensive, so it’s better to
replace them during an engine tune-up.
When inspecting a spark plug, you may find that the plug’s electrode
or insulator is damaged. In extreme situations, the electrodes may be
heavily pitted and the insulator broken or cracked. This damage is
usually caused by a plug that’s too hot for a particular engine. A physi-
cal impact can also damage a plug. For example, if a piston or ring part
breaks and hits the spark plug, you may find damaged or bent elec-
trodes or cracked and broken insulators. Or, if the spark plug reach is
too long, the piston head may strike the electrodes. The most common
cause of physical damage, however, is debris or foreign objects in the
cylinder. Sometimes, a bolt or washer may loosen and actually be
pulled into the cylinder. The foreign object then strikes the spark plug
electrodes when the piston rises.
After many hours of use, a spark plug’s electrodes begin to erode.

While new electrodes have flat surfaces, an electrode with an eroded
center appears rounded. An electrode with an eroded side has a curve
on its inside surface. Plugs with eroded electrodes should be replaced.
Plug heat ranges are changed depending on the condition of the plug
that’s removed from the cylinder head. For example, if a plug looks
dirty, it’s usually removed and a hotter plug is installed in its place.
Likewise, a cooler plug is installed if the plug shows signs of heat damage
such as a cracked or chipped insulator. The vehicle’s service manual
usually recommends the type of plug that should be used in an engine.
Always follow these recommendations to prevent the types of prob-

lems you just learned about.
Never sand, sandblast, or file a spark plug and then replace it in an en-
gine. Using sandpaper or a file leaves tiny grooves on the electrodes.
As the engine operates, these grooves either burn off or collect depos-
its. Also, sandblasting and filing leave tiny particles of sand or metal
on the electrodes. These particles get into the engine’s cylinder and
cause serious damage.
In the past, some spark plug manufacturers produced small sandblast-

ing cleaning machines designed for their spark plugs. However, most
manufacturers now advise against using these machines. Remember,
spark plugs are inexpensive. If you’re ever in doubt of a plug’s quality,
simply replace it.
Checking the Spark Plug Gap
The next step in the spark plug inspection process is to check the spark
plug gap. The width of the air gap between a spark plug’s electrodes is
a precision measurement that’s determined by the spark plug manu-
facturer. In order for the plug to work properly, the gap between the
electrodes must be the correct width. Therefore, before you install a
spark plug in an engine, you should measure the air gap between the
electrodes. The service manual usually lists the proper air gap for the
spark plug.
The spark plug gap can be checked using a gapping tool. A gapping tool
is a measuring device with small wire prongs of different thicknesses.
The wire prongs are designed to measure in thousandths of an inch,
and each one is labeled with its thickness. A spark plug gapping tool is
shown in Figure 5. While the plug gap can also be measured with a
feeler gage or a ramp gage, these tools may be less accurate.
FIGURE 5—The spark plug

gap is set with a special
spark plug wire gage like
the one shown here.
FIGURE 6—If the gapping-tool wire slides between the electrodes with a slight
resistance, you’re measuring the gap correctly.
Before you measure the plug gap, check the service manual to deter-
mine the correct gap width. Suppose the service manual lists the cor-
rect gap width as 0.030 of an inch. Find the wire on the gapping tool
that’s marked 0.030 and fit it into the gap between the plug’s elec-
trodes. This process is shown in Figure 6. The wire should fit snugly
between the electrodes. If the gap is too large or too small, use the
metal tab on the side of the gapping tool to gently bend the grounding
electrode into its correct position.
A plug’s gap can also be measured using a feeler gage. However, if the
spark plug’s electrodes are worn, the flat blades on the feeler gage may
not provide an accurate reading. An illustration of this is shown in
Figure 7. As you can see in this figure, when the plug electrodes are
worn, the wire gapping tool provides a more accurate measurement of
the gap (Figure 7B). However, if the plug electrodes are very worn, the
spark plug should be replaced.
You should measure the gap of every spark plug before you install
it—even a new plug. A new plug’s electrodes may have been bent out
of shape and need adjustment.
FIGURE 7—A feeler gage can also be used to measure a plug’s gap. However,
the wire gapping tool provides a more accurate measurment of the gap.
Installing New Spark Plugs
Before installing new plugs in an engine, inspect each new spark plug
to make sure it’s the proper type and has the correct heat rating for the
engine. All plugs installed in an engine must be the same type and
have the same heat rating. Don’t assume that all of the plugs in one
package are the same—mistakes are sometimes made at the factory or
at the parts store.
When the spark plug gap has been checked, and corrected if necessary,
and the threads in the spark plug holes have been cleaned, it’s time to
replace the spark plug into the cylinder head. Hold the plug with your
fingers and gently screw the plug into the cylinder. Don’t force the
plug to turn. The plug should turn at least two full turns into the cylin-
der head. Tighten the plug by hand until it’s “hand-tight.” If the spark
plug uses a gasket, make sure to install a new gasket.
Now, use a spark plug socket and a torque wrench to tighten the plug
into the cylinder head. A spark plug should be tightened according to
the manufacturer’s specifications, which are usually in the range of
15 foot-pounds. A torque wrench should be used to tighten the plug
(Figure 8). Torque wrenches have special dials or gages on them that
indicate the tightening force you’re applying. When using a torque
wrench, turn the plug socket with the torque wrench until the wrench
indicates you’ve reached 15 foot-pounds.
It’s very important that a spark plug be tightened to the proper torque
specifications. If you use too little torque, the spark plug will overheat
because of improper heat transfer between the plug and the cylinder head,
or the spark plug may cause a compression leak between the threads.
A compression leak will eventually destroy both the spark plug and the
cylinder head. In contrast, if you tighten the spark plug with too much
torque, the plug will be distorted and the plug gap will be changed.
The plug will also be very hard to remove later. A good rule of thumb
is to tighten gasketed plugs 1 4 of a turn after the gasket contacts the
cylinder head. Plugs without gaskets—tapered-seat types—should be
tightened 116 of a turn after the taper contacts the cylinder head.
FIGURE 8—Three types of torque wrenches are shown here.

One of the biggest problems with spark plug installation is the possi-
bility of cross-threading the plug. In cross-threading, the plug is
screwed into the cylinder head at a slight angle, damaging the threads
inside the hole in the cylinder head. Aluminum cylinder heads are
very easily damaged.
If a plug is cross-threaded into the cylinder, it’s possible to repair the

threads. The best repair method is to remove the cylinder head and
screw a tap of the appropriate size into the hole. If you don’t have a
tap, you can remove the cylinder head and screw a spark plug with a
long reach backwards through the hole. Either method cleans the top
threads, allowing you to replace the cylinder head and screw the cor-
rect plug in from the top of the cylinder head. (Use a new cylinder
head gasket whenever you remove and replace the cylinder head on
an engine.)
A special tool called a thread chase can also be used to clean damaged
threads. Again, remove the cylinder head and screw in the thread
chase, just as you would install the spark plug. The thread chase cuts
away the faulty thread area, leaving good threads behind.
If the threads are heavily damaged, you can use a thread insert to
replace the existing threads. In this case, you would drill an over-
sized plug hole. The insert is then threaded into the oversized hole
in the cylinder head, and the spark plug is threaded into the insert.
After the plugs are installed, the final step is to reconnect the spark
plug wires. Make sure that each wire is connected to the proper spark
plug.
Inspecting the Spark Plug Wires

As part of a routine inspection of the ignition system, the spark plug
wires are usually checked to ensure they’re in good condition. Spark
plug wires usually don’t wear out as fast as spark plugs, but over time
wires can wear and may need to be replaced. Spark plug wires are
usually inspected visually for damage and then checked with an elec-
trical test meter to see how well they carry the voltage to the plug.
Let’s begin with how to perform a visual inspection.
Check the spark plug wire for cracks or other signs of damage in the
insulation and conductors. When checking the wires, be sure to care-
fully check any area that passes close to the engine or exhaust system.
It’s common to find that the insulation has been worn off from rubbing
against an engine part, or burned away by coming into contact with
the hot exhaust manifold. Also, check each of the connectors and rub-
ber insulation boots for any signs of damage. Any wire that’s brittle,
oil-soaked, or damaged in any way should be replaced.
Keep in mind that wires that appear to be in good condition on the

outside may be damaged or broken inside. A damaged wire may have
too much resistance, and the high voltage from the ignition system
may not reach the spark plug and fire the plug properly. If the spark
plug wire insulation is worn away, electricity may arc across to a metal
engine part. If the wire is very worn or broken, it may not carry any
electricity at all past the broken area.
If electricity doesn’t reach a spark plug, the air-and-fuel mixture in that

cylinder won’t be ignited. Thus, that cylinder won’t produce any
power, which reduces the overall power produced by the engine.
When one or more cylinders doesn’t fire, the condition is called engine
miss or misfire. A misfire can cause a dramatic loss of engine power and
may also cause the engine to vibrate and run unevenly. Think of it this
way—if just one of the cylinders in a four-cylinder engine misfires, the
engine loses 1 4 its power.
Use a multimeter to check for excessive resistance in a wire. Excessive

resistance in a wire limits the wire’s ability to carry voltage to the spark
plug.
The exact procedure for using a multimeter depends on the type of

meter. The multimeter will come with printed instructions that explain
how to use its different functions. However, the following is a general
procedure for checking a spark plug wire with a multimeter:
Step 1: Disconnect the spark plug wire from the spark plug and
from the distributor cap or ignition coil. Figure 9 shows one
type of wire connection you may find in a distributor cap.
Most plug wires pull off of the spark towers of the distribu-
tor cap. If these wires must be replaced, the distributor cap
must be removed and the wire ends compressed for removal.
Step 2: Set the multimeter to its ohmmeter function. (Multimeters

are often called ohmmeters when they’re set to this func-
tion.)
FIGURE 9—Before some

spark plug wires can be
removed from a distribu-
tor cap, a wire clip inside
the distributor cap must
be compressed. (Courtesy
of Chrysler Corporation)
Step 3: Attach the multimeter’s test leads to both ends of the spark
plug wire as shown in Figure 10.
Step 4: Read the measured resistance on the multimeter display.
In most cases, a spark plug wire should have approximately 4,000
FIGURE 10—To measure

the resistance of a wire,
set the meter to the ohm-
meter function and at-
tach the leads to the
ends of the wire as
shown here.
ohms (Ω) of resistance per foot of wire. In other words, a wire that’s
two feet long should have a resistance of about 8,000 ohms. Remem-
ber, though, that these are only approximate resistance values. A wire
can have a little more or less resistance and still be usable. However, if
the resistance value of a wire is much higher than the approximate val-
ues provided here, the wire will greatly limit the amount of electricity
that can pass through to the spark plug. In this situation, the wire
should be replaced.
When testing spark plug wires, you may sometimes get a resistance
reading that’s so high the meter can’t measure it. This type of reading
is called an infinite reading. An infinite reading usually indicates that
the spark plug wire is broken somewhere along its length, so electricity
can’t flow through the wire. Any wire that produces an infinite resis-
tance reading must be replaced.
Once the wires have been inspected, they can be reinstalled in the en-
gine. Remember that spark plug wires must be reinstalled in their
original positions in order to maintain the proper firing order in the
engine. If all the wires need to be tested, or if you’re installing a new
set of wires, it’s a good idea to check and reinstall the wires one at a
time to be sure they’re placed in their proper positions. Another
method is to draw a sketch of the wiring layout before you remove the
wires. Later, you can refer to the sketch to determine how to correctly
reinstall the wires.
When you’re removing or replacing spark plug wires, you may notice
that plastic wire holders are placed at various locations. These wire
holders are simply small brackets that are snapped over the plug
wires. Wire holders keep the wires neat and prevent them from be-
coming tangled. In addition, wire holders keep the wires spaced apart
to ensure that no voltage can jump from one wire to another. The hold-
ers also prevent the wires from rubbing against sharp edges on the en-
gine, or from coming into contact with the hot exhaust system. Because
the wire holders perform such important functions, it’s important that
the wires be placed back into the holders when they’re reinstalled.
Testing Ignition Coils

As you know, automotive ignition coils vary in size and shape, de-
pending on the manufacturer and the type of ignition system. How-
ever, even though ignition coils may look different on the outside,
they’re all constructed in much the same way.
The inspection and testing of the ignition coil is similar to that of spark
plug wires. First, check the ignition coil visually for any damage. Then,
test the condition of the coil windings using a multimeter.
Let’s review the visual inspection process. First, carefully examine the
plastic insulating material near the terminal areas. This material can be
brittle at times, so check for cracks and breaks. Cracked insulating ma-
terial can cause electrical problems that prevent the coil from working
properly. Also, make sure that the coil is clean and free of dirt and oil.
Dirt or oil on the outside of a coil allows electricity to flow along the
coil surface from one terminal to the other. This causes electricity to
bypass the coil windings and prevent the coil from producing a spark.
If a coil is damaged in any way, it should be replaced.
Once the coil has been visually inspected, check the coil with a mul-
timeter to determine the condition of the coil windings. In most situa-
tions, you won’t need to check a coil with a multimeter unless you
suspect a problem. In other words, a multimeter test isn’t a part of nor-
mal maintenance—a visual check of the coil is enough. To check an ig-
nition coil with a multimeter, follow these steps.
Step 1: Remove the coil from the vehicle or, at the very least, discon-
nect the wires connected to the coil.
Step 2: Set the multimeter to its ohmmeter function.

FIGURE 11—To check the primary coil winding, place one meter lead on each of the primary-winding
terminals as shown in Figure 11A. To check the secondary windings, place one meter lead on either of the
primary-winding terminals, and the other meter lead on the secondary-winding connector, as shown in
Figure 11B. In this figure, the test is being performed on an ignition coil that’s located in the distributor cap.
Step 3: First, check the coil’s primary winding. Place one of the mul-
timeter test leads on one of the primary-winding terminals,
and place the other multimeter lead on the other primary-
winding terminal (Figure 11A). Since you’re measuring the
amount of resistance in the coil winding, it doesn’t matter
which multimeter lead is placed on which primary terminal.
Step 4: Read the resistance value on the multimeter display. For

most coils, the primary-winding resistance should be very
low—usually less than 10 ohms. If the resistance reading is
much higher or lower than 10 ohms, the coil is defective and
needs to be replaced.
Step 5: Next, check the secondary windings. Place one multimeter

test lead on either of the primary-winding terminals. Place
the other multimeter lead on the secondary-winding connec-
tor, where the coil wire or spark plug wire would normally
connect (Figure 11B). Again, it doesn’t matter which mul-
timeter lead is connected to which terminal, nor does it mat-
ter which of the two primary terminals you use.
Step 6: Read the resistance value on the meter display. For most coils,
the secondary-winding resistance should be high—usually
between 5,000 and 25,000 ohms. Again, if the resistance
reading is much higher or lower than this range, the coil is
defective and should be replaced.
FIGURE 12—A distributor

cap should be checked
for a carbon track that
will cause the engine to
misfire.
Servicing Distributors
The procedures used to service distributors are basically the same
whether an engine has a conventional, an electronic, or a computer-
controlled ignition system.
The major defect found in distributor caps and rotors is carbon tracking.
Moisture that accumulates inside the distributor causes spark
flashover inside the cap, which produces a path of carbonized material
between two of the cap terminals. Carbon tracking in the cap fre-
quently causes a constant engine misfire. A carbon track looks like a
dark line in the cap, as shown in Figure 12. The rotor may also develop
a carbon track under the rotor input terminal due to high-resistance or
old plugs or wires.
The following is a general procedure used to check the distributor cap

and rotor.
Step 1: Remove the distributor cap. Clean the cap and inspect it for
cracks, carbon tracks, and burned or corroded terminals. Re-
place the cap if you find any of these defects.
Step 2: Clean the rotor and inspect it for carbon tracks or eroded or
corroded metal parts. Replace the rotor if you find any de-
fects.
Step 3: At this point, if you’re working on a point-type ignition sys-

tem, you can service the points and condenser. If you’re
working on an electronic or computer-controlled ignition
system, you can proceed to Step 4, since the distributors in
these systems won’t have any other components that require
replacement or adjustment.
Step 4: Check the centrifugal-advance mechanism, if the distributor

has one. Turn the distributor rotor as far as possible in the
normal direction of distributor rotation. Then, release the ro-
tor. The springs should return the rotor to its retarded posi-
tion. If the rotor doesn’t return to its retarded position
readily, the distributor needs to be disassembled so the
problem can be detected and corrected.
Step 5: Check the vacuum-advance mechanism, if the distributor

has one. Apply vacuum to the vacuum-advance unit with a
hand-held vacuum pump or another source of vacuum.
Make sure that the plate rotates in the opposite direction to
the distributor shaft rotation. Then, remove the vacuum
source and make sure that the plate returns to the retarded
position.
If the plate doesn’t move at all, the vacuum-advance diaphragm is

probably leaking. If the vacuum-advance diaphragm is leaking, the
timing won’t advance and the gas mileage will be very poor. Any stiff-
ness in the plate movement also affects ignition timing. Correct any
vacuum-advance problems before continuing with the tune-up.
Step 6: Make sure that all the distributor and coil primary-wire ter-
minals are tight.
Step 7: Lubricate the distributor according to the manufacturer’s in-

structions. Not all of the following procedures are applicable
to all distributors.
In point-type ignition systems, apply a thin film of cam lubricant or a

high-melting-point grease to the distributor cam. Replace the cam lu-
bricator, if the system has one. Don’t lubricate the old wick. Apply 1 2
drop of engine oil on the contact-point set pivot.
If the distributor has centrifugal weights under the breaker plate, re-
move the rotor and apply five drops of engine oil to the wick in the
center of the shaft.
If the distributor has an advance mechanism at the top of the distribu-

tor shaft, lubricate the contact points of the weights and shaft with cam
lubricant.
Step 8: Install the rotor and distributor cap. Make sure all spark
plug wires are firmly pressed into the cap in the correct or-
der, as shown in Figure 13. Remember that distributors can
rotate clockwise or counterclockwise, and there isn’t an exact
guide as to what direction a particular distributor rotates in.
To determine the direction of distributor rotation, consult
the service manual, or start the engine with the distributor
FIGURE 13—When you in-

stall spark plug wires into
a distributor cap, be sure
that you press them
firmly into the cap.
(Courtesy of Chrysler
Corporation)
cap off and observe the direction of rotor rotation. The spark
plug wires must be reinstalled in the correct order to main-
tain the proper engine firing order.
Inspecting Timing-Advance Mechanisms

Since timing-advance mechanisms are so important to proper engine
operation, they should be checked whenever you service an ignition
system or troubleshoot an ignition problem. Follow these steps when
you check a timing-advance mechanism.
Step 1: Check the distributor centrifugal-advance mechanism by

turning the distributor rotor as far as possible in its normal
direction of rotation. Then, release the rotor and observe
whether the springs return the rotor to its retarded position.
If the rotor doesn’t return easily, lubricate the weights and
the shaft. If lubricating the weights and shaft doesn’t help,
disassemble the distributor, then clean and lubricate the in-
ternal parts.
Step 2: Check the vacuum-advance unit for free operation by turn-

ing the moveable breaker plate or distributor housing
against rotation. The spring should easily return the unit to
the retarded position. Correct any interference or binding. If
a vacuum pump is available, you can check the vacuum dia-
phragm by applying a vacuum to the vacuum-advance unit
input port and observing whether the breaker plate moves.
If the vacuum-advance unit is defective, replace it.

ing Power Check 1.
Power Check 1
At the end of each section of Ignition System Maintenance, you’ll be asked to pause and
check your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Power Check” ex-
ercise. Writing the answers to these questions will help you to review what you’ve stud-
ied so far. Please complete Power Check 1 now.
1. A special wrench called a _______ should be used to remove spark plugs to prevent
damage to the insulators.
2. _______ fouling causes the end of a spark plug to be saturated with wet, sooty, black
oil deposits.
3. When spark plug wires are reinstalled, they must be reconnected to the proper plugs
in order to maintain the correct _______ in the engine.
4. A condition called _______ is caused when a spark plug is screwed into the cylinder
head at an angle, damaging the threads inside the spark plug hole.
5. _______ fouling produces dry, black, fluffy deposits on the spark plug electrodes.
6. When carbon or oil deposits build up in a spark plug gap until it becomes completely
blocked, the gap is said to be _______.
7. Damaged threads in a spark plug hole can be cleaned using a tap or a _______.
TUNING UP A CONVENTIONAL IGNITION SYSTEM
Introduction
You learned earlier in this program that point-type ignition systems
aren’t used in modern cars, and that they’re used only in older vehi-
cles. However, since many of these older vehicles are still on the road,
it isn’t uncommon for an automotive technician to service a conven-
tional ignition system.
As you’ve learned, the major difference between conventional ignition

systems and electronic ignition systems is that conventional systems
use contact points and a condenser in the distributor. The points and
condenser will wear out over a period of time. The service manual for
the vehicle lists the recommended intervals for replacement of these
components.
You’ll perform the following major tasks when you tune up a conven-
tional ignition system.
1. Examine the points, clean them, and replace them if necessary.
2. Test the condenser and replace it if necessary.
Servicing the Contact Points

The contact points are the most vital part of a conventional ignition
system. They must be in working condition if the ignition system is to
operate properly. A point set usually operates satisfactorily for at least
12,000 miles, sometimes longer. Although contact points were often re-
paired in the past, today they’re usually replaced.
Use the following steps to inspect the contact points.
Step 1: Check the points visually for wear. Normally, contact points
are gray and only slightly rough or pitted. Points in this con-
dition don’t need to be replaced.
Step 2: Dirty points can be cleaned with a clean, fine-cut point file.
The file should be clean—not greasy or dirty—and shouldn’t
be used on other metals. Don’t attempt to remove all rough-
ness from the point surfaces. File off only the major rough
spots or dirt.
Note: Don’t use an emery cloth or sandpaper to clean the contact

points. These materials will cause particles to embed in the point sur-
faces, which can cause arcing, rapid wear, and failure.
Step 3: If the points are burned or badly pitted, replace them. Don’t
attempt to file them.
If the points are burned or pitted, or if they didn’t last as long as ex-
pected, it’s very important to check the ignition and charging systems
to determine the cause of the problem. Unless you correct the problem,
the new points will burn or pit as quickly as the old ones. The most
common cause of burned points is excessive primary voltage. Addi-
tionally, points are often damaged or worn out because of the
following:
· A condenser that’s defective or the wrong type
· A coil that’s defective or the wrong type
· No resistance in the primary circuit
· A voltage regulator setting that’s too high
Step 4: Check the alignment of the contact points with the points
closed. The contacts should be aligned and contact each
other evenly. Replace any misaligned points.
Step 5: As a preliminary adjustment before starting the vehicle, set

the point gap to 0.019 inch with a feeler gage. The rubbing
block should be positioned on the extreme top of the cam
lobe during adjustment. Recheck the dwell after starting the
engine. (Setting the point gap is discussed in detail in the fol-
lowing section of this study unit.)
If a set of contact points needs to be replaced, you need to remove the

old set of points. To remove the contact points from the distributor, re-
move the electric connector and loosen the attaching screws. Some at-
taching screws must be completely unscrewed in order to remove the
point set.
Before installing a new set of points, apply a small amount of cam lu-
bricant to the cam and rubbing block. The grease should be applied to
the rubbing block on the side away from the point faces.
Point installation is the opposite of point removal. Any ground wires

should be reinstalled. The electric connectors and attaching screws
should be tight. Make sure that the electric connectors don’t contact the
breaker plate; otherwise, the primary system will be shorted.
Adjusting the Contact Point Gap

Contact points are adjusted by changing the distance between the
point set and the distributor cam. The closer the points are to the cam,
the wider they’ll open. As the points are moved away from the cam,
the point gap gets smaller.
To measure the point gap, crank the engine until the point set rubbing
block is on the extreme top of the distributor cam lobe. Then, insert a
clean 0.019-inch feeler gage for new points, or a 0.016-inch feeler gage
for used points, between the two point faces. If the gage passes
through the point faces with a slight drag, the point adjustment is
good. Note that these feeler gage sizes are approximate. Be sure to
FIGURE 14—To adjust the contact point set in Figure 14A, insert a screwdriver into the special adjustment
slot. To adjust the points shown in Figure 14B, turn the eccentric screw.
check the service manual for the exact point gap specification for a par-
ticular vehicle.
If the contact point gap needs to be adjusted, loosen the retaining

screws that hold the point assembly to the breaker plate. Some contact
point assemblies contain a special adjustment slot (Figure 14A), while
others are adjusted by an eccentric screw (Figure 14B). If the assembly
has an adjustment slot, insert a screwdriver into the slot and move the
contact point assembly. If the assembly has an eccentric screw, turn the
screw with a screwdriver. In either type of assembly, the distributor
cap and rotor must be removed in order to make the adjustment. Once
the points are adjusted, retighten the retaining screws.
Some contact point assemblies contain built-in adjustment screws. This

type of assembly has a special window built into the distributor cap.
Insert an Allen wrench through the metal window in the distributor
cap to turn the adjustment screw (Figure 15). The gap in this type of
point set can be adjusted while the engine is running.
Testing and Adjusting the Dwell

The point gap has a direct effect on an ignition system’s dwell. Re-
member that the dwell is the number of degrees the distributor cam
rotates during the time that the contact points are closed. There are 360
FIGURE 15—In some dis-

tributors, the contact
point set has a built-in
screw adjustment. To ad-
just the gap in this type of
point set, insert an Allen
wrench through the win-
dow in the distributor cap
and adjust the screw. The
gap in this type of con-
tact point set can be ad-
justed while the engine is
running.
degrees in a circle, so the maximum dwell for any engine is 360 di-
vided by the number of engine cylinders. Dwell is measured using a
dwell tester. The dwell increases as the point opening decreases, and the
dwell decreases as the point opening increases.
Correct dwell is important, especially during starting and low-speed

operation. If the contact points are set too close together, the dwell will
be too long. As a result, arcing and burning occurs, making the engine
difficult to start and operate at low speeds. If points are set too far
apart, the dwell will be too short. The points won’t be closed long
enough to allow the coil to develop a complete magnetic field. This
causes a weak spark at high speeds.
Setting the dwell with a dwell meter is the preferred method of adjust-
ing the contact points, since it’s more accurate than using a feeler gage
to set the point gap. The dwell should always be checked after adjust-
ing and aligning the points.
Checking the dwell requires a dwell meter similar to the one shown in
Figure 16. You should always refer to the dwell meter’s instructions for
proper use of the meter.
The following is a general procedure to test and adjust the dwell in a

conventional ignition system.
Step 1: Connect the dwell meter to the engine. Connect one lead to
the coil negative primary connection—the distributor side—
and the other lead to a grounded location on the engine.
Step 2: Start the engine and observe the dwell meter. The approxi-
mate dwell should be between 45 and 60 degrees in 4-
cylinder engines, between 28 and 50 degrees in 6-cylinder
engines, and between 27 and 33 degrees in V-8 engines.
FIGURE 16—An automo-

tive dwell meter is shown
here.
Step 3: Slowly accelerate the engine to about 2,000 rpm and observe
the dwell reading. The dwell reading should vary no more
than 3 degrees when the engine is accelerated and then re-
turned to idle. If the dwell reading varies more than 3 de-
grees, check for a worn distributor shaft, worn distributor
bushings, or a loose breaker plate assembly.
Step 4: Return the engine to idle and observe the dwell reading. If
the dwell reading isn’t within manufacturer’s specifications,
the point gap needs to be adjusted. Adjust the points as de-
scribed earlier, then recheck the dwell. If the dwell still isn’t
correct, repeat this step.
Step 5: Once the proper dwell is set, tighten the attaching screws.
Step 6: Check to make sure that the point dwell is still within speci-
fications while the engine is running. The points must be re-
set if the dwell isn’t within specifications. If the distributor
has external adjustment points, the dwell can be set with the
engine running.
Servicing the Condenser

Condensers are usually replaced during an ignition system tune-up. A
shorted or completely open condenser usually prevents the engine
from starting; an overcapacity or undercapacity usually causes pitting
on the breaker points.
Although an engine usually starts and runs with any good condenser,
a condenser of the exact capacity helps the contact points last longer.
A simple check of the condenser can be made with an ohmmeter as
follows.
Step 1: Set the ohmmeter on the R × 1000 scale.
Step 2: Remove the condenser from the distributor, or remove the

condenser lead from the point set.
Step 3: Place one ohmmeter lead on the condenser lead, and place
the other ohmmeter lead on the condenser body. The ohm-
meter needle should jump briefly, and then return to the in-
finity position. If the ohmmeter doesn’t do this, replace the
condenser.
A condenser can be removed easily from a distributor by disconnect-

ing the electric wire and removing the attaching screw. To install a
new condenser, simply reverse the removal process. Make sure that
the condenser body is solidly grounded to the plate and that the pigtail
lead doesn’t contact any grounded part of the distributor. You don’t
need to adjust a condenser.
Testing the Timing in a Conventional Ignition System

The proper ignition timing is critical to the proper operation of an en-
gine. Once the points and the condenser have been replaced and/or ad-
justed, the ignition timing should be adjusted. Remember that
changing the dwell in point-type systems changes the ignition timing,
so be sure to complete all point adjustments before you set the timing.
The following is a general procedure you can use to adjust the timing
in a conventional ignition system.
Step 1: Connect a timing light to the #1 spark plug and to the bat-
tery (Figure 17). Check the manufacturer’s instructions for
the exact connecting procedures.
FIGURE 17—An automo-

tive timing light like the
one shown here is used
to adjust a vehicle’s igni-
tion timing.
FIGURE 18—Aim the tim-

ing light at the stationary
timing marks on the fly-
wheel housing opening
or on the front of the
engine.
Step 2: Disconnect the spark-advance vacuum hose from the

vacuum-advance unit.
Step 3: Plug the vacuum hose with a piece of tape, or with a suitable
plug such as a golf tee.
Step 4: Connect a tachometer to the engine. (You may remember

that a tachometer is a device used to indicate the speed of ro-
tation.) Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for connect-
ing the tachometer. The tachometer is usually connected to
the negative battery terminal on the ignition coil.
Step 5: Start the engine and adjust the engine idle to specifications,
if necessary.
Step 6: Aim the timing light at the stationary timing marks on the
flywheel housing opening or on the front of the engine
(Figure 18). The rotating timing mark should be visible at or
near the stationary timing mark. Refer to the service manual
for the exact location of the timing marks.
Note: When setting the ignition timing on any engine that you’re unfa-
miliar with, it’s essential that you properly interpret the timing marks.
On all engines, the marks are distributed on either side of the “0”
(TDC) mark. If necessary, stop the engine to clean and identify the
proper marks. The rotating mark in the damper or flywheel should
also be cleaned and marked if necessary.
Step 7: Compare the timing with the timing recommended in the

service manual.
Step 8: Adjust the timing as needed by loosening the distributor

clamp bolt and rotating the distributor body until the timing
light indicates the correct timing-mark alignment at the
specified engine rpm.
Step 9: Tighten the distributor clamp bolt, and recheck the timing
setting. Reset the timing if necessary.
Step 10: Accelerate the engine to 2,500 rpm, and observe the timing
mark. If the timing mark moves approximately 15 to 20 de-
grees in the direction advanced, the mechanical spark-
advance system is operating properly. If the timing doesn’t
move, the mechanical advance is sticking and should be re-
paired.
Note: The mechanical advance can often be restored to operation by

lubricating the weights and shaft. Use as little lubricant as possible, to
keep oil from being thrown onto the contact points.
Step 11: Return the engine to idle and reattach the vacuum-advance
hose.
Step 12: Accelerate the engine to 2,500 rpm. The timing should ad-
vance farther than it did in Step 10. If it doesn’t move any
farther than it did with the vacuum hose disconnected, the
vacuum-advance unit is defective or sticking and should be
repaired.
Note: A leaking vacuum-advance unit must be replaced. Before replac-

ing the vacuum-advance unit, check the vacuum hose to make sure
that it isn’t split or plugged, and also make sure that the hose is at-
tached to the proper fitting on the carburetor or intake manifold and
that the carburetor or intake manifold is supplying adequate vacuum.
Step 13: Remove the timing light.
Note: Always check the underhood emissions sticker or the service

manual for exact instructions on how to set the timing. If the emissions
sticker or service manual lists instructions different from those pro-
vided in this study unit, always follow the instructions on the sticker
or in the service manual.
Troubleshooting a Conventional Ignition System

To diagnose an ignition system problem, always proceed logically,
working from simple, obvious causes to more complex problems. The
troubleshooting process involves checking each individual ignition
system component as well as the system as a whole.
One of the major difficulties in diagnosing ignition system problems is

that the fuel and compression systems can cause similar problems.
Therefore, to diagnose the ignition system, you must also check the en-
gine fuel and mechanical systems. For example, a dead cylinder could
be caused by a bad spark plug or wire, but it could also be caused by a
burned valve. A hesitation in the engine when accelerating could be
caused by worn spark plugs or retarded timing, but it could also be
caused by a faulty carburetor accelerator pump.
The following is a general procedure used to troubleshoot ignition sys-

tem problems. You can follow the steps in the order in which they’re
presented, or you can rearrange them to suit a particular problem.
Step 1: First, check the operation of the ignition primary system. To

check for a spark, use a pair of insulated pliers to hold the
coil wire 1 4 -inch from a ground point, and then crank the en-
gine. A bright blue spark should jump from the coil wire to
the ground point. If there isn’t a spark, check the ignition
primary side—the contact points, coil, resistor, wiring, and
condenser. Also, check the battery, charging system, and the
starting system to ensure that enough electricity is available
to the ignition system.
Step 2: Next, check for any fuel system problems. If the engine has a
carburetor, check for gas by looking into the carburetor air
horn while working the accelerator linkage. Gas should
squirt from the accelerator pump nozzle. If it doesn’t, check
the fuel lines, fuel filter, and pump. Also, make sure that the
tank has gas in it. An internal carburetor problem could also
cause engine performance problems.
Step 3: Then, check the condition of the ignition secondary system.

If the carburetor appears to be operating and the coil sparks,
check the ignition secondary for a cracked cap, a shorted ro-
tor, or bad spark plug wires. Occasionally, an engine won’t
start because of worn-out, fouled, or wet spark plugs; there-
fore, they should also be checked.
Step 4: Check the ignition system for proper timing. Remove the #1
spark plug from the engine, and then crank the engine until
the #1 piston comes up on its compression stroke. You
should feel a rush of air out of the spark plug hole. Continue
cranking the engine until the timing marks line up at TDC.
Then, remove the distributor cap and check that the rotor is
now under the #1 spark tower. If the engine starts but has
some other problem, you can check the timing and timing
advance with a timing light.
Step 5: If the fuel and ignition systems appear to be in good condi-

tion, the engine may have a compression problem. Check
the compression with a compression tester. In a compression
check, a special pressure gage is threaded into an engine’s
spark plug hole. The engine is then started and the amount
of pressure produced is measured.
The following are some additional guidelines you can use when
troubleshooting a point-type ignition system.
If an engine cranks but won’t start, check the coil for a spark. If there
isn’t a spark, the ignition system may have any one of the following
problems:
· A weak battery
· Moisture inside the distributor cap
· A defective coil
· A defective condenser
· Loose connections or broken wires in the primary circuit
· Improperly adjusted or faulty distributor points
· A broken distributor gear or drive pin
If there’s a spark at the coil but the engine won’t start, check for any of
the following conditions:
· Moisture on high-tension wiring or spark plugs
· A cracked distributor cap
· A carbon track in the rotor, a broken rotor, or a missing rotor
· A defective or disconnected coil-to-distributor high-tension wire
· Badly retarded or advanced ignition timing
If an engine is hard to start, it usually has an ignition problem that af-

fects engine performance after it starts. In this situation, check for any
of the following:
· Worn-out, wet, or improperly gapped spark plugs
· Improperly adjusted, worn, or dirty distributor points

· Loose connections in the primary circuit
· Defective spark plug wires
· A defective or wrong-capacity condenser
· A defective coil
· A carbon track in the rotor
· Retarded ignition timing
Engine misfires can be caused by burned valves or other internal en-

gine problems. Therefore, these should also be checked. If an engine
misfires, check for the following:
· Fouled or worn spark plugs
· Improperly gapped spark plugs
· Defective or disconnected spark plug wires
· A carbon track in the distributor cap or rotor
· Misadjusted contact points
· A worn distributor shaft
· Reversed coil polarity
Poor performance or fuel mileage is one of the hardest problems to

correct. Often, the problem isn’t related to the engine, but may be
caused by the fuel system, drive train, tires, brakes, or even driving
habits. You can check for the following ignition system problems:
· Inoperative advance mechanisms
· Worn-out spark plugs
· Reversed coil polarity

ing Power Check 2.
Power Check 2
1. A point set usually operates satisfactorily for ______ miles.
2. True or False? The dwell can be adjusted in a conventional ignition system, using a
timing light.
3. True or False? Burned valves, improperly gapped spark plugs, a cracked distributor
cap, or a worn distributor shaft are all possible causes of engine misfires.
4. True or False? Poor engine performance or poor fuel mileage may be caused by re-
tarded ignition timing or worn-out spark plugs.
5. True or False? To measure the point gap, you should use a 0.019-inch feeler gage for
new points and a 0.016-inch feeler gage for used points regardless of what it says in the
service manual.
TUNING UP AN ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEM
Introduction
As you know, the majority of modern vehicles use either distributor-
type electronic ignition systems or direct-fire, distributorless systems.
Although there are slight variations in the construction and design of
the components, the procedures for servicing electronic ignition sys-
tems are very similar to those used for conventional systems. For ex-
ample, spark plugs, spark plug wires, distributor caps, and rotors are
replaced the same way. The electronic system is also timed like a con-
ventional system.
However, there are some differences in specifications and adjustments.

The internal parts in electronic-ignition distributors are more likely to
rust than those in point-type distributors. This is due to the ionizing ef-
fect of higher voltages. If the inside of the distributor is rusty, the dis-
tributor cap should be replaced, since it’s allowing moisture to get
inside the housing.
An electronic-ignition distributor requires almost no adjustments. Al-

though you can obtain a dwell reading, the dwell can’t be adjusted.
Now, let’s discuss some of the typical services and repairs required in
electronic ignition systems.
Testing the Timing in an Electronic Ignition System

You can test the ignition timing in a distributor-type electronic ignition
system with a timing light just as you would test a conventional igni-
tion system. Proper ignition timing is vital. Incorrect timing can cause
sluggish performance, detonation, poor mileage, and overheating.
Testing Ignition Coils in an Electronic Ignition System

Ignition coils, including those inside the distributor cap, can be
checked by bypassing the rest of the ignition system, as follows:
Step 1: Disconnect the coil primary leads.
Step 2: Connect jumper wires from the coil primary connections to

the positive and negative terminals of the battery.
Step 3: Hold the coil secondary wire 1 4 -inch from the engine block.
When an ignition coil is inside the distributor cap, run a
jumper wire from the center connection inside the distribu-
tor cap; hold the other end 1 4 -inch from the engine block.
Step 4: Make and break the coil circuit by removing either jumper
wire from the battery. You should see a spark from the wire.
If the ignition coil doesn’t produce a spark, check it for continuity and
resistance with an ohmmeter as follows.
Step 1: Set the ohmmeter on the R × 1 setting.
Step 2: Place one lead on each primary terminal. Primary resistance

should be less than 10 ohms.
Step 3: Set the ohmmeter on the R × 1000 scale.

Step 4: Connect one lead to any primary terminal, and the other
lead in or on the coil secondary tower. Secondary resistance
should be between 5,000 and 25,000 ohms.
Step 5: If the coil fails this test, replace it.
Testing Electronic Ignition Modules

Ignition modules can be checked only using special testers (Figure 19).
These testers are expensive and usually designed to work on a limited
variety of ignition modules. Therefore, the usual methods of ignition
module diagnosis are processes of elimination and substitution. For
example, when an ignition system has a problem and all other compo-
nents are in good condition, the problem is probably in the module.
This is why it’s important to check every part of the system carefully
and determine that all other electronic ignition system components are
working properly.
FIGURE 19—An ignition module tester requires various adapters because of the many ignition module de-
signs that are available.
Note: A common ignition module problem is a poor ground or no

ground at all. Always clean and tighten the ground connections before
you replace an ignition module. Also, be aware that ground connec-
tions may be the module-attaching screws.
Testing Magnetic Pickup Coils and Hall-Effect Switches

Pickup coils and some Hall-effect switches can be checked with an
ohmmeter. (Remember that an ohmmeter is a multimeter set to the
ohmmeter setting.) Usually, the coils and switches don’t have to be re-
moved from the distributor to perform the test. With some pickup
coils, the air gap between the pickup coil and the trigger wheel can be
adjusted. Ordinarily, air gap adjustment isn’t a problem. However, it
should be checked if there’s a problem with the pickup coil, or if the
pickup coil is removed from the distributor. If the air gap is too wide,
the strength of the signal to the electronic control unit is reduced. As a
result, the engine is difficult to start and the efficiency of the ignition
spark is reduced during engine operation.
On some types of electronic ignition systems, the gap between the

pickup coil and the trigger wheel must be checked. This clearance can
be adjusted if necessary. Note that the gap should be checked only
with a nonmagnetic feeler gage. A steel gage will stick to the permanent
magnet in the pickup, and you won’t be able to get a true adjustment.
Brass feeler gages are available from auto supply stores and tool sup-
pliers.
The following is a general procedure to adjust the pickup coil air gap.
Step 1: Check the inside of the distributor for rust. If you find any
rust, replace the distributor cap.
Step 2: Crank the engine until one trigger wheel tooth is aligned
with the pickup coil core (Figure 20).
Step 3: Loosen the lock screw on the mounting bracket for the
pickup coil.
Step 4: Insert the nonmagnetic feeler gage between the tooth and
the pickup coil. The gage should feel snug as it’s pulled
through the gap.
Note: Always check the service manual for the exact air gap specifica-
tions.
Step 5: If the clearance is incorrect, loosen the pickup-attaching

screws and move the pickup assembly to adjust the gap.
FIGURE 20—A nonmagnetic feeler gage is used to set the air gap between
the trigger wheel and the pickup coil.
Step 6: Tighten the attaching screws and check the adjustment

again.
Step 7: Start the engine, and make sure that there’s at least a 0.006-
inch clearance between the pickup coil and each tooth.
Step 8: Install the distributor cap and rotor.
The pickup coil in most ignition systems can be checked with an ohm-
meter. The following is a general procedure for checking a pickup coil.
Step 1: Set an ohmmeter on the R × 100 scale.
Step 2: Connect the ohmmeter leads to the pickup coil leads, and
read the resistance. This step is illustrated in Figure 21A.
Step 3: Compare the reading to the manufacturer’s specifications.

The resistance should usually be between 300 and 1,500
ohms.
Step 4: Leave the ohmmeter leads connected, and wiggle the pickup
coil leads. The reading shouldn’t change.
Step 5: If the coil fails either of these tests, replace it.
Step 6: Check for a grounded pickup coil by connecting one lead of

the ohmmeter to either coil pickup lead and the other lead to
the distributor housing (Figure 21B). The ohmmeter should
read infinity. If it doesn’t, the pickup coil is grounded and
should be replaced.
FIGURE 21—A pickup coil is checked using an ohmmeter to measure the resistance between two pickup
coil leads (Figure 21A), and the resistance between a pickup coil lead and the distributor housing (Figure
21B).
The only way to test most Hall-effect switches is to substitute a known

good switch for a switch that you suspect may be malfunctioning.
However, the rotor in a Hall-effect system can be checked with an
ohmmeter. To test the rotor on a Hall-effect switch, follow these steps.
Step 1: Remove the distributor cap.
Step 2: Connect one lead of an ohmmeter to one of the shutter

blades and connect the other lead to ground (Figure 22).
Continuity should exist between the two points. If it doesn’t,
the shutter blades of the rotor aren’t grounded.
Step 3: If the shutter blades aren’t grounded, replace the rotor.
FIGURE 22—You can use

an ohmmeter to check
the shutter blades of a
Hall-effect rotor to make
sure that the blades are
grounded to the distribu-
tor shaft.
Step 4: Repeat Steps 1 through 3 for the other shutter blades.
Servicing the Distributor in an Electronic Ignition System

The rotor and distributor cap in an electronic ignition system are tested
the same way as a rotor and distributor cap in a point-type system.
However, because electronic ignition systems produce much more
voltage than point-type systems, the cap and rotor in electronic sys-
tems are more prone to carbon tracking.
If the pickup coil is defective and needs to be replaced, the distributor

usually has to be removed from the vehicle first. The following is a
general procedure to remove and replace a distributor.
Step 1: Unfasten the distributor cap retaining clips or screws. Re-

move the distributor cap with the high-tension wires in
place, and set it safely out of the way.
Step 2: Disconnect the vacuum hose from the distributor vacuum-

advance unit.
Step 3: Disconnect the distributor primary-wiring connector.
Step 4: Scribe a mark on the distributor housing in line with the tip
of the rotor (Figure 23), and mark the position of the rotor
and distributor housing on the engine block.
Step 5: Remove the distributor hold-down bolt and clamp.
Step 6: Withdraw the distributor carefully from the engine.
The following is a general procedure for installing a distributor.
Step 1: Clean the distributor-mounting area of the engine block.
FIGURE 23—Before re-

moving the distributor
from a vehicle, mark the
position of the rotor on
the distributor housing
and mark the position of
the housing on the en-
gine block.
Step 2: Install a new distributor-mounting gasket in the counterbore

of the engine block.
Step 3: Position the distributor in the engine.
Step 4: Align the rotor tip with the mark you scribed on the dis-
tributor housing. Turn the rotor approximately a 1 8 -turn
counterclockwise past the scribed mark.
Step 5: Slide the distributor down into the engine and position the
housing in the original location.
Note: It may be necessary to move the rotor and shaft slightly at first.
However, the rotor should align with the scribed marks when the dis-
tributor is down in place.
Step 6: Install the distributor hold-down clamp.
Step 7: Check the ignition timing.
If, for some reason, the engine was cranked while the distributor was
removed, time the distributor as follows.
Step 1: Rotate the crankshaft until the #1 piston is at TDC at the end
of the compression stroke. To determine when the #1 piston
is on its compression stroke, remove the #1 spark plug and
place your thumb over the spark plug hole. You’ll feel the
pressure building up in the cylinder.
Step 2: Align the correct initial timing with the stationary pointer
and the timing mark on the crankshaft vibration damper
(Figure 24). You can turn the crankshaft using the starter mo-
tor.
Step 3: After aligning the timing marks at the front of the engine,
position the distributor in the block with the rotor at the #1
firing position and one of the trigger teeth aligned, as shown
in Figure 25.
FIGURE 24—Shown here
is a typical set of timing
marks that would be
found on the crankshaft
damper or flywheel.
FIGURE 25—When you’re

installing the distributor,
make sure that one of
the trigger wheel teeth
aligns perfectly with the
pickup coil.
Step 4: Make sure that the oil pump shaft properly engages the dis-
tributor shaft. You may have to crank the engine after the
distributor drive gear is partly engaged in order to engage
the oil pump shaft. When the distributor drops into place,
loosely install the retaining clamp and bolt. Then, revolve
the distributor so that the trigger tooth is aligned properly,
and tighten the clamp. Be sure that you rotate the distributor
in the direction of advance.
Step 5: Install the distributor cap and its wires, and connect the dis-
tributor wiring connector to the vehicle wiring harness.
Step 6: To be sure of correct ignition timing, test the distributor tim-

ing with a timing light.
Removing and Replacing the Magnetic Pickup Assembly

If you test the magnetic pickup assembly with an ohmmeter and find that
the assembly is defective, it must be replaced. There are two basic types of
pickup coils—the single-pole type and the multiple-pole type. General proce-
dures for replacing both types of coils follow. As always, be sure to check
the service manual for any variation from this general procedure.
Replacing a Single-Pole Pickup Coil
With the distributor removed from the engine, remove the rotor. Since
the trigger wheel is firmly attached to the centrifugal-advance plate
sleeve, use a gear puller to remove it (Figure 26). If a gear puller isn’t
available, use two screwdrivers to very carefully pry the trigger wheel
from its seat. As you pry, maintain equal force on each side of the trig-
ger wheel. Remove the roll pin, stop ring, and wire retaining clip from
FIGURE 26—A special gear puller like the one shown here is used to remove
the trigger wheel from the distributor shaft.
the base plate annular groove, and then remove the snap ring that se-
cures the vacuum-advance link to the pickup assembly (Figure 27). Af-
ter the ground screw is removed, lift the magnetic pickup assembly
from the distributor. Lift the vacuum-advance link off the post on the
pickup assembly, and move it out against the side of the housing.
Reverse this procedure when you install the new magnetic pickup as-
sembly.
Replacing a Multiple-Pole Pickup Coil
To replace a multiple-pole pickup coil assembly or vacuum-advance

unit, you need to remove the distributor shaft from the distributor. To
do this, remove the distributor from the engine, drive out the distribu-
tor gear pin, and lift the distributor shaft from the unit (Figure 28).
Then, remove the screws that hold the pickup coil assembly. Remove
the C washer, and then lift out the pickup coil.
Replacing the electronic module is simply a matter of disconnecting

the wires and removing two module-attaching screws. Reverse the
procedure to install a new module.
Warning: When you replace the stationary pole piece, make sure that
the pole-piece mounting screws are properly seated to avoid interfer-
ence between the pickup coil and the trigger wheel teeth when the dis-
tributor shaft is put back into the distributor housing.
FIGURE 27—Shown here is an exploded view of an electronic-ignition distributor that has a single-pole
pickup coil.
Troubleshooting Electronic Ignition Systems

Electronic ignition systems have many of the same problems as point-
type systems—defective coils, rotors, distributor caps, wires, and spark
plugs—as well as fuel and compression system problems. To diagnose
an electronic ignition system, you must check not only the ignition sys-
tem, but also the engine fuel and mechanical systems.
This section concentrates on specific ignition system problems. Some

electronic ignition components, such as modules, can’t be checked
without special testing equipment. However, pickup coils, resistors,
and coils can easily be checked with an ohmmeter. Therefore, you can
pinpoint problems in a nontestable part, such as a module, if you make
FIGURE 28—Shown here is an exploded view of an electronic-ignition distributor that contains a multiple-
pole pickup coil.
sure all other components are in good condition. The following is a

general troubleshooting procedure for electronic ignition systems. You
can follow these steps in the order in which they’re presented, or you
can rearrange them to suit your needs.
Step 1: Test the vehicle’s battery with a voltmeter. Connect the me-
ter leads to the two battery terminals. A fully charged bat-
tery should produce a voltage reading of between 12 and
13 V.
Step 2: Visually check the ignition primary circuit for any broken or
damaged wires.
Step 3: Check the ignition system for spark. To check for spark, use
insulated pliers to hold the coil wire 1 4 -inch away from a
grounding source and start the engine. A bright blue spark
should jump from the wire to the ground. If the coil doesn’t
spark, check the coil, module, and wiring, using the proce-
dures discussed earlier.
Step 4: Check the fuel system operation.

Step 5: Check the ignition secondary system for cracked distributor

caps, carbon tracks in the distributor cap, defective rotors,
defective spark plug wires, and worn, fouled, or defective
spark plugs.
Step 6: Check that the ignition system is properly timed. Remove

the spark plug from the engine, and crank the engine until
the #1 piston comes up on its compression stroke. Place your
thumb over the spark plug hole to feel the rush of air out of
the hole. Continue cranking the engine until the timing
marks line up at TDC. Then, remove the distributor cap and
check that the rotor is under the #1 cap tower. If the engine
starts, but has another problem, the timing and timing ad-
vance can be checked with a timing light.
Step 7: If the fuel and ignition systems are in good condition, the en-
gine may have a compression problem. You can check the
compression with a compression tester.
Figure 29 lists some general guidelines that can be used to help diag-
nose a problem in an electronic ignition system.

ing Power Check 3.
DIAGNOSING ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEM PROBLEMS

If an engine cranks but won’t start, first check the coil for spark. If there’s no spark, the ignition system
could have any one of the following problems:
· A weak battery
· Too wide an air gap in the pickup coil
· A defective pickup coil
· Loose connections or broken wire in the primary circuit
· A defective ignition module
· A broken distributor gear or drive pin
If there’s a spark at the coil, check for any of the following conditions:
· Moisture on high-tension wires or spark plugs
· Moisture inside the distributor cap
· Carbon tracks in the rotor
· A broken or missing rotor
· A defective or disconnected coil-to-distributor high-tension wire
· Badly retarded or advanced ignition timing
If an engine is difficult to start, it may have an ignition problem. An ignition problem that causes hard
starting will usually cause a performance problem once the engine starts. In such a situation, check for
any of the following conditions:
· Worn-out, wet, or improperly gapped spark plugs
· Improperly adjusted pickup coil air gap
· Loose connections in primary circuit
· Defective high-tension wire
· Defective coil
· Cracked distributor cap
· Carbon tracks in rotor
Engine misfiring can be caused by burned valves or by some internal engine problem. Intermittent miss-
ing is usually caused by an ignition system problem. Check for the following:
· Fouled or worn spark plugs
· Improperly gapped spark plugs
· Damaged insulation on secondary wires, or disconnected wires
· Cracked distributor cap
· Carbon tracks in distributor cap
· Carbon tracks in rotor
· Worn distributor shaft
Poor performance or fuel mileage is one of the hardest problems to correct. Often the problem isn’t re-
lated to the engine, but may be caused by a problem in the fuel system, drive train, transmission, or
brakes. Poor performance may also be the result of bad driving habits. If poor performance or poor
mileage is observed, check for the following ignition system problems:
· Inoperative advance mechanisms
· Worn-out spark plugs
FIGURE 29—These are some general guidelines that can be used to help diagnose problems in an elec-
tronic ignition system.
Power Check 3
1. The defect that’s most often found in distributor caps and rotors is _______. This con-
dition is a frequent cause of engine misfires.
2. To check a spark plug wire for damage, use an ohmmeter to check for excessive
_______ in the wire.
3. True or False? The rotor and distributor cap in an electronic system are tested the same
way as a rotor and distributor cap in a point-type system.
4. True or False? In an electronic ignition system, incorrect timing can cause sluggish per-
formance, detonation, poor mileage, or engine overheating.
5. True or False? The air gap in a magnetic pickup should be checked using a nonmag-
netic feeler gage.
CHECKING IGNITION SYSTEM OPERATION WITH AN

OSCILLOSCOPE
Using an Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope, sometimes called a scope, is a testing instrument that’s
used to measure various electrical quantities in a circuit. The oscillo-
scope is a box-shaped device that contains a television-like screen, as
well as several test leads (Figure 30). The oscilloscope’s test leads are
much like the test leads on a multimeter. Many modern oscilloscopes
are combined with other test instruments into a single unit that’s called
an engine analyzer.
FIGURE 30—An oscillo-

scope engine analyzer
like the one shown here
can be used to check
the condition of an igni-
tion system. (Courtesy of Sun
Electric Corp.)
Remember that when a multimeter is connected to a circuit, the meter

displays the amount of voltage, current, or resistance within the cir-
cuit. Well, an oscilloscope can do more than that—it can actually dis-
play “pictures” of the electrical quantities in a circuit. After an
oscilloscope measures the electrical quantities in a circuit, it displays
the measurements on its screen as a waveform. A waveform is a long,
wavy line that runs across the oscilloscope screen. The shape of the
waveform’s curves tells you how a circuit is working.
You may have seen an oscilloscope being used to monitor a patient’s

heartbeat in a hospital. The electrical impulses produced by a person’s
beating heart can be measured and then displayed as a waveform on
the oscilloscope screen. Each time the patient’s heart beats, the wave-
form curves upward sharply as the oscilloscope reads the electrical sig-
nal from the heart. In between heartbeats, the waveform is a straight
line.
What does this have to do with an ignition system? An oscilloscope

used to measure the electricity in an ignition system circuit is very
similar. If the ignition system is working properly, the waveforms
have a particular shape; problems in the system also cause certain
waveform shapes. The technician can observe the shape of the wave-
forms to pinpoint problem areas. Thus, an ignition system’s distinct
waveform pattern can be used to diagnose problems in the system.
An ignition system tune-up often involves a test with an oscilloscope,

which can test both point-type and electronic ignition systems. An os-
cilloscope can measure the voltage levels in both the primary and sec-
ondary ignition systems as each spark plug fires and as the magnetic
field in the coil builds up. By setting the controls on the oscilloscope,
you can look at either the primary- or secondary-ignition waveforms.
Observing the oscilloscope patterns can help you diagnose many pri-
mary- and secondary-system malfunctions, such as fouled spark plugs,
resistive or broken spark plug wires, cracked distributor caps, shorted
rotors, defective or misadjusted points, defective or out-of-capacity
condensers, reversed coil primary leads, and internal coil defects. Once
you know what the correct waveform for an engine looks like, any
variation in that waveform usually indicates a problem.
The oscilloscope is connected to the engine through its test leads. Usu-
ally, connections are made to the coil negative primary, to the coil sec-
ondary wire, to the #1 plug wire, and to the battery terminals. The
number and kind of hookups vary among vehicles. Always consult the
service manual before making any connections.
The oscilloscope controls can be adjusted to get the best possible view
of a waveform. An oscilloscope usually has controls for horizontal and
vertical spacing, size, brightness, and primary- or secondary-waveform
selection. Most oscilloscopes also have various voltage settings to ad-
just the size of the waveform for the easiest viewing.
Reading a Waveform
The waveform is a picture of voltage in relation to time. Figure 31
shows the layout of a typical oscilloscope screen. Note the markings on
the screen. The horizontal lines on the screen represent voltage levels,
which are measured in kilovolts. The numbers printed on the right-
hand side of the lines tell you the voltage level at each horizontal line,
from 0 to 36 kilovolts. (Remember that 1 kilovolt is equal to 1,000
volts.) The “time line” at the bottom of the screen represents degrees of
distributor rotation.
A waveform display on an oscilloscope screen is read from left to

right. By comparing the position of the waveform to the marked lines
on the screen, you can determine the voltage values that the waveform
represents. Whenever the waveform is above the zero line, a positive
voltage value is indicated. Whenever the waveform is below the zero
line, a negative voltage value is indicated.
FIGURE 31—This illustra-

tion shows a typical os-
cilloscope screen. The
horizontal lines represent
voltage levels, measured
in kilovolts. The time line
at the bottom of the
screen represents de-
grees of distributor rota-
tion.
The waveform shown in Figure 32 is very simplified, but it will help

you understand how to read an oscilloscope display. Imagine that we
have an oscilloscope connected to one cylinder in the ignition system
of an eight-cylinder engine, and this is the waveform the scope dis-
plays. The waveform displays a picture of the electrical activity at the
cylinder as the engine runs. When the cylinder’s spark plug fires, the
waveform rises sharply. Thus, the “peak” in the waveform represents
the spark plug fire.
Starting at the far left of the screen, the waveform is drawn along the
zero line, so the waveform indicates a value of 0 kilovolts. At that
point, nothing is happening, so the oscilloscope reads 0 kilovolts. Now,
move to the right of the waveform. The waveform suddenly rises
FIGURE 32—In this simpli-

fied waveform, the peak
indicates the point at
which the spark plug
fires.
sharply, indicating that the spark plug has fired. The highest point of
this peak reaches the six-kilovolt line, so the oscilloscope is measuring
six kilovolts. As you continue to move to the right, the waveform
drops back down to the zero line. This waveform pattern repeats each
time the spark plug fires in that cylinder.
Remember that a waveform is a representation of voltage in relation to

time. The time line at the bottom of the screen indicates the number of
degrees of distributor rotation. Look at the time line at the bottom of
the screen in Figure 32. Note that there are three temperature
lines—one line for a six-cylinder engine, one line for a four-cylinder
engine, and one line for an eight-cylinder engine. Trace your finger
across the time line for the eight-cylinder engine. (Our example engine
has eight cylinders.) Note that the waveform peaks at the 35-degree
mark. Thus, the spark plug in this cylinder fires at 35 degrees of dis-
tributor rotation.
Remember that this example is a simplified explanation of how to read

a waveform. You’ll look at some actual ignition system waveforms
and examine the different parts of the waveforms in a later section.
Ignition System Waveforms

Remember that an oscilloscope can be used to measure the voltage lev-
els in both the primary and secondary ignition system circuits. By set-
ting the controls on the scope, you can view just the primary-ignition
waveforms, or just the secondary-ignition waveforms. Observing the
waveforms can help you diagnose many primary- and secondary-system
malfunctions. You can compare the waveform displayed on the screen
with a correct waveform for the engine and look for any variations that
would indicate a problem.
As you learned, an oscilloscope can be used to test both conventional

and electronic ignition systems. Let’s begin by discussing the wave-
forms for a conventional ignition system.
The Secondary Waveform in a Conventional Ignition

System
A secondary waveform is a display of the high-voltage activity in the

secondary ignition system circuit. Every time the distributor points
open, a voltage is produced in the secondary circuit. The voltage is
then displayed as a waveform on the screen. The main use of the sec-
ondary ignition circuit waveform is to measure the amount of voltage
that’s needed to fire the spark plug. A typical waveform for a secon-
dary ignition system circuit is shown in Figure 33.
FIGURE 33—When a point-type ignition system is operating properly, the oscilloscope will display this wave-
form for the secondary circuit.
A secondary waveform is made up of three sections: the firing section,

the intermediate section, and the dwell section. During the firing section of
the waveform, the actual firing of the spark plug takes place. The firing
section of the waveform is composed of the firing line and the spark
line. The firing line is a vertical line that indicates the amount of volt-
age required to overcome the spark plug gap and the distributor rotor
air gap. The spark line is a horizontal line that indicates the amount of
voltage required to maintain the spark.
Point A in the waveform represents the exact moment at which the

contact points separate, causing the magnetic field in the ignition coil
to collapse. At Point B in Figure 33, the waveform rises sharply. This
sharp rise illustrates the high voltage that results from the collapse of
the magnetic field. The height of the firing line at Point B indicates the
amount of voltage required to fire the spark plug.
After the spark plug fires, the secondary voltage in the coil drops, so
the waveform drops sharply to Point C. The spark continues to bridge
the spark plug gap, and the spark voltage remains at a fairly constant
low value until the spark extinguishes at Point D.
Now, let’s examine the intermediate section of the waveform. The in-
termediate section immediately follows the firing section. In Figure 33,
you can see that the intermediate section contains a series of gradually
diminishing oscillations that disappear by the time the dwell section of
the waveform starts. The term oscillations refers to the small “up and
down” movements of the waveform starting at Point D. These oscilla-
tions occur as the remaining ignition coil energy dissipates and gradu-
ally dies out at Point E. The oscillations result from the combined
effects of the coil and the condenser in dissipating the energy.
The dwell section of the waveform illustrates the dwell portion of the
ignition cycle; that is, the period of time when the contact points are
closed. The dwell section begins at Point E, when the contact points
close. The closing of the points causes a short downward curve in the
waveform, followed by a series of small, rapidly diminishing oscilla-
tions. These oscillations represent the buildup of the magnetic field
around the coil that occurs when the contact points are closed. The
dwell section continues until the points open again at the beginning of
the next waveform, Point F.
Secondary waveforms are very useful for showing overall ignition sys-
tem operation.
The Primary Waveform in a Conventional Ignition

System
The primary waveform can be useful in detecting a problem in the ig-

nition system’s primary circuit. Since the waveform shows what’s hap-
pening in the primary circuit, it can be used to locate problems relating
to point condition, coil condition, and dwell in a conventional ignition
system. A typical primary waveform for a point-type ignition system
is shown in Figure 34.
Since any voltage variation in the ignition primary circuit is reflected

in the secondary, it isn’t always necessary to use a primary waveform
for general ignition testing. The primary waveform has the same three
basic sections as the secondary.
FIGURE 34—When a point-type ignition system is operating properly, the oscilloscope will display this wave-
form for the primary circuit.
The firing section shows a series of rapid oscillations that take place
when the spark plug fires. Point A indicates the exact moment at
which the contact points separate.
The vertical line between Point A and Point B, and the oscillations that
follow Point B, represent the repeated charging and discharging of the
condenser, and also the induced voltage surges in the primary circuit
that occur when the spark plug is firing. When the spark jumps the
spark plug gap and energy is being drained from the coil, the height of
the oscillations diminish until the spark is extinguished at Point C.
The intermediate section of the waveform is a series of gradually di-

minishing oscillations that disappear by the time the dwell section be-
gins. Beginning at Point C, any remaining energy in the coil dissipates
and gradually dies out at Point D.
The intermediate section ends and the dwell section begins when the
contact points close. The dwell section is represented by the horizontal
line that extends from Point E to Point F. During this period, the con-
tact points remain closed.
Electronic Ignition System Waveforms
An oscilloscope can be used to check an electronic ignition system the

same way it was used to check a point-type ignition system. The wave-
forms displayed on the screen are basically the same as those for a
point-type system. Figure 35 shows a typical primary waveform for an
electronic ignition system, compared with the primary waveform for a
conventional ignition system. Note that the intermediate section of the
electronic-system waveform is much shorter than that of the conven-
FIGURE 35—The primary

waveform of an elec-
tronic ignition system
varies from that of a
conventional ignition
system because the
electronic system uses
a transistor instead of
contact points to turn
the primary-winding
voltage on and off.
tional system. The dwell section of the electronic-system waveform is

much longer than that of the conventional system. The differences in
the electronic-system waveform occur because the electronic ignition
system uses a transistor instead of contact points to turn the primary-
winding voltage on and off.
Methods of Displaying Waveforms

Waveforms can be displayed on an oscilloscope screen in one of three
ways: using the superimposed method, the raster method, or the parade
method.
In a superimposed-waveform display, the waveforms for all engine

cylinders are displayed simultaneously, one on top of the other, as
shown in Figure 36. Superimposing the waveforms of all the engine’s
cylinders is a convenient way to test the ignition system for overall
uniformity. By expanding the scope display horizontally between the
two vertical reference lines on the screen, you can clearly view any
variations in the waveform.
In the raster method of displaying waveforms, the waveforms for

all engine cylinders are displayed one above the other, as shown in
Figure 37. This allows the waveforms of individual ignition cycles to
be displayed at full-screen width, permitting a detailed, close-up in-
spection of all engine cycles simultaneously. The raster method is espe-
cially helpful for examining individual cylinder waveforms when a
variation is observed in a superimposed pattern.
FIGURE 36—The oscillo-

scope waveforms of all
engine cylinders can be
displayed simultane-
ously, one on top of the
other, as shown here. This
is called the superim-
posed method of dis-
playing scope
waveforms.
FIGURE 37—The waveforms of all cylinders can be displayed simultaneously, one above another. This is
called the raster method of displaying waveforms.
In the parade method of displaying waveforms, the waveforms for the

different cylinders are displayed one after the other in a straight line,
in the order of firing. Suppose you’re viewing the waveform for an en-
gine with a 5-3-6-2-4-1 firing order (Figure 38). The parade waveform
will begin on the left-hand side of the screen with the waveform for
Cylinder 5. Then, the scope will show the waveforms for Cylinder 3,
Cylinder 6, and so on. As you read from left to right, you can view the
individual waveforms for all of the engine’s cylinders in a straight line.
FIGURE 38—In the pa-

rade method of wave-
form display, the
waveforms for each en-
gine cylinder are dis-
played on the screen
from left to right, in the
order of firing.
Performing an Engine Test with an Oscilloscope

The oscilloscope can be used to view the waveforms of both the pri-
mary and secondary circuits of an ignition system. To view a primary
waveform, a primary-pickup device from the oscilloscope is connected
to the primary circuit at the distributor terminal or the distributor side
of the coil. To view a secondary waveform, a secondary-pickup device
FIGURE 39—Special
adapters like the one
shown here are used to
attach the oscilloscope
leads to an electronic ig-
nition system.
is connected to the secondary circuit at the coil tower. Of course, the

exact procedure depends on the type of equipment you’re using.
For most electronic ignition systems, the oscilloscope test connections

are about the same as those for conventional ignition systems. How-
ever, some electronic ignition systems require the use of a special
secondary-waveform pickup, a special tool that’s provided with most
modern test equipment. A typical adapter and hookup are shown in
Figure 39.
Note: Oscilloscopes and other test equipment should be connected ac-

cording to the instructions provided with the test equipment. Connect-
ing the equipment in any other way could damage the test equipment
or parts of the ignition system.
The following is a general procedure for using an oscilloscope to test

the condition of an automotive engine with a conventional ignition
system. Attachments and controls vary in different machines, so be
sure to read the manufacturer’s instructions provided with the equip-
ment.
Step 1: Connect the oscilloscope leads to the ignition system compo-

nents according to the scope manufacturer’s instructions.
Note: Position the oscilloscope leads carefully to prevent them from

becoming entangled in the engine’s fans or belts.
Step 2: Set the oscilloscope controls to the secondary superimposed

position.
Step 3: Start the engine and allow it to idle.
Step 4: Observe the waveforms in the superimposed position.

Closely check the coil oscillations to diagnose a bad coil or
condenser.
Step 5: Observe the dwell section of the waveform to diagnose the

coil, condenser, or points. The dwell section in an electronic-
system waveform may seem very long compared to that in a
conventional-system waveform. Also, the length of the
dwell section varies in high-energy ignition and computer-
controlled systems.
Step 6: Observe the waveforms in the raster position to see all of the
cylinders on the screen at once. Race the engine to observe
the spark plug firing lines.
Step 7: Remove a plug wire to check the coil output. On some elec-
tronic ignition systems, certain plug wires must not be re-
moved. This is to prevent the high-voltage spark from arcing
down to any low-voltage components inside the distributor.
Step 8: Set the oscilloscope controls to the primary position.
Step 9: Observe the waveforms. Closely check the point-opening

and point-closing signals.
Step 10: Compare the waveform displayed with the engine’s normal
waveform. If the displayed waveform doesn’t match the
normal waveform, the ignition system has a problem. You
can then begin ignition-troubleshooting procedures to iso-
late the problem and correct it.
Cylinder Balance Test

Most modern engine analyzers are designed to perform cylinder balance
tests, which are sometimes called dynamic compression tests. In a cylin-
der balance test, the engine analyzer is used to determine whether all
of the engine cylinders are producing the correct amount of power.
This test can confirm a suspected problem such as a fouled plug, vac-
uum leak, or burned valve.
The following is a general procedure to perform a cylinder balance

test.
Step 1: Raise the engine speed to 1,000 rpm.
Step 2: Use the engine analyzer to short out each cylinder, and note
the engine rpm. Shorting out a cylinder should cause the
rpm to drop by at least 50. If the rpm doesn’t change, the cyl-
inder wasn’t producing power before it was disconnected,
and the cause of the problem must be investigated.
Note: This test can easily be duplicated in a conventional ignition sys-

tem by removing each spark plug wire with a pair of insulated pliers
on a running engine with a tachometer attached. This method isn’t rec-
ommended on electronic ignition systems, however, since an arc inside
the cap could damage primary-circuit components.
Now, take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by completing

Power Check 4.
Power Check 4
1. Often, an oscilloscope is combined with other test instruments into a single testing unit
that’s called a (an) _______.
2. In the _______ method of displaying waveforms on an oscilloscope screen, the wave-

forms for the different cylinders are displayed one after the other in a straight line, in
the order of firing.
3. An oscilloscope can measure electrical quantities in a circuit and display the measure-
ments on its screen as a _______.
4. In a _______ waveform display, the waveforms of all the engine cylinders are dis-
played simultaneously, one on top of the other, on the oscilloscope screen.
5. True or False? A secondary waveform is very useful for analyzing overall ignition sys-
tem operation.
6. True or False? A primary-circuit waveform can be used to locate problems that relate
to point condition, coil condition, and dwell in a conventional ignition system.
7. True or False? The oscilloscope can be used only to view the waveforms for an ignition
system’s primary circuit.

SERVICING COMPUTER-CONTROLLED AND DIRECT-FIRE

IGNITION SYSTEMS
Computer-Controlled Ignition Systems

Computer-controlled electronic ignition systems seem complicated—
and they are. However, these systems can often be diagnosed and re-
paired using simple test equipment and basic diagnostic procedures.
Always remember that the average computer-controlled ignition sys-
tem is simply an electronic ignition with a computer that controls the
timing advance.
The components and operation of computer-controlled ignition sys-

tems differ greatly from vehicle to vehicle. To determine which part or
area of a computer-controlled system is defective, you must under-
stand how that particular system works. Always refer to the service
manual for the exact troubleshooting procedures, since these proce-
dures vary significantly from manufacturer to manufacturer. The fol-
lowing information provides some general guidelines to diagnose and
repair computer-controlled systems.
Always start your diagnosis by eliminating all “noncomputer” prob-

lems. Then, proceed to check the computer system. Keep in mind that
many computer systems control the fuel system as well as the spark
advance. Therefore, a computer-related fuel system problem may dis-
play symptoms that are similar to those caused by a computer-related
ignition problem.
Most computer-controlled electronic-ignition problems are caused by

defective sensors. Therefore, in most cases, the logical procedure is to
check the input sensors and wiring first, and then move on to check
the computer. There are exceptions, such as when a visual check deter-
mines that a part is bad or when a performance check has pinpointed
the problem area. In these cases, the components most likely to cause
the problem should be checked first.
Most late-model automotive computer systems can diagnose prob-

lems, to a degree. A malfunction in any sensor or output device, or in
the computer itself, is stored in the computer memory section as a trou-
ble code. Stored codes can be retrieved to pinpoint the trouble area. Sys-
tems without the self-diagnostic feature are inspected using a process
of elimination. This involves testing parts to determine whether or not
they’re defective. Then, you can determine whether the nontestable
parts, such as the computer, are functioning properly. You’ll learn
more about computer trouble codes in a later study unit.
Some computers can be disconnected in order to determine whether

the computer or something else is causing a problem. However, on
other systems, disconnecting the computer accomplishes nothing, and
may prevent the vehicle from running. Computers are usually discon-
nected or unplugged by removing the computer’s fuse.
Suppose a vehicle’s coil won’t produce a spark. If you unplug the com-
puter and the coil sparks, then the coil probably isn’t defective and the
problem is in the computer system. If the coil doesn’t spark, then the
problem is most likely in the ignition system itself and not in the com-
puter system. In this instance, unplugging the computer can help you
troubleshoot the engine problem.
In systems that contain a pickup coil or Hall-effect switch, the com-

puter system can be checked using the procedures previously ex-
plained in the section on servicing electronic ignition systems. You can
also use these procedures to test the remaining ignition system compo-
nents, such as the coil, distributor cap and rotor, spark plugs, and
spark plug wires.
Direct-Fire Ignition Systems

As you learned, direct-fire ignition systems are computer-controlled
systems. The exact design of direct-fire systems and their servicing
procedures vary. Because of these variations, even experienced techni-
cians have to rely on the repair information contained in service manuals.
You now know that many computerized ignition systems contain the
ability to self-diagnose their circuits to a certain extent. Therefore, if a
problem occurs in the computer-control system, the computer can of-
ten recognize the problem itself. Some people believe that a vehicle’s
computer system can tell the technician what the exact problem is.
However, this isn’t really true. Instead, the computer can usually only
indicate that a problem exists in a certain area. The technician must
then determine the cause of the problem in that area of the system.
In most cases, the computer system identifies problems by monitoring

the signals it receives from its sensors. “High” and “low” limits are
usually placed on the values of these signals. If any signal value from a
sensor exceeds these limits, the computer recognizes that a problem
exists. The computer then “tells” the technician about the problem by
displaying a number called a trouble code. The technician can then
look up the trouble code on a chart in the service manual and identify
what problem the trouble code represents in that particular vehicle.
(Details on how to retrieve trouble codes and how to service automo-
tive computer systems will be discussed in a later study unit.)
Remember that direct-fire ignition systems contain long-lasting, reli-

able electronic components. Apart from regular checks of the spark
plugs and spark plug wires, these ignition systems don’t usually re-
quire periodic service or adjustments. Therefore, these systems are
usually serviced only when a problem occurs in the system.
When servicing direct-fire ignition systems, many procedures involve

using the self-diagnosing features of the computer system. However, a
few other test instruments are also commonly used to diagnose prob-
lems. You’ve already learned about one of these instruments—the
multimeter. The multimeter can be used to determine the condition of
the wires and electrical connections in a direct-fire system. Using the
ohmmeter function of the multimeter, you can determine if a broken
wire or a defective connection is preventing electricity from flowing
through the system.
Another instrument that can be used to diagnose direct-fire ignition

systems is the oscilloscope. Oscilloscopes used for this purpose are
smaller than ordinary oscilloscopes—usually, you can hold them in
your hand. This type of oscilloscope allows you to observe the secon-
dary waveform that shows the firing voltages for each cylinder. Be-
cause of the way the ignition system controls the coil operation, the
oscilloscope can’t be used to test the primary side of the ignition coil.
However, by observing the secondary waveform, you can easily see if
a cylinder’s spark plug isn’t firing, and you can measure the value of
the voltage that travels to the spark plugs.
Hand-held engine analyzers are also used to test direct-fire ignition

systems. The functions these analyzers perform depend on the vehicle.
However, most analyzers contain a multimeter for testing electrical cir-
cuits, and also a small, television-like screen that displays the voltage
pulse signals produced by the crankshaft and camshaft position sen-
sors. Hand-held engine analyzers can be used to read digital pulse sig-
nals. In addition, most of these testers also have frequency counters
that can be used to measure the time of each pulse signal. By observing
these waveforms, you can often detect a problem in the system.
For example, if an engine won’t start, you can test to see what signal is
being produced by the crankshaft position sensor. If the crankshaft po-
sition sensor produces no pulse signal as the engine is turned over,
you’ll know that the sensor isn’t operating properly. If the sensor
doesn’t produce a signal, the system won’t be able to produce a spark
at the spark plugs, and the engine won’t run. At that point, you can
check to see if the sensor is faulty or if something else—such as a bro-
ken wire or a defective trigger wheel—is causing the problem.
You just learned that hand-held engine analyzers can usually deter-
mine the frequency of the pulse signals. By determining the frequency
of the signal, the tester can determine the current engine speed
and display it for the technician. Some high-end testers can even moni-
tor the signal frequency to detect ignition system misfires. If an engine
cylinder isn’t firing, the engine tends to slow down at the point where
the power in the faulty cylinder should occur. After the next cylinder
fires, the engine returns to its original speed. This slowing down of the
engine also affects the signal sent to the computer, which the engine
analyzer can detect.
Troubleshooting Direct-Fire Ignition Systems

Because of the differences in direct-fire ignition systems, technicians
usually follow the troubleshooting charts in the service manual when
working on repairs. However, in general, problems in a direct-fire ig-
nition system cause one of two conditions: either the engine runs and
misfires, or the engine doesn’t run at all.
Engine Misfires
If the engine misfires, it usually runs unevenly and vibrates. In addi-

tion, the engine may lack power and have poor fuel mileage. In this
situation, the troubleshooting procedure should begin with a visual in-
spection of the ignition system. Very often, the problem is caused by
something simple, such as a broken or damaged spark plug wire. An
obvious problem such as this is often detected quickly with a simple
visual inspection of the system.
After the visual inspection, it’s common to remove the spark plugs
from the engine to check their condition. As you learned earlier, spark
plugs that are excessively worn or damaged fail to operate and cause
misfires. In addition, the condition of the spark plugs often indicates a
particular problem. For example, if one spark plug is a different color,
it may indicate a problem within that cylinder.
When troubleshooting engine problems, always keep in mind that the

problem may be mechanical and not necessarily in the ignition system.
For example, a lack of power in a cylinder may be caused by worn pis-
ton rings or a damaged valve.
Once the spark plugs have been inspected and replaced, if necessary,
the ignition system is usually tested with an engine analyzer that can
display the spark waveform and monitor the signals from the crank-
shaft and camshaft position sensors. The information gained from
these tests is then compared to the specifications listed in the service
manual. Once the problem is identified, the defective components can
be repaired or replaced, and the system can be returned to its proper
working order.
The No-Start Condition
If an engine won’t start at all, determine if the engine has spark at the
spark plug. If there’s a spark, then the problem is probably not in the
ignition system. Instead, the problem is more likely in the fuel system
or some other engine system. However, if there isn’t a spark, check the
computer-control system first. As you learned, you can often gain in-
sight into the problem by analyzing the trouble codes.
After analyzing the trouble codes, use the troubleshooting charts and
testing procedures outlined in the service manual to identify the exact
problem. Remember that direct-fire ignition systems usually require
very few, if any, adjustments. The ignition timing is controlled by the
computer system. Therefore, if a problem does occur, it’s probably
caused by a defective component, and not worn or misadjusted com-
ponents. The only components that are prone to wear in direct-fire ig-
nition systems are the spark plugs and the spark plug wires.

ing Power Check 5.
Power Check 5
1. Most computer-controlled ignition system problems are caused by defective _______.
2. Start with the _______ and move to the complex when dealing with computers.
3. In most computer-controlled ignition systems, the computer controls only the _______.
4. Computer _______ can be retrieved to help diagnose computer problems.
5. A computer is tested or unplugged by removing the computer’s _______.
6. Voltage pulses can best be checked with a (an) _______.
7. Direct-fire ignition systems require _______ adjustments.
8. The only components of a direct-fire system prone to wear are the spark plugs and _______.

SUMMARY
Earlier in your program, you learned the importance of the ignition
system in regards to engine operation. You learned that spark plugs
create the sparks that ignite the air-and-fuel mixture in the combustion
chambers. In this study unit, you learned how to service a vehicle’s ig-
nition system. You learned how to remove and inspect old spark
plugs, and how to install new ones. In addition, you learned how to
check the spark plug gap using a gapping tool. You also learned how
to test the ignition coils and spark plug wires.
You now know how to tune up both a conventional ignition system

and an electronic ignition system. You also know how to service and
troubleshoot both types of systems.
You’re familiar with an oscilloscope and you know how to read its
waveforms. You know that the secondary waveform is made up of
three sections: the firing section, intermediate section, and dwell sec-
tion. Waveforms can be displayed on an oscilloscope using either the
superimposed, raster, or parade method. You also learned how to
service both a computer-controlled and direct-fire ignition system.
65
Power Check Answers
1 4
1. spark plug socket 1. engine analyzer
2. Oil 2. parade
3. firing order 3. waveform
4. cross-threading 4. superimposed-
5. Fuel 5. True
6. bridged 6. True
7. thread chase 7. False
2 5
1. 12,000 1. sensors
2. False 2. easiest
3. True 3. timing advance
4. True 4. trouble codes
5. False 5. fuse
6. engine analyzer or oscilloscope

3 7. few
8. spark plug wires

1. carbon tracking
2. resistance
3. True
4. True
5. True
Examination
ONLINE EXAMINATION
For the online exam, you must use this
EXAMINATION NUMBER:
00400800
When you’re confident that you’ve mastered the material in your studies, you can
complete your examination online. Follow these instructions:
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Automotive Ignition Systems

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Automotive Ignition Systems

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Study Unit

When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to

· Explain the difference between voltage, current, and resistance in a circuit

· Describe how a spark plug is constructed and how it operates

· Identify the components used in conventional and electronic ignition systems

· Describe the operation of spark-advance mechanisms

· Explain the operation of direct-fire ignition systems

INTRODUCTION TO IGNITION SYSTEM OPERATION · · · · · · · · · · · · 17

TRIGGERING IN CONVENTIONAL IGNITION SYSTEMS · · · · · · · · · · 42

TRIGGERING IN ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEMS · · · · · · · · · · · · · 49

IGNITION TIMING IN DISTRIBUTOR-TYPE IGNITION SYSTEMS · · · · · · · 57

DIRECT-FIRE IGNITION SYSTEMS · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 64

POWER CHECK ANSWERS · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 99

Ignition System Components and Operation

The negative and positive charges in a battery are produced by a sim-

each other out. Because of this attraction, whenever lots of electrons

This is the basic operating principle of a battery. The negative terminal of a

A simple circuit is shown in Figure 2. Electrons flow from the negative

Conductors and Insulators

FIGURE 2—In a simple

all—they’re neutral. Electrons are the smallest type of atomic particle;

Figure 3A shows a drawing of a hydrogen atom, which is the simplest

HYDROGEN ATOM COPPER ATOM

In general, protons and neutrons can’t be easily removed from an

Any substance in which electrons can move freely is called an electrical

Current, Voltage, and Resistance

UNIT ABBREVIATION VALUE

Milliampere mA 0.001 ampere

Microampere A 0.000001 ampere

Megavolt MV 1,000,000 volts

Kilovolt kV 1,000 volts

Millivolt mV 0.001 volt

Microvolt V 0.000001 volt

To convert megohms to ohms, multiply the number of megohms by 1,000,000.

Now, let’s look at the electrical quantity voltage. Remember that in a

Voltage is a measure of the amount of electrical potential in a circuit.

In Figure 5, a simple electrical circuit is compared to a water circuit.

When you look at this example, think of resistance as a blockage or

DC and AC Voltage and Current

The Relationship Between Current, Voltage, and Resistance

DIRECT CURRENT ALTERNATING CURRENT

Measuring Electrical Quantities

Step 3: Read the resulting information on the meter’s display.

Note that this is a very basic description of the operation of a multime-

If an insulated piece of conductor wire is looped around to form a coil,

An electromagnet is a device that’s made by inserting a piece of mag-

FIGURE 8—This figure

FIGURE 9—A basic trans-

A basic transformer is shown in Figure 9. The transformer is a device

2. Electrical current is measured in units called _______.

3. The symbol W is used as an abbreviation for _______.

4. The flow of electrons through a circuit is called _______.

6. Electrical resistance is measured in units called _______.

7. Opposition to the flow of electricity in a circuit is called _______.

_____ 8. Electrons are the smallest type of atomic particle.

_____ 9. The letter that’s used as an abbreviation for electric current is V.

_____10. One milliampere is equal to 0.001 ampere.

_____11. One kilovolt is equal to 10 volts.

_____12. An electron has a negative electrical charge.