Chaves 2018

Accepted Manuscript
Potential application of lipid organogels for food industry
Kamila Ferreira Chaves, Daniel Barrera-Arellano, Ana Paula

Badan Ribeiro
PII: S0963-9969(17)30873-6
DOI: doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2017.12.020
Reference: FRIN 7226
To appear in: Food Research International
Received date: 25 October 2017
Revised date: 4 December 2017
Accepted date: 8 December 2017
Please cite this article as: Kamila Ferreira Chaves, Daniel Barrera-Arellano, Ana Paula
Badan Ribeiro , Potential application of lipid organogels for food industry. The address
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Potential Application of Lipid Organogels for Food Industry
Kamila Ferreira Chaves*1, Daniel Barrera-Arellano1, Ana Paula Badan Ribeiro1
1
Fats and Oils Laboratory, School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, 13083-970,
Campinas, SP, Brazil.
*
corresponding author: [email protected] phone: (+55) 32 98405 7801
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ABSTRACT: Controversial issues regarding the role of trans fatty acids in food have led to
progressive changes in the legislation of several countries to include more information for
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consumers. In response, the industries decided to gradually replace trans fat in various products
with the development of fatty bases of equivalent functionality and economic viability to partially
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hydrogenated fats, causing, however, a substantial increase in the content of saturated fatty acids in
foods. Today, the lipid science aims to define alternatives to a problem that is widely discussed by
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health organizations worldwide: limit the saturated fat content in food available to the population.
In this context, organogels have been indicated as a viable alternative to obtain semi-solid fats with
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reduced content of saturated fatty acids and compatible properties for food application. The
objective of this review was to present the studies that address the lipid organogels as an alternative
for food application.
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Keywords: organogels, structuring agents, saturated fatty acids, lipid bases.

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List of abbreviations
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EU - European Union
FDA - Food and Drug Administration
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FHCO - Hard fat of cottonseed oil

FHCrO - Hard fat of crambe oil
FHPKO - Hard fat of palm kernel oil
FHPO - Hard fat of palm oil
FHSO - Hard fat of soybean oil
GRAS - Generally Recognized as Safe
SFAs - Saturated fatty acids
TAG - Triacylglycerol
TFAs - Trans fatty acids
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1. Lipids
Natural oils and fats are basically made up of triacylglycerol (TAG) molecules from a non-
random distribution of fatty acids in the glycerol molecule. Therefore, TAG molecules are
constituted of three molecules of fatty acids esterified to the molecule of glycerol.
The number of esterified fatty acids classifies these lipid groups as monoacylglycerols,
diacylglycerols or TAGs (O’Brien, 2008). Monoacylglycerols and diacylglycerols may be present
in oils and fats in smaller amounts, along with phospholipids, sterols, terpenes, fatty alcohols, fat-
soluble vitamins, and other substances. These minor lipids are found in human body as components
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of cell membranes and in varying amounts in food. The main sources of dietary lipids are meats,
dairy products, fishes, oils and fats, which can be commercially available in the form of kitchen oil,
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frying oils and fats, butter, margarine, vegetable creams and special fats (shortenings), incorporated
into the manufacture of processed products such as bread, cake, biscuit, chocolate, ice cream and
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mayonnaise (Garcia, 2015).
For food technology, lipids considered as oils (liquid at room temperature) or fats (solid at
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room temperature), whose main difference is the melting point. This physical property is a
reflection of their particular composition in fatty acids and their position as esterified to the
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molecule of glycerol (Oetterer, D’Arce, & Spoto, 2006).

The fatty acids that naturally occur in plants have an even number of carbon atoms in an
unbranched chain between 12 and 24 carbons (Scrimgeour, 2005). Each fatty acid can occupy
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different positions in the molecule (sn-1, sn-2 or sn-3), allowing a great diversity of combinations
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for the TAG structure (O’Brien, 2008).

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Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) contain only single bonds between carbon atoms (Sanderson &
Nichols, 2002). SFAs with more than 24 carbon atoms rarely occur in edible vegetable oils, but are
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found in the waxes, esterified by a monovalent primary alcohol (Oetterer et al., 2006). Unsaturated
fatty acids may have cis or trans double bonds, which result in nonlinear and linear molecules,
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respectively. These factors directly influence the physicochemical properties of lipids, such as the
melting point, which is directly related to the number of unsaturation and geometric isomerism
(O’Brien, 2008).
Trans fatty acids (TFAs) are geometric and positional isomers of natural unsaturated fatty
acids. In this configuration, two hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms that form the double
bond are located on opposite sides of the carbon chain, creating a linear and more rigid molecule.
Due to their structural characteristics, trans fatty acids have a higher melting point when compared
with their corresponding cis isomer (Sanderson & Nichols, 2002).
Lipids are important components of the diet, in both nutritional and technological aspects, as
they ensure physical, chemical, sensory and nutritional characteristics of foods (Garcia, 2015), since
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they provide consistency and specific melting characteristics to the products containing them, and
act as a heat transfer means, such as in conventional frying processes and carriers of fat-soluble
vitamins, essential fatty acids, steroid hormone precursors, taste and aroma. In addition, lipids affect
the structure, stability, storage quality, sensory and visual characteristics of foods (O’Brien, 2008).
1.1.Lipids: nutritional and regulatory aspects

Today, consumers have become increasingly aware of the relationship between diet and
health. Then, the demand for a balanced diet and functional foods that promote specific benefits has
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increased more and more. Healthy food products can be characterized by several attributes: low to
moderate content of sodium, sugar and fat, and significantly reduced calorie density when
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compared to their conventional products (Palzer, 2009).
Saturated fat is the main dietary cause of elevated plasma cholesterol, whose reduction in
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diet is globally supported to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease (Wassell, Bonwick, Smith,
Almiron-Roig, & Young, 2010). TFAs are included among dietary lipids that act as risk factors for
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coronary artery disease, modulating the synthesis of cholesterol and its fractions and acting on
eicosanoids. Several studies have shown a direct relationship between trans isomers and increased
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risk of vascular diseases (Mensink, 2005).

In view of the harmful effects of SFAs and TFAs on health, actions have been taken to
encourage industries to increase food health by changing conventional raw materials (Santos et al.,
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2013).
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Since 2006, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has required foods containing trans
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fats in their formulation to state their stated levels in the nutritional information of the products. In
2015, it recommended through a resolution that partially hydrogenated TFA-rich fats should be
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removed from processed food products in up to three years, as they are not considered safe for food.
Therefore, TFAs were also excluded from the Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) classification
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for human consumption (FDA, 2016).

In European Union (EU), each country has the autonomy to set limits and recommendations,
since there is no standard legislation for the EU. However, the European Food Safety Authority
warns about the increased risk of cardiovascular disease for consumption exceeding 2% of the total
energy value of TFA (Tobergte & Curtis, 2013).
Based on these considerations, the knowledge field of lipid technology aims to develop
alternatives to reduce the amount of fats with SFA and trans in foods, and reduce the calorie intake
associated with the lipid content in processed products.
2. Conventional lipid modification processes

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Vegetable oils that are rich in unsaturated fatty acids do not have the required physical
properties for application, limiting their use to their unaltered forms, in terms of consistency and
oxidative stability, due to their particular composition in fatty acids and TAGs. In conventional lipid
modification processes, the basic structure of the oils and fats can be redesigned depending on the
desired plasticity profile and the intrinsic characteristics of raw materials, using techniques such as
hydrogenation, interesterification or fractionation (O’Brien, 2008).
Partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils has been used for decades to improve the plasticity
and oxidative stability of industrial oils and fats. Then, partially hydrogenated vegetable oils were
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commonly used in the production of margarines, confectionery and toppings. However, partial
hydrogenation results in the production of TFA, which has a harmful effect on cell membrane
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integrity and the production of biologically active metabolites derived from essential fatty acids
(Mensink, 2005; Stender & Dyerberg, 2004; Wassell et al., 2010).
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The harmful effects of TFA on the lipid profile and, consequently, on the increased risk of
cardiovascular diseases are well known (Zevenbergen et al., 2009). In this context, historical
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controversial issues regarding the role of TFAs in food have led to progressive changes in the
legislation of several countries to include more information for consumers.
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In response, the industries decided to gradually replace trans fat in various products with the
development of fatty bases of equivalent functionality and economic viability to partially
hydrogenated fats (Ribeiro, Grimaldi, Gioielli, & Gonçalves, 2009; Ribeiro, Leite, De Moura,
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Grimaldi, & Gonçalves, 2007). The demand for TFA-free fat also encouraged the development of
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studies and processes of oil and fat modification, especially promoting the techniques of
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fractionation and interesterification (Garcia, 2015).

In this scenario, interesterification proved to be a useful technique to change the melting
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profile and consistency of lipid mixtures. The process consists in rearranging the distribution of
fatty acids in the TAGs without alterations to the profile of fatty acids. The process can be
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conducted either chemically or enzymatically (Pokorný & Schmidt, 2011).

Chemical interesterification uses catalysts such as sodium methoxide and temperatures of 90
to 110°C to promote a random distribution of fatty acids among the three glycerol positions (Teles
Dos Santos, Gerbaud, & Le Roux, 2014). The main question about non-specific interesterification
processes is the development of isomers with SFA at the sn-2 glycerol position, due to the non-
specificity of the reaction; for this reason several studies have been conducted to analyze a possible
negative nutritional effect of fat obtained by this method (Aliciane, Domingues, Paula, Ribeiro, &
Chiu, 2015; Christophe, 2005; Karupaiah & Sundram, 2007). Increasing the amount of SFA in the
central position of the TAG molecule, such as incorporating palmitic acid at sn-2, allows a greater
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absorption of this type of fatty acid by the body, leading to a greater atherogenic potential, already
recognized in laboratory animals (Hunter, 2001).
The enzymatic interesterification process uses microbial lipases as catalysts of the reaction.
This process reduces energy consumption due to the mild conditions of the reaction and the
continuous production from the use of immobilized enzymes. Specific lipases can also be used at
sn-1 and sn-3, with unaltered fatty acids at the central sn-2 position. Despite the advantages of
enzymatic interesterification (milder conditions of the reaction and regiospecificity), chemical
interesterification is a low-cost method because of the catalyst used in the process, it is much faster
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and promotes easy change of scale (Teles Dos Santos et al., 2014). Lipase-catalyzed
interesterification processes are applied mainly to high value-added products, such as cocoa butter
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substitute and equivalent products (Senanayake & Shahidi, 2005).
The use of blends, that is, mixtures of fats of different physical properties and fractionation
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are also additional alternatives to obtain fatty bases of proper physical properties and plasticity for
use in several products, although with limited potential due to the chemical composition of raw
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materials and phase incompatibility issues (Reyes-Hernández, Dibildox-Alvarado, Charó-Alonso, &
Toro-Vazquez, 2007).
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However, all these technological alternatives, used together or alone, do not reduce the
content of SFA in lipid formulations for industrial application. In most cases, achieving properties
of crystallization, thermal resistance and consistency that are typical of technical fats also requires a
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significant increase in the proportion of SFA in lipid compositions, which has been a major
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challenge for the field of oils and fats (Menaa, Menaa, Trétton, & Menaa, 2013).
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In this sense, the reduction of saturated fat content in processed foods is an immediate issue
for the food industry. A satisfactory performance of food formulations with lower SFA content
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depends on important aspects that determine their technological viability, especially including
sensory acceptance and stability during and after processing. In addition, physical and functional
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characteristics such as texture, plasticity, spreadability, cream formation and aeration properties
should be taken into account in the development of new formulations for foods with reduced
saturated fat (Chung, Degner, & McClements, 2014).
3. Lipid crystallization mechanism

The structuring of lipid phases determines important food properties: (i) consistency and
plasticity of fat-rich products during the production and storage stages; (ii) sensory properties, such
as a melting sensation in the mouth; (iii) physical stability regarding the formation or sedimentation
of crystals, oil exudation and coalescence of particles and emulsions; (iv) visual appearance
(Foubert, Dewettinck, Van de Walle, Dijkstra, & Quinn, 2007).
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The size and shape of the structuring agents and their interactions will determine the
structure of the final product, and consequently its physical properties. The structuring process of
triacylglycerol matrices can be classified according to their mechanisms, as conventional or non-
conventional (Pernetti, Vanmalssen, Kalnin, & Floter, 2007).
3.1.Conventional structuring
The macroscopic properties of lipids in foods are particularly influenced by the
microstructure of fats. Therefore, it is important to consider the effects of the microstructure for
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subsequent analysis of the macroscopic properties. The lipid crystallization behavior has important
implications, mainly in the industrial processing of products whose physical characteristics depend
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largely on fat crystals, such as chocolates, margarines and lipid-based products. Crystal formation
growth rates and the polymorphic transformations are important as they help determine the
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functionality and application of oils and fats (Sato, 2001).
Plastic fats have different levels and forms of structure, which influence the macroscopic
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properties and ensure the typical characteristics of the lipid material (Figure 1A). When a complex
mixture of TAGs is submitted to cooling, the limited solubility of molecules of higher melting point
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leads to nucleation events, generating small crystals that grow and interact with each other through
non-covalent forces, developing a three-dimensional continuous crystal lattice. After completion of
crystallization, the crystals aggregate and form agglomerates, which in turn constitute larger
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structures, from weak bonds, leading to a final macroscopic network, characterizing the process of
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conventional structuring of lipid systems based on TAGs (Tang & Marangoni, 2007). The structure
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of fats originated after a crystalline network of TAGs allows different configurations that change
the rheological and thermal behavior of the material (Marangoni & Narine, 2002).
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Figure 1. Conventional (A) and non-conventional (B) lipid crystallization mechanism.

Polymorphism can be defined as the ability to present different cell structures resulting from
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various molecular arrangements. Long-chain compounds, such as fatty acids and their esters, may
exist in differentiated crystalline forms (Lawler & Dimick, 2002). In lipids, three specific types of
subcells predominate, which refer to polymorphs α, β’ and β, according to the current polymorphic
nomenclature. The α form is metastable, of hexagonal chain arrangement. The β’ form presents
intermediate stability and perpendicular orthorhombic arrangement, while the β form presents
greater stability and parallel triclinic arrangement. The melting temperature increases as stability
grows, as a result of the differences in molecular arrangement density (Martini, Awad, &
Marangoni, 2006).
The crystal structure of fats is important for the formulation of lipid-based products in
general, since each crystal presents unique properties of plasticity, texture, solubility and aeration.
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Fats with crystals in the β’ form present greater functionality, as they are softer, and ensure good
aeration and creaminess properties. Then, the β’ form is the polymorph of interest for the
production of foods of emulsified lipid phase, for example margarines and icing (O’Brien, 2008).
3.2.Non-conventional structuring: the organogel technology

In recent years, new raw materials and technological processes have been studied as
potential alternatives for the structuring of lipid-based materials aiming to reduce the content of
SFA and TFA in processed foods (Garcia, Gandra, & Barrera-Arellano, 2013; Marangoni & Garti,
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2011). For this reason, the recent scientific literature describes a potential alternative: the use of
several components of a structuring action, of natural or synthetic origin and added to lipid
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matrices, which can act at the molecular or submicron level. These molecular agents would act on
the structuring process of lipid systems as a whole, modulating properties such as thermal behavior,
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polymorphic stability and microstructure. Similarly, the effects of these modifiers at the
macroscopic level, such as visual appearance, rheology and consistency have also been studied
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(Rogers et al., 2014; Smith, Bhaggan, Talbot, & Van Malssen, 2011).
In non-conventional structuring, lipid systems made up of unsaturated TAGs, such as liquid
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or semi-solid vegetable oils, can be structured as gels, creating continuous networks of small
molecules that bond in liquid crystals, micelles or fibrillar networks formed from aggregates of
micelles, developing inverse bilayer structures in the form of sticks (Pernetti et al., 2007) (Figure
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1B).
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This particular type of structuring are called organogels, which are viscoelastic materials
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made up of structuring agents and an apolar liquid phase (organic compound), which distinguishes
it from other gels that are basically made up of water-soluble compounds. They are semi-solid
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systems, where an oil phase is trapped by a self-sustaining three-dimensional network of the

structuring agent (Dassanayake, Kodali, Ueno, & Sato, 2009; Hughes, Marangoni, Wright, Rogers,
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& Rush, 2009; Rogers, Smith, Wright, & Marangoni, 2007).

The continuous phase of these organogels is lipid-based, presenting the physical
characteristics of hydrogels, which have an aqueous continuous phase (Marangoni & Garti, 2011).
The most frequently used structural agents include fatty acids, fatty alcohols, mixtures of fatty acids
and fatty alcohols, mixtures of phytosterols/orizanols, sorbitan monostearate, mixtures of lecithin,
sorbitan tristearate and waxes (Rogers, Wright, & Marangoni, 2009). The mixture of ingredients
may have a synergistic effect on the structuring potential of oils when compared to the use of pure
materials (Pernetti et al., 2007).
This technology is feasible in comparison to conventional lipid modification technologies,
as it does not cause any chemical changes in the structure of fatty acids and TAGs with unaltered
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nutritional characteristics of the oil, especially the contents of unsaturated fatty acids and natural
regiospecific distribution, without increasing the content of SFA (Sundram, Karupaiah, & Hayes,
2007).
The use of organogels in food products is a very attractive alternative, as these compounds
can ensure characteristics such as consistency and plasticity with absence of TFA, and a significant
reduction of the SFA content, resulting in products of strong nutritional and technological appeal
(Rogers, Wrightb, & Marangoni, 2009).
Organogels can be obtained using different methods, with varied gel properties. Organogel
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formation occurs through crystalline particles, crystalline and polymeric fibers, among others.
These methods vary according to the structuring agent used and the process conditions to which the
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raw materials are submitted (Co & Marangoni, 2012).
The organogels can present different structures, made up of the most diverse organic
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compounds. The two most important of these structures are the dispersion of solids in a liquid phase
(small inert particles, crystallized solids, drops) or specific mechanisms such as self-support
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(commonly observed in low molecular weight structuring agents). Both of them create three-
dimensional networks that can trap a liquid phase. The size and shape of this structure and its
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interactions are directly related to the physical characteristics and properties of the structuring
agents (Pernetti et al., 2007). These structuring agents allow the combination of two distinct phases
in a quasi-homogeneous state. The specific components, used alone or together, as well as their
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interactions, determine the structure of the final product, and consequently its consistency and
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plasticity properties (Cerdeira, Martini, Candal, & Herrera, 2006).

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According to the mechanism related to the structuring of TAGs, the structuring agents can
be classified in two groups – based on the crystalline particles and systems of self-assembly (or self-
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association). The crystalline particles are associated with the classical phenomenon of nucleation,
growth and stabilization of the crystal lattice; while in the self-assembly systems, the structuring is
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promoted by a mechanism of molecular self-organization of its components in the organic phase.

Van der Waals covalent electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonds are examples of forces of
intermolecular interaction of the structuring agents that form the three-dimensional gel network.
Components of similar molecular and chemical structures often present positive interactions
regarding the phenomena of dispersed particles and self-association (Dassanayake, Kodali, & Ueno,
2011; Siraj et al., 2015).
In this context, different materials have been evaluated, such as trisaturated TAGs, partial
acylglycerols (free fatty acids, monoacylglycerols and diacylglycerols), waxes, fatty alcohols,
phospholipids, phytosterols, and different classes of emulsifiers. However, the effects of these
modifiers on various lipid systems, as well as their interactions, have not been fully clarified in the
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literature. In addition, these modifiers may present differentiated effects according to the oil or fat
to which they are added and according to the concentration at which they are incorporated into the
lipid systems (Bot et al., 2011; Ribeiro et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2011). Hydroxy fatty acids, fatty
acids, fatty alcohols, mixtures of fatty acids and alcohols, mixtures of phytosterols/orizanols,
sorbitan monostearate, waxes, and mixtures of lecithin and sorbitan tristearate present great
potential for food application (Hughes et al., 2009).
4. Structuring agents
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Structuring agents are recognized as high and low molar mass compounds, considered low
molecular weight molecules of less than 3000Da. They can be used to trap liquid oils through the
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formation of self-sustained three-dimensional crystal lattice that provides a structure (Rogers et al.,
2009).
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To guarantee technological effectiveness, the lipid structure should present a chemical
composition and physical characteristics that allow it to be compatible with the material to be
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structured, so that it will help enhance the effects on the crystallization pattern of the formed lipid
systems (Oliveira, Ribeiro, & Kieckbusch, 2015).
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A structuring agent is efficient when used in low concentrations to achieve the desired
result, since there will be an increase in the cost of the final product. In addition, the effects caused
by these additives at high concentrations in the body are not fully known (Co & Marangoni, 2012).
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An alternative for the replacement of SFA and TFA in food involves the combination of several
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strategies, such as trapping gelled oil within emulsions and the selection of proper structuring
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agents, in order to achieve the desired functional properties (Wang, Gravelle, Blake, & Marangoni,
2016a).
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Elliger, Guadagni and Dunlap (1972) were the first authors to mention the potential oil
structuring with 12-hydroxystearic acid in a study on peanut butter thickening. Considering a
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retrospective related to the development of organogels, a variety of publications and studies

describe different types of structuring agents with applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic,
petrochemical and food industries (Hughes et al., 2009; Kumar & Katare, 2005; Pernetti et al.,
2007; Terech & Weiss, 1997). The literature also describes organogels structured with alkanes
(Abdallah & Weiss, 2000); 12-hydroxystearic acid (Rogers, 2009); ricinelaidic acid (Wright &
Marangoni, 2006); fatty alcohols (Daniel & Rajasekharan, 2003; Gandolfo, Bot, & Flöter, 2004);
plant sterols (Bot & Agterof, 2006); lecithins (Scartazzini & Luisi, 1988); mixtures of lecithins
(Murdan, Gregoriadis, & Florence, 1999), mono- and diacylglycerols (Da Pieve, Calligaris, Co,
Nicoli, & Marangoni, 2010; Ojijo et al., 2004); waxes and was esters (Dassanayake et al., 2009;
Toro-Vazquez et al., 2007); mixtures of phytosterols/orizanols, sorbitan monostearate and
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tristearate (Hughes et al., 2009); polymers (Gravelle, Barbut, & Marangoni, 2012); proteins
(Mezzenga, 2011); and ceramides (Rogers, Wright, & Marangoni, 2011).
The combined use of structuring agents may have a synergistic effect on the structuring
potential of oils when compared to the use of isolated materials, an approach that has been proposed
in recent studies on structured lipid systems (Pernetti et al., 2007; Siraj et al., 2015).
5. Materials with potential for food organogel composition

In the context of Food Science, the main interest associated with the development and
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characterization of organogels is in the structuring of edible oils. In this approach, the structuring
agents should gelate unsaturated oils at cooling and ambient temperatures, allowing applications in
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processed foods. The use of lipid bases and various structuring agents, and their combinations, for
the composition of organogels should consider the following criteria: i) use of lipid bases with
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exceptional characteristics of functionality, stability and availability among commercially available
oils and fats; ii) use of structuring agents from renewable materials, included in the GRAS category
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for food application; iii) formulations of lipid systems with chemical composition characteristics
and crystallization properties that are compatible with the application of lipid-based foods, such as
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continuous or emulsified phases (Pernetti et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2014; Siraj et al., 2015).
5.1.Vegetable oils
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In the development of organogels for food application, the organic fluid used in structuring
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is an oil or fat (Pernetti et al., 2007). Then, potential raw materials are soybean oil, high oleic
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sunflower oil, and palm oil, due to their properties of stability, chemical composition, economic
importance, availability and cost.
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Soybean oil stands out for its great importance in the global consumption of vegetable oils
because of its nutritional qualities, uninterrupted supply, expressive economic value and high
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functionality, representing a raw material of particular interest for the production of special fats. It
is mainly comprised of polyunsaturated fatty acids, with significant concentrations of oleic acids
(23.5%), linoleic acids (54.6%), and α-linolenic acids (8.3%), making it particularly interesting for
lipid formulations of reduced saturated fatty acids content (O’Brien, 2008).
High oleic sunflower oil was developed by Russian researchers using chemical mutagenesis
and selective sunflower (Helianthus annus) crosses aiming to obtain a seed variety that is stable to
the climate conditions and with a high content of oleic acid. The typical composition of high oleic
sunflower oil is 3-5% palmitic acid, 2-6% stearic acid, 75-88% oleic acid, and less than 1%
linolenic acid, which ensures oxidative stability 10 times higher than soybean, canola and regular
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sunflower oils. In addition, the regiospecific distribution of high oleic sunflower oil is
differentiated, with a high proportion of linoleic acid at sn-2, which also justifies its high stability to
the oxidation process (Grompone, 2005). High oleic sunflower oil, considered a premium raw
material, is generally used in food applications that require the use of liquid oil with exceptional
oxidative stability. It has a neutral flavor and aroma, due to its high potential for application in
foods, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products (Gunstone, 2005). These attributes make the high
oleic sunflower oil a high quality liquid lipid source to obtain organogels for food application.
The fast expansion of world production of palm oil seen in the last three decades attracted
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the attention of the oil and fat industry. Today, the production of palm oil is the vegetable oil
cultivation of highest productivity and lowest associated production cost. The wide range of
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processed or semi-processed products for food application includes their different fractions, known
as palm olein and stearin. About 50% of the fatty acids present in palm oil are saturated and about
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50% are unsaturated, a balance that determines its technological applicability as a semi-solid lipid
base. In addition, palm oil is distinguished from other vegetable oils because it presents a high
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content of palmitic acid, ensuring differentiated crystallization characteristics to this raw material
(O’Brien, 2008).
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Olive oil stands out for its health benefits, but also for its sensory properties that contribute
to the taste when used properly during cooking (Buckland & González, 2010). Olive oil is the
product obtained only from the fruits of the olive tree (Olea europaea L.), excluding oils obtained
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by means of solvents and any mixture of other oils. Virgin olive oil is the product obtained from the
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fruit of the olive tree only by mechanical or other physical processes, under thermal conditions that
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do not change the olive oil, and which has not undergone other treatments besides washing with
water, decantation, centrifugation and filtration, according to the International Olive Council (IOC,
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2013). Virgin olive oil is of great economic importance for the Mediterranean countries, with Spain
being the largest producer in the world. Currently, new producers such as Georgia, Saudi Arabia,
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India and Botswana are entering the olive oil market (Vossen, 2013).
5.2.Hard fats
A high-potential low-cost option for structuring lipid phases are fully hydrogenated
vegetable oils, called hard fats. Hard fats are obtained when all double bonds of the fatty acids are
saturated in the process of catalytic hydrogenation of liquid oils, according to the process
conditions. Although hard fats are low-cost industrial products, they are considered as relatively
new materials, because they replaced partially hydrogenated fat when using hydrogenation plants,
which had their use significantly reduced after the implementation of worldwide legislations on
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trans fat elimination from processed foods. They are currently used as ingredients in formulated
lipid bases, particularly to obtain interesterified fats (Ribeiro, Basso, & Kieckbusch, 2013).
These components are considered system models in terms of fatty acid and TAG
composition, which are important determinants of the structuring and modifying effect of the
crystallization processes of continuous or emulsified lipid phases (Omonov, Bouzidi, & Narine,
2010). The presence of these hard fats as additives change the crystalline habit and the
crystallization behavior, reducing the crystallization induction period and acting as crystallization
germs (Oliveira, 2011).
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Specific hard fats from a particular oil source have a unique and differentiated
triacylglycerol profile, which characterize these materials as inducers of particular polymorphic
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habits. After cooling an added hard fat lipid mixture, its trisaturated TAGs of high melting point
(65-75°C) promote the formation of crystallization cores to coordinate a highly structured crystal
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lattice from the liquid system (Pernetti et al., 2007). In particular, hard fats from palm and soybean
oils are characterized by polymorphic habits β’ and β, respectively, properties of crystallinity that
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direct them to different applications in lipid-based foods (Ribeiro, Basso, dos Santos, et al., 2013).
In addition to the function as primary crystallization agents, hard fats change the physical
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properties of continuous fatty systems, allowing several adaptations related to the development of
organogels, a property that has justified a number of studies on the conventional structuring of
TAGs (Smith et al., 2011; Wassell et al., 2010). Hard fats of canola and soybean oils were studied
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for liquid oil structuring (Omonov et al., 2010). A systematic study was conducted on the
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nanostructure of mixtures made up of canola oil hard fat and high oleic sunflower oil (Acevedo &
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Marangoni, 2010). The rheological and crystallization properties were evaluated in fatty mixtures
structured with hard fats from palm stearin and canola oil of low and high content of erucic acid
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(Zárubová, Filip, Kšandová, Šmidrkal, & Piska, 2010). Cocoa butter structuring was evaluated by
incorporating hard fats from palm kernel oil (FHPKO), palm oil (FHPO), cottonseed oil (FHCO),
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soybean oil (FHSO), and crambe oil (FHCrO). Hard fats FHPO, FHCO, FHSO e FHCrO proved to
be effective additives to modulate the physical properties of CB. Major changes on the physical
properties of CB were performed by the FHSO. FHPKO was found unsatisfactory as a modifier of
the CB (Ribeiro, Basso, & Kieckbusch, 2013).
5.3.Emulsifiers
Other components recently described in the scientific literature with potential to structure
complex lipid matrices are the emulsifiers (Rogers et al., 2009; Siraj et al., 2015).
Sorbitan monostearate is a non-ionic hydrophobic emulsifying surfactant, often used in
combination with polysorbates for cakes, fillings and creamy toppings, promoting volume increase
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and softness, and presenting high potential for modifying the crystallization properties in lipid
systems (Marangoni & Narine, 2002). It also has the ability to develop viscous dispersions in
organic solvents and edible oils through the self-assembly mechanism (Co & Marangoni, 2012).
With these emulsifiers, gelation involves the formation of high stability tubular vesicles, in
which sorbitan monostearate molecules would be arranged in inverse bilayers in the tubules. Studies
on the structuring of lipid phases using sorbitan monostearate are recent and relatively scarce in the
literature. In general, organogels obtained by incorporing sorbitan monostearate into liquid oils are
thermoreversible and melt at 40-45°C, a range typically observed for most fatty bases for industrial
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applications (Hwang, Singh, Winkler-Moser, Bakota, & Liu, 2014; Pernetti et al., 2007; Smith et
al., 2011). The organogels obtained through the use of sorbitan monostearate are opaque, semi-
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solid, thermoreversible, and stable at room temperature for weeks. Such organogels have their
properties affected in the presence of additives, such as hydrophilic surfactants and nonionic
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surfactants, which increase their stability and change their microstructure (Dassanayake et al.,
2011).
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Zhao et al. (2013) have shown that in whipped cream formulated with organogels structured
from sorbitan monostearate, this compound can generate lattices of small crystals, presenting good
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texture and viscosity properties. Organogels of olive oil and sorbitan monostearate were
characterized by Shah, Sagiri, Behera, Pal, & Pramanik (2013). Singh et al. (2015) obtained
organogels based on sesame oil and sorbitan monostearate for topical applications in the
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pharmaceutical industry.
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Monoacylglycerols are lipid molecules that have only one fatty acid esterified to the glycerol
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molecule, which may vary in chain size and degree of unsaturation (Chen & Terentjev, 2010). The
structuring of vegetable oils by monoacylglycerols occurs through self-assembly, formation of
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micelles or inverse lamellar phases while cooling the formed system, that is, the molecules of
monoacylglycerols can be structured as oil-in-water emulsions trapping the oil phase. In
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hydrophobic medium (in this case, a vegetable oil), the hydrophilic groups present in the
monoacylglycerols constitute the membrane of the micelles forming a lipid bilayer stabilized by
hydrogen bonds. The organization of the hydrophilic heads inside the bilayer promotes elasticity
and, consequently, the gelation of oil systems containing monoacylglycerols, as these are organized
as larger platelets forming a continuous three-dimensional network that can trap the liquid oil
through capillary forces (Lopez-Martínez, Charó-Alonso, Marangoni, & Toro-Vazquez, 2015;
Valoppi et al., 2016; Wang, Gravelle, Blake, & Marangoni, 2016b).
The effect of the addition of 10% monoacylglycerols was evaluated in different oils (castor
oil, cod liver oil, corn oil, extra virgin olive oil, sunflower oil, peanut oil, and mixtures of medium
chain triacylglycerols). A difference was observed in the physical properties of organogel
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formulation; however, all organogels presented β polymorphism, regardless of the oil type used as
organic phase (Valoppi et al., 2016). Lupi Gabriele and Cindio (2012) evaluated the rheological and
microstructural characteristics of emulsions obtained from organogels prepared by lipid phase
containing mixtures of olive oil and cocoa butter, using a mixture of monoacylglycerols and
diacylglycerols as structuring agents. Toro-vazquez et al. (2013) investigated the effect of different
monoacylglycerols on thermal properties, microstructure and consistency of organogelified
emulsions developed with candelilla wax and safflower oil.
Lecithin can be obtained from oilseeds such as soybean, sunflower seeds, and rapeseed,
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consisting of a byproduct of vegetable oil refining (O’Brien, 2008; Van Nieuwenhuyzen & Tomás,
2008). The presence of phosphatidylcholine (16-26%), phosphatidyl ethanolamine (14-20%),
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phosphatidylinositol (10-14%), phytoglycolipids (13%), and phosphatidylserine (4%) characterize
conventional soy lecithin (Attia et al., 2009).
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Lecithin is widely used as an emulsifier in the food, cosmetic, pharmaceuticals and
biotechnology industries (Shchipunov & Schmiedel, 1996). The emulsifying property of lecithin is
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attributed to phospholipids, which consist of a glycerol esterified with two fatty acids and a
phosphate group or phosphate grouping and different nitrogenous bases (Arnold et al., 2013).
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In oil structuring, lecithins with a phospholipid content above 95% are more efficient, as
they favor the formation of micelles, generating aggregates with entangled microstructures and
consequent oil trapped in the liquid phase (Kumar & Katare, 2005).
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Lecithin organogels was first described by Scartazzini and Luisi (1988); and phospholipids
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with other structuring agents have been used in promising drug products (Kumar & Katare, 2005).
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5.4.Waxes
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Lipids present on the surface of leaves, stems and fruits have a very different structure from
intracellular lipids and play a very important role in the protection of the plants from loss and
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absorption of water, gases and volatile biological compounds (Pokorný & Schmidt, 2011). Most
surface lipids are waxes that present a long chain fatty acid esterified with a long chain alcohol, and
can be classified according to their origin: animal (beeswax), vegetable (carnauba, candelilla,
sunflower wax, among others) and mineral (petroleum wax) (Damodaran, Parkin, & Fennema,
2010).
Examples of vegetable waxes include carnauba (Copernica cerifera), known as “queen of
waxes,” ouricury (Syagrus coronata, Cocos coronata, Attalea excelsa), candelilla (Euphorbia
cerifera, E. antisiphilitica, Pedilanthus pavenis), rice (Oryza sativa), sunflower (Helianthus
annuus), and sugarcane. Waxes are widely used in the food, pharmaceutical and chemical
industries, and, for this reason, they involve high economic interest (Rocha, 2012).
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The use of vegetable waxes as structuring agents in lipid systems offers the benefit of using
commercially available low-cost food grade additives (Kuznesof, 2005). In recent years, the
potential of wax as a structuring agent has become an alternative technique for oil structuring, and
different edible oil structuring systems have been intensively studied (Marangoni & Garti, 2011).
As materials derived from natural sources, waxes have different compositions and physical
behaviors, which are unique to each material. Most wax esters, in their natural form, contain small
amounts of sterols, esters, fatty alcohols, fatty acids, and resinous matter. The esters of vegetable
waxes, after refining, basically contain esters of fatty acids and fatty alcohols of different chain
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lengths (Dassanayake et al., 2009).
Candelilla wax is derived from leaves of a small shrub from the Euphorbiaceae family,
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found in the north region of Mexico and the southwest region of the United States (Kuznesof,
2005). In the United States, candelilla wax was approved as a food additive by the FDA, recognized
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as a safe (GRAS) food ingredient for human diet (FDA, 2016).
When studying the composition of candelilla wax, Warth (1948) observed that the content of
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hydrocarbons can account for 50-51% of the composition, the main ones are: hentriacontane
(C31H64) and tritriacontane (C33H68). A more recent study conducted by Morales-Rueda et al. (2009)
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showed that the main component of candelilla wax is hentriacontane (content of approximately
80%), with other alkanes observed with an odd number of carbons, such as nonacosane (C29, 4.2%)
and tritriacontane (C33, 8.0%); triterpene alcohols were also identified (7.4%) of molecular formula
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C30H49OH (germanicol, lupeol or moretenol), and 1.6% of other unidentified compounds.

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The use of candelilla wax as a structuring agent is technically feasible, as promising

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characteristics in a three-dimensional network with candelilla wax organogel in sunflower oil

showed high hardness at 25ºC. At the concentration of 3% candelilla wax, the organogels did not
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present phase separation up to three months at room temperature, presenting consistency of

potential use in the food industry (Toro-Vazquez et al., 2007). Studies on the thermomechanical
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properties of candelilla wax in safflower oil reported that it is possible to gelate triolein-rich lipid
matrices (Morales-Rueda, Dibildox-Alvarado, Charó-Alonso, & Toro-Vazquez, 2009).
Several types of waxes were studied to understand the factors that affect the structuring
ability, including many vegetable waxes, which were evaluated for the structuring ability of the
soybean oil and compared with hydrogenated vegetable oils, petroleum waxes and non-edible
commercial gelling agents, for example, copolymer and polyamide wax. A high degree of purity of
the structuring agent is not always necessary for better gelling, but a suitable combination of the
various components in a structuring agent can provide good results of candelilla wax gelation in
soybean oil (Hwang, Kim, Singh, Winkler-Moser, & Liu, 2012). However, Blake, Co and
Marangoni (2014) reported that critical concentrations for the formation of organogels of canola oil
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with rice bran wax, sunflower wax, candelilla wax and carnauba wax are 1, 1, 2 and 4% ,
respectively, suggesting that rice bran wax and sunflower wax are more efficient structuring agents.
Rocha et al. (2013) evaluated the potential for organogel formation using sugar cane wax
and its hot ethanol soluble and insoluble fractions, which presented the ability to form organogels
with static crystallization at 5°C at the studied concentrations of 1, 2, 3 and 4% m/m.
6. Organogel applications in the food industry

The application of organogels in foods has been studied for some years and includes the
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stabilization of water-in-oil emulsions and a means of controlled release of pharmaceutical and
nutraceutical products. Applications in the food industry include the potential use of structuring
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agents to minimize the migration of liquid oil into food, such as chocolate filling, margarine, baking
products like biscuits and cookies, puff pastry, and spreads, and to structure edible oils, reducing the
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use of SFA and TFA (Hughes et al., 2009; Rogers et al., 2009). Organogel emulsions are most
suitable for emulsified foods such as margarine, yogurt, processed and bar cheeses, mayonnaise and
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sauces (Moschakis, Panagiotopoulou, & Katsanidis, 2016). Siraj et al. (2015), in a detailed study on
organogel applications in processed foods, highlight the potential of these systems for the
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transportation of nutraceutical components, emulsions of reduced calorie content, creams for

toppings and fillings, spreads, lipid bases for baking products, comminuted meat products, among
others (Table 1).
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Table 1. Applications of organogels in food products

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The selection of structuring agents to manufacture food products should be judicious and
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take into account the possible applications of this structured material (Rocha, 2012). Highly
effective structuring agents, when used in low concentrations, can replace a large amount of lipid
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raw materials containing trans or saturated fats (Hwang et al., 2012).

The mechanical properties of ethylcellulose (10%) in vegetable oils (canola, soybean and
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flaxseed) were evaluated, as well as their potential to reduce SFA in sausages. The resulting
organogels maintained the fatty acid profile of the vegetable oil, but with a solid structure. There
was no significant difference in hardness when compared to the product obtained with standard fat,
indicating the potential of ethylcellulose organogel to replace SFA in a variety of food products that
should keep their texture properties (Zetzl, Marangoni, & Barbut, 2012).
For the production of frankfurter sausages with partial replacement of bacon, organogel
emulsions of sunflower oil were developed with γ-orizanol and phytosterols. No differences were
detected in pH values, oxidation and texture profile of sausages due to the incorporation of lipid
gels. Bacon could be partially replaced with organogels without significantly affecting the physical,
chemical and sensory properties of the product (Moschakis et al., 2016).
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Organogels were developed to replace the lipid phase in ice creams, in order to reduce the
content of SFA. Blends with 10% wax (candelilla, rice or carnauba), 90% high oleic sunflower oil
and glycerol monooleate were evaluated as emulsifier. Improvements were observed in the quality
of the ice cream produced with rice bran wax when compared to ice cream produced only with high
oleic sunflower oil; then, the organogel obtained with rice bran wax presented the potential to
replace saturated fat in ice cream. However, a high fat concentration (15%) and the glycerol
monooleate emulsifier seem to be required to achieve a better ice cream structure when rice bran
wax organogel is used as the source of fat, to create a structure that resist to melting in ice cream
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(Zulim Botega, Marangoni, Smith, & Goff, 2013a, 2013b; Zulim Botega, 2012).
Sweet breads were produced by replacing the standard lipid fraction with organogels
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obtained from mixing sunflower oil and palm oil structured with Myverol™ saturated
monoacylglycerols in order to reduce the amount of SFA in the formulations. The crystallization
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ability of the monoacylglycerols allowed bread formation to be similar to the control, with 81%
reduction of SFA, showing this type of emulsifier promotes system structuring and the interaction
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of the various components of the formulation, increasing the lipid-starch interaction (Calligaris,
Manzocco, Valoppi, & Nicoli, 2013).
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Organogels obtained from waxes (sunflower, rice bran, and candelilla) and soybean oil were
tested for incorporation in margarine. The candelilla wax organogel presented phase separation in
the emulsified form. The rice bran wax showed good hardness as organogel, but low hardness for
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margarine application. Sunflower wax contributed to greater firmness of the organogel and the
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margarine samples among the evaluated vegetable waxes. Margarines prepared from organogels
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containing 3% sunflower wax showed greater firmness than commercial spreads, demonstrating the
feasibility of organogels, rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids for the production of margarine and
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spreads (Hwang et al., 2014).

Margarines with reduced SFA content of 17.3 to 36.6% compared to commercial margarines
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were produced with soybean oil and high oleic sunflower oil, respectively. Oil structuring was
accomplished through the incorporation of candelilla wax, monoacylglycerols and interesterified
fat. The margarines with organogel presented better emulsion stability at the evaluated temperatures
when compared to commercial margarines (Chaves, 2014).
Margarines produced with organogels obtained from hazelnut oil and olive oil and
structured with beeswax were developed and submitted to sensory testing, where consumers were
asked to indicate their intention to purchase if the product was for sale. This study showed that 57
and 43% of consumers would definitely buy these margarines, but 12 and 25% of consumers would
definitely not buy the product formulated with hazelnut oil and olive oil, respectively, due to their
sensory characteristics (Yilmaz & Ogutcu, 2015).
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Canola oil organogels structured with candelilla wax were prepared and used to replace fat
in the production of biscuits with a high level of unsaturated fatty acids. The incorporation of
candelilla wax (3% and 6%) in canola oil produced solid organogels, but the hardness of the
organogels was lower in comparison to conventional fat at room temperature. In organogel biscuits,
the content of unsaturated fatty acids increased about 90 to 92% and the level of SFA was reduced
to approximately 8 to 10%, demonstrating the effectiveness of the organogel to replace fat in
biscuits, obtaining a product rich in unsaturated fatty acids and consequently with low SFA content
and absence of TFA in relation to standard fat (Jang, Bae, Hwang, Lee, & Lee, 2015).
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The potential application of organogel from carnauba wax and candelilla wax was evaluated
for the replacement of fats in cookies. The incorporation of 2.5 and 5% of the waxes in sunflower
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oil resulted in better-looking soft cookies, but at a consistency lower than that obtained with
standard fat. The analysis of lipid composition showed that the organogels presented higher levels
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of unsaturated fatty acids when compared to conventional fat, indicating their potential as a
healthier alternative for application in baking products (Mert & Demirkesen, 2016).
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To understand the effects of different types of waxes, organogels were prepared with
sunflower wax, rice bran wax, beeswax and candelilla wax and employed in the formulation of
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cookies. In order to investigate the effects of different vegetable oils on the properties of cookies,
olive oil, soybean oil and flaxseed oils were used, represented mainly by oleic acid (18:1), linoleic
acid (18:2), and linolenic acid (18:3), respectively. The highest firmness of organogel was obtained
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with sunflower wax and linseed oil. The properties of cookies, such as hardness and lipid phase
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melting behavior, were significantly affected by the incorporation of the organogels. However, the
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fracturability of cookies containing organogels were not significantly affected by the different
structuring agents and oils. Cookies obtained with organogels showed similar properties to standard
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cookies, indicating high viability of the organogel technology for food application, such as biscuits
rich in unsaturated fats (Hwang, Singh, & Lee, 2016).
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Organogels with 10% rice bran wax or ethylcellulose in combination with soybean oils and
high oleic sunflower were developed to produce cream cheese. The analysis of fatty acid
composition showed a 90% reduction in the SFA content of cream cheese with organogel when
compared to similar commercial products, presenting a healthier substitute of this product, since the
values of hardness, spreadability and viscosity were similar among samples containing rice bran
wax, differing only from organogel with ethylcellulose, which showed lower adhesiveness than the
commercial products (Bemer, Limbaugh, Cramer, Harper, & Maleky, 2016).
Standard chocolate spreads and spreads prepared by total and partial replacement of palm oil
(27%) with shellac organogels were evaluated for viscosity using frequency scan data. Both G’ and
G’’ were higher for the standard spread when compared to the spread formulated with organogel. A
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more solid aspect was observed in both spreads, through higher values of G’ when compared to G’’.
However, G’ for the spreads containing organoel presented greater frequency dependence, that is, a
positive slope, showing a different pattern of the standard spread curve, which results in a
comparatively lower plastic viscosity, indicating a weaker gel structure in the organogel-based
spread. However, standard spread and the spread formulated with organogel showed no exudation
when stored at 30°C for more than 4 weeks. The values of G* along the curve were higher for the
standard spread when compared to the spread formulated with organogel, a property that can be
correlated with the large difference in the values of the solid fat contents at 20ºC (21.4% for the
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spread and 11.3% for organogel spread) (Patel et al., 2014).
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7. Conclusion
In conclusion, the use of organogels in food applications as potential substitutes for SFA and
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TFA is highly feasible, since vegetable oils with small structural properties are generally used to
replace conventional fats. In addition, worldwide public health bodies are somewhat focused on
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reducing the number of deaths caused by cardiovascular diseases, and the reduction of SFA and
TFA in foods is an important strategy. In comparison to the conventional technological processes
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for the production of technical fats for food applications, the production of organogels is a
technologically simple, economically accessible low-cost method. In addition, various lipid raw
materials can be used, the immobilized phase (vegetable oil) may vary according to geographic
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region, availability and cost. Structuring agents are used in small proportions, are commercially
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available, safe for consumption and affordable. Finally, organogels can be used in a range of foods
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with promising results, promoting an effective reduction of SFA and TFA.

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8. Acknowledgement
Authors wish to thank Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel
(CAPES) for the scholarship. The authors thank Espaço da Escrita – Coordenadoria Geral da
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Universidade - UNICAMP - for the language services provided.
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formulations and processes to incorporate wax oleogels in ice cream. Journal of Food Science,
78(12). http://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.12248
Zulim Botega, D. C., Marangoni, A. G., Smith, A. K., & Goff, H. D. (2013b). The potential
application of rice bran wax oleogel to replace solid fat and enhance unsaturated fat content in
ice cream. Journal of Food Science, 78(9). http://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.12175
Figure e Table
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A B
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Application Year Authors Organic phase Structures
A. K. Zetzl, A. G. Canola, soybean and
Frankfurters 2012 Ethylcellulose
Marangoni, S. Barbut flaxseed oil
D. C. Zulim Botega, A. Rice bran,
Ice Cream 2013 G. Marangoni, A. K. High-oleic sunflower oil candelilla, or
Smith, H. D. Goff carnauba wax
D. C. Zulim Botega, A.
Ice Cream 2013 G. Marangoni, A. K. High-oleic sunflower oil Rice bran wax
Smith, H. D. Goff
H. Hwang, M. Singh, E.
PT
L. Bakota, J. K. Sunflower, rice bran
Margarine 2013 Soybean oil
Winkler-Moser, S. Kim, and candelilla wax
S. X. Liu
RI
S. Calligaris, L.
Sweet Breads 2013 Manzocco, F. Valoppi, Sunflower oil Monoglyceride
SC
M. C. Nicoli
Soybean, almond,
canola, corn, flaxseed,
H. Hwang, M. Singh, J.
grapeseed, olive, peanut,
NU
Margarines 2014 K. Winkler-Moser, E. L. Sunflower wax
pumpkin seed, safflower,
Bakota, S. X. Liu
sesame, sunflower,
walnut oil
MA
A. R. Patel, P. S.
Spreads, Rajarethinem, A.
Chocolate Gredowska,O. Turhan, Sunflower and rapeseed
2014 Shellac
Paste and A. Lesaffer, W. H. De oil
D
Cakes Vos, D. V. de Walle, K.

Dewettincka
E
Butter and Virgin olive and hazelnut Beeswax and

2015 E. Yılmaz, M. Ogutcu
PT
Margarine oil sunflower wax

A. Jang, W. Bae, H.
Cookies 2015 Hwang, H. G. Lee, S. Canola oil Candelilla wax
CE
Lee
Carnauba and
Cookies 2016 B. Mert, I. Demirkesen Sunflower oil
candelilla wax
Sunflower, rice
AC
H. Hwang, M. Singh, S. Olive, soybean and

Cookies 2016 bran, beeswax,
Lee flaxseed oil
and candelilla wax
Sandwich Hydroxypropyl
R. Tanti, S. Barbut, A.
Cookie 2016 Canola oil methylcellulose and
G. Marangoni
Cream methylcellulose
H. L.Bemer, M.
Soybean, high-oleic Rice bran wax or
Cream cheese 2016 Limbaugh, E. D.Cramer,
sunflower oil ethylcellulose
W. J. Harper, F. Maleky
E. Panagiotopoulou, T.
Phytosterol and ɣ-
Frankfurter 2016 Moschakis, E. Sunflower oil
oryzanol
Katsanidis
Ethylcellulose and
S. Barbut, J. Wood, A.G.
Frankfurters 2016 Canola oil sorbitan
Marangoni
monostearate
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Graphical abstract
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Highlights
 In the context of Food Science, the main interest associated with the development and
characterization of organogels is in the structuring of edible oils.
 The selection of structuring agents to manufacture food products should be judicious and
take into account the possible applications of this structured material.
 Vegetable oils with small structural properties are generally used to replace conventional
fats.
 Structuring agents are used in small proportions, are commercially available, safe for
consumption and affordable.
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Potential application of lipid organogels for food industry

Kamila Ferreira Chaves, Daniel Barrera-Arellano, Ana Paula

Kamila Ferreira Chaves*1, Daniel Barrera-Arellano1, Ana Paula Badan Ribeiro1

Keywords: organogels, structuring agents, saturated fatty acids, lipid bases.

FHCO - Hard fat of cottonseed oil

molecule of glycerol (Oetterer, D’Arce, & Spoto, 2006).

for the TAG structure (O’Brien, 2008).

1.1.Lipids: nutritional and regulatory aspects

risk of vascular diseases (Mensink, 2005).

for human consumption (FDA, 2016).

2. Conventional lipid modification processes

fractionation and interesterification (Garcia, 2015).

conducted either chemically or enzymatically (Pokorný & Schmidt, 2011).

3. Lipid crystallization mechanism

Figure 1. Conventional (A) and non-conventional (B) lipid crystallization mechanism.

3.2.Non-conventional structuring: the organogel technology

systems, where an oil phase is trapped by a self-sustaining three-dimensional network of the

& Rush, 2009; Rogers, Smith, Wright, & Marangoni, 2007).

plasticity properties (Cerdeira, Martini, Candal, & Herrera, 2006).

promoted by a mechanism of molecular self-organization of its components in the organic phase.

retrospective related to the development of organogels, a variety of publications and studies

5. Materials with potential for food organogel composition

C30H49OH (germanicol, lupeol or moretenol), and 1.6% of other unidentified compounds.

The use of candelilla wax as a structuring agent is technically feasible, as promising

characteristics in a three-dimensional network with candelilla wax organogel in sunflower oil

present phase separation up to three months at room temperature, presenting consistency of

6. Organogel applications in the food industry

transportation of nutraceutical components, emulsions of reduced calorie content, creams for

Table 1. Applications of organogels in food products

raw materials containing trans or saturated fats (Hwang et al., 2012).

spreads (Hwang et al., 2014).

with promising results, promoting an effective reduction of SFA and TFA.

Universidade - UNICAMP - for the language services provided.

American Oil Chemists’ Society, 91(6), 885–903. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-014-2435-0

Hydrocolloids, 25(4), 639–646. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010.07.026

International, 51(2), 596–602. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2013.01.007

industrial trans fatty acids in foods. Journal of Food Science, 78(3).

Oliveira, G. M., & Kieckbusch, T. G. (2015). Crystallization modifiers in lipid systems.

Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52(7), 3925–3946. http://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-

cera de cana-de-açúcar e suas frações. Universidade Estadual de Campinas.

Cunha, R. L. (2013). Thermal and rheological properties of organogels formed by sugarcane or

92(3), 829–833. http://doi.org/10.1021/j100314a047

Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling, 53(9), 1689–1699.

International, 54(2), 1360–1368. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2013.09.046

Ricinelaidic Acid – Vegetable Oil Organogels. Changes, 83(6).

Table 1. Applications of organogels in food products

Cakes Vos, D. V. de Walle, K.

Butter and Virgin olive and hazelnut Beeswax and

Margarine oil sunflower wax

H. Hwang, M. Singh, S. Olive, soybean and

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