05 Filtration

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FILTRATION

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Chase and Mayer’s approach to separation

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GOALS
After completing the course, the student:
1. Able to understand the basic principal of filtration

2. Understand in what contexts filtration is an appropriate treatment


technology (have an overview of potential advantages and disadvantages
of operating a filtration unit)

3. Know the appropriate level of operations, maintenance and monitoring


necessary to achieve solids-liquid separation by a filtration unit

4. Be able to design a filtration unit to achieve the desired treatment goal.


(selection, sizing, process control and monitor)

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Content of the course
1. Basic principles and mechanisms of filtration

2. Types of industrial filtration systems

3. Filter media

4. Filter aids

5. Selection of filtration systems

6. Typical operating and troubleshooting approaches

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BASIC PRINCIPLE
▪ Filtration is the removal of solid particles from a fluid by passing the fluid through
a filtering medium, or septum, on which the solids are deposited.
▪ The fluid may be a liquid or a gas; the valuable stream from the filter
may be the fluid, or the solids, or both.
▪ Sometimes it is neither, as when waste solids must be separated from waste liquid
prior to disposal.
▪ In industrial filtration the solids content of the feed ranges from a trace to a very
high percentage.
▪ Often the feed is modified in some way by pretreatment to increase the filtration
rate, as by heating, recrystallizing, or adding a "filter aid" such as cellulose or
diatomaceous earth.
▪ Because of the variety of materials to be filtered and the widely differing process
conditions, a large number of types of filters has been developed

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▪ Fluid flows through a filter medium by virtue of a pressure differential
across the medium.

▪ Filters are also classified, therefore, (a) into those that operate with a
pressure above atmospheric on the upstream side of the filter medium and
(b) those that operate with atmospheric pressure on the upstream side and
a vacuum on the downstream side.

▪ Pressures above atmospheric may be developed by the force of gravity


acting on a column of liquid, by a pump or blower, or by centrifugal force.

▪ In a gravity filter the filter medium can be no finer than a coarse screen or
a bed of coarse particles like sand. Gravity filters are therefore restricted in
their industrial applications to the draining of liquor from very coarse
crystals, the clarification of potable water, and the treatment of wastewater

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▪ Most industrial filters are pressure filters, vacuum filters, or centrifugal
separators.

▪ They are also either continuous or discontinuous, depending on whether


the discharge of filtered solids is steady or intermittent.

▪ During much of the operating cycle of a discontinuous filter, the flow of


fluid through the device is continuous, but it must be interrupted
periodically to permit discharging the accumulated solids.

▪ In a continuous filter the discharge of both solids and fluid is uninterrupted


as long as the equipment is in operation

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▪ Based on filtration mechanism, Filters are divided into three main groups:
cake filters, clarifying filters, and crossflow filters.

▪ Cake filters separate relatively large amounts of solids as a cake of crystals or


sludge, as illustrated in Fig. 30.4a. Often they include provisions for washing the
cake and for removing some of the liquid from the solids before discharge.
▪ Clarifying filters remove small amounts of solids to produce a clean gas or a
sparkling clear liquids such as beverages. The solid particles are trapped inside the
filter medium, as shown in Fig. 30.4b, or on its external surfaces. Clarifying filters
differ from screens in that the pores of the filter medium are much larger in
diameter than the particles to be removed.
▪ In a crossflow filter the feed suspension flows under pressure at a fairly high
velocity across the filter medium (Fig. 30.4c). A thin layer of solids may form on
the surface of the medium, but the high liquid velocity keeps the layer from
building up.

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In the other books :

❑ Filtration may be defined as the separation of solid from a fluid by


means of a porous medium that retains the solid but allows the
fluid to pass.

❑ The suspension of solid and liquid to be filtered is known as the


slurry.

❑ The porous medium used to retain the solids is described as the filter
medium.

❑ The accumulation of solids on the filter is referred to as the filter cake,


while the clear liquid passing through the filter is the filtrate.

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In the laboratory: Filtration is carried
out using Buchner funnel and the liquid
is sucked through thin layer of particles
using vacuum or conical funnel fitted
with filter paper

In the industrial application:


Difficulties are encountered in the
mechanical handling such as applying
high pressure and greater area needed

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Based on the development of differential
pressure across the filter, type of
Industrial Filtration may be classified as:

❑ Gravity filters

❑ Pressure filters

❑ Vacuum filters

❑ Centrifugal filters

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GRAVITY FILTERS
▪ Oldest and simplest type
▪ Consist of tanks (wood, steel, concrete) with
perforated bottoms filled with porous media
▪ Fluid passes in laminar flow
▪ Widely used to the process large quantities of
fluid containing small quantities of solids
▪ Water purifications

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GRAVITY FILTERS

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GRAVITY FILTERS

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CAKE FILTERS
▪ At the start of filtration in a cake filter some solid particles enter the pores of
the medium and are immobilized, but soon others begin to collect on the
septum surface.
▪ After this brief initial period the cake of solids does the filtration, not the
septum; a visible cake of appreciable thickness builds up on the surface and
must be periodically removed.
▪ Except as noted under bag filters for gas cleaning, cake filters are used
almost entirely for liquid-solid separations.
▪ As with other filters they may operate with above-atmospheric pressure
upstream from the filter medium or with vacuum applied downstream.
▪ Either type can be continuous or discontinuous, but because of the
difficulty of discharging the solids against a positive pressure, most
pressure filters are discontinuous.

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DISCONTINUOUS PRESSURE FILTERS

▪ Pressure filters can apply a large pressure differential across the


septum to give economically rapid filtration with viscous liquids or
fine solids.

▪ The most common types of pressure filters are filter presses and
shell-and-leaf filters.

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Filter Press
▪ A filter press contains a set of plates designed to provide a series
of chambers or compartments in which solids may collect.

▪ The plates are covered with a filter medium such as canvas.

▪ Slurry is admitted to each compartment under pressure; liquor passes


through the canvas and out a discharge pipe, leaving a wet cake of solids
behind.

▪ The plates of a filter press may be square or circular, vertical or horizontal.

▪ Most commonly the compartments for solids are formed by recesses in the
faces of molded polypropylene plates.

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Plate and Frame Filter Press
▪ Square plates 6 to 78 in. (150 mm
to 2m)
▪ Plate thicknessplates are 1/4 to 2
in. (6 to 50 mm)
▪ Frames thickness 1/4 to 8 in. (6 to
200 mm).
▪ Plates and frames sit vertically in a
metal rack, with cloth covering the
face of each plate, and are
squeezed tightly together by a
screw or a hydraulic ram.
▪ Slurry enters at one end of the
The plates of a filter press may be assembly of plates and frames.
square or circular, vertical or horizontal
Liquor passes through the cloth,
and out of the press.
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The plate-and frame press operation
▪ After assembly of the press, slurry is
admitted from a pump or pressurized
tank under a pressure of 3 to 10 atm.
▪ Filtration is continued until liquor no
longer flows out the discharge or the
filtration pressure suddenly rises.
▪ These occur when the frames are full of
solid and no more slurry can enter. The
press is then said to be jammed.
▪ Wash liquid may then be admitted to
remove soluble impurities from the
solids, after which the cake may be
blown with steam or air to displace
as much residual liquid as possible.
▪ The press is then opened, and the cake
of solids removed from the filter medium
and dropped to a conveyor or storage.
▪ In many filter presses these operations
are carried out automatically

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Process steps

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Plate and Frame Filter Press
Advantages: Disadvantages:
▪ Construction is very simple and a ▪ Time consuming due to batch
wide variety of materials can be
▪ Expensive as the process time, the labour,
used.
and the wear and tear on the cloths
▪ It provides a large filtering area in a demands high costs.
relatively small floor space.
▪ Operation is critical, as the frames should
▪ It is versatile, the capacity being be full, otherwise washing is inefficient and
variable according to the thickness of the cake is difficult to remove.
the frames and the number used.
▪ The filter press is used for slurries
▪ The construction permits the use of containing less about 5% solids
considerable pressure difference.
▪ Suitable for expensive materials e.g.: the
▪ Efficient washing of the cake is removal of precipitated proteins from
possible. insulin liquors.
▪ Operation and maintenance is
straightforward

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Shell-and-Leaf Filters
▪ Similar to plate and frame filters in that a cake is
deposited on each side of the leaf and the filtrate
flows to the outlet channel provided by the coarse
drainage screen in the leaf between the cakes

▪ For filtering under higher pressures than are


possible in a plate-and-frame press, to economize
on labor, or where more effective washing of the
cake is necessary, a shell-and-leaf filter may be
used.

▪ Feed enters through the side of the tank; filtrate


passes through the leaves into a discharge
manifold.

▪ It is widely used for filtrations involving filter aids

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Vertical Shell-and-Leaf Filters

▪ Consisting of a frame enclosing a drainage


screen or grooved plate, the whole unite being
covered with filter cloth.

▪ The outlet for the filtrate connects to the


inside of the frame, which represents a vertical
section through the leaf.

▪ The frame may be circular, square or


rectangular shapes.

▪ The operation: The leaf filter is immersed in


the slurry and a receiver and a vacuum system
connected to the filtrate outlet.

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Shell-and-Leaf Filters
Advantages:
▪ The slurry can be filtered from any vessel.
▪ The cake can be washed simply by immersing
the filter in a vessel of Water.
▪ Removal of the cake is facilitated by the use of
reverse air flow.
▪ The filter can be modified by employing a
suitable number of unites.
▪ The leaf filter is most satisfactory if the solids
content of the slurry is not too high, 5 % being
a suitable maximum.
▪ Labour costs for operating the filter are
comparatively moderate.

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Automatic Belt Filter ▪ Filtration takes place in from 2
to 20 horizontal chambers, set
one above the other.
▪ A belt of filter cloth passes
through the filter chambers in
turn. With the belt held
stationary, each chamber is
filled with solids during the
filtration cycle.
▪ Filter sizes range from 0.8 m2
(8.6 ft 2 ) to 31.5 m2 (339 ft 2 )
▪ The overall cycle is relatively
short, typically 10 to 30 min, so
that these filters can be used
in continuous processes

▪ High-pressure water is then pumped behind a flexible diaphragm in the chamber


ceiling, squeezing the cake and mechanically expressing some of the liquid.
▪ With the diaphragm released, wash water may be passed through the cake and
the cake recompressed by the diaphragm if desired.
▪ Finally, air is blown through the cake to remove additional liquid.
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VACUUM FILTERS

❑ Pressure filters are usually discontinuous;


vacuum filters are usually continuous

❑ Vacuum filters operate practically at higher


pressure differentials than gravity filters

❑ Rotary-drum filter and the Horizontal belt


filter are most extensively used

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▪ Suitable for use with concentrated slurries, Suitable for use with concentrated slurries

▪ In all continuous vacuum filters liquor is sucked through a moving septum to deposit
a cake of solids.

▪ The cake is moved out of the filtering zone, washed, sucked dry, and dislodged from
the septum, which then reenters the slurry to pick up another solids.

▪ Some part of the septum is in the filtering zone at all times, part is in the washing
zone, and part is being relieved of its load of solids, so that the discharge of both
solids and liquids from the filter is uninterrupted.

▪ The pressure differential across the septum in a continuous vacuum filter is not high,
ordinarily between 250 and 500 mm Hg.

▪ Apply vacuum from a stationary source to the moving parts of the unit through a
rotary valve.

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▪ A horizontal drum with a slotted face turns in an
agitated slurry trough

▪ A filter medium, such as canvas, covers the face of


the drum, which is partly submerged in the liquid.

▪ Vacuum and air are alternately applied to each


compartment as the drum rotates

▪ Vacuum is applied through the rotary valve

▪ A layer of solids builds up on the face of the panel


as liquid is drawn through the cloth into the
compartment, through the internal pipe, through
the valve, and into a collecting tank

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Operation of Rotary Vacuum Filters
▪ The amount of submergence of the
drum is also variable.

▪ Most bottom-feed filters operate with


about 30 percent of their filter area
submerged in the slurry.

▪ When high filtering capacity and no


washing are desired, a high-
submergence filter, with 60 to 70% of
its filter area submerged, may be used.

▪ The capacity of any rotary filter


depends strongly on the characteristics
of the feed slurry and particularly on
the thickness of the cake that may be
❑ The cakes formed on industrial rotary vacuum filters deposited in practical operation.
are 3 to about 40 mm thick. Standard drum sizes
range from 0.3 m (1ft) in diameter with a 0.3-m (1-ft)
face to 3m (10ft) in diameter with a 4.3-m (14-ft) face.
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Washing of solids
▪ The drum is immersed to the required depth
in the slurry, which is agitated to prevent
settling of the solids, and vacuum is applied
to those sectors of the drum which is
submerged.

▪ A cake of the desired thickness is produced


by adjusting the speed of rotation of the
drum (at 0.1 to 2 r/min). Each sector is
immersed in turn in the slurry and the cake
is then washed and partially dried by means
of a current of air.

▪ Finally, pressure is applied under the cloth to


aid the removal of the cake. Removal of the
washed and partially dried cake is affected
by means of a doctor knife.
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▪ Suitable for use with concentrated slurries, Suitable for
use with concentrated slurries
▪ In all continuous vacuum filters liquor is sucked through
a moving septum to deposit a cake of solids.
▪ The cake is moved out of the filtering zone, washed,
sucked dry, and dislodged from the septum by scraping
it off with a horizontal knife known as a doctor blade ,
which then reenters the slurry to pick up another solids.
▪ Some part of the septum is in the filtering zone at all
times, part is in the washing zone, and part is being
relieved of its load of solids, so that the discharge of
both solids and liquids from the filter is uninterrupted.
▪ The pressure differential across the septum in a
continuous vacuum filter is not high, ordinarily between
250 and 500 mm Hg.
▪ Apply vacuum from a stationary source to the moving
parts of the unit through a rotary valve.

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Parts of Rotary Vacuum Filters

1. Slurry 9. Filter cake


2. Filter vat 10. Wash water pipe
3. Agitator 11. Washing liquid
4. Mesh plate 12. Filtrate
5. Filter drum 13. Post wash water
6. Filter cloth 14. Cake stripper
7. Control valve 15. Dewatered cake
8. Filtrate pipe

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Application Rotary Vacuum Filters
❑ The rotary filter for continuous operation on large quantities
of slurry.

❑ Suitable for slurry contains considerable amounts of solids in


the range 15-30%.

❑ Examples of pharmaceutical application include the collection


of calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, and starch, and
the separation of the mycelium from the fermentation liquor
in the manufacture of antibiotics

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Advantages / Disadvantages RVF
Advantages: Disadvantages:
❑ The rotary filter is automatic and is continuous ❑ The rotary filter is a complex of equipment, with
in operation, so that the labour costs are very many moving parts and is very expensive.
low.
❑ In addition to the filter itself, some accessories
❑ The filter has a large capacity, so it is suitable are connected, e.g. a vacuum pump, vacuum
for the filtration of highly concentrated receivers, slurry pumps and agitators are
solutions. required .
❑ Variation of the speed of rotation enables the ❑ The cake tends to crack due to the air drawn
cake thickness to be controlled. through by the vacuum system, so that washing
and drying are not efficient.
❑ Pre-coat of filter aid could used to accelerate
the filtration rate. ❑ Being a vacuum filter, the pressure difference is
limited to 1 bar and hot filtrates may boil.

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CENTRIFUGAL FILTERS
A centrifuge consists of a
basket in which mixture of
solid and liquid, or mixture of
two liquids is rotated at high
speed so that it is separated
into its constituents by the
action of centrifugal force.

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Perforated Basket Centrifuge
A vessel about 1 m in diameter and its outer wall is perforated. It is mounted on a vertical shaft
by means it can be rotated at a high speed. An outer casing with an outlet collects the liquid
thrown out from the basket. The drive motor may be below the centrifuge and it is called under-
driven

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The Pusher-Type Centrifuge
The pusher-type centrifuge:
▪ Pusher centrifuges, also called
horizontal basket centrifuges, possess
filtration bowls equipped with metal
screening sheets or slotted sieves.
▪ These systems also filter liquids in the
centrifugal field and retain solids as
filter cakes in the bowls. An oscillating
pushing motion transports the cakes
out of the bowls. Solids may also be
washed with these systems.

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Tubular Centrifuge
High centrifugal effects can be obtained by using
a centrifuge of small diameter rotated at a high
speed.

Uses:
1. It can separate solids of small particle size
from liquids.
2. It can be used to separate immiscible liquids
from one another e.g. the two components of
emulsion.
3. It can be used for filtration of very diluted
suspensions i.e. solutions containing very low
concentration of solids.

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FILTER MEDIUM
▪ There are two main types of filter: media synthetic cloth or metal

▪ The choice of media depends on filtration removal efficiency, process requirements,


filter technology,
characteristics of the solids and liquids, and other parameters (such as chemical
and thermal resistance)

▪ Media synthetic cloths, the materials can be polyester, nylon, polypropylene, PVDF
(Kynar), PEEK, or fluoropolymers (such as ETFE, PTFE, E-CTFE, carbonized, and
polyester)

▪ Metal media can be single layer or multilayer and can be different types of stainless
steel and alloys, such as Hastelloy, Inconel, nickel, Monel, titanium, and others

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▪ There are two main types of filter: media synthetic cloth or metal

▪ The choice of media depends on filtration removal efficiency, process requirements,


filter technology,
characteristics of the solids and liquids, and other parameters (such as chemical
and thermal resistance)

▪ Media synthetic cloths, the materials can be polyester, nylon, polypropylene, PVDF
(Kynar), PEEK, or fluoropolymers (such as ETFE, PTFE, E-CTFE, carbonized, and
polyester)

▪ Metal media can be single layer or multilayer and can be different types of stainless
steel and alloys, such as Hastelloy, Inconel, nickel, Monel, titanium, and others

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Media synthetic cloths
Plain, square weave
▪ The most basic open weave made
with monofilament fibers.

▪ simple over and under weave


pattern with a straight flow
path, high open area, and high
permeability.

▪ easily cleaned but have a low


stability in dynamic processes.

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Media synthetic cloths
Twill weave
▪ Monofilament and, for example,
can be defined as 3/1 twill.

▪ Very dense patterns and


good strength and durability
and is considered a filtration
workhorse.

▪ Calendered (another new


nomenclature) to adjust pore
size, air permeability, and
improve the solid’s release.

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Media synthetic cloths
Plain, reverse Dutch

▪ monofilament fibers with


higher warp thread count
than weft.

▪ very tortuous flow with


symmetrical weave and a
very high flow rate for a
given pore size

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Media synthetic cloths
Double layer weave
▪ monofilament or
monofilament/multifilament fiber
combinations.
▪ durable and robust with high
strength in both directions.
▪ smooth filter cake side and
backside flow feature

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Plain Dutch weave

Twilled Dutch weave

Twilled weave
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FILTER AIDS
▪ In some cases, to help the filtration process, filter aids are used to change the solid
phase of the material
▪ Diatomite, perlite, and cellulose are the most widely used porous media (filter aids) in
dynamic process filtrations, with a high percentage of fine filtration applications using
diatomite
▪ Filter aid can be used as a precoat or a body feed. As a precoat, the filter aid protects
the filter media against the penetration of unwanted solids and premature blinding of
the media.
▪ In practice a combination of the two approaches is most common.
▪ There will always be a tradeoff of precoat, body feed, and the optimization of
their usage compared to the blinding of the filter media as well as the filtration
flux rate.

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Characteristics of the slurry
Filtration is affected by the characteristics of the slurry, including:

1. The properties of the liquid, such as density, viscosity, and corrosiveness.

2. The properties of the solid, for example, particle shape, particle size,
particle size distribution, and the rigidity or compressibility of the solid.

3. The proportion of solids in the slurry.

4. Whether the objective is to collect the solid, the liquid ,or both.

5. Whether the solids have to be washed free from the liquid or a solute.

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RATE OF FILTRATION
The factors affecting rate of filtration is known as Darcy’s law and
may be expressed as:

𝑑𝑉 𝐾𝐴𝑃
=
𝑑𝑡 µ𝑙
𝑑𝑉 Process parameter :
= 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑑𝑡 K = constant for the filter medium and filter cake
V = volume of filtrate A = area of filter medium
t = time of filtration P = pressure drop across the filter medium and filter cake
µ = viscosity of the filtrate
l = thickness of cake.

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Permeability coefficient

▪ The constant (K) represents the resistance of both the filter


medium and the filter cake.

▪ As the thickness of the cake increase, the rate of filtration will


decrease.

▪ Also the surface area of the particles, the porosity of the cake,
and rigidity or compressibility of the particles could affect the
permeability of the cake.

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Area of filter medium
▪ The total volume of filtrate flowing from the filter will be
proportional to the area of the filter. In other word, the
higher the total volume will be filtrated, the higher the filter
area required

▪ The area can be increased by using larger filters.

▪ In the rotary drum filter, the continuous removal of the


filter cake will give an infinite area for filtration.

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Pressure drop
❑ The rate of filtration is proportional to the pressure
difference across both the filter medium and filter cake.
❑ The pressure drop can be achieved in a number of ways:
▪ Gravity: A pressure difference could be obtained by maintaining a head
of slurry above the filter medium. The pressure developed will depend
on the density of the slurry.
▪ Vacuum: The pressure below the filter medium may be reduced below
atmospheric pressure by connecting the filtrate receiver to a vacuum
pump and creating a pressure difference across the filter.
▪ Pressure: The simplest method being to pump the slurry into the filter
under pressure.
▪ Centrifugal force: The gravitational force could be replaced by
centrifugal force in particle separation

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Viscosity of filtrate

❑ It would be expect that an increase in the viscosity of the filtrate


will increase the resistance of flow, so that the rate of filtration is
inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid.
❑ This problem can be overcome by two methods:

▪ The rate of filtration may be increased by raising the temperature of


the liquid, which lowers its viscosity. However, it is not practicable if
thermolabile materials are involved or if the filtrate is volatile.
▪ Dilution is another alternative but the rate must be doubled

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Thickness of filter cake
▪ The rate of flow of the filtrate through the filter cake is inversely
proportional to thickness of the cake.

▪ Preliminary decantation may be useful to decrease the amount


of the solids.

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FILTRATION SELECTION
Ideally the equipment chosen should

▪ allow a fast filtration rate to minimize production costs,


▪ be cheap to by and run,
▪ be easily cleaned and resistant to corrosion, and
▪ be capable of filtering large volumes of products.

There are a number of product – related factors that should be


considered when selecting a filter for a particulate process.

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Keep in your mind
▪ Selecting a filtration technology requires a systems approach that must
be incorporated with other solids processing such as reactors, dryers,
solids handling, and others.
▪ The engineer “is not normally involved in the detailed design of the
equipment; just selects and specifies the equipment needed for a
particular process, and consults with the vendors to ensure that the
equipment is suitable”
▪ The process has three components that must be considered: material
properties, mechanical properties, and separation performance. These
are combined and the ranked choices must then be evaluated weighing
operational, economic, and plant (internal and external) objectives.
▪ The more information the engineer can provide about the process and
the requirements, the better the accuracy of the vendor’s information.

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Material properties
▪ For solids, the engineer will need to know the total suspended solids (TSS)
and solids concentration, particle size distribution (PSD), and particle shape.
▪ For the liquids, the typical parameters include viscosity, temperature, and the relationship
of the two, vapor pressures, pH, ionic strength, and any other unique conditions

Mechanical components
▪ The engineer will need to provide information about materials of construction,
temperature, pressures, seal information, compatibilities of the solids, liquids,
cleaning solutions, and other characteristics.
▪ Other questions can include, but are not limited to: What is the level of
containment? Are there space constraints at the plant? Is it a complex process?

Separation performance
▪ Includes capacities or throughputs of solids, liquids or dry solids, filtrate
quality, dryness, washing liquids, conductivity, wash ratios, and more.
▪ Is the product the liquid or the solid or both?
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Rule of thumb

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