Science Form 4

Chapter 5 Genetics

5.1 Cell Division

Cell structure
-Nucleus
 structure in the cell which controls all activities in the cell.
 Nucleus contains chromosomes.

-Chromosomes
 are fine thread-like structures which consist nucleic acids and protein.
 long and spiral structures located in the nucleus.
 Each chromosome contains a long DNA molecule.

-Deoxyribonucleic acid / DNA

-Gene
 A basic hereditary unit that determines an individual’s characteristics.
 The function of the gene is to control the inherited characteristics in an organism such as
tongue-rolling ability in humans, the shape of the green pea and the colour of the cat’s fur.
 Genes are arranged as segments in the DNA along the chromosomes. There are thousands
of genes in a DNA molecule.
 -Different species on Earth has a different fixed number of chromosomes.
- Human chromosome:
 Contains 46 chromosomes.
 Each chromosome exists in pairs of similar shapes and sizes.
 A pair of chromosomes is known as homologous chromosomes and arranged
according to their shapes and sizes.
 Karyotype is the arrangement of human homologous chromosomes.
 The chromosomes can be divided into two, autosomes and sex chromosomes.
- Autosomes carry genes that control characteristics such as the colour of the eyes,
ability to roll the tongue and the type of hair of a human.
-Sex chromosomes on the other hand, carry genes that determine gender, whether
male or female.

Cell division

-Mitosis
 A cell division process that forms two identical daughter cells.
 Produce the same number of chromosomes and genetic content as the parent cell.
 It takes place in the somatic cells of the human and animal bodies.
 Also takes place in the meristematic tissue such as the tip of the roots and the shoot of the
plants
Interphase:
DNA replication occurs and cells undergo growth and prepare for
cell division

Prophase:
Chromosomes shorten and thicken and later become visible. Each
chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the centromere.
Spindle fibres begin to form. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus
disintegrate

Metaphase:
Chromosomes are arranged in an equatorial plane. The spindle
fibres are attached to the centromere.

Anaphase:
Centromere splits into two, each sister chromatid separates and
moves towards the opposite poles of the cell (polarisation).

Telophase:
Chromatids reach the opposite poles. Nuclear membrane and
nucleolus are formed again

Cytokinesis:
Cell divides, two daughter cells form
-Meiosis
 Meiosis is a process where the cell divides into four distinct cells, each containing half the
number of chromosomes in the parent cell.
 Meiosis takes place in the reproductive organ to produce gametes for sexual reproduction.
 Meiosis in humans takes place in the male’s testes and the female’s ovary.
 In plants, meiosis takes place in the anther and the ovary.

Interphase:

Meiosis II
Meiosis 1
Prophase II:
Prophase 1: Spindle fibres begin to form.
Chromosomes shorten and
thicken and then become
visible. Homologous
chromosomes pair together.
Crossing over occurs, that is the
exchange of genetic
information between the
Metaphase II:
homologous chromosomes.
Chromosomes are arranged
in an equatorial plane. The
spindle fibres are attached to
Metaphase 1: the centromere.
Chromosomes are arranged in
an equatorial plane. The spindle
fibres are attached to the
centromere. Anaphase II:
Centromere splits into two.
Anaphase 1:
The sister chromatids
Homologous chromosomes
separate and move towards
separate and move towards the
opposite poles of the cell. the opposite poles of the cell
(polarisation).

Telophase II:
Chromatids reach the
opposite poles. Nuclear
Telophase 1: membrane and nucleolus are
Chromatids reach the opposite formed again.
poles. Nuclear membrane and Cytoplasm divides
nucleolus are formed again.
Cytoplasm divides

Cytokinesis II:
Cytokinesis 1: Four non-identical daughter
Two daughter cells with the cells (gametes) with half the
same number of chromosomes
number of chromosomes of
and genetic information as the
the parent cell (haploids) are
parent cell are formed (diploid).
formed.
Similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis

The Importance of Mitosis and Meiosis

-Importance of mitosis:
a) Mitosis is important to replace damaged or dead cells when we are injured.
b) Mitosis is also important in asexual reproduction for organisms such as Amoeba sp.
c) Mitosis to produce new cells.

-Importance of meiosis
a) formation of gametes
b) to maintain the number of chromosomes after fertilisation.
c) crossing over is important in meiosis to produce variation among offspring

5.2 Inheritance

1. The transmission of these characteristics from the parents to the children is known as inheritance.
2. Characteristics such as the types of hair and the colours of pupils are examples of characteristics
that can be inherited by the children from their parents.
3. These characteristics are passed down from the parents to the children through genes.
4. Genes are the basic units of inheritance found in the chromosomes. Genes control certain
characteristics in an organism.
5. A pair of genes at the same locus or position in the homologous chromosome will control one trait
of the organism.
6. The pair of genes at the same locus is known as the allele. Alleles can be found in dominant or
 recessive forms.
7. The characteristics that are controlled by the dominant allele will be shown whereas the recessive
allele will be covered.
8. The recessive allele would only show the characteristics it controls when dominant allele is
absent. Therefore, the recessive characteristics would only be shown when both alleles are
recessive.
9. The dominant allele is represented by capital letters while the recessive allele is represented by
small letters. For example, ‘T’ is used to represent tall and ‘t’ represents short.
10. Trait is a genetically determined characteristic.

EXAMPLES :
• Eye colour
• Type of hair (curly or straight)
• Type of ear lobes
• Ability to roll the tongue
• The presence of dimples
11. For every trait, we inherit two copies of the genes, one from our mother and the other from our
father. Capital letters A, B, C and D represent the dominant alleles while the small letters a, b, c
and d represent the recessive alleles.

Table 5.1 Examples of dominant and recessive traits in humans

Dominant trait Recessive trait

Black hair Blonde hair